freshwater

biodiversity

Dive into the life found in

freshwater ecosystems!

David Coates and Jacquie Grekin, CBD

7
Freshwater includes rivers, lakes and wetlands and are habitats which are rich in
biodiversity. Such systems provide us with many services such as our drinking water, food
(such as fish), a means of transport as well as recreational opportunities. Unfortunately
freshwater systems are some of the most endangered habitats in the world and have
alarming rates of species extinction.

lake chad basin, africa.

© FAO/Marzio Marzot

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

What are
freshwater ecosystems?
Simply put, “fresh” water is water without salt, which
distinguishes these environments from marine,
or saltwater, ecosystems. There are many kinds of
freshwater ecosystems, such as:

Rivers: in which the water flows, usually towards the sea.

Lakes: larger areas of standing water (shallow or deep).

Wetlands: areas of land covered either permanently or

temporarily with water, usually shallow, covered by plants (including
trees) which grow out of the water or mixed with areas of open
water. Examples of wetlands include swamps, marshes, bogs,
peatlands, estuaries, mangroves and rice paddies.

Freshwater ecosystems are part of the landscape and interact with

land. For example, rainwater falling on land flows into streams and
rivers, and fills up lakes and wetlands, carrying with it nutrients and
plant material (such as seeds and leaves).

But freshwater ecosystems also supply water to land

environments – for example, they provide water to recharge water
stored below ground (groundwater), which supports plants living
on land (such as forests). These movements of water are part of
the “water cycle” (see box: “The Water Cycle”), which connects
land, “groundwater”, freshwater and coastal areas.

SHOTOVER River Can

yons in
Queenstown, New
Zealand.
© Alex E. Proimos/flic
kr.com

Lake in Chile.
© Curt Carnemark/W
orld Bank
Mangroves in the
Galapagos
Islands.
© Reuben Sessa

86 Y o u t h a n d U n i t e d N at i o n s G l o b a l A l l i a n c e
The water cycle
The water cycle is the the ground and accumulates evaporation requires energy
continous movement of in rivers, lakes and oceans and therefore cools the
water around the planet. and evaporates or transpires environment). The water cycle
During this cycle water can into the atmosphere where also has the effect of purifying
be in various states: solid, it condenses to form clouds water courses, replenishing
liquid or gas. Water moves and then returns to the water supplies and moving
by processes of evaporation Earth’s surface through nutrients and other elements
(water turning from a liquid precipitation (rain, snow, to different parts of the world.
to a gas), transpiration hail and sleet). The changes
Biodiversity (i.e. trees and
(the movement of water in the state of water during
other plants) is a necessary
through vegetation and the cycle requires the
part of the cycle. The soils in
soil), condensation and exchange of heat, therefore
which they are rooted absorb
precipitation. Water travels cooling or heating the
water and store it safely, while
above and infiltrates below environment (for example,
their leaf canopies return
water, in the form of vapour,
to the atmosphere, where
it becomes precipitation.
Large‑scale removal of
vegetation can disturb the
cycle, often resulting in
changed rainfall patterns and
soil erosion. Biodiversity,
therefore, supports the
availability of water for people
and other living things to use.

Graphic source: L. S. Hamilton 2008. Forests and Water.

FAO Forestry Paper 155, Rome: FAO, 3.

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

Freshwater life
“Freshwater biodiversity”, at the species level, includes life which is very obviously
living in freshwater but also includes life which is adapted to live in or around
freshwater habitats. Examples include:

• Fish • Waterbirds (e.g. pelicans, There are also many plants

• Amphibians (e.g. frogs flamingos, cranes, ducks, which are adapted to life in or
and salamanders) geese) near freshwater habitats, other
• Wetland-dependent mammals • Reptiles (e.g. crocodiles, than those permanently living
(e.g. hippopotamuses (see turtles) underwater. This includes peat,
box: “The Hippopotamus”), • Insects (e.g. dragonflies, sedges (tall grass-like plants,
river dolphins (see box: mosquitoes) including papyrus), mangroves
“River Dolphins: Species in • Aquatic plants and plants and rice (see box: “Rice
Danger”), porpoises, seals, rooted in water but with Paddies: Farmed Wetlands”).
otters, moose, beaver, stems and leaves that
manatees) emerge from the water
Pelicans at the Lake Nakuru National Park in Kenya.
© Thérèse Karim

88 Y o u t h a n d U n i t e d N at i o n s G l o b a l A l l i a n c e
The hippopotamus
The hippopotamus is
considered to be a freshwater
mammal because, although it
feeds on land, like a cow, it is
adapted to life in water.

For example, it has a flat

head on which the eyes and
nostrils protrude, enabling
it to remain submerged, but
still able to see and breathe; a
cow could not do this.

roots buttress the tree

s – note how the tree
Mekong River in Lao to life in rivers.
A tree growing in the photo ), an ada ptat ion
(right to left in this
against the river flow
© David Coates
Naivasha, Kenya.
Hippos swim in Lake
vre
© Véronique Lefeb k in Kenya.
e Nakuru National Par
Flamingos at the Lak
© Thérèse Karim

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

River dolphins:
species in danger
common and better-known
bottlenose dolphin, a marine China’s baiji, or Yangtze River dolphin.
© Cathy McGee
species seen in aquariums
and featured in movies and on The Yangtze River dolphin
television. has been presumed extinct
There are six species of river since 2006; the others (with
dolphins: the possible exception of the
Amazon River dolphin and
:: Ganges River dolphin the Tucuxi, about which little
(Bangladesh, India, Nepal, data are available) are highly
River Dolphin.
© Dolf En Lianne
Pakistan) – the “Susu” endangered. By comparison,
:: Indus River dolphin the bottlenose dolphin is
Although often regarded as (Pakistan) relatively abundant, and is not
marine (saltwater) species, :: Amazon River dolphin in danger of extinction.
some dolphins live exclusively (South America) – the
in freshwater rivers and lakes; “Boto” The survival of river dolphins
others have adapted to live in :: Yangtze River dolphin is threatened by habitat loss
both marine and freshwater (China) – the “Baiji” and degradation, as a result
environments. River dolphins :: Irrawaddy and Mekong of dam construction and river
differ from oceanic dolphins in River dolphin (salt- and diversion, which reduces water
several ways, including having freshwater – Myanmar, Laos flow; pollution from industry
a much longer snout – up to 20 and Cambodia) and agriculture; overfishing;
percent of their body length – :: Tucuxi (salt- and freshwater and accidental capture in
and extremely poor eyesight. – east coast of Central and fishing lines and nets (known
Most are comparable in size South America). as bycatch).
(about 2.5 m) to the more

90 Y o u t h a n d U n i t e d N at i o n s G l o b a l A l l i a n c e
Rice paddies:
farmed wetlands
Rice is a wetland-dependant Rice is just one crop. rice paddies supports the
(freshwater) plant and the But living in the water health and productivity of
staple food for over half in the paddy fields are the rice itself through, for
the world’s population. It thousands of species example, controlling rice-
provides about 20 percent of of aquatic organisms. pests and helping to make
the total calorie supply in the Rural populations benefit nutrients available to the
world and is grown in at least directly from some of this rice plants.
114 countries worldwide, biodiversity by harvesting
These wetlands also
particularly in Asia. reptiles, amphibians, fish,
support the conservation of
crustaceans, insects and
Rice paddies are naturally internationally important
molluscs for household
flooded or irrigated fields populations of resident and
consumption. But other
in which rice is grown. migratory waterbirds.
biodiversity associated with
Rice grows with its roots
submerged, but with its
leaves and seeds (rice) above
the water. Rice paddies
usually dry out at harvest
time, illustrating that these
systems shift between
aquatic and terrestrial (dry
land) phases.

province, northern Vietnam.

Zao village outside of Sapa, Lao Cai
Terraced rice paddies near a Red © Tran Thi Hoa/World Bank

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

The importance of
freshwater biodiversity
Freshwater biodiversity provides a variety of
benefits (ecosystem services) to people, including:

Food: in developing countries, inland fisheries can provide

the primary source of animal protein for many rural
communities (see box: “Aquaculture”). Aquaculture, the
farming of fish and other aquatic animals (e.g. shrimp),
can also provide food and income for many people, as can
wetland agriculture, such as rice farming.

Fibre: throughout human history, many wetland plants have

been a source of fibre for making such items as baskets,
roofs, paper and rope. Papyrus, for example, was used for
making paper as early as 4000 BC (think of the ancient
Egyptian scrolls).

Recreational and cultural benefits: many rivers, lakes and

wetlands are highly valued for recreational and cultural
benefits, some of which have high economic value (such
as tourism). In developed countries, sport fishing is also
an important recreational activity and a significant source
of income for many communities. Recreational fishers
have been a major driving force in cleaning up freshwater
environments to restore recreational benefits.
Orangutans live in peat swamp fores
ts and are
threatened as a result of habit
at loss. They are
endemic to the Indonesian islands of Borne
o
and Sumatra and are found nowh
ere else in
the world (except in captivity).
This Bornean
orangutan helps to spread tree
seeds, including
some species that can only germi
nate when they
have passed through the ORANG
UTAN’S gut!
© Borneo Orangutan Survival Foundation

92
aquaculture

Aquaculture is the farming brackish water (a mix of Aquaculture can cause

of fish and other aquatic fresh and salt water), and water pollution (from
animals and plants (e.g. the other half in marine chemical use and waste
shrimp, frogs, mussels, environments. Most products) and introduce
oysters and seaweed). aquaculture production in invasive alien species
Freshwater aquaculture freshwater is fish. The main (species that have spread
can be very beneficial and freshwater species cultured outside of their natural
provide food and income for include carp, tilapia, pacu, habitat and threaten
many people, particularly catfish and trout. biodiversity in the new
in rural communities in area). Efforts must be
Production from freshwater
developing countries. made to address these
fish species tends to be
impacts, particularly as
Aquaculture originated as more sustainable than from
aquaculture develops,
freshwater carp farming in marine species because most
expands and intensifies.
Asia and is now widespread. of it is based on vegetarian
Asia still leads the way in rather than carnivorous
this industry, accounting species. For example, it can
for 92 percent of global take two kilograms of fish
production (70 percent in to produce one kilogram of
China, 22 percent in the salmon (a carnivorous fish),
rest of the region). which doesn’t sound like
a good deal. Better to eat
Worldwide, about half of
lower down the food chain!
production is in fresh or A fish farm near New Delhi, India.
© FAO

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

Carbon storage: climate change is largely due to the release of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Wetlands, particularly peatlands, are “carbon sinks”: they
remove and store significant quantities of carbon from the atmosphere. Peatlands alone store more
than twice as much carbon as all the world’s forests. Destruction of these wetlands results in the
release of carbon into the atmosphere, increasing the intensity of global climate change. Human
exploitation has destroyed 25 percent of the peatlands on Earth.

Water purification and filtration: plants, animals and bacteria in forests, soils and wetlands also filter
and purify water. Wetland plants accumulate excess nutrients (such as phosphorus and nitrogen) and
toxic substances (such as heavy metals) in their tissues, removing them from the surrounding water and
preventing them from reaching drinking water. They can be thought of as “nature’s kidneys” (see box:
“Biodiversity = Clean Water = Human Health”).

Flood regulation: many wetlands provide a natural flood barrier. Peatlands, wet grasslands and
floodplains at the source of streams and rivers act like sponges, absorbing excess rainwater runoff and
spring snowmelt, releasing it slowly into rivers and allowing it to be absorbed more slowly into the
soil, preventing sudden, damaging floods downstream. Coastal freshwater-dependent wetlands, such as
mangroves, saltmarshes, tidal flats, deltas and estuaries, can limit the damaging effects of storm surges
and tidal waves by acting as physical barriers that reduce the water’s height and speed. As global climate
change raises sea levels and increases extreme weather in many parts of the world, the need for these
services has never been greater.

Sitting on a roof, residents in New

Orleans wait to be rescued after
Hurricane Katrina.
© Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA

94 Y o u t h a n d U n i t e d N at i o n s G l o b a l A l l i a n c e
Biodiversity = clean water = human health

All life depends on water.

Human beings need two
to three litres of clean
drinking water a day.
Without food we can survive
weeks. But without water,
we can die of dehydration
in as little as two days. More
than one billion people in
the world lack access to safe Healthy ecosystems Water samples from India’s Musi
River taken at intervals up to 40 km
drinking water, and some contribute to providing clean downstream of Hyderabad. On the
left, close to the city, water is highly
two million people die each water supplies. Many cities, for polluted from untreated wastes. Water
quality improves downstream as the
year of diarrhoea caused by example, obtain their water ecosystem breaks down this waste.
© Jeroen Ensink
unclean water, 70 percent supply from protected areas
of these are children. outside the cities.

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

Threats to
freshwater biodiversity
Biodiversity is being lost more rapidly in freshwater ecosystems
than in any other ecosystem type.

• Some 20 percent of • Among groups of animals more than 80 percent of the

freshwater fish species that live in many different wetlands near major urban
are considered extinct or areas, those species centres have been converted
threatened, a far greater living in association with for agricultural use or urban
percentage than for marine freshwater tend to show expansion; in many others,
fishes. the greatest level of threat the loss is higher than 90
• 44 percent of the 1 200 (including, for example, percent (e.g. New Zealand).
waterbird populations with butterflies, mammals and
known trends are in decline reptiles).
(compared to 27.5 percent of • On average, over half of
seabirds being threatened). the natural wetland area
• 42 percent of amphibian has probably been lost in
species populations are most developed countries.
declining. In Canada, for example,

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 Aren’t nutrients
This loss of biodiversity is because of the human
demands placed on freshwater and wetland habitats
good for you?
due to such factors as:
What’s wrong with nutrients?
• Conversion of habitat, through the draining of wetlands Aren’t they good for you?
for agriculture, urban development or damming of rivers. All living things need
• Overuse of water for irrigation, industrial and household nutrients, such as nitrogen
use, interfering with water availability; (agricultural
production alone accounts for over 70 percent of water
and phosphorus, to grow
extracted from rivers – the biggest use of water worldwide). and survive. That’s why
• Pollution of water through excess nutrients (phosphorus these nutrients are the main
and nitrogen) and other pollutants such as pesticides and ingredients in agricultural
industrial and urban chemicals (see box: “Aren’t Nutrients fertilisers (helping crops to
Good For You?”). grow). Excess nutrients are also
• Introduction of alien species, causing local extinction contained in sewage from both
of native freshwater species.
households and farms (excreted
from all living things).
These threats are rapidly increasing as human
populations grow and demands on water escalate. The problem arises when
nutrients are dumped untreated
Climate change is also becoming an important threat to
or washed into waterways in
wetlands and their biodiversity. Its main impacts will be on
fresh water: melting glaciers and ice-caps (which are fresh excessive quantities: this leads
water) causing rising sea levels, and changes in rainfall (less to the excess growth of certain
of it in some areas, leading to drought, more of it in others, plants (algae), which consume
leading to excessive flooding). One projection indicates the oxygen in the water as they
that water availability will decrease in about a third of the grow and decay. This process,
world’s rivers. Almost half the world’s population will be
known as “eutrophication”,
living in areas of high water stress by 2030.
makes the water unliveable
for fish, and the algal blooms
make the waterways unpleasant
for recreational use; in some
cases algal blooms even become
poisonous.

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

What c an be done?

A number of organisations and international agreements aim to protect

freshwater biodiversity, including:

:: The Convention on Biological Diversity: this Convention has a programme of

work specifically dedicated to protecting inland waters biodiversity.

:: The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: is an intergovernmental treaty

that guides national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and sustainable use of wetlands and their resources; almost
1 900 “Wetlands of International Importance” have been designated
under the treaty.

:: Wetlands International: a global organisation that works to sustain and

restore wetlands and their resources for people and biodiversity.

:: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), The Nature

Conservancy (TNC), The World Wide Fund for Nature/World Wildlife
Fund (WWF) and Conservation International (CI) all have freshwater
programmes. There are many other non-governmental organisations
(NGOs) addressing freshwater issues at regional, national and local levels.

Find out where your water comes from…

The first step in protecting freshwater biodiversity is to become aware of

where fresh water comes from and how much we depend on it: not just for
what we drink, but for personal hygiene, growing our food, and producing
energy and the goods we consume.

98 Y o u t h a n d U n i t e d N at i o n s G l o b a l A l l i a n c e
Find out how much water you drink. And eat.
And wear. And drive. And…

Globally, people use an average of 633 cubic metres per year.

Water footprints however vary greatly from one part of the world to another;
for example, the average person consumes 173 cubic metres per year in
sub-Saharan Africa, 581 cubic metres in Europe, and 1 663 cubic metres in
North America.

Of the water consumed, only about 0.75 to 1.5 cubic metres per year, much
less than one percent, is actually used for drinking. We consume much more
in other ways, particularly by eating it.

Here are some water requirements to produce typical products:

Hamburger: 2 400 litres Glass of apple juice: 190 litres
Glass of milk: 200 litres Cotton T-shirt: 4 100 litres
Cup of coffee: 140 litres Pair of leather shoes: 8 000 litres
Cup of tea: 35 litres Tonne of steel: 230 000 litres

Meat production in particular, especially beef, consumes a great deal of

water. The average volume of water (worldwide) required to produce one
tonne of beef is 15 497 cubic metres; compare this to a tonne of chicken
(3 918) or a tonne of soybeans or barley (1 789 and 1 388, respectively).

A sustainable diet, anyone?

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 Chapter 7 | Freshwater biodiversity

Clean home, clean Earth…

Another way to reduce your impact on waterways is to reduce or eliminate

your use of chemicals. Many laundry detergents today are phosphate-free,
but this is not the case for most dishwasher detergents. What about the
other cleaning, personal hygiene and gardening products you use? Are they
really necessary? Find out what they contain and how you can replace them:
for instance, there are plenty of biodegradable alternatives for many of the
products we typically use. Most garden chemicals can be avoided by changing
the plants grown, gardening practices and accepting a more natural
landscape (which can also look nicer).

Look upstream, downstream and beneath your feet...

Want to get more involved? Look “upstream” – and see how sustaining the
water catchment can improve water security. Look “downstream” – and see
how you can reduce your impact. And don’t forget to look beneath your feet –
promote the conservation of groundwater by avoiding polluting or overusing
it and maintaining the nature above ground that helps to replenish it.

Join a group – or start one – and help clean up rivers and lakes, including the
banks and wetlands. Support wetland protection and restoration. Promote
approaches to water supply and management that use the abilities of
ecosystems to supply clean water more securely and for reducing flood risk.

100 Y o u t h a n d U n i t e d N at i o n s G l o b a l A l l i a n c e
The good news...

The loss of freshwater biodiversity and degradation of ecosystems are not

necessarily irreversible. For example, many countries, in both rich and poor regions,
are starting to take steps to restore wetlands that were drained in the relatively
recent past. This is being done because the benefits of restoring the services
provided by these wetlands can outweigh the costs of not having those services
(e.g. poor water quality and increased flood risk). The process begins with public
recognition of the values of these ecosystems to people and the economic benefits of
managing them more wisely.

Learn more
:: Conservation International (CI): www.conservation.org
:: Hamilton 2008. Forests and Water. FAO Forestry Paper 155, Rome: FAO, 3.
:: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN):
www.iucn.org
:: The Nature Conservancy (TNC): www.nature.org
:: Peatlands:
www.wetlands.org/Whatwedo/PeatlandsandCO2emissions/tabid/837/Default.aspx
:: The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: www.ramsar.org
:: Water Footprints:
www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report16Vol1.pdf
earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/data_tables/wat2_2005.pdf
:: Wetlands International: www.wetlands.org
:: The World Wildlife Fund / The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF):
www.wwf.org

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