Mac 411

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: MAC 411
COURSE TITLE: MEDIA LAW AND ETHICS

COURSE
GUIDE
MAC 411
MEDIA LAW AND ETHICS
Course Team Lateef A. Adelakun - NOUN & Ganiyat Adenle -

LASU - (Course Developers /Writers)
Dr. Adidi Uyo (Course Editor) – UNILAG
Dr. Jonathan E. Aliede (Programme Leader) -
NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

MAC 411 COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
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Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2013
ISBN: 978-058-208-8
All Rights Reserved
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MAC 411
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction………………………………………………… iv
What you will Learn in this Course………………………… iv
Course Aims………………………………………………... iv
Course Objectives………………………………………….. v
Working through this Course………………………………. v
Course Materials…………………………………………… v
Study Units…………………………………………………. vi
Textbooks and References…………………………………. vi
The Assignment File……………………………………….. vii
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………………. vii
Final Examination and Grading……………………………. vii
Course Marking Scheme…………………………………… viii
Course Overview…………………………………………… viii
How to Get the Most of this Course………………………… ix
Facilitation/Tutors and Tutorials……………………………. x
Conclusion………………………………………………….. x
Summary………………………………………………..…... xi
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INTRODUCTION
MAC 413: Media Law and Ethics is a three-credit course for

undergraduate students in Mass Communication. The material has been
developed with the Nigerian context in mind. This course guide gives
you an overview of the course and also provides you with information
on the organisation and requirements of the course.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE
This course guide is designed to show you what you will be doing in this
course and to prepare you adequately for the task ahead. It is essential
that you read the course guide carefully and be familiar with its contents.
This will enable you to get your work properly done and get the best out
of the course.
Media Law and Ethics equips prospective mass communication

professional with the basic legal and ethical safeguards to perform his or
her job within the acceptable legal and ethical boundaries. Ignorance of
the law is not an excuse for breaking the law, nor is ignorance an excuse
for violating the code of ethics of any profession. It is for this reason that
the professional must be conversant with what is legally and ethically
expected of him.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
To achieve the aims set out above, MAC 413 also has specific
objectives. The unit objectives are at the beginning of each unit. I advise
that you read them before you start working through the unit. You can
also refer to them during your study of the unit to check your progress.
Below are the broader objectives for the course as a whole. By meeting
these objectives, you should consider yourself as having met the aims of
the course. On successful completion of the course, you should be able
to do the following:
• define law and ethics

• understand the purpose of law and ethics in society
• understand the important theories of ethics
• understand the purpose of media regulation in society
• know the essential media laws in Nigeria
• know the code of ethics of the Nigerian Press Organisation
(NPO)
• know the defenses open to a journalist in the event of litigation
• know the cardinal journalistic principles or canons of journalism
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MAC 411
• know the ethical mechanisms in Nigerian journalism and how

they operate
• be acquainted with some ethical case studies in Nigerian
journalism.
COURSE AIMS
The aims of this course are to help you understand the legal and ethical
principles which should guide a journalist and any other media
professional in the performance of his/her duties in Nigeria. This broad
aim will be achieved by:
1. Introducing you to the essence and purpose of law and ethics in

any society
2. Introducing you to the philosophical foundations of media law
and ethics
3. Acquainting you with the essential legal and ethical provisions
pertinent to media environment.
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
To complete the course, you are required to read the study units and
other related materials. You will also need to undertake practical
exercises for which you need a pen, a note book, a copy of the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, among other materials
listed in this guide.
At the end of each unit, you will be required to submit assignments for
assessment while at the end of the course, you will write a final
examination.
COURSE MATERIALS
The major materials you will need for this course are:
1. Study units
2. Assignment file
3. A copy of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria
4. Code of Ethics of the Nigerian Press Organisation (NPO)
5. The National Broadcasting Code
6. Code of ethics of the Nigerian Institute of Public Relations
7. Code of ethics of the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria
(APCON)
8. Relevant text books, including those listed under each unit
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9. You also need to read newspapers and magazines, listen to radio

and watch television regularly.
STUDY UNITS
There are 20 units of five modules in this course. They are listed below.
Module 1 Mass Media and the Imperative of Law and Ethics
Unit 1 Understanding Law

Unit 2 Understanding Ethics
Unit 3 Mass Media Roles within the Scope of Law and Ethics
Module 2 Nigerian Constitution and Media Regulation
Unit 1 Nigerian Legal System

Unit 2 Constitutional Provisions on the Nigerian Media
Unit 3 Press Freedom
Unit 4 State Security and the Press
Module 3 Media Laws: Reputation and Dignity of Persons
Unit 1 Defamation
Unit 2 Sedition
Unit 3 Privacy
Unit 4 Obscene, Indecent and Harmful Publications
Module 4 Media Laws: Intellectual and Institutional
Unit 1 Copyright
Unit 2 New Media
Unit 3 Protection of News Sources or Whistle Blowers
Unit 4 Contempt of Court: Parliamentary and Judicial
Unit 5 Reports of Parliamentary and Judicial Proceedings
Module 5 Media Ethics and Regulation: An Introduction

Unit 2 Ethical Approaches, Theories and Moral Reasoning
Unit 3 Ethical Issues in Mass Communication
TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES
A number of books and other materials have been recommended for a

good understanding of this course. You will see them at the end of each
unit. Indeed, they were the books the course developer consulted while
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MAC 411
the course text was being prepared. You are advised to obtain them and
other relevant ones for further reading.
THE ASSIGNMENT FILE
Two kinds of assessment are involved in this course: tutor-marked

assignments and a written examination. Although the answers to the
Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs) are not meant to be submitted, yet
they are as important as the tutor-marked questions. The SAEs give you
an opportunity to assess yourself and know to what extent you
understand each topic. But the tutor-marked assignments are to be
answered and submitted for marking. The work you will submit to your
tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total score.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)
You will be required to submit a specified number of TMAs. Each unit

in this course has a TMA. You should attempt all the questions, and you
will be assessed on all of them but the best four performances will be
used for your 30% TMA score.
After you have completed each assignment, send it together with a tutor-
marked assignment form, to your tutor. Please ensure that each
assignment reaches your tutor before the deadline for submission.
If you have a genuine reason for not completing your work on time,
contact your tutor to see if he or she can give you an extension.
Normally, extensions may not be granted after the deadline. Since a
commitment to deadline is the soul of the journalistic enterprise,
journalism students are trained to meet deadlines.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
The final examination for MAC 413: Media Law and Ethics will be a
test of three hours, which will carry a score of 70%. The examination
will be set from all the topics covered, and will reflect the kind of self-
assessment exercises and tutor-marked questions you encountered. You
should revise the entire course and review all your self-assessment
exercises and tutor-marked assignments before the examination.
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COURSE MARKING SCHEME
This table shows the actual course marking scheme.
Assessment Marks
Assignments Four assignments, best three marks of the five
counts for 30% of course marks.
Final Examination 70% of overall course marks.
Total 100% of course marks.
COURSE OVERVIEW
The units, the number of weeks it would take you to complete them and
the assignments that follows them are outlined in the table below.
Module 1 Mass Media and the Imperative of Law and Ethics

Week 1 Assignment 1
Week 2 Assignment 1
Week 3 Assignment 1
Module 2 Nigerian Constitution and Media Regulation
Unit 1 Nigerian Legal System

Week 4 Assignment 1
Week 5 Assignment 1
Week 6 Assignment 1
Unit 4 State Security and the Press
Week 7 Assignment 1
Module 3 Media Laws: Reputation and Dignity of Persons
Unit 1 Defamation
Week 8 Assignment 1
Unit 2 Sedition
Week 9 Assignment 1
Unit 3 Privacy
Week 10 Assignment 1
Unit 4 Obscene, Indecent and Harmful Publications
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MAC 411
Module 4 Media Laws: Intellectual and Institutional
Unit 1 Copyright
Unit 2 New Media
Unit 3 Protection of News Sources and Whistle Blowers
Unit 4 Contempt of Court: Parliamentary and Judicial
Module 5 Ethical Principles of Mass Media Regulation

Unit 3 Regulatory Institutions in the Nigerian Mass Media
Module 5 Ethical Principles of Mass Media Regulation

Revision Week 21 and 22

Examination Week 23
HOW TO GET THE MOST OF THIS COURSE
You need material and non-material things for this course. The material
things you need include but are not limited to the following:
i. A standard dictionary, such as the Oxford Advanced Learners.

ii. A copy of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria.
iii. A copy of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights.
iv. A copy of the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights.
v. All the recommended text books on media law and ethics.
The non-material things you need for the course include but are not
limited to the following:
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A) At least four continuous, uninterrupted hours of study weekly.

B) Self-discipline and commitment to excellence.
C) Integrity.
FACILITATORS/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS
Fifteen hours of tutorials are provided in support of this course. You will
be informed of the dates, times and location of the tutorials, together
with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are
allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will grade and comment on your
assignment, and will monitor your progress. Don’t forget to send your
tutor-marked assignments well ahead of the deadline. They will be
graded and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to
contact your tutor by phone or email if you need help.
You should contact your tutor if:
a) You do not understand any part of the assigned readings

b) You have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises
c) You have a question or a problem with an assignment, with your
tutor’s comment or with the grading of an assignment.
Try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only way to have face to
face contact with your tutor and ask questions. You can raise any
problem you encountered in the course of your study. To gain maximum
benefit from the course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending
the tutorials. Also, it will be in your best interest to participate actively
in the tutorials.
CONCLUSION
This is a particularly interesting course that opens your eyes to many

things about law and ethics which you must have been seeking answers
to. It also gives you a great insight into the secrets of success in life, how
to be law abiding and observe all the ethical principles which you
require to excel not only in your chosen profession, but also in life,
generally.
From what you may have noticed from the news media and from films,
you can see that lack of self-discipline and/or ignorance of the law has
led to the wrecking of many promising careers. If you take to heart and
apply all that you have learnt in this course, you will not only excel in
journalism but also succeed in life.
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MAC 411
SUMMARY
This course guide gives you an overview of what to expect in the course
of this study. The course teaches you the fundamental principles of law
and ethics relevant to media practice in Nigeria.
We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both
interesting and useful.
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MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 Mass Media and the Imperative of Law

and Ethics……………………………….. 1
Unit 1 Understanding Law………………………. 1

Unit 2 Understanding Ethics……………………... 9
Unit 3 Mass Media Roles within the Scope of Law
and Ethics………………………………… 18
Module 2 Nigerian Constitution and Media

Regulation………………………………… 25
Unit 1 Nigerian Legal System…………………….. 25

Unit 2 Constitutional Provisions on the Nigerian
Media……………………………………… 33
Unit 3 Press Freedom……………………………... 40
Unit 4 State Security and the Press……………….. 46
Module 3 Media Laws: Reputation and Dignity of

Persons…………………………………….. 52
Unit 1 Defamation…………………………………. 52
Unit 2 Sedition…………………………………….. 69
Unit 3 Privacy……………………………………… 78
Unit 4 Obscene, Indecent and Harmful Publications 92
Module 4 Media Laws: Intellectual and

Institutional……………………………….. 102
Unit 1 Copyright……………………………………. 102

Unit 2 New Media…………………………………... 124
Unit 3 Protection of News Sources or Whistle
Blowers………………………………………. 133
Unit 4 Contempt of Court: Parliamentary and Judicial 142
Unit 5 Reports of Parliamentary and Judicial
Proceedings…………………………………… 166
Module 5 Media Ethics and Regulation: An
Introduction……………………………….. 181
Unit 1 Understanding Ethics………….…………… 181

Unit 2 Ethical Approaches, Theories and Moral
Reasoning…………………………………… 191
Unit 3 Ethical Issues in Mass Communication…….. 200
MAC 411 MODULE 1
MODULE 1 MASS MEDIA AND THE IMPERATIVE

OF LAW AND ETHICS

UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING LAW
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Explanation of Law
3.2 Origin of Law
3.3 Significance of Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The relationship between individuals and groups, which results in

interdependency between them, always brings about overlapping
functions, conflicting rights, competing interests, and neglected
duties/expectations. The interrelationships and interdependence between
individuals and groups define society. It was as a result that law set in
not only to define individuals’ rights, interests and obligations but also
to set the limit to which a right is exercised in relation to other rights and
obligations. Thus, as put by Elias (1969), the law remains an umpire.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• explain the meaning of law

• state the origin of law
• explain the significant of law.
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MAC 411 MEDIA LAW AND ETHICS
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition and Explanation of Law
Law is the overall guiding principles of human conducts. A law is

basically a body of principles or rules which are the basis of a society.
Members of a society are meant to abide by the law established by it. It
is very hard to have a society without a set of laws guiding it. Human
life needs a proper rule of conduct or principle at every step. It is also
important for a successful society.
Law according to Oyakhilomen (2009), controls, regulates, enforces and

punishes. It is very uncommon to have a society absolutely free of law,
i.e. a state of anarchy. Whether consciously or unconsciously; written or
unwritten; observed or violated; elements of law exist in every society.
Oyakhilomen (2006) writes:
Society cannot exist without rules of social order. Hence

every civilised society has its publicly recognised authority
for declaring, administering and enforcing its laws. Can
you for a moment visualise a state without law and any
enforcement system (if such state ever existed). Suppose
the Nigeria Police Force were to observe one day public
holiday? What would you find?
The state of normlessness or lawlessness is shade or two

worse than the perpetual state of warfare and reign of terror
and fear. This is a mirror of the state of nature where as
Thomas Hobbes stated in The Leviathan: “each man was
his own master; personal force alone determined each
man’s position. Life in these conditions was “solitary,
nasty, brutish and short”. This leads one to appreciate the
fact that the society cannot exist without rules of social
order – law. The picture of a State without law helps to
bring to the fore, what the functions of law would be in the
society.
There are various definitions of law by various law professionals and

authors. Some of them are as follows:
1. A rule of conduct or procedure established by custom, agreement,

or authority.
2. A code of principles based on morality, conscience, or nature.
3. A law is a rule of conduct of any organised society, however
simple or small, that are enforced by threat of punishment if they
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MAC 411 MODULE 1
are violated. Modern law has a wide sweep and regulates many
branches of conduct.
4. A body of rules of conduct of legal force and effect, prescribed,
recognised, and enforced by controlling authority.
Oyakhilomen agrees that law has no universally acceptable definition

because many of the definitions put forward are conceived from
individuals’ perspectives of law. He thereafter highlighted and discussed
some definitions from which a few are extracted for the purpose of this
course. According to him, law is:
(a) “A set of rules governing human activities and relations.” He

stated that this definition appears extremely wide,
accommodating rules of every game, of clubs, even of gangs of
thieves. It is all encompassing.
(b) “A rule of action prescribed or dictated by some superior which
some inferior is bound to obey” and is applied indiscriminately to
all kinds of actions, whether animate or inanimate, rational or
irrational (Blackstone), or
(c) A command set either directly or circuitously by a sovereign
individual or body to members of some independent political
society in which his authority is supreme (John Austin).
He discusses Blackstone & Austin’s definitions as being silent on
omission or inaction. ‘Description of law as a rule of action is
wide enough to cover: rules of a father to his son, or rules of a
husband to his spouse which are no law’ he submitted.
(d) A body of principles recognised and applied by the state in the
administration of justice (Salmond).
He asks if the state does not apply moral principles, which do not
answer the descriptions of law.
(e) Rules, which the courts will follow, the prophecies of what the
courts will do, in fact, and nothing more pretentious (Oliver
Wendell Home). This is a classic egg and the chick case.
(f) Rules, which the courts – the judicial organs of that body – lay
down for the determination of legal rights and duties (John
Chipman Gray). In other words, law means the rules of court.
(g) An aggregation of legislations and accepted legal principles and
the body of authoritative groups of judicial and administrative
actions.
He submits that this definition is more a description than a
definition.
(h) A general body of such rules of conduct expressing the will of the
ruling class as are established by legislation and such customs
and rules of community life as are sanctioned by the government;
the application of which body of rules is secured by the coercive
force of the state for the protection, consolation, and development
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of the social relations and the public order, beneficial and

desirable for the ruling class (Vyshinsky).
(i) A general body of such rules of human conduct established or

sanctioned by the government power, the execution of which
rules is secured by the coercive power of the state (Gsovski)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Put all various definitions above into consideration to form your own
definition of law.
3.2 Origin of Law
Law, according to some scholars, is as old as man. In Qur’an chapter 2

verses 35 and 36, God created the first man, Adam and his wife, Eve
(Hawaw) and put them in the paradise. God enacted law for them (the
dos and the don’ts) to serve as their guiding principles:
And He said: “O Adam! Dwell you and wife in

the paradise and eat both of you freely with
pleasure and delight, of things therein as
wherever you will, but come not near this tree or
you both will be of the wrongdoers.”
From this Quran verse, it is established that God enacted laws for the
first man and his wife, which set for them the limit in the use of the
provision in the paradise. God also stipulated the measure for the
violation of the laws and the punishment that goes along with it is stated
in verse 36 of the same chapter. Similar quotation can be found in Bible.
Another law that testify to the earlier historical record of law is Mosaic
laws (10 commandments) in the Old Testament. Whether divine or man-
made, law is law, once it satisfies all or any of the conditions highlighted
in Oyakhilomen (2009), namely:
• controls
• regulates
• enforces
• punishes.
Law is very wide and all encompassing and that is why every profession,
like every society, has its own law or form of law. The laws that affect
businesses are known as business laws or company laws or law of
contracts, while those that affect property are known as property laws. It
therefore implies that the laws that control, regulate, enforce and punish
in the operation of mass media are Media Laws.
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MAC 411 MODULE 1
Can the directives given by the kings and chiefs to their subjects be
categorised as laws?
3.3 Importance of Law
The importance of law is discussed below.
1. Protection of interests
Von Ihering has said that, “the purpose of law is the protection of
interests.” But what is interest and whose interest? There are various
interests within a society or a state competing for protection and
actualisation. According to Akinfeleye (2010), interests are of two
categories:
• Individual or personal interest

• Public/State/Societal interest
(a) Individual interest: Each member of a society has his

personal interest to protect. His interest is important to him
for his personal development, protection and gains. The
interest of an individual is limited by the interest of other
within the same society. This means that an individual
should not protect his or her interest at the detriment of
violating the interest of other individual members.
(b) Public/state/societal interest: Though there are arguments
on whether public interest is the same thing as state
interest, our focus here is likened both to mean the
collective interest of individual members of a state. The
good of the individual is not itself an end, but only a
means of securing the good of the society. In essence, the
society is a higher conception than the individual so that
the individual can desire the common interest in addition
to his own. Andrei Vyshinsky’s view is that law and the
state are one so that any criminal act is a danger to the
regime and the state. He thought that emphasis on
individual was a mere cloak to shroud the exploitation of
workers by the bourgeoisie. In the western philosophy,
function of law is to hold a balance between interests of
the individual and those of the state.
2. Protection of life, national security, public safety and social

welfare
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You can imagine a state of lawlessness, where the right of an individual

is not defined and the limitation to the right in order to protect the right
of another individual is not set, only those who have the will would have
their way. Law protects the rights, duties of people, be it political, social,
economic or cultural.
3. Protection of life
There are a number of incidents taking place all the time which could be
harmful to people. This leads to the need of making law. People need a
proper code of life. They need to know their rights as well as others’
right; only then they could lead a peaceful life.
According to Sohn, law is the sum of rules, which regulates the life of
the people, or creates social order and organisation
that are necessary for preservation of life and ordered control of the life
of the community. He explained that the private law governs the rights
and duties of individuals while public law regulates the relationship
between the individual and the state.
The essence of law is to reconcile conflicting interests of individuals and

collective interests of the public such that peaceful coexistence would be
ascertained. Von Ihering sees the function of preserving life from the
angle of striking a balance between egoistic and altruistic motives. He
said that the purpose is the universal principle of the world. The purpose
of human violation is the satisfaction derivable from acts. The purpose
of law is the protection of interests.
4. National security and public safety
National security is the protection of a state and its human and material
resources against both internal and external forces. According to Elias,
state security includes all the means at a government’s disposal for
securing or protecting the nation or state from the danger of subjugation
either by an external power or through internal insurrection. Nigerian
laws forbid any Nigerian or foreigner living within the country from
carrying ammunitions around without legal permission to do so or rising
against the constituted authority as these may constitute threat to national
security.
Sometimes, individual rights are violated to ensure that the state is

secured from certain danger. For example, people’s right to freedom of
movement may be deprived when a curfew or a state of emergency is
declared in a state to let peace rein.
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MAC 411 MODULE 1
Since individuals constitute the public, public safety would therefore

mean the safety of life and property of every Nigerian against all that
may constitute threat.
Emergency powers to incarcerate persons who commit or are suspected

of having committed an offence, and to stop and search without warrant
any receptacle suspected to contain explosives, firearms and
ammunition, exist for purposes of national security and public safety.
Moreover, both the military and the police have powers to order the
detention of “trouble maker” whose freedom is reasonably considered
prejudicial to the society.
5. Social welfare of state
Oyakhilomen (2009) highlights the under listed as means through which

laws ensure social welfare of state:
(i) The Constitution and various statutes enhance freedom. It is by

law slave trade and slavery extraction of executive bride price or
discrimination against Osu caste were abolished. Law frowns at
arbitrary arrest and detention, and guarantees right of freedom of
movement, speech and association. Writ of habeas corpus or
fundamental rights enforcement proceedings are provided by law
where ones freedom is curtailed wrongfully.
(ii) Tax laws provide money for social amenities.
(iii) Traffic laws provide for orderliness on the highways.
(iv) Law of contract encourages business transactions and allows them
to strive.
(v) Law of tort protects proprietary rights and freedom of property,
and commands compensation, damages or other remedies in case
of trespass.
(vi) Arbitration laws and rules of courts provide ways of setting
disputes when they arise.
(vii) Law performs normative and social functions by pointing to
direction of wrong committed by members of the public and
helping or supporting state functionaries, operators and machinery
of society.
6. Maintenance of justice and fairness in society
Justice and fairness come from nowhere other than from the application
of laws. Oyakhilomen (2009) expresses the view of some writers, who
equate law with justice, contending that law ought to be just. Jus
naturale, jus gentium and equity and its body of rules were developed
out of the desire and search for justice, fairness and good conscience, for
all peoples. In contrary, justice is an absolute requirement and the judges
7
in applying the law must be fair, impartial and devoid of personal

prepossession or idiosyncrasy.
The essences of law to ensure justice are as follows:
(a) To hold everybody accountable in the same proportion for equal

functions given to them or obligations expected of them by the
law.
(b) To give everybody equal chance to contest, compete or access
public gains or opportunities.
(c) To give equal right to all for fair trial.
(d) To give equal right to all to prosecute and to appeal.
(e) To give to all equal right to be heard and equal and proportion
time to defend in a trial.
(f) To give equal and proportionate punishment and equal and
proportionate damages to the condemned and the claimant
respectively especially where the same or similar interpretations
of status are applicable.
7. Law as an agent of change and transformation
A change in any aspect of law in a society would definitely bring a

change within that society. It is not all the times that a change in any
aspect of law or introduction of a new law brings about positive change.
For example, there was a motion moved in the Nigeria National
Assembly to legalise homosexuality. If such a bill was passed to law, it
might have negative effect within the state.
Besides, if laws provide for adequate remedies, such laws would

transform the society. Most often people are not used to change except
they consider certain benefits or see deterrents, which they are also
likely to be subjected to. Notion of law changes from society to society,
from one generation to another even within the same society.
Oyakhilomen adds that law:
……..tries to maintain the established social order and

at the same time, effect social change to meet modern
requirements of a new society, taking cognisance of
and responding to new learning, new facts, different set
of prejudices, disparity in sets of questions people ask
daily, in sets of values, economics, education, social
achievement and ideological orientation and very
importantly quest for ideals of justice and for a
transformed and better society.
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MAC 411 MODULE 1
4.0 CONCLUSION
Law is one of the key elements that shape society. The functions of laws
are numerous. Law holds the society firm to save it from falling apart. It
therefore implies that if there is any lapses in law, it make proportional
impact in the growth and development of the society.
5.0 SUMMARY
From the discussion above, you should understand that law protect
individuals and the state, it preserves life and property; it promotes the
administration of justice, it preserves social welfare; and it brings about
change and transformation. All these are tantamount to development in a
society.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Law can save any society from falling apart. Do you agree?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Brown, S. (2008). Crime and Law in Media Culture. New York: Bell
and Bain Ltd.
Elias, T. O. (1969). Nigerian Press Law. London: Evans Brothers Ltd.
Makowsky, R. C. (2010). The Discovery of Society. New York:

McGraw-Hill.
Oloyede, B. (2008). Free Press and Society: Dismantling the Culture of

Silence. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd.
Oyakhilomen, G. I. (2006). Nigerian Legal System I. Kaduna: National

Open University of Nigeria.
Oyakhilomen, G. I. (2009). Introduction to Law. Kaduna: National Open

University of Nigeria.
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UNIT 2 UNDERSTANDING ETHICS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Ethics
3.2 Differences between Law and Ethics
3.3 Importance of Ethics to the Society
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The study of ethics is important to the mass media because journalists

and other media professionals must be guided by ethical values and
principles for the good of the society. The focus of this unit is therefore
to introduce you to mass media ethics.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define ethics
• differentiate between law and ethics
• explain the importance of ethics to the society.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of Ethics
Ethics is derived from the Greek ethos, meaning “custom,” “usage,” or

“character.” It is often thought of as a rational process applying
established principles when two moral obligations collide (Day, 2006).
Ethics is “the liberal arts discipline that appraises voluntary human
conduct in so far as it can be judged right or wrong in reference to
determinative principles” (Christians et al, 1998).
Ethics is a set of principles of conduct governing an individual or group

(Bowles and Borden, 2004).
Ethics is the science of rightness and wrongness of conduct. Conduct is

purposive action, which involves choice and will. It is the expression of
10
MAC 411 MODULE 1
character which is a settled habit of will. The will is the self in action.
Thus ethics is the science of human character as expressed in right or
wrong conduct. But rightness or wrongness refers to the good which is
the ideal of human life. Thus ethics is the science of the highest good. It
is the science of morality. Ethics is concerned with the origin and
growth of conduct like psychology. It is concerned with evaluation of
conduct with reference to an ideal. It seeks to determine the supreme
ideal involved in human conduct. It seeks to teach us how we can pass
correct judgments upon human conduct, consider it as right or wrong,
with reference to the supreme ideal of human life. Ethics is the science
of the ideal involved in human life (Sinha, 2009).
Neher and Sandin (2007) note that: “In a technical sense, ethics is a
branch of the field of philosophy, which is concerned about judgments
on right and wrong actions. Beyond the discipline of philosophy, many
fields include the study of and applications of ethics to their domain.
Ethics refers to a systematic method for making judgments concerning
voluntary actions of people.”
Neher and Sandin highlight several aspects of the definition thus:
• First, ethics is intended to provide us with a system so that the

decisions or judgments one makes can be justified to others and
to oneself in a clear and objective manner.
• Second, ethics is concerned with judgments about actions that
can be determined to be right or wrong according to the
principles of this method.
• Third, the judgments are to be made about actions, in which the
actors appear to have a choice; they could have done otherwise.
• And, fourth, the actions are seen as intentional: the persons
seemed to know what they were doing and intended to do what
they did.
Thus, ethics often involves the balancing of competing rights when there
is no “correct” answer. A case in point is a student who promises to
remain silent when a classmate confides that he has cheated. If a teacher
attempts to solicit testimony from that student regarding her friend’s
nefarious behaviour, the student must then weigh the value of loyalty to
the friend (a moral virtue) against commitment to the truth - another
moral virtue (Day, 2006).
Once in a while, ethical decisions involve more than one moral rule. For
example, most of us have been taught that stealing is wrong; we have
also been taught that human lives are highly valued. What if a loved one
required medication to live and we had no money to buy that
medication? Would we hesitate to steal the medicine from the
11
pharmacy? Would we be morally justified in doing so? Does the value

of a human life outweigh the harm done by stealing the medicine? Or is
stealing always wrong, regardless of the motivation?
From the foregoing therefore, it is obvious that ethics is a set of values,

principles and standards guiding an individual, a group or professionals’
conduct or actions, especially when confronted with two or more
compelling situations.
Ethics, in short, may be seen as being concerned with that which holds
society together or provides the stability and security essential to the
living of human life (Black et al, 1999).
From your understanding of the presentation above, give your own

definition of ethics?
3.2 Differences between Law and Ethics
Ethics is not the same as law, and ethical constraints are not the same as
legal rules. Ethics articulates what we ought to do in order to be moral
individuals and professionals, while law concentrates on the bottom line
below which we should not fall. Ethics deals with ideal behaviours,
while law deals with minimum standards. There is a common tendency
today to equate ethical standards with legal standards, and for victims of
unethical behaviour to seek legal remedies for perceived ethical lapses.
This is a false equation and a fundamental misconception of the
relationship between law and ethics. For instance, invasion-of-privacy
laws widely permit the publication of information that, for reason of
ethics, taste, compassion or professionalism, some news media would
not publish or broadcast (Black et al, 1999).
Not all moral issues can be, or should be, legally codified. The law
permits many immoralities that transgress against friends and enemies
alike, such as breaking of promises, uttering of unkind words, and
certain forms of deception. In the course of our lives we often offend the
feelings of others, an act for which the law provides no restitution to the
offended party. A high school student, for example, might break his date
at the last minute, but the lady kept in waiting cannot resort to the courts
for redress of her tearful ordeal. Even in a litigious society it would be
undesirable to open the floodgates to such deep interference into
individual relationships (Day, 2006).
Nevertheless, legal obligations are based on moral ones. The criminal

and civil statutes codify some of our most important moral obligations,
12
MAC 411 MODULE 1
for example, proscriptions against killing, stealing, raping, or

maliciously defaming another’s reputation. Most of these statutes
involve punishing direct harm to others, but some laws are based on
moral principles that are not concerned with the well-being of others.
Laws regulating sexual behaviour between consenting adults and
prostitution fall into this category. The moral justification for such laws
is not widely shared within society, and thus compliance is less certain.
Nevertheless, a fundamental distinction between our legal code and
moral obligations is that legal violations involve prescribed penalties
and ethical indiscretions do not.
But if the laws themselves are based on moral respect, are there
circumstances when we are warranted in breaking a law? Does our
ethical system provide for such waivers of our moral obligations? Civil
disobedience, in which citizens intentionally ignore laws that they feel
are unjust, has received some moral respectability in recent years,
particularly since the nonviolent civil rights demonstrations led by the
Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in the 1960s. Most ethicists agree,
however, that the legitimacy of civil disobedience depends on (1) the
moral agent’s true belief that the law is unjust, (2) nonviolence, and (3)
the willingness of protesters to face the consequences of their actions. In
addition, some people justify civil disobedience only if the legal avenues
of redress have been explored. For example, an environmental group,
having exhausted all legal avenues to prevent the disposal of nuclear
wastes at a site within their community, might resort to acts of civil
disobedience to bring its concerns to the public’s attention. In such
cases, even when legal questions have been settled, the moral issues
persist.
A just law might be violated in emergency situations or when higher

moral principle is involved. For example, we would not think a husband
immoral for running the red light to get his pregnant wife to the hospital
in time for the delivery of their baby. On a more serious level, media
practitioners may occasionally feel obligated to violate a just law if they
believe that they must do so because of a more significant moral
obligation.
Hence, ethics is the foundation for all laws but not all laws are based on
ethics. Most laws are ethical but not all ethics are written in law.
Violation of all legal rules can be redressed in a law court while not all
ethical violations can be compensated.
13
Okoye (2008) provides the following differences between law and

ethics:
a) Law is imposed by the outer society, while ethics is self-imposed

and self-enforced (e.g. by a professional body for its members).
b) Law has a definite effective date while ethics has no effective
date.
c) Law can expire or be repealed, but ethics is continuous.
d) Law has more formal institutions, such as the legislature, police,
judiciary, (the courts, tribunals, court-martials, etc) penitentiary
(prison, reformatory, etc), but ethics has less formal institutions
for its formulation and enforcement. Indeed, the chief enforcer of
ethic is the conscience.
e) While morality protects a way of life by tabooing immoral action
even before it takes place, laws only provide recourse after the
deed has been done (Caster, 1983).
There is a close relationship between law and ethics as both are

attempting to restrain or constrain the media to behave responsibly, but
the purpose of the law is always to set the limits of behaviour, to
identify those things we must do (or, often, must not do). Ethics set out
those things that we ought to do or not do. Think of a hen’s egg – the
hard outer shell represents the law – an easy-to-detect boundary between
the white and the yolk is a much softer boundary, and although it sits
within the hard shell of the law, it can easily be pushed in one direction
or another, depending upon our desire and beliefs. The law has a more
powerful effect on people than a code of conduct. A person’s own moral
code may supersede the law every time, but a professional code can only
be for guidance this means that when there are conflicts between the law
and professional practice, the law will almost always take precedence
(Frost, 2007).
Explain the relationship between law and ethics.
3.3 Importance of Ethics to the Society
Every society needs a system of ethics or morals for peace, stability and
cohesion. Without ethics, morality and law, society, according to the
common saying will be brutish and short. It is a system of ethics that
guide personal, interpersonal and public relationships. Without ethics,
there won’t be law and without law, there will be anarchy in the society.
It is a system of ethics that the society uses as a guide in judging and
assessing conduct and actions.
14
MAC 411 MODULE 1
Day (2006) explains five reasons why every society needs a system of
ethics. The reasons are:
1. The need for social stability: First, a system of ethics is

necessary for social intercourse. Ethics is the foundation of our
advanced civilisation, a cornerstone that provides some stability
to society’s moral expectations. If we are to enter into agreements
with others, a necessity in a complex, interdependent society, we
must be able to trust one another to keep those agreements, even
if it is not in our self-interest to do so (Olen, 1988).
2. The need for a social hierarchy: Second, a system of ethics
serves as a moral gatekeeper in apprising society of the relative
importance of certain customs. It does this by alerting the public
to (1) those norms that are important enough to be described as
moral and (2) the “hierarchy of ethical norms” and their relative
standing in the moral pecking order. All cultures have many
customs, but most do not concern ethical mores. For example,
eating with utensils is customary in Western countries but the
failure to do so is not immoral. Standing for the national anthem
before a sporting event is a common practice, but those who
remain seated are not behaving unethically. There is a tendency
to describe actions of which we disapprove as immoral, although
most of our social indiscretions are merely transgressions of
etiquette. A system of ethics identifies those customs and
practices of which there is enough social disapproval to render
them immoral.
3. The need to promote a dynamic social ecology: Three, an
ethical framework serves as a social conscience, challenging
members of a community to examine ethical dimensions of both
public issues and private concerns and to aspire to elevate the
quality of the moral ecology. However, the goal should not be the
ideal society (which is impossible) but a decent society. What
should be avoided are claims of infallibility. Ethics is not a
science, and trial and error are inevitable. In a not-so-perfect
society, some compromises and balancing are required because
not every claim deserves equal attention.
4. The need to resolve conflicts: Four, a system of ethics is an
important social institution for resolving cases involving conflict
claims based on individual self-interest. For example, it might be
in a student’s own interest to copy from a classmate’s term paper.
It is in the classmate’s best interest to keep her from doing so.
Societal rules against plagiarism are brought to bear in evaluating
the moral conduct inherent in this situation.
5. The need to clarify values: Finally, a system of ethics also
functions to clarify for society the competing values and
principles inherent in emerging and novel moral dilemmas. Some
15
of the issues confronting civilisation today would challenge the

imagination of even the most ardent philosopher. A case in point
is the controversy over the cloning of humans, a scientific
breakthrough with unimaginable ethical consequences. Ethicists
have already begun passionately debating this issue in the hopes
of clarifying competing moral values and affording some time for
reasoned reflection before such scientific experimentation
becomes commonplace.
Can a society survive without an agreed system of ethics? Justify your

position.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Ethics is the foundation of morality and law in every society. The

culture, civilisation, customs and religion of a people determine the
values they will regard as ethical and the ones they will see as
abominable. It is necessary, if not mandatory for every society to have a
generally accepted level of ethics or standards in order to ensure
stability, peace and progress.
5.0 SUMMARY
Ethics is a system of moral or respectable conduct that guides the

actions of individuals and organisations in an organised society. Ethics
is different from law as not all ethical values are enforceable by the
courts but most laws have their foundation in ethical standards. Society
needs to have a system of ethics to ensure stability and cohesion.
A system of ethics is a cover-up for unofficial censorship. Discuss.
Black, J., Steele, B., & Barney, R. (1999). Doing Ethics in Journalism.
(3rd ed.). Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.
Bowles, D. & Borden, D. (2004). Creative Editing. (4th ed.). Belmont:

Thomas Wadsworth.
Caster. H. (1983). “The Problems of Ethics in the Mass Media.” A paper

presented at the Nigerian Press Council National Workshop held
at Aja, Lagos, Nigeria from April 9-12, 2006.
16
MAC 411 MODULE 1
Christians, C. G., Mark, F., Kim B. R., & Kathy, B. M. (1998). Media
Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning. (5th ed.). New York:
Longman.
Day, L. A. (2006). Ethics in Media Communications. (5th ed.). Belmont:

Thomas Wadsworth.
Frost, C. (2007). Journalism Ethics and Regulation. (2nd ed.). Essex:

Pearson Education Limited.
Neher, W. W., & Sandin, P. J. (2007). Communicating Ethically:

Character, Duties, Consequences, and Relationships. Boston:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Olen, J. (1998). Ethics in Journalism. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-

Hall.
Okoye, I. (2008). Media Law and Ethics. Lagos: National Open

University.
Sinha, J. (2009). A Manual of Ethics. Kolkata: New Central Book

Agency Ltd.
17
UNIT 3 MASS MEDIA ROLES WITHIN THE SCOPE OF

LAW AND ETHICS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Understanding Mass Media and its Forms
3.2 Media Roles within the Scope of Law and Ethics
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The media is an institution within a society that informs, educates and

orientates people as regard the rights, obligations and interest of
individuals and groups and at the same time entertain them to lessen the
effect of the obligations expected of them by the society. The three key
elements, society, law and the media form the basis of discussion in this
unit.
Why has the trust the members of the public have in the media continued
to increase by the day? Why have the media being regarded has the
Fourth Estate of the Realm? Why do the people wait curiously everyday
to hear from the media? Why do the media releases generate reactions
from the public and thereby constitute the topic of discussion by them?
These questions are pointers to the functions of the media and what the
public expect from the media. In this unit, much about the functions of
the media within the society will be discussed.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define mass media

• state the various forms of mass media
• enumerate the roles of mass media in the society.
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MAC 411 MODULE 1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Understanding Mass Media and Its Forms
In a layman understanding of the media, it is avenue through which

information or messages find way to its destination from its origin.
According to Joseph Dominick (2009), a medium is the channel through
which a message travels from the source to the receiver. The medium
used to relay information varies to the form of communication that such
medium is used for. Interpersonal media such as oral communication
and body language are used for interpersonal communication while mass
media such as radio, television and newspaper are used for mass
communication.
Forms of mass media
There are two main categories under which various mass media could be
classified. They are:
(a) Print media

(b) Electronic media
(a) Print media: Print media covers all form of publications meant
for the mass distribution of information to the members of the
public. This can also be categorised into:
Periodic – Those that are published at a specific interval. It may
be daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, biannually, annually etc.
Examples of this are:
i. Newspapers
ii. Magazines
iii. Journals
iv. Billboards (Not electric)
Non-periodic – those that their publications are not regular. They are
published for specific goals base on the requirement or at the time they
are needed. They include:
i. Books
ii. Posters
iii. Handbills
iv. Billboards (Not electric)
With the evolution of print media people had a great thirst for
information. They take print media as their foremost source of
information. Hence, the medium starts playing three main roles which
are as follows:
19
• Information
• Entertainment
• Guidance
With the addition of features and columns and magazines, people’s

interest was enhanced and they started idealising the writers. They take
their writings as their guidance. Observing the great importance of
media, there should be some limitations set for it. So that writers do not
go beyond the ethics. Their writings and publications should be checked
and controlled. For this reason, certain laws to regulate media were
formulated to keep a check on it. Hence, laws and ethical principles
were formulated for print media, which are to be obeyed by the
publishers as enumerated in subsequent modules. Some of the laws and
ethics still regulate the print media up till today.
(b) Electronic media: Electronic media is also known as broadcast

media plus other unconventional social media. It covers all form
of media that transmit information on air with the aid of
transmitter and other electronic devices to the mass audience. It
can be categorised into:
Conventional: These are mainstream broadcast media that relay
information through a particular channel or frequency. The
regular broadcast media are just two:
• Television
• Radio
Unconventional: These forms of broadcast media do not operate on

channel or frequency base. Unlike conventional media, messages from
this form of media are neither vetted nor verifiable. These media
comprise:
i. Internet
ii. Computers
iii. Facebook
iv. Youtube etc.
Then, with the gain in popularity of electronic media, there was a need
to put checks on them. So, different regulatory committees were made to
formulate regulating codes for them. With the passage of time many
codes were formulated and applied for them. By now a proper and
complete code of principles is been set for the whole media. But still
there is another debate of freedom of media because changes keep on
happening in these principles.
Differentiate between conventional and unconventional broadcast media.

20
MAC 411 MODULE 1
3.2 Media Roles within the Scope of Law and Ethics
Many writers lay emphasis on the primary functions of the media when
discussing the roles of the media within a society. The primary functions
are as follows:
i. Information
ii. Education
iii. Entertainment
iv. Commercial
v. Cultural integration.
Oloyede (2008) goes beyond the five listed above. And this indicates
that the media perform numerous roles among which people do not even
notice. Here in this unit, we would rather look at the roles of the media
in some aspects of human life.
Media roles in government and politics
Mass media today are the tools that the government uses to protect the
image of the country home and abroad. This is achieved by using the
media to project and sell government policies to the people. Oloyede
sees the media as the most indispensable instrument of governance and
writes:
“The press also functions as an indispensable

instrument of governance. It conducts information
flow between governments and the governed and
ensures that the citizenry is not kept in the dark
about the thinking of government. It reports,
explains and meaningfully conveys to the governed
the esotericism of the policies and actions of the
government.”
To reinforce this media role, he quoted Osoba (1987), that:
The press is also the feedback mechanism that provides

medium for the masses to reach the rulers, to appraise
their performance, to assess their policies and proffer
alternative paths and goals for the society.
Media roles in health issue
Mass media has a great impact in the health sector. Apart from staging
health programmes which help people in health decision making, mass
21
media are the avenues through which government policies on health are
explained to people. Media roles in health issue are highlighted below:
i. Staging healthy related programme such as health talk

ii. Inform and explain to the populace new government policies on
health
iii. Collaborate with health organisations (governmental and non-
governmental) to assist people in solving health related problems
iv. Report epidemics before it spread
v. Report the findings of health researchers to help in health decision
making.
Media roles in economics
The back bone of the economy nowadays is the mass media. Oloyede
(2008) agrees that the mass media is a veritable instrument for fostering
commerce and industry. Mass media make economy viable through the
following:
i. Economic reporting/business news

ii. Advertisements
iii. Economic programmes such as business today
iv. Facility visits.
Media roles in education
Through mass media, education is made easy to access. Apart from

educating the populace through programmes that add value to
knowledge, institutions are now making use of the mass media to
educate their students at their respective location. This helps a lot in
distant learning process which diversifies the rigid students-lecturers
relationship in class. Higher institutions of learning particularly
universities are now licensed to own broadcast media in addition to
various publications from their ends. Examples are:
NOUN FM: own by National Open University of Nigeria and UNILAG

FM: own by University of Lagos.
Oloyede writes:
“The press also serves as a teacher and educates society.

It constantly throws its searchlight on various subjects
affecting humanity with a view to generally educating
mankind. Apart from promoting general knowledge and
know-how through its various educative programmes
and features, the press also constantly offers humanity a
22
MAC 411 MODULE 1
very wide range of possibilities for making formal and

informal education possible.”
Media roles in social, religious and cultural matters
Reviving our dying cultures and traditions is another credit to the mass
media. Through programmes and features, the media have turn around
the cultural heritage of Nigerians within and outside the country. It is
believed now that mass media are using entertainment formula to ensure
that the media messages achieve the desired goals. The media achieve
this through programmes like:
i. Sports and games

ii. Arts and decoration
iii. Music
iv. Comedy and comics
v. Social event programmes
vi. Fashion and style
vii. Cartoons, jokes and fun-oriented features.
Media role in legal matters social justice
Mass media monitor the activities of the national assembly, state

assembly as well as courts of law and thereby give progressive reports
on the legal matter in Nigeria. Legal issues pose some problems to the
media because there are a lot of cautions which make the media
conscious of what to cover, what and how to report and what
programme to stage whenever the subject matter is a legal issue.
Oloyede believes that mass media crusade for social justice. When
people are unduly harassed, oppressed or their fundamental rights are
trampled upon, the media take it up through their incessant reporting and
advocacy.
Media roles in state security and reformation
Mass media foresee and warn against impending dangers. Unlike the
notion that accuses the mass media of having much interest in bad news
“bad news make good news”, mass media work towards preventing bad
news from happening. The media ensure that its messages towards
societal reformation are reinforced.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Roles played by the media within the society affect every aspect of
human life. And such roles harmonise the various organ of the state as
well as the ruled. The roles at the same time encourage all to stand on
23
their toes because the mass media make people accountable. Mass media
check excesses; correct abnormalities; advise the leaders and the led;
educate the youth and the aged; entertain men and women; harmonise
the interests of the weak and the strong; reinforce the voice of the
voiceless; and support development and transformation.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have been taken through the roles of the media in each
segment of human life. It should be noted that there is no aspect of
human life where media is not relevant. Media roles are felt in all facet
of human life.
As a student of this course, where do you think mass media roles are
relevant to you?
Brown, S. (2008). Crime and Law in Media Culture. New York: Bell &
Bain Ltd.
Makowsky, R. C. (2010). The Discovery of Society. New York:

McGraw-Hill.
Oloyede, B. (2008). Free Press and Society: Dismantling the culture of

Silence. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd.
Oyakhilomen, G. I. (2006). Nigerial Legal System I. Kaduna: National


24
MAC 411 MODULE 2
MODULE 2 NIGERIAN CONSTITUTION AND MEDIA

REGULATION
Unit 1 Origin and Status of Legal System in Nigeria

Unit 4 State Security and Mass Media
UNIT 1 ORIGIN AND STATUS OF LEGAL SYSTEM IN

NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of Legal System in Nigeria
3.1.1 History
3.1.2 Understanding the Scope of Legal System in
Nigeria
3.1.3 Component of Nigerian Legal System
3.2 External and Military Influence on Nigerian Legal System
3.3 Nigerian Legal Profession
3.4 Institutions of Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The multifaceted historical record of how Nigeria came to be and the

nature of its formation are the major factors responsible for the nature of
Nigerian legal system, which is of numerous sources. Diversity in
cultures and ethnic groups, the influence of colonialism, the long years
of military rule, the foreign influences, and many other factors
contribute to the historical record of legal system in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Analyse the nature of Nigerian legal system

• state the factors that shape the nature of Nigerian legal system
• describe the legal profession
• explain the institutions of law.
25
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nature of Legal System in Nigeria
3.1.1 History
Before Lugard’s amalgamation of Northern and Southern protectorate in

1914, there existed autonomous villages, towns and districts governed
by chiefs, village heads and kings. Some of the villages or towns that
related through origin and historical ancestor, trades, marriages,
religions and festivals, or even as a result of wars had similar laws for
the administrations of their domains.
With the coming of the whites’ colonisation and their efforts to establish
a central administration for the numerous ethnic groups, villages and
towns; the colonial leaders made laws that reflected the customs and the
administrative systems of all the major groups in various regions.
Though, most of the laws were made in England and were fashioned
after the English native laws, they reflected African traditions of the
groups. That is why today, Nigerian legal system still accommodates our
old traditions and custom.
Looking at this historical records and the influence of colonial master,

Asein (2005) believes that Nigerian legal system is of dual structures.
He writes that:
“Nigerian legal system has acquired a dual structure

comprising customary and English laws. Islamic law,
which has a wider application in the northern states of
the federation, though not indigenous to that part of the
country, is for all practical purposes treated as
customary law.”
There is no doubt that Islamic law and culture is alien to the country
particularly to the northern part of the country, where it is adopted as
indigenous culture. The Fulani jihadist used similar strategy or system of
administration that France used in their former African colonies known
as acculturation, a system in which French culture and traditions were
foisted on the colonies so much that it almost abrogated the original
culture and traditions of the colonies. The Fulani jihadists imposed
Islamic culture and traditions on the northerners after they had
conquered the Hausas, who are the aborigine of the area. For its
dominant, Islamic culture is assumed the culture of the people of
northern Nigeria and thereby, reflected in the Nigerian legal system.
26
MAC 411 MODULE 2
Do you agree that the colonial masters have hands in the Nigerian legal
system? Give reasons for your answer.
3.1.2 Understanding the Scope of Legal System in Nigeria
Legal system is the process of the administration of law through legal

institutions and machineries in an autonomous state. Legal system is
beyond law of a particular state; it encompasses the institutions that see
to the administration of law, legal professionals including everyone who
is involved or affected by the law, as well as the state. Oyakhilomen
(2006) gives the analysis of legal system and it could be summed up as
follows:
“A legal system has been described as the aggregate of

legislations and accepted legal principles and the body of
authoritative grounds of judicial and administrative actions; the
institutions, which are involved in the administration of justice;
the process or machinery for administration of justice; and the
persons in the law – judges, magistrates, legal practitioners,
Attorneys-General or Solicitors-General, The Nigeria Police
Force, Registrars of Court, Sheriff and Bailiff, The Nigeria
Prisons etc.”
With respect to Nigeria, Asein, (2005) defines legal system as the totality
of the laws or legal rules and the legal machinery which operate within
Nigeria as a sovereign and independent African country.
From the definitions above, it could be deduced that legal system is

beyond the law alone; it has many component some of which are
discussed below.
With reference to the definitions above, define Nigerian legal system in

your own words.
3.1.3 Component of Nigerian Legal System
From the definition of Oyakhilomen above, we can understand that the

components of Nigerian legal system are:
a. Law: the acceptable legal rules or principles such as:

i. Acts of parliament
ii. Decree
27
iii. By-law
iv. Constitution
b. Institutions of law:
i. Law courts
ii. Tribunals
iii. Prisons
iv. Police
v. The state
c. Process/machinery for administration of justice
i. Application of law
ii. Structure and setting of the courts
iii. Law procedure
d. Persons in the law
i. The appellant
ii. The defender
iii. Lawyers
iv. Judges
v. Court officials
vi. Attorneys-General etc.
How does each of the components listed above affect Nigerian legal
system?
3.2 External and Military Influence on Nigerian Legal

System
The external influences on Nigerian legal system could be understood

under the following headings:
a. Political influence
b. Economic influence
c. Social influence
d. Religious influence
Political influence
This includes the colonisation of the country by Britain. As a result of

colonisation, Asein (2005) writes that:
“Like many other African countries that were under

British rule, Nigeria is classified under the common
law system.”
28
MAC 411 MODULE 2
Besides, the administration of the North with Sharia law as a result of

holy war waged by Fulani jihadists from countries like Sudan, Mali and
Niger left much in the legal system of Nigeria.
Economic influence
There has never been a country that is economically independent of other

country. As a result, Nigeria, through economic relationship with some
other country, adapts from the legal system of such country to suit the
economic development of Nigeria. For example, Islamic banking system
was adapted from Malaysia as a solution to the economic system of
Nigeria that is falling apart.
Social influence
Through socialisation, development and relationship with other

countries, the legislative arm of Nigerian government has made and
amended various laws to suit global civilisation and technological
development. As a result of the social influences from other countries, a
bill was moved by a member of the parliament to legalise homosexuals.
Religious influence
It cannot be denied that the activities of the church still dominate the
Nigerian judicial system till today. The gowns and the wigs worn by the
legal professionals including the principal officers of the Nigerian
parliament are all adapted from the old principle of the church. Also,
laws pertaining to marriage are fashioned after the old traditions of the
church.
Military influence
Military Influence on Nigerian legal system has to do with long years of

military rules. During this period, the military rendered the constitution
and the statues useless and substituted them with decrees and edicts.
Asein writes:
“The impact of the incessant intervention of the

military in Nigeria’s political development has left an
indelible mark on its legal system. Successive military
regimes assume executive and legislative, but very
limited judicial functions.”
29
To what extent do you think military administration has affected legal

system in Nigeria?
3.3 Nigerian Legal Profession
There is a standard training institution for legal profession in Nigeria.

After the first degree in a university, prospective legal practitioners must
proceed to the Nigerian Law School to complete their legal programme.
It is after the completion of their programme in the school that the
trainees are call to bar and they are given the go-ahead to practice as both
solicitor and advocator in Nigeria.
Asein explains further that the Nigerian Law School admits trainees after
the completion of their programme to the bar as solicitors and advocates
of the Supreme Court of Nigeria, combining the duties of both callings.
According to him, this varies from what is in operation in England where
the two professions are separated and control by separate body. Despite
that Nigeria fashioned its legal system after England, there is deviation
in this aspect.
Do you support that the two professions (solicitor and advocates) be

separated and controlled by different bodies? Give reasons.
3.4 Institutions of Law
Various institutions are responsible for the administration and

maintenance of legal profession in Nigeria. Some of them are directly
concerned and are given certain obligations as established by the
constitution. Some others perform the functions of regulating the
professional bodies or legal councils. Some of the institutions are briefly
now discussed:
1. Law courts
Law courts are established by the Nigerian constitution to adjudicate in

cases brought before them. There are about four categories of law court
in Nigeria.
a. Court of higher jurisdictions: in this category falls the apex

court in Nigeria. The apex court is the Supreme Court. The
decisions of the Supreme Court are final and are binding on other
courts in Nigeria.
30
MAC 411 MODULE 2
b. Court of appellate jurisdictions: in this category are Courts of

Appeal. They are law courts that do not hear fresh cases other
than those coming from lower courts.
c. Courts of co-ordinate jurisdictions: these are courts of equal
power. The decision of one court is not binding on another of
equal jurisdictions but may be used to plead. Courts in this
categories are:
i. Federal High Court
ii. State High Court
d. Courts of lower jurisdiction: these are courts at the bottom in
the hierarchical ladder of the court system in Nigeria. They are
referred to as inferior court because they have limited
jurisdictions. Example of the courts are:
i. Customary courts
ii. Magistrate courts
iii. Area courts
iv. Sharia courts
v. District courts
2. Special courts
Special courts are established to cater for certain areas in which there
may not be adequate provisions for by the regular courts. Examples of
special courts are:
i. Juvenile Court
ii. National Industrial Court
iii. Court Martial
iv. Public Compliant Commission
3. Tribunal
Tribunals are set up to see to certain areas or cases that require urgent
attention. Asein (2005) adds that tribunals are an integral part of the
entire adjudicatory system created by status to complement the
traditional court system. The commonest tribunals in Nigeria are election
tribunals.
4. Panels and commissions

Panels and commissions are set up not to adjudicate but to investigate
issues and report the findings to the appropriate quarters for necessary
sanctions where necessary. Panels and commissions do advice or suggest
way to resolve the issues they investigate e.g. Uwais’s Panel.
Cases that relate to journalism such as contempt of court, contempt of

parliament, plagiarism, copyright, seditions, defamation, are not within
the jurisdiction of either lower courts or special courts.
31
To what extent do you think that military intervention has affected

Nigerian legal system?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Nigerian Legal System though fashioned after British legal system, it is

unique because it is structure to accommodate African custom and
traditions and at the same time it accommodates changes, development
and restructure.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the nature of Nigerian legal system forms the central idea.
The nature of Nigerian legal system was discussed base on the historical
records and the development of the legal system in Nigeria. The
military involvement and the implication of this on Nigerian legal
system was part of the discussion. Also, the structure of legal profession
in Nigeria was also analysed and the legal institutions added much to the
understanding of Nigeria legal system in this unit.
Criticise any of the definitions of Nigerian legal system in this unit and
give your own definition of the term.
Asein, J. O. (2005). Introduction to Nigerian Legal System. (2nd ed.).

Lagos: Ababa Press Ltd.
Mojaye, E. M. (2012). “The Press, Politics And Journalism.” Journal of

Communication And Media Research , 41.
Oyakhilomen, G. I. (2006). Nigerial Lega System I. Kaduna: National


Sambe, J. A. (2004). Mass Media Law And Ethics in Nigeria . Ibadan:

Caltop Publications Nigeria Ltd.
32
MAC 411 MODULE 2
UNIT 2 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON THE

NIGERIAN MEDIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Media Provision in the Constitution
3.2 Other Laws that Address Mass Media Operations in
Nigeria
3.3 Media and the Law: What Relationship?
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every profession has do’s and don’ts which guide the operation and
activities of such profession, so also the media practice. The
organisation, structure and mode of operations of media practice are
partly spelt out in the constitution of the country. There are other laws
and regulation that guide the ownership and operations of the media.
These laws and or regulations are made either by commission set up by
the government such as Nigerian Broadcasting Commission (NBC) or
professional bodies such as Newspaper Proprietors Association of
Nigeria (NPAN).
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify the sections of Nigerian constitution that make provision

for media practice in Nigeria
• list various acts and decree that were promulgated to affect the
operations of mass media in Nigeria
• evaluate the relationship between the media and the law.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 The Media Provision in the Constitution
Various sections of the Nigeria constitution (1999) make provision for

and protect the operation of the mass media in Nigeria. These include:
33
a. Section 39 sub-section one
It states that:
Every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression including

freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impact ideas and
information without interference.
This section is one of the outcomes of article 19 of the Universal

Declaration of Fundamental Human Right which states:
“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and

expression; this right includes freedom to hold
opinions without interference and to seek, receive and
impart information and ideas through any media and
regardless of frontiers.”
b. Section 36 sub-section two
It states that:
“Without prejudice to the generality of subsection (1) of

this section, every person shall be entitled to own,
establish and operate any medium for the dissemination of
information, ideas and opinions:
Provided that no person, other than the Government of the
Federation or of a State or any other person or body
authorised by the President on the fulfilment of conditions
laid down by an Act of the National Assembly, shall own,
establish or operate a television or wireless broadcasting
station for, any purpose whatsoever.”
c. Section 36 sub-section three
It states that:
“Nothing in this section shall invalidate any law that is
reasonably justifiable in a democratic society -
(a) for the purpose of preventing the disclosure of
information received in confidence, maintaining the
authority and independence of courts or regulating
telephony, wireless broadcasting, television or the
exhibition of cinematograph films; or
(b) Imposing restrictions upon persons holding office
under the Government of the Federation or of a
State, members of the armed forces of the
federation or members of the Nigeria Police Force
34
MAC 411 MODULE 2
or other government security services or agencies

established by law.”
There is a clear indication that these provisions in the Nigerian 1999

Constitution prepare ground for the establishment and operation of the
mass media in Nigeria. With this, there is no gainsaying that the
constitution makes provision for the mass media operation in Nigeria.
But in a research conducted by Stanley and Mojaye, it is established that
these provisions in the constitution are not explicit enough and thereby
places restriction on the activities of the press.
Do you think the provisions in the Nigerian constitution for mass media
operation in Nigeria is adequate? Discuss.
3.2 Other Laws that Address Mass Media Operations in

Nigeria
Other than the constitution, there are other enactments that control or
direct the affair of the mass media operations in Nigeria. They are:
a. Public Officers (Protection Against False Accusation) Decree

No. 4 of 1984
This decree was promulgated during Buhari’s administration. It
was meant specifically to curtail the obligations of the media to
inform the masses of the excesses of the military government. As
a result of this decree, many Nigerian journalists were arrested,
brutalised and jailed.
b. Newswatch Proscription and Prohibition from Circulation,
Decree No. 6 of 1987
Babangida’s administration promulgated this decree to punish a

magazine, Newswatch for publishing stories against his administration.
The then editor of the magazine was assassinated through a letter bomb.
c. Nigerian Press Council Decree No. 59 of 1988
The Decree states that the Council would research into contemporary
development and documentation. Section 17 of the Decree provides for
registration of journalists and a person may be registered as a journalist
if he has attended a course of training approved by the council.
35
d. National Broadcasting Commission Decree No. 28 of 1992
The Decree establishes National Broadcasting Commission with power

to license and to regulate radio and television broadcasting in Nigeria.
e. Newspaper Registration Decree No. 43 of 1993
This Decree provides for the establishment of a Newspaper Registration

Board (NRB) with the ministry of information. It posed a great threat to
press freedom in Nigeria.
f. Treason and Treasonable Offences Decree No. 29 of 1993
The Decree provides for a death sentence to be imposed upon any

person who utters any word, displays anything or publishes any
material, which is capable of breaking up the country.
g. The News Magazine (Proscription and Prohibition from

Circulation) Decree No. 48 of 1993
It forbade Concord, The Punch, Daily Sketch and Observer group of

newspapers from publication and circulation.
h. The Reporter (Proscription and Prohibition from

The decree banned some journalism from practicing the profession.
i. Offensive Publication (Proscription) Decree No. 35 of 1993
It is another decree that threatens media freedom. The decree was

promulgated to proscribe, seize, and confiscate any publication which is
likely to disrupt the process of democracy and peaceful transition to civil
rule having regard to its content hinder or prevent the progress of
grassroots democracy as established by the transition to civil rule
programme or disturb the peace and public order of Nigeria.
j. The Concord Newspaper and African Concord Weekly

Magazine (Proscription and Prohibition from Circulation)
k. The Punch Newspaper (Proscription and Prohibition from

36
MAC 411 MODULE 2
l. The Guardian Newspaper and African Guardian Weekly

Magazine (Proscription and Prohibition from Circulation)
m. State Security (Detention of Person) (Amendment) Decree

No. 14 of 1994
This decree empowers the military ruler to detain without trial.
Other decrees that took their source from the Obnoxious Newspaper
Ordinance of 1903 are:
i. Nigerian Newspapers Ordinance of 1903

ii. The Sedition Offensive Ordinance of 1909
iii. The Newspapers Ordinance Act of 1917
iv. The Obscene Publication Act of 1961
v. Official Secrets Act of 1962
vi. The Newspaper (Amendment) Act of 1964
vii. Newspapers Prohibition of Circulation Decree 1967
viii. The Circulation of Newspaper Decree No. 2 of 1970
ix. The Newspapers Public Official Reporting Act, 1976
x. Public Officers (Protection against False Accusation) Decree
1977
xi. Newspaper Prohibition Decree No. 12 of 1979
xii. The Daily Times Decree No. 101 of 1979
xiii. Public Officer's Protection Against False Publication Decree No.
4, 1985 (Now repealed)
xiv. Newspapers (Repeal) Decree No. 43 of 1993
xv. Nigerian Media Council (Repeal) Decree No. 59 of 1988
transferred assets of Nigerian Media Council to Nigerian Press
Council
xvi. Nigerian Press Council (Amendment) Decree No. 85 of 1992
xvii. Detention of Persons, Decree No 2 (as amended)
xviii. National Broadcasting Commission (Amendment) Decree No. 38
of 1992
xix. The Treasonable Offences Decree No 35 of 1993
Of what good are the acts and decrees enumerated above to the operation
of mass media in Nigeria?
3.3 Media and the Law: What Relationship?
Since the beginning of the practice of journalism in Nigeria, it has been

wars between the journalists/publishers and the government. The
question that comes to minds anytime the media and Nigerian
37
government are at the logger head is whether the Nigerian media

practitioners are performing roles other than the professional roles that
their counterpart in other countries perform.
From the colonial era, media practice in Nigeria has not been hitch-free.
The obnoxious laws of the colonial leaders, which hindered journalists
from performing their professional roles freely extended to the military
regimes and even its effects are felt during the civil rules.
During the colonial era and in the military regimes, the decrees or acts
were enacted as instruments to suspend, ban, fine, confiscate or close a
publication or to harass, molest, brutalise, jail or even put to death
journalists and the publishers or anybody that is involved in the
production of such publication.
Akinfeleye in Bojuwade (1991) observes the extensive control of the

colonial masters to include the press. He argues that the pervasive
control of Nigerian’s social, political and economic affairs by the British
colonial government which extended to the press affected adversely its
performance.
Why do you think government-media relationship is not cordial?
4.0 CONCLUSION
Journalism is so important a profession that it compels the world over to

deem it fit to make provision in the constitutions to defend its freedom.
It is not only the Nigerian constitution that makes provision for the
practice of journalism; it is established in the constitution of the
developed countries such as that of America from which Nigeria and
many other countries adapted theirs.
5.0 SUMMARY
This unit presents the constitutional provision for the practice of

journalism in Nigeria. It also examines other laws that affect the practice
of the profession. More was discussed on the effects of the decrees and
acts on the practitioners on one part and the profession on the other part.
Make justification for or against the promulgation of decrees and acts

that affect the media practice in Nigeria.
38
MAC 411 MODULE 2
Asein, J. O. (2005). Introduction to Nigerian Legal System (2nd ed.).

Mojaye, E. M. (2012). The Press, Politics And Journalism. Journal of

Communication And Media Research, 41 - 49.
Oyakhilomen, G. I. (2006). Nigerial Lega System I. Kaduna: National



39
UNIT 3 PRESS FREEDOM
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Understanding Freedom
3.1.1 Concept of Freedom
3.2 Evolution and Definition of Press Freedom
3.3 Press Freedom in Nigeria: How far, How well?
3.3.1 Who Threatens Press Freedom?
3.3.2 The Press and the Freedom
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One common song that gained public interest today is press freedom. In
Nigeria, there were series of debate on the passing and assent of the
Freedom of Information Bill (FIB). It has generated much noise that one
would be forced to ask if the freedom is different from what is provided
in the Section 39 (1) of Nigerian 1999 Constitution which states that:
“Every person shall be entitled to freedom of expression

including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impact
ideas and information without interference.”
How does the freedom affect the practice of the profession? Or, of what
effects is the freedom on the media profession? Answers to these
questions formed the bases of discussion in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define freedom
• trace the origin of press freedom in Nigeria
• explain the current situation of press freedom.
40
MAC 411 MODULE 2
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Understanding Freedom
To have a better understanding of press freedom, the concept of freedom

needs to be defined. We can agree that freedom means to be really free
and able to do exactly whatever you want, at the time you want, with
whomever you want and however you want.
Freedom is the basis for love to develop and the basis for health and the
basis of general well-being and happiness in one’s life.
Freedom is one of the most valuable free gifts from God. God gave
everyone freedom to do whatever he wants. To say that someone has
freedom, it means that the person is free from control of any kind.
The opposite of freedom is bondage. The old fashioned slavery, where a

person was property of another person is fading out. However, modern
slavery is setting in. Hundreds of millions of people on this planet feel
uncomfortable without knowing why. Often it is due to lack of absolute
freedom. Freedom to do whatever they want, whenever they want.
Politicians may be slaves of their political party, of their own ideas, of
their own beliefs and desires, of their own career or of their wish to be in
a reputable position and to be mighty.
What is your perception of freedom?
3.1.1 Concept of Freedom
When you have truly realised absolute freedom in your life, then you
certainly know exactly how it feels to be free and what freedom is. To
define the status of absolute divine freedom may be difficult. Freedom is
if any day, any second of each day’s time you can do exactly what you
want, what you decide, and you can be where you want to be. No one
can claim of absolute freedom today. The nature of human coexistence
has robbed mankind of 99% of the freedom giving to them by God. The
vast majority of the world's population at present has little or no freedom
at all, without being put in jail. Their mind, country, job or home is their
jails. Most of the world's population has put themselves into jail without
realising it.
41
Freedom of speech
Freedom of speech is the concept of being able to speak freely without

censorship. It is often regarded as an integral concept in modern liberal
democracies. The right to freedom of speech is guaranteed under
international law through numerous human rights instruments, notably
under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and
Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, although
implementation remains lacking in many countries. The synonym of
freedom of expression is sometimes preferred, since the right is not
confined to verbal speech but is understood to protect any act of seeking,
receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium
used.
In practice, the right to freedom of speech is not absolute in any country,

although the degree of freedom varies greatly. Industrialised countries
also have varying approaches to balance freedom with order. For
instance, the United States first amendment theoretically grants absolute
freedom, placing the burden upon the state to demonstrate when a
limitation of this freedom is necessary. In almost all liberal democracies,
it is generally recognised that restrictions should be the exception and
free expression the rule; nevertheless, compliance with this principle is
often lacking.
Is freedom of speech the same thing as press freedom? Discuss.
3.2 Evolution and Definitions of Press Freedom
Freedom of press is the guarantee by a government of free public press

for its citizens and their associations, extended to members of news
gathering organisations, and their published reporting. It also extends to
news gathering, and processes involved in obtaining information for
public distribution. Not all countries are protected by a bill of rights or
the constitutional provision pertaining to freedom of the press.
With respect to governmental information, a government distinguishes

which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public
based on classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret
and being otherwise protected from disclosure due to relevance of the
information to protecting the national interest.
In developed countries, freedom of the press implies that all people

should have the right to express themselves in writing or in any other
way of expression of personal opinion or creativity.
42
MAC 411 MODULE 2
Elizabeth's notion of the press as the fourth branch of government is

sometimes used to compare the press (or media) with three arms of
government, namely legislative, the executive and the judiciary.
Edmund Burke is quoted to have said: "Three estates in parliament; but
in the Reporters' Gallery yonder, there sat a fourth estate more important
far than they all."
On the ideological level, the first pioneers of freedom of the press were
the liberal thinkers of the 18th and 19th centuries. They developed their
ideas in opposition to the monarchist tradition in general and the divine
right of kings in particular. These liberal theorists argued that freedom
of press was a right claimed by the individual and grounded in natural
law. Thus, freedom of the press was an integral part of the individual
rights promoted by liberal ideology.
Freedom of the press was (and still is) assumed by many to be a

necessity to any democratic society. Other lines of thought later argued
in favor of freedom of the press without relying on the controversial
issue of natural law; for instance, freedom of expression began to be
regarded as an essential component of the social contract (the agreement
between a state and its people regarding the rights and duties that each
should have to the other).
Freedom of expression has always been emphasised as an essential basis

for the democratic functioning of a society. The reasons for this are: the
right of an individual to self-fulfillment, which right requires the
communication of thought; the importance of constantly attempting to
attain the truth, an attempt which is frustrated if information is
suppressed or comment blocked; the inherent democratic right to
participate in decision-making, which obviously implies the freedom to
obtain, communicate and discuss information; and the practical
importance of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy
cleavage and the necessary consensus. A further dimension to the
freedom of expression is added by the existence of mass society in
which communication among citizens can take place only through the
use of media like the press and broadcasting and not directly, except in a
limited way.
It is believed that a free and vigilant press is vital to restrain corruption

and injustice at least to the extent that public opinion can be roused as a
result of press investigations and comments. Recently a number of
injustices and wrongdoings have been uncovered as a result of the
initiative taken by newspapers. Whether it is the question of various
types of bonded labour in different parts of the country, the misuse of
powers or the existence of smuggling rackets for example on the West
Coast, newspapers have served a very useful purpose by exposing them.
43
The fear that the press will expose such wrongdoing is a major restraint
on potential wrongdoers.
Do you have an idea of what brings about the agitation for press
freedom in Nigeria?
3.3 Press Freedom in Nigeria: How Far, How Well?
Having accepted that the freedom of press is of vital importance for the
mass media and media practitioners to play their roles in safeguarding
public interest, it is pertinent to ask if the press enjoy the freedom in
Nigeria.
3.3.1 Who Threatens Press Freedom?
Threatening press freedom is to set limit, guidelines, or law, which the

press must follow in the practice of the profession. It has been frequently
alleged, especially in Nigeria, that the freedom of the press is not
achievable because of the ownership structure of newspaper industry
and broadcasting industry.
It is also suggested that the editors and journalists cannot have adequate
freedom of collecting and disseminating facts and offering comments as
they are under the pressure of the capitalist owners. From this, it could
be deduced that the under listed threaten press freedom:
i. The government through laws and control

ii. The publics: press freedom is limited by the interest of the
publics
iii. The advertisers
iv. Media owners
v. National security
It is further pointed out that free collection and dissemination of facts is

not possible in the case of newspapers, which depend to a large extent
on revenue from advertisements as the advertising interests cannot but
influence the presentation of news and comments. Unless this whole
structure of ownership and control in the newspaper industry, and also
the manner of the economic management of the press is changed, it is
therefore suggested, the press cannot be really free.
44
MAC 411 MODULE 2
3.3.2 The Press and the Freedom
It is true that the Freedom of Information Bill has been passed by the
Nigeria parliament and the journalists are rejoicing. But it has not made
any significant change in the usual ways the media perform their roles or
in the media outputs.
Press freedom is very crucial because it safeguards public interest. Free

press is an avenue through which the media monitor the policies and
activities of the government and thereby sensitise the public on the
implication of such policies to the masses. Through press freedom, the
media are able to hold government accountable to people.
Sambe (2004) writes:
“Freedom of the press is to be guarded as an

inalienable right of people in a free society. It carries
with it the freedom and the responsibility to discuss,
question, and challenge actions and utterances of our
government and of our public and private institutions.
Journalists uphold the right to speak unpopular
opinions and the privilege to agree with the majority.”
4.0 CONCLUSION
Every society appreciates the essence of the mass media. But press
freedom allows the media to be up and doing and to perform close to the
expectation of the public. No doubt that absolute press freedom does not
exist anywhere as this may result to anarchy but the media should be
free to a certain degree so as to uphold the public trust.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the focus was press freedom. The understanding of the
concept of “freedom” was discussed as the foundation to understand
press freedom. Press freedom was defined with explanation. Much was
also discussed about the evolution of press freedom. Lastly, the state of
press freedom in Nigeria was analysed.
Of what benefit is press freedom to Nigerians?
45
Asein, J. O. (2005). Introduction to Nigerian Legal System. (2nd ed.).


Communication And Media Research , 41.

46
MAC 411 MODULE 2
UNIT 4 STATE SECURITY AND THE MASS MEDIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Understanding State Security
3.1.1 Internal Security
3.1.2 External Security
3.2 Between State and National Security
3.3 Who Provides State Security?
3.4 The Media in Safeguarding the State Security
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
It is sadden that the pages of Nigerian dailies recently are bloody with
news about killings, bombings, armed robbery, inter-tribal wars,
religious chaos, curfew, suicides, accidents, lootings, bribery, boarder
dispute, and many others. All these are pointers to the state of security in
the country.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define state security

• identify the organ(s) that provide state security
• state the relationship between state security and national security
• explain the roles of the media in safeguarding state security.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Understanding State Security
Nigeria presently is in a state of insecurity because of the happenings

you have read above. It therefore implies that security secured state is
the one that is void of the menace of threat to life. Every Nigerian
especially in the northern part of the country is a working ghost because
of the fear of bomb or gun attack.
Security simply means freedom from danger, fear, anxiety or

uncertainty. Security is not limited to freedom from danger but it also
47
deals with economic well-being i.e. job security because ‘a hungry man
is an angry man’. Freedom to socialise is also part of state security i.e.
protection against social disorder, health hazards and other social
threats.
According to Imobigbe (2003), security is a condition of being protected

from, or not being exposed to danger. A secured state therefore is one
that is reasonably free from, or not expose to external aggression and
internal sabotage.
Security of a state can be categorised into two: internal and external.

Whether internal or external, what is important for a state is to ensure
that it embarks on policies that guarantee both.
3.1.1 Internal Security
Internal security is concerned with the protection of lives and property

of every citizen and even the foreigners living within the state against
internal crises and threats.
Imobigbe states further that the security of a state is affected at the

domestic level by the nature of its internal socio-political and economic
circumstances, the manner its affair are run by its political elites and by
the degree of commitment of its citizenry to national development and
welfare.
3.1.2 External Security
The nature of a state external security is concerned with its relationship

with the external environment. A state external affairs determine the
benefit, support, aids, or otherwise it gets from outside. It implies that a
state that has good relationship with others is likely to be secured than
the one that does not have good record with neighbours.
Imogbe added that:
At the external level, a state’s security is affected by

the nature of the geo-political circumstances
surrounding it, as well as by the nature of its foreign
policy and the manner it conducts its relations with
other countries.
How can Nigeria becomes more secured as a nation?
48
MAC 411 MODULE 2
3.2 Between State and National Security
The two terms are used interchangeably. National security does not
mean security of the people in power alone. Unlike what is the case in
the country, in which national security is defined by the number of
security officers guiding a politician or a political office holder. National
security is concerned with ensuring public safety, protecting public
interests and public and private property.
Can you make any difference between state security and national
security?
3.3 Who Provides State Security?
a. The state: The security of a state is vested in the hand of the

government of the state. The state must protect the people within
the state and the entire territory from any hazard whether
internally or externally. It must formulate policies that would be
of public interest and at the same time ensure justice and even
development as this would avail it the opportunity of carrying
every segment along. It must use the security agencies in its
custody such as The Nigerian Police, Nigerian Army, The
Nigerian Navy, The Nigerian Custom and others to ensure
peaceful coexistence within the state and to protect the state
against external aggression.
b. The citizenry: Every Nigerian also has roles to play in upholding
the security of the state. This could be ensured by love for the
state, respect for laws, and being loyal and having belief in the
state. Besides, the citizen must not expose his or her state to
hatred or harbour hatred of which would have negative
implication on the development of the country.
In what ways do you think Nigerians can support government

to ensure security of the country?
3.4 The Media in Safeguarding State Security
The roles of the media in protecting national security of a state cannot be

overemphasised. Through the slogan of the media profession that “The
pen is mightier than the sword,” it is understandable that the media has
the power to make peace and at the same time make wars or fuel crises.
49
That is why the media professionals are guided by the journalistic

principle to ensure that the state is secure through the following:
i. That the media would not publish or broadcast any information

that undermines public safety and public interest.
ii. That the media would not publish or broadcast any information
that would degrade or ridicule the culture and the traditions of the
people of the state.
iii. That the media would not publish or broadcast classified
information which may expose the state of security of the country
to the outsiders.
iv. That the media would not publish or broadcast untrue information
for financial gain or any other reason.
v. That the media would expose individuals, groups or organisations
that break law and order through their reports.
vi. That the media would support development within the state by
reporting developmental programmes.
Highlight the media roles towards upholding state security?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The security of a state is the first priority of the government, the citizens
and every stakeholder in the country. A secure state is already half-way
to development because such a state would have cordial relationship
with the neighboring countries and thereby enjoy mutual benefit with
them.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, the focus was on the media roles in ensuring the security of
the state. Mass media play key roles in this respect and some of the roles
form the major discussion in this unit.
If you have just been given license to establish and operate a radio
station in Nigeria, in what ways can you support the struggle for the
protection of the state security?
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MAC 411 MODULE 2
Imobigbe, T. A. (2003). Nigeria’s Defence and National Security

Linkages: A Framework of Analysis. Ibadan: Heinemann
Education Books Nigeria Plc.

Communication And Media Research, 41 - 49.

51
MODULE 3 MEDIA LAWS: REPUTATION AND

DIGNITY OF PERSONS
Unit 1 Defamation
Unit 2 Sedition and Blasphemy
Unit 3 Privacy
Unit 4 Obscene and Indecent/Harmful Publications
UNIT 1 DEFAMATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition and Explanation of Defamation
3.2 Forms of Defamation: Libel and Slander
3.3 Essentials (Proof) of Defamation
3.4 Defenses against Defamation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The essence of this unit is to provide an understanding on the meaning,

forms, proof and defenses against defamation and its remedies. It is also
intended that you will understand, after going through the unit, the
reasons why defamation should be avoided and how it can be evaded.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define and explain in detail the law of defamation

• explain the two major forms of defamation
• identify the essential elements of defamation (requirements for
proof of defamation)
• highlight the defenses against defamation
• enumerate the remedies for defamation.
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition and Explanation of Defamation
The media, while discharging its functions of informing, entertaining

and educating the public has, as an obligation to ensure that it does not
infringe on the rights of individuals by publishing words that are capable
of causing them harm, injury, hatred or rejection by right-thinking
members of the society.
The issue is therefore in two folds. According to Article 19, Global

Campaign for Free Expression (2000) “The society has to allow freedom
of expression and the free flow of information - including free and open
debate regarding matters of public interest, even when this involves
criticism of individuals- are of crucial importance in a democratic
society, for the personal development, dignity and fulfillment of every
individual, as well as for the progress and welfare of society, and the
enjoyment of other human rights and fundamental freedom.” The
media, on the other hand has to ensure that it is “Mindful of the
importance to individuals of their reputations and the need to provide
appropriate protection for reputation” (ibid,).
The freedom to publish news, which is enjoyed by the press derives

from Article 25 of the Nigerian constitution which accords the same
right to other individuals. The freedom is a qualified one and is subject
to any law which is reasonably justifiable for the purpose of protecting
the rights, reputation and freedom of other persons (Nylander, 1969).
According to Justice Dore in Swindler (1955), “Any written or printed

article published of and concerning a person without lawful justification
or excuse and tending to expose him to public contempt, scorn, obloquy,
ridicule, shame or disgrace, or intending to induce an evil opinion of
him in the mind of right thinking persons, or injure him in his
profession, occupation or trade is libelous and actionable, whatever the
intention of the writer may have been. The word need not necessarily
impute actual disgraceful conduct to the plaintiff; it is sufficient if
members of public rendered him contemptible and ridiculous”.
The constitution of Nigeria also clearly explains what defamation is.

Section 391 of the Nigerian Penal Code states that: “Whoever by words
either spoken or reproduced by mechanical means or intended to be read
or by signs or by visible representations makes or publishes any
imputation concerning any person intending to harm or knowing or
having reasons to believe that such imputations will harm the reputation
of such person, is said ... to defame that person.”
53
Articles 512–514 of the Nigerian Criminal Code are quite plain on this
issue: “Defamatory matter is matter likely to injure the reputation of any
person by exposing him to hatred, contempt or ridicule or likely to
damage any person in his profession or trade by an injury to his
reputation. Such matters may be expressed in spoken words or in any
audible sounds, or in words legibly marked on any substance whatever,
or by any sign or object signifying such matters otherwise than by
words, and may be expressed whether directly or by insinuation or
irony. It is immaterial whether at the time of the publication of the
defamatory matter; the person concerning whom such matter is
published is living or dead.”
3.2 Forms of Defamation: Libel and Slander
Actionable defamation may take the form of libel or slander. Any

publication of defamatory matter in a permanent form is libel at
common law. It is libel to publish printed or written words, a picture or
effigy which carries a defamatory meaning. Slander, on the other hand,
is a publication of defamatory matter by spoken words or in any
transitory form, whether audible or visible, and it may take the form of
significant sounds, looks, signs or gestures (Nylander, 1969).
According to Crone (2002:4), the distinction between libel and slander is

relevant only to the issue of damages. Damage is presumed in cases of
libel. In cases of slander the claimant has to prove certain loss, unless
the allegation falls within one of four exceptions where damage is
presumed:
1. An allegation that the claimant has committed a crime punishable

by imprisonment.
2. An allegation that the claimant is suffering from a contagious or
infectious disease.
3. An allegation that the claimant is an unchaste woman or is a
woman who has committed adultery.
4. An allegation that is likely to damage the claimant’s business or
profession.
On his part, Nylander (1969) believes “There is one important difference

between libel and slander. A libel is actionable per se, i.e. without the
necessity of proving special damage. With five exceptions, no action
will lie for slander unless the plaintiff proves that he has suffered special
damage. Special damage means actual and definite temporal loss- for
instance, loss of employment or the refusal of persons to enter into
contracts with the plaintiff as a result of the slander.”
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
Libel
Bowles and Borden (2004) note the following about libel:
“Libel is a false statement that exposes people to hatred, ridicule

or contempt, lowers them in the esteem of their colleagues,
causes them to be shunned or injures them in their business or
profession.”
Generally, libel falls into one of two classifications: (1) libel per se,
words that are defamatory on their face and thus presumed to damage
reputation; and (2) libel per quod, words that are not ordinarily
defamatory but become damaging by facts or circumstances extrinsic to
the story.
Examples of libel per se include words that falsely accuse someone of

committing a crime or having a loathsome disease. An example of libel
per quod would be the publication of an incorrect date for the granting
of a divorce so that it appeared that someone had remarried before the
divorce became final.
Types of libel
There are two major types of libel:
1. Criminal libel
2. Civil libel
The Free Legal Dictionary by Farlex sees criminal libel as “Any

intentional false communication, either written or spoken, that harms a
person's reputation; decreases the respect, regard, or confidence in
which a person is held; or induces disparaging, hostile, or disagreeable
opinions or feelings against a person. Defamation may be a criminal or
civil charge. It encompasses both written statements, known as libel and
spoken statements, called slander.”
Crone (2002) says “A criminal libel must be in permanent form. The

words must tend to vilify a person and to bring them into hatred,
contempt and ridicule…criminal libel differs from civil libel in a
number of respects. The accuracy or truth of a statement in criminal libel
will not necessarily protect its maker from punishment. ‘The greater the
truth the greater the libel’ is a phrase that is rooted in this branch of the
law. It has always been recognised that the truth is more often to arouse
fury than obvious falsehood. Unlike civil libel, those accused of criminal
libel must establish that the words were true and that they were punished
for the public benefit.”
55
Crone adds that “Despite the availability of the laws of defamation, a

person may think it advantageous to pursue his case for libel in the
criminal court instead of, or as well as, the civil courts. The penalties for
the maker of a serious libel are harsher for criminal libel than those
imposed in the civil courts. An embittered individual may get far more
satisfaction from the thought of sending a reporter, broadcaster or editor
to jail than from pursuing an action for damages.”
Slander
Slander occurs when an individual or group’s reputation is attacked

through spoken words or gesture, especially believed to be false and
malicious but presented as fact.
Kayne (2012) says, “Slander is the spoken or transitory form of

defamation of character, a legal term that refers to a falsehood presented
as true which could harm the reputation of a person or entity. Slander
also encompasses body gestures as in the case of sign language…In
short, slander is temporarily uttered or gesticulated…Slander is a tort, or
civil law, meaning a civil lawsuit can be brought against someone who
is accused of slander.”
For an individual to be successfully sued and found guilty of slander, the

plaintiff has to establish that the accused actually uttered those words,
that the words were overheard by a third party, that the words are false
and that those words identify the plaintiff, and they have a malicious
intent.
In Nigeria, slander actionable per se falls into five classes:
1. Statements imputing the commission of a criminal offence

punishable by imprisonment
2. statements imputing certain contagious or infectious diseases
3. statements imputing promiscuity to a woman or girl
4. statements imputing unfitness or incompetence or calculated to
disparage a person in any office, profession, trade or business
5. statements imputing that a person is an osu.
Distinguish clearly between slander and libel.
3.3 Essential Elements of Defamation
Articles 512–514 of the Nigerian Criminal Code, state that “Defamatory

matter is matter likely to injure the representation of any person by
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
exposing him to hatred, contempt or ridicule or likely to damage any

person in his profession or trade by an injury to his reputation. Such
matters may be expressed in spoken words or in any audible sounds, or
in words legibly marked on any substance whatever, or by any sign or
object signifying such matters otherwise than by words, and may be
expressed whether directly or by insinuation or irony…”.
Defamation can be either of libel or slander. When defamatory words

are printed or legibly marked on any substance or audible words are
recorded in a retrievable format, then it is libel. On the other hand, when
spoken words, signs and gestures, with malicious intent and/or false
claims about a person or entity’s character are overheard or seen by a
third party is slander.
Nylander (1969) writes that “the following elements are common both
to libel and slander and must be proved by a plaintiff in order to succeed
in an action of defamation:
1. The statement must be defamatory

2. It must refer to the plaintiff
3. It must be published maliciously.
For a statement to be regarded as defamatory, the words must clearly

depict the plaintiff in a way that will generate or arouse hatred, scorn,
ridicule, contempt and cause him harm in his profession and
relationships and lower him in the estimation of right-thinking members
of the society.
If the words do not clearly and overtly depict defamation, then the
plaintiff will have to prove that beyond the overt meaning, the words or
the way it has been used has injured his prestige and image in the
opinions of the public and it is thus defamatory. To do this, the plaintiff
has to allege innuendo.
A plaintiff pleads innuendo, according to Nylander (1969) by “…giving

the meaning which he attributes to the words and proving the existence
of facts and circumstances which would convey such a meaning to the
person to whom the words were published.”
Nylander (1969) says “An innuendo may be true or false. A true

innuendo is one which derives support from extrinsic facts, but a false
one is only implied from the words themselves.”
On reference to the plaintiff, it has to be clearly proved beyond doubt

that it is the plaintiff that is identified in the story or statement with the
defamatory words. If the name of the plaintiff is used, then it would be
57
easy. But if more than one person bears the name, the plaintiff will have
to plead innuendo to establish the fact that the words were actually
referring to him.
On the other hand, if no name were used, the plaintiff may establish that
the personality painted, the symbols and signs, position, character and
other elements in the statement are enough to lead reasonable people to
conclude that they refer to him.
Publication is one of the most important, if not the most important

element of defamation that is required to be established. Before an
individual can win a case of defamation, he has to establish that the
words were published to a third party. It can be through a print medium,
a broadcast medium or in the case of slander, word of mouth.
To prove that a statement is defamatory, in the case of libel, Bowles and

Borden (2004) say “ A person who sues for libel must prove the
following:
• the statement was published

• the plaintiff was identified in the statement
• the statement was defamatory
• the statement caused injury
• the publisher was at fault in publishing the statement.”
1. Publication
Publication is usually obvious in cases involving the mass media.

Strictly speaking, publication has occurred when at least one person
other than the defamed person has received the material. In media cases,
courts have usually, but not always, held that publication has not
occurred until the material reaches its intended audience. In other words,
media personnel can discuss a potentially libelous item during the
production process without fear of a successful libel lawsuit. However,
in 1980 an Illinois jury found the Alton Telegraph liable for material
that was never published. Publication resulted, the jury decided, during
the newsgathering stage. In an attempt to verify accusations of
wrongdoing by a local building contractor, reporters wrote a memo
about the wrongdoing to a government official.
2. Identification
Identification may be established even though the plaintiff is not named

in the story, if people reasonably understand that the statement refers to
the plaintiff. An address or title might be sufficient for people to identify
the plaintiff.
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
Individuals cannot sue successfully just because they are members of a

large group that has been defamed. For example, the statement “all
lawyers are crooks” would not be sufficient identification for an
individual lawyer to bring a lawsuit. But an attorney might be able to
prove individual identification or harm by the statement “All lawyers at
the XYZ Law Firm are crooks.” No exact number exists for deciding
how small a group must be before any single member can claim to have
been libeled. A “rule of 25” grew out of a libel case in the 1950s, but
subsequent court decisions allowed members of groups larger than 25 to
sue when individuals were closely identified with the group.
Although published statements may identify and damage the memory of

a deceased person, the dead cannot sue, and relatives may not sue on
their behalf.
3. Defamation
Defamation is another part of the plaintiff’s burden of proof. The

plaintiff must persuade the court that the offending statement carried a
“sting”, meaning that it harmed the plaintiff’s reputation. Evidence
about a plaintiff’s reputation before and after publication is admissible.
In a few instances, courts have decided that plaintiffs were “libel proof”
because their reputations were already tarnished beyond the possibility
of further damage.
In most cases involving the mass media, the plaintiff must also prove
that the offending statement was false. True statements that harm
people’s reputation are not actionable as libel, although they may be
actionable as an invasion of privacy. Thus, the accurate claim that
someone has been arrested and charged with murder is not actionable,
even though the person may subsequently be acquitted of the charge.
Minor inaccuracies will not defeat the defense of truth so long as the
part of the statement that carries the sting is true. For example, a libel
case would not be decided on inaccurately reporting the place of arrest
of the murder suspect so long as the suspect was accurately identified
and the charge accurately reported.
What factors must be present to establish defamation?
3.4 Defenses against Defamation
There are numerous defense options to the mass media and individuals
against defamation. The following are identified in Nylander (1969):
59
• justification
• fair comment
• privilege
• unintentional defamation
• apology and payment into court
• accord and satisfaction: release
• res judicata
• statutes of limitation
• volenti non fit injuria
Justification
Crone (2002) writes that “Justification protects the freedom to tell the
truth. In order to raise the defense of justification successfully, the
defendant must prove that the defamatory statement is true in both
substance and fact, or is substantially true. In cases where writers or
broadcasters are sued over factual pieces, justification will often be the
only plausible defense. In principle, this should not be something that
causes concern, as truth and accuracy are supposed to be bywords for
the professions of journalism and broadcasting. In practice, success in
raising the defense of justification is measured not by whether the piece
is true but whether the defendant can prove that the piece is true.
Because the law presumes that the defamatory statement is false, the
defendant has the onerous task of overcoming this presumption by
proving that the statement is true.”
That is why Nylander (1969) says that “If the defendant can prove that
the statement is true, he has a complete defense to the action even if he
made the statement maliciously; ‘For the law will not permit a man to
recover damages in respect of an injury to a character which he does not
or ought not to possess.’ The onus of proving a plea of justification lies
on the defendant. In its formal form, the plea is stated as follows: ‘The
words complained of are true in substance and in fact’…If the statement
contains an innuendo, the defendant must justify not only the primary
meaning of the words, but also the innuendo.”
That is why, according to Bowles and Borden (2004), “True statements

that harm someone’s reputation are not actionable as libel, although they
may be actionable as invasion of privacy.”
Aggravation
One of the major concerns a defendant frequently has to face when

pleading justification is that the plea itself exacerbates the damages. A
claimant is perfectly entitled to argue that the defendant not only
published defamatory material and refused to apologise, but also
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
persisted in the damaging and libelous allegations right up to the

moment the jury delivered its verdict. In the event that the jury does not
accept the plea of justification, the very fact that the defendant chose to
enter such a defense can operate as an aggravation of the original libel
and become a reason to award a greater amount in damages than would
otherwise be called for Crone (2002).
An unsuccessful attempt to justify a defamatory statement will aggravate

damages. There seems to be no authority, however, that an award may
be increased merely because a defendant, acting without malice and
fully believing in his plea, has failed to justify the statement Nylander
(1969).
Fair comment
According to Bowles and Borden (2004), “Fair comment protects

opinion about public interest or things that have been put on public
display. The doctrine of fair comment allows reviewers, for example, to
publish scathing reviews of plays, movies, books, restaurants and the
like. Copy editors should ensure either that opinion in a story is based on
generally known facts or that the factual basis for such opinion is stated
in the story…Copy Editors must eliminate opinion that relies for its
support on the existence of undisclosed information unless the editor
knows that such information is accurate.”
Fair comment allows a person to publish a statement of opinion or

comment on a matter of public interest provided it is done without
malice. It protects the freedom to voice an honest opinion Crone (2002).
Nylander (1969) notes that “It is a defense to an action of defamation

that the words complained of are fair comment made in good faith and
without malice on a matter of public interest and, if sued for defamation,
may plead the defense of fair comment or its alternative, usually called
the ‘rolled-up plea’. The requisites of the plea of fair comment are:
1. The matter commented on must be of public interest

2. It must be an expression of opinion and not an assertion of fact
3. The comment must be fair, i.e. it must be based on facts
accurately stated
4. The comment must not be malicious.
Malice will destroy a plea of fair comment Nylander (ibid).

The ‘rolled-up’ plea is a plea of fair comment and not one of
justification Odutola [1960].
61
Privilege
There are certain occasions when the law recognises that there ought not
to be liability for defamation in the interest of public policy or of the
community. Such occasions are deemed by the law to be privileged
Nylander (1969).
Privilege can be either absolute or qualified.
Absolute privilege
Absolute privilege “is the strongest defense available to the libel

defendants. Where it is applicable it will succeed, no matter how false
and defamatory the statement and no matter how malicious the writer or
broadcaster Crone (2002).
The occasions of absolute privilege, according to Nylander (1969) are

classified as follows:
1. Judicial privilege, e.g. statements made in proceedings before

superior and inferior courts are absolutely privileged, provided it
has some reference to the inquiry in hand. The privilege extends
to other tribunals recognised by law, provided that they are
exercising judicial functions.
2. Legal professional privilege protects absolutely any
communication a client and his legal advisers.
3. Official privilege will include communications made by one
officer of state to another in the course of his official duty, and
military reports.
4. Parliamentary privilege will protect statements made in the
House of Representatives, House of Assembly and reports,
papers, votes and proceedings ordered to be published by them.
5. Statutory privilege. The Defamation Act, 1961 and similar state
enactments provide that a fair and accurate report in any
newspaper of proceedings publicly heard before any court
exercising judicial authority within Nigeria is, if published
contemporaneously with such proceedings, privileged; but this
does not authorise the publication of any blasphemous or
indecent matter. The protection given to newspapers by this
section is extended to broadcast reports from a broadcasting
station within Nigeria.
Qualified privilege
Nylander (1969) says “Qualified privilege, on the other hand, may only
be pleaded if the publication was made honestly with respect to what is
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
stated and the means by which it is stated. Here lies the distinction
between absolute and qualified privilege. Malice defeats a defense of
qualified privilege, but it is irrelevant in cases of absolute privilege.
Actual malice does not necessarily mean personal spite or ill-will and it
may exist even though there is no spite or desire for vengeance in the
ordinary sense. Any indirect motive other than a sense of duty is what
the law calls malice. Malice means making use of the occasion for some
indirect purpose.”
Instances of qualified privilege include:
1. Statements made in the performance of a duty, legal, moral or

social.
2. Statements made in the protection or furtherance of an interest,
private or public.
A person whose character has been attacked by the press is
entitled to reply in his own defense in the press; and if, on
answering such attack, he makes relevant defamatory statement
about the person who attacked him, it will be privileged provided
it is made bona fide.
3. Statements made in the protection of a common interest, e.g. in
family matters, a bishop’s charge to his congregation.
4. Reports in a newspaper or broadcast Nylander (ibid).
Unintentional defamation
Nylander (1969:30) notes that:
“The Defamation Act (1961) has introduced a completely new

form of defense, which subject to certain conditions will
constitute a complete answer to proceedings for defamation in
cases of unintentional defamation. This defense is only applicable
if the words were published innocently and there has been an
offer of amends as stipulated in the section.
Words are deemed to have been published innocently if the publisher

proves:
1. That he did not intend to publish them of and concerning the

complainant, and did not know of circumstances by virtue of
which they might be understood to refer to him; or
that the words were not defamatory on the face of them, and he did not
know of circumstances by virtue of which they might be
understood to be defamatory of the complainant.
2. In either event, that he exercised all reasonable care in relation to
the publication.”
63
A defendant who is pleading unintentional defamation is by law

expected to publish a correction or retraction of the defamatory content
and an apology to the aggrieved party. The law equally expects him to
notify recipients of the defamatory matter through all reasonable and
practicable means to inform them that the words are alleged to be
defamatory of the aggrieved party.
Accord and satisfaction: release
Okoye (2008) explains that accord and satisfaction means a situation

“…where there is a mutual settlement between the two parties to the
satisfaction of both of them.”
It must be noted, however, that a release under seal, by way of accord

and satisfaction in respect of one joint tort-feasor, discharges the others
because the action is one and indivisible. Thus, in an action against the
author, printer and publisher of a libel, a release of any one of them will
amount to a release of all the others Nylander (1969).
Res Judicata
The import of the principle of Res Judicata implies that if a plaintiff

files a case of defamation against a defendant and the case is tried,
regardless of its outcome, it is presumed that the case is concluded and
the plaintiff cannot therefore file a fresh case, based on the same
defamatory words, against the same defendant.
Nylander (1969) says that “It must be noted, however, that each
separate publication of defamatory words give rise to a separate cause of
action. A plaintiff might well bring an action against the writer of a
defamatory letter to the press under the heading ‘Letters to the Editor’
and later bring another action in respect of the publication in the
columns of the newspaper against the writer and the editor. Selling back
numbers of a newspapers or periodical, which has either already been
the subject of libel proceedings or is known to contain libel proceedings
which has gone unnoticed, will constitute a fresh publication on which
an action can be founded.”
Statutes of limitation
The law sets aside a period (from the date of publication of a defamatory
matter) after the expiration of which a plaintiff cannot sue for damages.
An action for defamation must be brought within six years after the
publication of the words complained of. The Limitation Decree, 1966,
which applies to the former Federal Territory only, provides, however,
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
that an action claiming damages for slander cannot be brought after the
expiration of three years from the date on which the cause of action
accrued. For the purpose of limitation of actions, time does not
commence to run against a plaintiff under disability. But once the
disability ceases, time begins to run Nylander (ibid)
Volenti non fit injuria
Also known as leave and license and consent to publication, Volenti non
fit injuria means that a plaintiff will not be entitled to sue for defamation
if he had previously expressly consented or implied consent to the
publication of the matter he regards as defamatory.
Crone (2002) is of the opinion that “As one would logically expect, if a
person consents to the publication of certain statements he is not then
entitled to sue for libel because of the publication. The evidence of
consent must be clear and unequivocal. Whatever authorisation the
claimant is said to have given should be seen to refer to the publication
of the defamatory matter.”
Nylander (1969) cites an interesting case; “Chapman v.Ellesmere, the

plaintiff, a trainer, complained about the publication of certain
statements about him in the Racing Calender. Lord Justice Slesser, in
the Court of Appeal, pointed out that the doctrine of Volenti non fit
injuria applied to this publication as the trainer had undertaken to
submit to the rules and regulations of the Jockey Club which was
entitled to publish their decisions in the Racing Calender.”
What defenses can a defendant present to bail himself out of a charge of

defamation?
3.5 Remedies for Defamation
Okoye (2008) writes that “If a case of defamation has been established
and accepted by the court, then the plaintiff is entitled to one or a
combination of the following remedies:
(a) Damages
(b) Injunction, which may be interim, interlocutory or perpetual
(c) Publication of retraction or correction
(d) Publication of apology and offer of amends.”
65
Damages
In law, damage is an award or a grant that a judge or the court orders to

be paid (usually in money) to a plaintiff after a loss or injury to him after
the defendant(s)’ action has been established.
Types of damages
Crone notes that:
“Damages for defamation can fall under three possible headings:
1. Compensatory damages
2. Aggravated damages
3. Exemplary damages.
The first two are broadly concerned with compensation, and the third is
aimed at punishing the defendant.
Compensatory damages
Compensatory damages aim to put the claimant back in position he

would have been had the defamatory material never published. Under
this heading the claimant is entitled to recover the monetary equivalent
of everything he had lost and suffered as a result of the defamation.
There are two components to the compensatory award. Special damages

amount to a sum equal to the actual financial or material loss suffered by
the claimant. Damages for distress and injury to reputation are an
intangible loss, and are more difficult to calculate. The jury must assess
the effect of the defamation on the claimant’s feelings.
Aggravated damages
Aggravated damages are awarded where the behaviour of the defendant

has somehow added to the hurt and injury to the claimant that resulted
from the mere publication of the defamatory words. Various factors may
give rise to an award under this category of damages. Anything that
looks like a campaign of vilification, even if many of the derogatory
things said about the claimant are true, might qualify, as would
repetition of the defamation after the original complaint is made. Failing
to publish the claimant’s denial or explanation, or making no attempt to
check the defamatory allegations with him, could also be said to
aggravate the injury. Similarly, failing to apologise and persisting in a
plea of justification are normally put forward with some success as
arguments for awarding aggravated damages.
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
Exemplary damages
In certain circumstances, the jury in a libel action may decide that the
defendant should be liable not only to compensate the claimant for the
wrong committed but should also suffer punishment for the way he has
behaved. The appropriate course in such cases is to make an award of
exemplary damages. They are a purely punitive measure that will only
apply where the jury are satisfied that the defendant showed a cynical
disregard for the feelings of the claimant by knowingly publishing the
defamatory statement in the hope of profiting from it.
In John v Mirror Group Newspapers (1997), Elton John was awarded

exemplary damages because the Mirror deliberately published for profit
a defamatory statement about him.
Explain the remedies for defamation?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The law of defamation exists not just to check the press, but also to
protect the rights of individuals in the society. The media must ensure
that they do not impinge on the rights of individuals and organisations in
their role as watchdogs of the society.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we examined defamation, its definition, essential elements,

defenses, and remedies.
We distinguished libel from slander, noting that slander occurs when an

individual or group’s reputation is attacked through spoken words or
gesture, especially believed to be false and malicious and libel as a false
statement that exposes people to hatred, ridicule or contempt.
The essential elements of defamation, amongst others are publication,

identification, and defamation. Defenses against libel include
justification, fair comment, privilege, unintentional defamation, accord
and satisfaction: release and many others.
Finally, we identified remedies for defamation, which include damages,

publication of apology, and offer of amends.
67
What methods can be adopted by a media house to ensure it avoids

lawsuits and charges of defamation?
Article 19 Global Campaign for Free Expression (2000). Defining

Defamation- Principles on Freedom of Expression and
Protection of Reputation, London. Retrieved from
http://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/standards/definingdefam
ation.pdf on February 2, 2012.
Bowles, D. A. & Borden, D. L. (2004). Creative Editing. (4th ed.).

Belmont, USA: Wadsworth/Thomson.
Criminal Libel. The Free Legal Dictionary by Farlex. Retrieved from

http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Criminal+libel on
February 3, 2012.
Crone, T. (2002). Law and the Media (4th ed.). Oxford, Great Britain:
Focal Press.
Fakayode, E. M. (1977) The Criminal Code Companion. Nigeria:

Ethiope Publishing.
Kayne, R. (2012) What is Slander? WiseGeek: Clear answers for

Common Questions. Retrieved from
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-slander.htm on February 10,.
Nylander, A. V. J., (1969) “Defamation and the Press.” In: T. O. Elias

Nigerian Press Law. Lagos: University of Lagos and Evans
Brothers Limited.
Okoye, I. (2008). Media Law and Ethics, Lagos: National Open

Swindler, W. F. (1955). Problems of Law in Journalism. Westport,

Conn.: Greenwood Press.
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
UNIT 2 SEDITIOUS PUBLICATIONS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of the Offence of Sedition
3.2 Essential Elements of Sedition
3.2.1 Consent to Prosecute/Limitation Period
3.3 Defense against Sedition
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Every legal society wishes to protect the freedom of expression while

ensuring that it is not abused or used to generate disorder or chaos in the
society. This unit therefore seeks to make you understand the nature of
the offence of sedition, the contents of a publication that would be
deemed as seditious, the proof and defense against a case of sedition.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define sedition
• list essential elements of sedition
• highlight defenses against sedition.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nature of the Offence of Sedition
Whenever an individual or the press publishes (in whatever form)

words, or undertake actions that bring into hatred, ridicule or contempt
the government in power, or incite, excite or provoke the citizens to rise
against or seek to remove the government in power, it can be sued for or
alleged to have committed an act of sedition.
The law of sedition “is intended for the protection of the government in
power and to keep down opposition to its policies within reasonable safe
limits. According to this view, the truth of the matters alleged to
constitute the libel would not be allowed as a defense. This is because,
69
since a breach of the peace is of the essence of the offence and

provocation, not falsity, is the thing to be punished criminally, the
greater the truth, the greater the provocation resulting from the libel”
[Karibi-Whyte ,1969].
Karibi-Whyte in the Irish case of Reg. v. Sullivan, Frtzgerald, J., says

“Sedition is a crime against society, nearly allied to that of treason, and
it frequently precedes treason by a short interval. Sedition in itself is a
comprehensive term and it embraces all practices, whether by word,
deed or writing, which are calculated to disturb the tranquility of the
state, and lead against persons to endeavour to subvert the government
and the laws of the empire. The objects of sedition generally are to
induce discontent and insurrection and stir up opposition to the
government, and bring the administration of justice into contempt; and
the very tendency of sedition is to incite the people to insurrection and
rebellion. Sedition has been described as disloyalty in action, and the
law considers as seditious all the practices which have for their object to
excite discontent or disaffection, to create public disturbances, or to lead
to civil war; to bring into hatred or contempt the sovereign or the
government, the laws or constitution of the realm, and generally all
endeavours to promote public disorder.”
It is imperative that we examine the provisions of the Nigerian law on

the offence of sedition. Section 50 of the Nigerian Criminal Code
defines seditious words as words having a seditious intention, and
seditious publication as publications having a seditious intention.
Section 50(2) states that a “Seditious intention is an intention:
(a) to bring into hatred or contempt or excite disaffection against the

person of the Head of the Federal Military Government or the
military Governor of a state or the Government of the Federation
or any State of Nigeria as by law established or against the
administration of justice in Nigeria; or
(b) to excite the citizens or other inhabitants of Nigeria to attempt to
procure the alteration, otherwise than by lawful means, of any
other matter in Nigeria as by law established; or
(c) to raise discontent or disaffection amongst the citizens or other
inhabitants of Nigeria; or
(d) to promote feelings of ill-will and hostility between different
classes of the population of Nigeria.”
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
Section 51 of the Criminal Code states that:
(1) “Any person who:

(a) Does or attempts to do or makes any preparation to do, or
conspires with any person to do any act with a seditious
intention,
(b) Utters any seditious words,
(c) Prints, publishes, sells, offers for sale, distributes or
reproduces any seditious publication,
(d) Imports any seditious publication, unless he has no reason
to believe that it is seditious, shall be guilty of an offence
and liable on conviction for a first offence to
imprisonment for two years or to a fine of N200 or to both
such imprisonment and fine and for a subsequent offence
to imprisonment for three years; and any seditious
publication shall be forfeited.
(2) Any person who without lawful excuse has in his possession any
seditious publication shall be guilty of an offence and liable on
conviction, for a first offence to imprisonment for two years and
such publication shall be forfeited.”
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) opine that “The law of sedition is perhaps
the most important abridgement of freedom of expression under the
constitution. It defines and delimits the scope of criticism of
government, its agencies and officials. The role of the courts through the
years has been to hold the balance between fair criticism, no matter how
vicious, and criticism designed to cause public disorder or disaffection
against the government of the day. The court’s role in this regard is
particularly important when it is realized that the law of sedition
constitutes a lethal weapon in the hands of government officials and
agencies who, out of fear of having their weaknesses, corruption or
ineptitude uncovered, interpret every criticism as directed at bringing
down the government by public protest. Happily, the courts have been
remarkably bold in stressing that with public office comes accountability
and that those who demand accountability from public officers, are not
required by law to do so politely.”
This view aptly explains why Osinbajo and Fogam start their chapter on
sedition with the legal comment in Nwankwo v. State (1985) which
states that “Criticism is indispensable in a free society. In view of the
freedom of speech and of the press, those who occupy sensitive posts
must be prepared to face criticism in respect of their office so as to
ensure that they are accountable to the people. They should not be made
to feel that they live in an ivory tower and therefore belong to a different
class. They must develop thick skins and where possible, plug their ears
with wool if they feel too sensitive or irascible.”
71
The import of these views is that ensuring order and stability in any state
is sacrosanct but so also is protecting the freedom of expression and the
right of individuals and the press to hold opinions, impart and receive
ideas and information without interference in a free society.
Seditious libel
The Free Legal Dictionary by Farlex says seditious libel is “Written or

spoken words, pictures, signs, or other forms of communication that
tend to defame, discredit, criticise, impugn, embarrass, challenge, or
question the government, its policies, or its officials; speech that
advocates the overthrow of the government by force or violence or that
incites people to change the government by unlawful means.”
What is the essence of the law of sedition?
3.2 Essential Elements of Sedition
Karibi-Whyte (1969) notes that “In order that a publication may be

seditious within the definition of the criminal law, it must satisfy the
following conditions:
1 It must be published.
2 It must express a seditious intention as previously defined.
3 It must not fall within any of the defenses already enumerated.
Publication
‘Publication’ has been defined by section 50 (1) of the criminal Code to

include “All written or printed matter and everything, whether of a
nature similar to written or printed matter or not, containing any visible
representation, or by its form, shape or in any manner capable of
suggesting words or ideas, and every copy and reproduction of any
publication.” This is a very wide concept covering all aspects of
publication which can be communicated to the public by sight. The
category is limited to visual representation, thus excluding publication
by wireless or radio. The definition would seem to include seditious
publications in the form of cartoon drawings and probably sky-writing
(Karibi-Whyte).
Seditious intention
To establish sedition, it must be proved that the words were published

with seditious intention. The establishment of seditious intention is
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paramount to the judgment on a case of sedition. A definition of

seditious intention is provided by section 50(2) as earlier discussed.
According to Karibi-Whyte (1969), “…any statement which has as its

object the incitement of hatred or contempt against the government as by
law established, or any of its principal arms, or an incitement of the
subjects to procure an alteration of the government otherwise than by
lawful means, or an intention to promote ill-feelings between different
classes of the population, is regarded as seditious.”
It is clear that the most important requirement of the offence should be

an intention on the part of the accused person to create public disorder or
a reasonable anticipation of it. Thus, where the words complained of, are
such as to satisfy reasonable men that there was the intention to produce
public disorder; then the offence has been committed.
Sometimes, the publication of a seditious material may lead to violence

in the society; this will only prove that there is general discontent and
dissatisfaction among the people and/or that the publication has led to
this occurrence. However, that is not to say that violence must follow
the publication of a seditious material before it will be deemed seditious.
It is enough for the publication to bring the government to hatred and
ridicule, regardless of whether it led to violence or not.
To prove that a publication has seditious intent, all or some of following

methods can be used:
1. The actual words published can be used to prove that the

publication was seditious. A good example of this is the case of
African Press Limited v. The Queen [(1952) as cited in Karibi-
Whyte (1969). The words used in the statement alleged to be
seditious were accurate as proof. It says in part thus:
‘…they are at the same time the most potent and most cleverly
disguised enemies of your struggle for freedom. They are, with a
few exceptions, incompetent, narrow-minded, arrogant and
contemptuous. In spite of demonstrations to the contrary, they
continue to imagine that you are not fit even for the bogus
constitution that is now offered you. They are looking forward
rather feverishly to your failures in the future and they are ready,
not only to exploit such failures to perpetuate their petty
dictatorship, but also to contribute them by subtly devices. At the
moment, as far as it lies in their power, they are working like
moles in the dark to subvert the possibility of the nationalists
among you getting into power. As they do these cowardly acts in
73
secret, they pretend openly to be your friend; that is why they are
most dangerous. And that is why I am warning you against them.’
2. The manner of publication may also suggest a seditious intention.

A very good case in point is that of Ogidi v. Commissioner of
Police [(1960). In this case, a telegram was sent to the Minister of
Justice, Ibadan, and copies were also sent to the press and the
radio for publication complaining against the acts of the
customary court judges in Warri Division. Karibi-Whyte (ibid)
quotes the judge, Brett J. as saying that ‘we might have taken a
different view of the publication which is now in question if it
had been communicated only to the Minister.’
3. Other important and necessary/required factors like the purpose

of publication, its time, and medium, the nature of the audience
and its effect on them and a host of others. Again, Karibi-Whyte
in R v. Aldred (1909) said:
“In arriving at a decision of this text you are entitled to look at all
the circumstances surrounding the publication with the view of
seeing whether the language used is calculated to produce the
result imputed…You are entitled also to take into account the
state of public feeling. Of course, there are times when a spark
will explode a powder magazine; the effect of language may be
very different at one time from what it will be at another.”
3.2.1 Consent to Prosecute/Limitation Period
Before a criminal case of sedition can be instituted against an individual

or a body, the Attorney- General of the federation or of the state
concerned has to sign a written consent granting permission for the
prosecution to be initiated. This is according to the provisions of Section
52 (1) and (2) of the Criminal Code.
This is due to the serious nature of the offence and its implication on the
peace and stability of the country.
However, Karibi-Whyte (1969) states that “since 1963, with the

introduction of the Republican Constitution and the delegation of
powers of institution of criminal prosecution to the Director of Public
Prosecutions, the written consent of the Director of Public Prosecutions
alone would be valid for the purposes of section 52. In Attorney-
General, Western Nigeria v. African Press and Others, Ademola, C.J.N.
said:
‘Since Section 47 of the Constitution authorises the Attorney-General to

exercise his constitutional powers in person or through the Director of
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
Public Prosecutions or other officers, a prosecution instituted by the

Director of Public Prosecutions ranks in law as if it had been instituted
by the Attorney-General personally and no further evidence of consent
is necessary.’
The consent required for prosecution now is either that of the Attorney-
General or of the Director of Public Prosecution, and the question
whether in instituting the proceedings the Director of Public Prosecution
was acting in accordance with any instructions he may have received
from the Attorney-General is not one into which the court may inquire.”
Limitation period
Prosecutions for seditious offences must be instituted only within six

months of the publication of the seditious matter. Prosecutions initiated
after this period will be debarred. This is according to the provisions of
Section 52 (1) and (2) of the Criminal Code.
Section 52(3) also stipulates that in order to convict an accused person

for sedition, at least two pieces of evidence will be required. The
uncorroborated testimony of one witness is not sufficient.
Explain in detail, with examples, the factors that must be present to

prove a case of sedition?
3.3 Defenses against Sedition
There is considerable doubt whether there is in fact any defense to a

charge of seditious publication. It is well settled that, once it is proved
that the publication is seditious and that it was published with a seditious
intention, it is immaterial that there are other motives which are
laudable. It has been shown that once a seditious intention has been
shown, truth of the allegations made will not constitute a defense and is
in fact inadmissible (Karibi-Whyte, 1969).
Nonetheless, Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) provide two defenses for

sedition. They are: lawful excuse and showing that words used were not
seditious.
Lawful excuse: This comes into play as regards the possession of a

seditious material. An individual can use this defense to show that he is
in possession of the alleged seditious material or publication for a
purpose that is legal and authorised under the law. For instance, he can
claim that he is using the publication to impart knowledge. If however
75
the accused is not able to prove that he is in possession of the material

for a lawful purpose, he can also prove as a defense that he is not in
possession of the material for an unlawful motive.
Showing that words used were not seditious: This is also a defense
against a case of sedition. If a defendant is able to prove to the court that
the literal and/or implied meanings of the word(s) alleged are not
seditious, then he can be discharged. Also, if he can prove from the
overall meaning of the entire publication that the intention is not
seditious, this can also be a defense.
Another noteworthy form of defense for sedition is ignorance. If an

individual is in possession of a material he is not aware contains a
seditious content, then he can be absolved. Or if a person imports
materials that are seditious, he can be acquitted if he is able to show that
he had no knowledge to believe that the publications would contain
such. Also, if a bookseller or vendor is accused of distributing seditious
material, ignorance on the content of publications can be a defense. This
position is valid based on the provisions of the law of defamation based
on Section 381 of the Criminal Code which provides that: ‘The sale by
any person of any book, pamphlet, or other printed or written material,
or of any number or part of any periodical, is not a publication thereof
for the purpose of this chapter, unless such persons knows that such
book, pamphlet or printed or written matter, or number or part, contains
defamatory matter; or in the case of any part or number of any
periodical, that such periodical habitually contains defamatory matter.’
What can be used to justify the publication of a seditious content?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The necessity for law, order and the respect of constituted authority is
salient. It is mandatory for the state to ensure it guards the integrity of
the state against individuals or organisations who may want to bring into
hatred, ridicule or contempt the government in power, or incite, excite or
provoke the citizens to rise against or seek to remove the administration
in power so as to ensure stability in government. The media must thus
ensure that it informs the people of what they are required to know and
enlightens them about the salient issues affecting the governance
without having to recourse to sedition.
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
5.0 SUMMARY
From this unit, we learnt that sedition occurs whenever an individual or

the press publishes (in whatever form) words or undertake actions that
bring into hatred, ridicule or contempt the government in power, or
incite, excite or provoke the citizens to rise against or seek to remove the
government in power, it can be sued for or alleged to have committed an
act of sedition.
We also learnt that to prove a case of sedition in the court of law, it must
be established that the alleged words were published, they convey a
seditious intention and there is no defense for the use and publication of
such words. Individuals or organisations whose words are evaluated as
seditious can justify their actions under the law using the following
pleas: lawful excuse and showing that words used were not seditious.
Discuss the importance of having the Attorney-General of the federation

or of the state concerned sign a written consent granting permission for
the prosecution of sedition to be initiated.
Karibi-Whyte, A. G. (1969). Seditious Publications in Nigerian Press

Law. In: T. O. Elias (Ed.). Edinburgh: University of Lagos and
Evans Brothers Limited.
Osibajo, Y. & Fogam, K. (1991). Nigerian Media Law. Lagos: Gravitas

Publishments.
Seditious Libel. The Free Legal Dictionary by Farlex. Retrieved from

http://legal-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Seditious+Libel on
February 7, 2012.
Seditious Publications. Section 50-52, Criminal Code, Cap 77, Laws of

the Federation 1990.
77
UNIT 3 PRIVACY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Understanding Privacy
3.2 Aspects of Privacy Law
3.3 Defenses against Invasion of Privacy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Privacy entails the right of an individual to have physical, psychological

and emotional space for her/himself in the society within the ambience
of the law. The role of the media however is to ensure disclosure to the
public, information they deem newsworthy and/or important for the
public good about individuals, corporate bodies and government.
This unit is dedicated to explaining the law of privacy and how the
media can effectively perform its function of informing the public of
information it deem necessary without running the risk of infringing on
the right of individuals “to be left alone”.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define privacy
• list the four popular areas or aspects of privacy
• highlight the likely defenses for a suit on the infringement on an
individual’s privacy.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Understanding Privacy
Section 37 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

provides that “The privacy of citizens, their homes, correspondence,
telephone conversations and telegraphic communication is hereby
guaranteed and protected.”
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
But it does not define privacy and neither does any other part of the
1999 Constitution. The deliberations on what really constitute privacy
and the breach of it is not limited to Nigeria. From Europe to America,
defining privacy and its violation has been a controversy.
Privacy has been defined as “The right to be left alone.”( Cooley, 1888)
It is also known as “The right of the individual to be protected against
intrusion into his personal life or affairs, or those of his family, by direct
physical means or by publication of information” (Calcutt Committee;
1990).
Privacy suits occur when an individual feels that he has been wrongly
portrayed in the media, especially in a way that causes him emotional
distress, humiliation, shame, suffering or anguish. The individual may
be a public figure or he may be a private person who has generated
public interest through his actions or his involvement in a tragedy or any
other event or incident that is of human interest.
“Although the concept of libel has its roots in English common law of
the Middle Ages, the law of privacy is a 19th century American
development. Before 1890, no American court had recognised a right of
privacy…In 1890, an article entitled “The Right of Privacy” by Samuel
D. Warren and future Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis was
published in the Harvard Law Review. Although there is little evidence
to support the assertion, the two Boston lawyers claim inspiration for the
article from gossip in the press about the social affairs of the wealthy
Warren family. Warren and Brandeis argued that the growing excesses
of the press required the courts to consider granting private individuals
protection against the hounding media. In essence, “The Right of
Privacy” attempted to establish a common law right of privacy using
property rights, defamation, and breech of confidence as its basis. The
authors argued that property owners should be allowed to apply the
same right of protection of their houses and lands from trespass to the
protection of their private lives” (Creech, 2003).
“Warren and Brandeis argued, “Instantaneous photographs and

newspaper enterprise have invaded the sacred precincts of private and
domestic life; and numerous mechanical devices threaten to make good
the prediction that ‘what is whispered in the closet shall be proclaimed
from the house-tops’” (Pember, 2003/2004).
However, the law of privacy is only limited to individuals. Corporate

bodies or companies cannot sue for invasion of privacy based on the
assumptions that such corporate entities have impersonal entities
without personal sensitivities that can be wounded.
79
Why is there a controversy over the definition of privacy? Trace the

history of the “Right of Privacy.”
3.2 Aspects of Privacy Law
Invasion of privacy is a multifaceted tort that is designed to redress a

variety of grievances. These include the commercial exploitation of an
individual’s name or likeness, the intrusion on what might be called our
private domains, the revelation of intimate information about someone,
and the libel-like publication of embarrassing false information about a
person.
Appropriation
Appropriation is defined as taking a person’s name, picture, photograph

or likeness and using it for commercial gain without permission.
Illegal appropriation occurs when consent is not obtained before using

someone’s name, picture, or likeness to advertise a product, to
accompany an article sold, or to add “luster” to a company name. Courts
have held, however, that the incidental use of a person’s name or picture
in a book, film, magazine, or other medium is not an invasion of
privacy. If a name or likeness is not published for commercial gain, it
cannot be appropriation (Creech, 2003).
It should be noted, however, that stage names, pen names, pseudonyms

and so forth count as real names in the eyes of the law. If the name of
the rock star Elton John is used in an advertisement for dental floss
without his permission, the suit cannot be defended on the basis that
because Elton John’s real name is Reginald Kenneth Dwight, his
“name” was not appropriated illegally. Only the names of people are
protected under appropriation. The names of businesses, corporations,
schools and other “things” are not protected under the law. However, the
use of a trade name like Kodak or Crest can create other serious legal
problems…a photograph, a painting and a sketch- anything that suggest
to readers and viewers that the plaintiff is pictured-is a likeness. federal
courts in New York State ruled that a sketch of a black sitting in the
corner of a boxing ring was, for purposes of an invasion-of-privacy suit,
the “likeness” of former heavyweight champion Muhammad Ali. The
boxer looked a little like Ali, and the sketch was accompanied by a verse
that referred to the boxer as “the Greatest” (Pember, 2003/2004).
In Onassis v. Christian Dior, Jackie Onassis was successful in her claim

against Christian Dior’s advertising series that used a model who
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
strongly resembled the former first lady to sell their line of clothing.
Citing Negri v. Scering- in which silent film star Pola Negri objected to
the publication of a scene from one of her movies so captioned as to
appear that she endorsed use of the antihistamine drug Polaramine- the
Supreme Court of New York noted that ‘if a picture is a clear and
identifiable likeness of a living person, he or she is entitled to recover
damages suffered by reason of such use’” (Creech, 2003).
Pember (2003/2004) outlines examples of actions that can be regarded

under appropriation as commercial use. They are:
1. Use of a person’s name or photograph in an advertisement on

television, on radio, in newspapers, in magazines, on posters, on
billboards and so forth.
2. Display of a person’s photograph in the window of
photographer’s shop to show potential customers the quality of
work done by the studio.
3. A testimonial falsely suggesting that an individual eats the cereal
or drives the automobile in question.
4. Use of an individual’s name or likeness in a banner ad or some
other commercial message on a web site.
5. The use of someone’s likeness or identity in a commercial
entertainment vehicle like a feature film, a television situation
comedy or a novel.
The appropriation tort encompasses two legal causes of action. One is

the right to privacy, and the other is the right of publicity. The
differences between the two are small but important. The right to
privacy protects an individual from the embarrassment and humiliation
that can accrue when a name or picture is used without consent for
advertising or trade purposes…The right to publicity on the other hand,
protects individuals from the exploitation of their names or likeness for
commercial purposes. In other words, someone is making money by
using another individual’s name and photo. The right to privacy protects
a personal right; the right to be free from such humiliation or
embarrassment. The right to publicity protects a property right; the
economic value in a name or likeness.
For instance, a regular Nigerian may wake up to see his or her picture on
the box of Dangote noodle packs. He or she may argue that he/she
suffered embarrassment and humiliation with such use but it will be
difficult to claim that Dangote used his/her picture to sell the product
because Nigerian children will buy and eat Dangote noodles because
he/she eats it. But if Kanu Nwakwo or Funke Akindele’s picture were
used, either or both can claim right to publicity because they may
believe that Nigerian children may buy the product if it is believed that
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they eat it. Therefore, ordinary citizens can claim right to privacy while
the famous can claim right to publicity.
It is therefore important to note that the right to privacy dies with the
death of an individual, but the right to publicity may live on. Only the
living can claim that their right to privacy has been intruded upon. But if
a famous person were to have heirs, the principle of descendibility will
apply. That is, permission must be sought or payment for licensing must
be made before the use of a name, picture or image of a late but famous
person for commercial purposes. If this is not done, the heirs to the
estate of late public figures can sue.
Intrusion
Intrusion involves the encroachment, invasion, or trespass by an

individual on the solitude, seclusion or personal affairs of another.
Intrusion can occur either physically or with the use of technological
equipment or gadget.
“Examples of intrusion consist of unreasonable searches; eavesdropping

on conversations; surveillance by cameras, telescopes, or other devices;
telephone harassment; peering into windows; and wiretapping…To be
considered intrusion, the act clearly must encompass prying into matters
that are of no public concern, and such prying must be judged offensive
by a reasonable person” (Creech, 2003).
Intrusion is different from the other three privacy tort categories in an

important way: Intrusion involves the collection of data about someone;
the other three involves the publication of information about an
individual. In an intrusion case, if the information has been gathered
illegally, an intrusion has taken place. It doesn’t really matter what the
defendant does-if anything-with the data. The legal wrong takes place
when the material is gathered. Under appropriation, publication of
private facts, and false light privacy, it is the publication of the data that
creates the legal wrong. How the information has been gathered is
generally immaterial to those causes of action (Pember, 2003/2004).
One key concept to the tort of intrusion is the phrase “reasonable

expectation of privacy”. If an act of intrusion occurs when the plaintiff
is deemed to expect that he has a reasonable expectation of privacy,
then, an intrusion can be deemed to have occurred. However, if a person
is in a public place or in a situation where the court does not regard him
as having any reasonable expectation of privacy then, information
gathered in those situations will be deemed legal and no intrusion would
have occurred.
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Pember (2003/2004) cites the following cases to show that there is no

expectation of privacy in public places:
“A pharmacist in Seattle, Wash., sued KING-TV for invasion of privacy

after the television station photographed the interior of his pharmacy
through the front window. The druggist had been charged with cheating
the state out of Medicaid funds. He refused to talk with the reporters
after the charges were made, so the KING-TV camera operator placed
the camera against the outside of the store’s front window and
photographed the druggist as he talked on the telephone. The filming
was done from the exterior of the building, from a place open to the
public. The court ruled that an intrusion must be something that an
intrusion must be something that the general public would not be free to
view. In this case, any passerby could have seen what was recorded on
film by the KING-TV camera operator. There was no unwarranted
intrusion.
American Airlines flight attendant Beverly Deteresa sued ABC for

secretly recording a conversation she had with ABC producer Anthony
Radziwill. The plaintiff worked the flight that O.J. Simpson took to
Chicago the night that Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman
were killed. Radziwill asked Deteresa to appear on television as the two
talked at her front door. She declined, but Radziwill secretly taped the
conversation and instructed a camera crew across the street to videotape
the discussion between the producer and the flight attendant. A brief
segment was later shown on ABC news. The 9th U.S. Circuit Court of
Appeals affirmed a lower-court decision granting a summary judgment
to the television network. There was no reasonable expectation of
privacy when the plaintiff was talking with a journalist in plain sight of
anyone who passed by on the public street.
It is just unreasonable for individuals to expect privacy in other settings

where people gather. A woman sitting in a restaurant complained of
intrusion after a television news crew videotaped patrons sitting in the
room. The Iowa Supreme Court ruled that someone sitting in a
restaurant could not have a legitimate expectation of privacy.
It is worthy of note that when intrusion occurs, it can be through the use
of technological equipment like tape recorders, hidden cameras and
others. There has been much debate on whether it is allowed or ethical.
And different cases have been won or lost on the use of hidden
recording devices.
In 1992, the Society of Professional Journalists and the Poynter Institute

for Media Studies drafted guidelines for the use of hidden cameras.
83
These guidelines outlined in the American Journalism Review state that

hidden cameras should be used only:
• When the information is of profound importance.

• When all other alternatives for obtaining the same information
have been exhausted.
• When the individuals involved and the news organisations apply
– through outstanding quality of work as well as the commitment
of time and funding-the excellence needed to pursue the story
fully.
• When the harm prevented by the information revealed through
deception outweighs any harm caused by the act of deception.
• When the journalists involved have conducted meaningful,
collaborative and deliberate decision to justify deception.
Pember however notes that “the guidelines say that winning a prize,
beating the competition, getting a story cheaply, doing it because others
have done it or doing it because the subjects of the story are unethical
are not sufficient reasons to justify the use of hidden cameras.
Worthy of note is the discussion on intrusion and the publication of

stolen or illegally obtained materials. A number of times, journalists
come across stolen or obtained illegally newsworthy materials. Past
cases have proved that a journalist may not be liable if they are not
involved in the theft or illegal acquisition and if they are not aware it
was stolen. However, journalists are still expected to be careful with the
use of such materials as its use may still constitute liability.
Publication of private (embarrassing) information about individuals

The third privacy tort is the publication by the media of private, truthful,
non-defamatory but embarrassing information about an individual.
Creech (2003) writes that “Sometimes an invasion of privacy case can

be brought against the media for the publication of truthful, non-
defamatory facts that are embarrassing to an identified individual.
Generally these facts must be communicated to a widespread public, be
private in nature (rather than newsworthy), and be highly offensive and
objectionable to a reasonable person.
The plaintiff in a private facts case carries the burden of proving each
element. Failure to convince the court of any one of these three parts of
the law means the lawsuit is doomed (Pember, 2003/2004).
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Publicity
For a private fact case to be established, it is essential that the plaintiff

shows that the ‘private’ information was communicated to a large
number of people. When a story is published in the media, it is taken for
granted that it has already been publicised and that a large group of
people are now aware of the information.
Private facts
A plaintiff in a private fact case will also have the burden of establishing
that the information published about him are indeed private and they
were not known to the public prior to that time.
“If a large segment of the public is already aware of supposedly intimate

or personal information, it is not private. Oliver Sipple, who deflected a
gun held by a woman who tried to assassinate President Gerald Ford,
sued the San Francisco Chronicle after a columnist noted that Sipple was
a homosexual and that that may be the reason Ford has never thanked
his benefactor for his heroic act. But Sipple’s suit failed, in part at least,
because his sexual orientation was hardly a secret in San Francisco. A
California Court of Appeals noted that Sipple routinely frequented gay
bars, marched in parades with other homosexuals, and openly worked
for the election of homosexual political candidates, and that many gay
publications had reported stories about his activities in the homosexual
community. That he was a homosexual was not a private fact, the court
ruled. A court in Massachusetts ruled that because the plaintiff in a
private action had told three other persons about some personal
information, the information was not a private fact for purpose of an
invasion of privacy lawsuit” (Pember, 2003/2004).
It is also worthy of note that documents and files and indeed all pieces
of information that are considered to form part of public record, like
court files, health records, police files and others can be published by the
media without fear of liability. So should the names of rape victims or
those of individuals who are sexually assaulted be published? There is a
lot of contention on this. But the media should be guided more by ethics
than by legislation on this issue.
Highly offensive legitimate public concern
After establishing that private facts about an individual have been

publicised and to a large segment of the community, the plaintiff must
also establish that the publication of the material is offensive to a
reasonable person. It is the responsibility of the jury, or better put, it is a
85
jury question to determine whether a material is offensive to a

reasonable person or not.
Pember (2003/2004) observes that “Frequently, courts are faced with the
real dilemma that while revelation of the material was extremely
offensive and embarrassing, its publication was of great importance for
the public. Except in extremely unusual circumstances, the press will
win such cases. The judiciary places great weight on the role of the press
as an agent to inform and enlighten the public on matters of interest and
importance. Judges have ruled time and again that it is the responsibility
of the press to bring such “newsworthy” information to the people. And
courts have been hesitant to define narrow limits on what the public
needs to know or on the kinds of information in which the people have a
genuine interest. And remember, the publication of the material must be
offensive to a reasonable person. The feelings of a hypersensitive person
or someone who is especially sensitive do not count.”
Creech (2003) cites the following cases:
• In 1964, in Daily Times Democrat v. Graham, Flora Bell Graham

won a $4000 judgment against the Culiman County, Alabama
Daily Times Democrat. The paper had published a picture of
Graham taken as she emerged from a Fun House at a county fair.
The 44-year-old housewife’s skirt had been blown over her head
by air jets, exposing her legs and underpants. Although the
picture had been taken in a public place, the Alabama Supreme
Court found the picture offensive to modesty and decency
because it revealed private information in which the public had
no legitimate interest.
• Certainly, Time magazine crossed the line when it photographed
hospital patient Dorothy Barber against her will. Barber had a
rare disease that caused her to lose weight even though she ate a
great deal of food. Time referred to Barber as “The starving
glutton” and “Insatiable Eater Barber” who “eats for ten.” In
Barber v. Time Inc., the Missouri Supreme Court found the story
to be an invasion of privacy and noted that privacy rights include
the receipt of medical treatment without “personal publicity”.
• Stories dealing with matters of public concern are generally not
subject to successful invasion-of-privacy claims. When the
Washington Post printed an article about heroin addiction and
included the photograph of Monica Little, who had been
interviewed as part of the story, she sued for privacy invasion.
Little contended that although she had agreed to be interviewed,
she had used false name and her family did not know that she was
an addict. The use of a photograph had damaged her anonymity.
She claimed that the Post had intentionally caused her emotional
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distress. In Little v. Washington Post, the U.S. District Court for

the District of Columbia ruled against Little, stating that the
public interest supports dissemination of accurate information
about the risk of drugs and drug addiction, and that she waived
her privacy rights when she agreed to the interview. In short, the
Post did not go beyond the limits of her consent.
False light
The false-light tort involves the publication of false information that is

highly offensive to an ordinary person. False-light invasions of privacy
are similar to libel, but the important distinction is that the false light is
non-defamatory. Libel actions are instigated to protect persons’
reputations (i.e., the way they are viewed by society). False-light privacy
actions stem from a person’s right to be left alone and is based on the
way people view themselves. Emotional distress is often the basis for
false-light privacy suits. Unlike libel, false-light invasions of privacy
actually may embellish one’s reputation. When an unauthorised
biography of famous baseball pitcher Warren Spahn portrayed him as a
war hero, Spahn was able to bring a successful suit in Messner Inc. v.
Warren E. Spahn. Even though the material was flattering, the “gross
misstatement of fact” portrayed the former pitcher in a false-light,
thereby causing him emotional distress. False-light claims often result
from dramatisations and fictional accounts of real-life incidents (Creech,
2003).
There are three important elements in the tort: The material is

substantially false; the false statement or material is offensive to a
reasonable person; the defendant who published the false material was at
fault (Pember, 2003/2004).
A 96-year-old Arkansas resident sued the Sun for using her photo to
illustrate a totally fabricated story about a 101-year-old female
newspaper carrier who had to give up her route because she was
pregnant. Plaintiff Nellie Mitchell’s photo had been published 10 years
earlier in another tabloid owned by the same company in a true story
about the Mountain Home, Ark. woman. But the editors at the Sun
needed a picture to illustrate their phony story and simply used
Mitchell’s, undoubtedly thinking she was dead. A U.S. District Court
jury awarded the elderly woman $1.5 million in damages. The simple
rule for writers who want to be dramatists is this: If you change the
facts, change the names and don’t use photos of real people (Pember,
2003/2004).
In Cantrell v. Forest City Publishing Co. (1974), according to

testimonial given in court, the story contained a number of inaccuracies.
87
It implied that reporters had spoken with Mrs. Cantrell in her home and
that the home was untidy and her children were poorly clothed. Mrs.
Cantrell charged that the story made them the objects of pity and
ridicule.
In reality, Mrs. Cantrell had not been present when reporter Joseph
Eszterhaus came to call. Eszterhaus spoke with one of her children,
while a photographer snapped some pictures. Writing for the Supreme
Court, Justice Potter Stewart noted:
“There was no dispute during the trial that Eszterhaus…must

have known that a number of the statements in the feature story
were untrue. In particular, his article plainly implied that Mrs.
Cantrell had been present during his visit to her home and that
Eszterhaus had observed her “wearing the same mask of non-
expression she wore at the funeral.” These were “calculated
falsehoods,” and the jury was plainly justified in finding that
Eszterhaus had portrayed the Cantrells in a false light through
known or reckless untruth” (Creech, 2003).
Distinguish clearly among the four forms of invasion of privacy.
3.3 Defense against Invasion of Privacy
The basic defenses against invasion of privacy suits are consent and
newsworthiness. Others can be legitimate public interest and the use of
public record.
If an individual had given consent for an interview or the use of his

name or picture, he can no longer sue for invasion of privacy. Consent
can be clearly stated (by word of mouth or the signing of a document) or
it can be implied. For instance, Pember (2003/2004) cites the Schifano v.
Greene Country Greyhound Park, Inc. case in which “Sam and Joseph
Schifano sued the Greene County Greyhound Park, a dog racing track,
for including their photo in an advertising brochure for the facility. The
plaintiffs, who visited the park often, were photographed while they sat
with several other persons in what is called The Winner’s Circle, a
section of the park that can be reserved by interested groups of
spectators. There was no written consent for the use of their picture, but
there was ample evidence that park officials had told the plaintiffs why
they were taking the pictures and gave them a chance to leave if they did
not want to be in the picture. “Plaintiffs, neither by objecting nor
moving, when those options were made available by park employees,
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consented to having their photograph taken at the park,” the Alabama

Supreme Court ruled in 1993”.
It is however worthy of note that consent does not always work as

defense even if it was given by the plaintiff. Pember (2003) states three
clear instances:
i. Consent given today may not be valid in the distant future,

especially if it is gratuitous oral consent.
ii. Some persons cannot give consent. E.g. under age,
psychologically deranged etc.
iii. Consent to use the photograph of a person in an advertisement or
on a poster cannot be used as defense if the photograph is
materially altered or changed.
Newsworthiness is another strong defense in an invasion of privacy

suit. If a story or event is newsworthy, this argument is likely to
supersede embarrassing facts cases of invasion of privacy. “When a
temporarily deranged man in Idaho ran nude out of his house
brandishing a gun, a local television station filmed the event. On
regaining his senses, the man filed an embarrassing privacy suit against
the TV station. He claimed that the station could have edited the film so
that he was not pictured nude. Although he won the initial judgment, in
Taylor v. KTVB, Inc., the Idaho Supreme Court ordered a new trial
because the event was newsworthy” (Creech, 2003).
Public interest can also be a defense against a privacy suit. A good

example is the case of Little v. Washington Post, cited earlier where the
U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled against Little,
stating that the public interest supports dissemination of accurate
information about the risk of drugs and drug addiction, and that she
waived her privacy rights when she agreed to the interview.
The use of public record can also be a defense in a privacy suit.

Information already in the public domain or in public records can be
published by the media. When newsworthy private facts are part of the
public record, suit cannot be brought (Creech 2003).
Despite the available defenses against privacy suits, media houses still
get into the path of the law. What are the options that can save a mass
medium from needless privacy suits?
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4.0 CONCLUSION
The right to privacy seeks to protect the individual. The media must
ensure that in the discharge of its duties of informing the public and
acting as watchdogs, it does not intrude into the lives of the citizens.
5.0 SUMMARY
Privacy is “The right to be left alone” (Cooley, 1888). It is also known

as “The right of the individual to be protected against intrusion into his
personal life or affairs, or those of his family, by direct physical means
or by publication of information” (Calcutt Committee; 1990).
There are four privacy torts: Appropriation, which is the use of a

person’s name or likeness for commercial use without permission or
consent; intrusion, which is the invasion of an individual’s solitude to
illegally gather information about him/her; publication of embarrassing
private facts about a person which are of no legitimate public concern
and the publication of information that put a person in false light.
Consent, newsworthiness, legitimate public interest and the use of

public record are the available defenses in a privacy suit.
Interview a soft-sell magazine editor on his or her paper’s policy on

privacy and the procedure he or she employs in avoiding privacy suits.
Creech, K. C. (2003). Electronic Media Law and Regulation. (4th ed.).

USA; Elsevier Science (Focal Press).
Cooley, T. M. (1888). A Treatise on the Law of Torts. Chicago:

Callaghan & Co
Lissit, R. “Gotcha.” American Journalism Review, 17, March 1995,
Onassis v. Christian Dior (NY Sup.Ct., 1984) 10 Med.L.Rptr at 1861
Pember, D. R. (2003/2004) Mass Media Law. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Report of the Committee on Privacy and Related Matters 1990 Cmnd.

1102, London: HMSO at 7.
Schifano v. Greene Country Greyhound Park, Inc., 624 So. 178 (1993).
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Spilsbury, S. (2000.). Media Law. London: Cavendish Publishing

Limited.
Warren, S. D. & Brandeis, L. D. (1890 ). “The Right of Privacy,”

Harvard Law Review 4. Pg. 193-220.
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UNIT 4 OBSCENE, INDECENT AND HARMFUL

PUBLICATIONS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Understanding Obscenity and Indecency
3.1.1 An Article
3.1.2 Taken in Part/as a Whole
3.1.3 Deprave and Corrupt
3.1.4 Persons Likely to Read, See or Hear
3.2 Essentials of Obscene and Indecent Publications
3.3 Defenses for the Publication of Obscene and Indecent
Content
3.4 Harmful Publications
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
2.0 INTRODUCTION
For the sake of maintaining the dignity of persons and societal morality,
the law provides restrictions on the publication and distribution of
materials that based on the subsisting standard of morality in the society,
that are deemed obscene, indecent, immoral or offensive and ethnically
or racially prejudice.
This unit examines those laws that seek to protect the society from such
publications.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define harmful, obscene and indecent publications

• state the laws against harmful, obscene and indecent publications
enumerate the implications of harmful, obscene and indecent
publications.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Understanding Obscenity and Indecency
Defining or explaining obscenity is a daunting task. It is as controversial

as the concept itself. This is due to the fact that it involves concepts that
are in themselves divisive.
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) say that, “Any definition offered always
seems to require some further clarifications.” So great was the confusion
experienced by the “Geneva Conference on the Suppression of the
Circulation or Traffic in Obscene Publications” that it simply abandoned
the search for a definition completely. Along the same lines, Justice
Stewarts in Jacobellis v. State of Ohio must have been close to despair
when he admitted that he could not define obscenity, but “I know it
when I see it”.
An indecent publication may be defined as a communication to another

person (be it by distribution or projection, printing, making or
manufacturing for distribution or projection) of any article which,
having regard to all relevant circumstances, has a tendency to corrupt
persons who are likely, to read, see or hear it. This definition also
applies to an ‘obscene publication’, except that the corrupting tendency
here is much stronger than that required for an ‘indecent publication’
(Adeyemi, 1969).
Crone (2002) quotes that Section 1 of the English Obscene Publications

Act of 1959 says ‘…an article shall be deemed if its effects or (where
the article comprises two or more distinct items) the effect of any of its
items is, if taken as a whole, such as to tend to deprave and corrupt
persons who are likely, having regard to all the relevant circumstances,
to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it.’
Adeyemi writes that ‘In Lagos State, the statutory definition of

obscenity is that the publication in question, taken as a whole, must be
such that its effect is to ‘tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are
likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear
the matter contained or embodied in it’ (Obscene Publications Act,
1961, Section 3(1)).
He cites Lord Parker, C. J. as saying in R. v. Stanley that “The words

“indecent” or “obscene” convey one idea, namely, offending against the
recognised standards of propriety, indecent being at the lower end of the
scale…As it seems to this Court, an indecent article is not necessarily
obscene, whereas an obscene article almost certainly must be indecent’
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[(1965) 1 All E.R. 1035, pp. 1038-9]. Thus where a material is declared
not to be obscene, it can still be held to be indecent.
Therefore, it can be said that any object, show or performance which is

obscene or indecent is one which tends ‘to corrupt morals’.
It appears that there are at least three distinct forms of obscene writing
namely: pornography, erotic realism, and the ambiguous classification
of “other erotica.” Pornography would seem to be the most
objectionable of these groups and its distinguishing feature is the
explicit discussion of sex for purposes of sexually stimulating the reader.
It has no other literary function. Such literature was described in Roth v.
U.S. as being “utterly without redeeming social importance.” Erotic
realism on the other hand is described as sex in the context of reality.
The predominant characteristic of erotic realism is that it prevents a
truthful description of man’s sexual behaviour, for examples, D.H.
Lawrence’s Lady Charterly’s Lover, or our own Ekwensi’s Jagua Nana.
Naiwu’s Osahon’s Sex is a Nigger may also come also come within this
meaning. Other erotica may come by way of non-literary obscenity e.g.
obscene nudes. However, sex is only a category of obscenity. The
celebration of horror, violence or drugs or other vices may also be
described as obscenity [Osinbajo and Fogam, 1991].
3.1.1 An Article
Section 2 of the 1961 Obscene Publications Act says an “article” means

anything capable of being or likely to be looked at and read or looked at
or read, and includes any film or record of a picture or picture and any
sound record.
‘Article’ means ‘any description of an article containing or embodying

matter to be read or looked at or both, any sound record, any film or
other record of a picture or pictures’. This wide definition includes
anything that can be read, viewed or otherwise appreciated, including
books, magazines, audio and video recordings, pictures and new media.
It also includes negatives or information kept in electronic form (R v
Fellows and Arnold (1997)). However, television and radio
transmissions are specifically exempted [Crone 2002].
However, Section 203 of the Penal Code in Nigeria appears to include

electronic form with its definition. It says “Whoever to the annoyance of
others sings, recites, utters or reproduces by any mechanical means any
obscene song or words in or near any public place, shall be punished
with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with
fine or with both.”
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3.1.2 Taken in Part/as a Whole
Section 3(1) the 1961 Obscene Publications Act says that:
“An article shall be deemed obscene for the purposes of the Act, if its
effect taken as a whole is such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons
who are likely having regard to all relevant circumstances to read, see or
hear the matter embodied in it.”
Section 3(2) states:
“The provision of this section shall extend to any article of two or more
distinct items, the effect of which is to tend to deprave and corrupt.”
The implication of this section is that the judge will have to look at the
publication in its entirety before taking a decision on whether it is
obscene or repugnant to the current moral standards in the society. It
will not be acceptable for the judge to make a judgment on the case by
reviewing isolated sections of the publication.
Crone (2002) however notes that “where the material consists of a

number of separate and independent parts like those found in
newspapers and magazines, the court may convict if any single item
satisfies the test of obscenity despite the fact that the rest of the
publication is harmless.”
3.1.3 Deprave and Corrupt
Judicial suggestions have varied from a view of “corruption” as being

something capable of destroying (or being destructive) of the fabric of
society to the capability of the offensive matter to lead its audience
morally astray (Osinbajo and Fogam, 1991).
Crone (2002) cites the case of D.H. Lawrence’s Lady Charterly’s Lover
as the case that produced a clear definition of the words: deprave and
corrupt. According to R. v Penguin Books Ltd. (1960): “Deprave means
to make morally bad, to pervert, to debase or corrupt morally.
Corrupt means to render morally unsound or rotten, to destroy the moral

purity or chastity, to pervert or ruin a good quality, to debase, to defile.”
In showing that an article has the capacity to deprave or corrupt, the

prosecution needs not show that it has led any of the individuals who
had been exposed to it to carry out any sexual or physical act. It is
enough to show that the article has the capacity to affect the emotions of
individuals exposed to it.
95
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) cite two very interesting cases worthy of
mention in this regard.
The first is the case of COP (Mid-West) v. Igene. According to them, the
fact of the case is as follows:
The accused persons ran a bookstall at the Benin Airport. Two detective
constables went to the bookstall and collected magazines. The
magazines, which bore the following titles: “Ways of Loving”,
“Foreplay”, “Sex in Marriage”, “Response and Sense” had nude
photographs. The magazines purported to teach the techniques of sex
and family planning, illustrating their teaching with different positions
of copulation to give sexual satisfaction to adults and married couples.
Some of the magazines were marked “Educational Material for Adults
only, “Sales to Minors Prohibited”. The accused persons were charged
under Section 175(1) (a) of the Criminal Code Laws of Western State of
Nigeria 1959 also applicable to the then Mid-Western State, with “being
in possession of obscene printed matters and publicly exhibiting obscene
printed matters which tend to corrupt morals.”
In dismissing the prosecution’s case the learned judge adopted the

“corrupt and deprave test’, and wondered whether photographs, books or
magazines could actually corrupt or deprave, since, if it were that easy
to corrupt by this means, thousands of television viewers who regularly
see violent films would already be criminals.
The second is the case of R v. Anderson [(1972) 1 Q.B. 304] where a

magazine titled OZ No. 28 School Kids Issue, was alleged to contain
obscene matter. The magazine which was even partly written by school
children was meant for school children. It contained salaciously written
articles on the joys of oral sex and some graphic pictures and cartoons of
various forms of heterosexual and homosexual or heterosexual clubs for
“erotic minorities”. One of the arguments of the defence which the judge
accepted as sound was the “aversion theory”, that is “that the material
was so repulsive - that it could only put readers off the depicted activity.
The incongruous result of this “defence of crudity,” is that where the
purveyor of obscenity desires the protection of the law his best bet is to
ensure that his material is grossly obscene!
Individuals in the legal profession have however condemned this stand.

Osinbajo and Fogam say “There is no reason for the law to, on account
of a logical technicality refuses to address an absurdity by its proper
name.” They also quote (in their footnote of that page) Lord Denning in
G. Robertson’s Obscenity as saying he could not regard the argument as
anything than “mere sophistry”.
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3.1.4 Persons Likely to Read, See or Hear
To decide on whether the content of a publication is obscene or not, the

court will have to determine whether it has the capacity to corrupt or
deprave a significant proportion of the audience for whom it was
published.
The emphasis in the Obscene Act of 1961 was on the effect of the
offending article on its buyers or audience. This is the concept of
“relative obscenity”. According to this concept, an article cannot be
inherently obscene. It will only be obscene judging by its effects on its
likely customers. If the offending article is for example a magazine for
teenagers the question before the court will be whether the contents of
the article would be likely to corrupt and deprave teenagers. If the same
magazine is sold to adults, it may not be regarded as obscene, since
adults are not likely to be corrupted or depraved by it. Taken to its
logical conclusion, “relative obscenity” implies that an article cannot be
legally obscene no matter how obviously filthy or disgusting it may be
or no matter its potential tendency to deprave or corrupt. An article is
only obscene if its likely audience will be depraved or corrupted by it
(ibid: 131).
Explain in detail the elements of obscene and indecent publications.
3.2 Essential Elements of Obscene and Indecent Publications
Before a conviction can be made on obscene and indecent publications,

the following conditions must subsist, according to Adeyemi (1969):
1. There must be an article

2. It must be obscene/indecent
3. It must be published.
Establishing intention
There is a discussion on whether there is a need to establish the intention

of an individual who contravenes this act before a conviction can be
made. That is, is there a need to establish that the prohibited act was
done intentionally.
Crone (2002) states unequivocally that “The offence is one of strict

liability. The test for obscenity will be satisfied if the prosecution
establishes the fact of the publication and the effect of the published
article. The intention of the author or publisher is irrelevant.”
97
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) on their part believe the offence is not one
of strict liability. They say “It is the view of the present writers that
offences under the Act of 1961 were not meant to be strict liability
offences.”
They argue that “In order to fully grasp the implication of the
controversy under the Nigerian law, it is important to recognise the basis
of criminal responsibility under the Nigerian law (of southern States).
The crucial section under Chapter V is section 24. The first paragraph
states that: ‘Subject to the express provisions of the code relating to
negligent acts and omissions a person is not criminally responsible for
an act or omission which occurs independently of the exercise of his will
or for an event which occurs by accident’.…”
Present your opinion on the need to establish the intention of an

individual who contravenes the act of obscenity and indecency before a
conviction can be made, using evidences from the law or cases known to
you.
3.3 Defenses for the Publication of Obscene and Indecent

Content
Adeyemi’s (1969) explanation and enumeration on the defences to a

charge of obscene and indecent publications are astute. It is therefore
presented below:
“All the defenses available generally in criminal law will apply in cases
of obscene and indecent publications. In addition, both the 1961
enactments provide other specific defenses. Under the Obscene
Publications Act, for example, it is a defense where:
1. The exhibition concerned takes place in a private house to which

the public are not admitted.
2. The exhibition is made in the course of television or sound
broadcasting.
3 The person charged had not examined the article in question and
he had no reasonable excuse to suspect that his publication would
be obscene.
4. The publication can be justified as being for the public good on
the ground that it is in the interests of science, literature, art or
learning or of other objects of general concern.
5. That the offence was committed more than two years before the
commencement of the prosecution.
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It may be observed, lastly that the ‘‘Horror of Comics’ Act requires, for
prosecution of the offence it creates the consent of a ‘Law Officer’. This
requirement will have the requirement of limiting the instances of
prosecution that can be brought under this Act. The frequency would
probably have been greater if the police had been empowered to
prosecute without necessarily seeking such consent.”
Justify from legal records the requirement that a ‘law officer’ must
consent to a prosecution of a ‘Horror of Comics’ offence.
3.4 Harmful Publications
Section 2(2) of the Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications)

Act of 1961 states:
‘This Act applies to any book or magazine which is of a kind likely to

fall into the hands of children or young persons and consists wholly or
mainly of stories told in pictures (with or without the addition of written
matter), being stories portraying:
(a) the commission of crimes

(b) acts of violence or cruelty
(c) incidents of a repulsive or horrible nature in such a way that the
work as a whole would tend to corrupt a child or young person
into whose hands it may fall.’
The Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act of 1961is

also known as the “Horror of Comics’ Act. Based on the dictates of this
Act, no one shall import, prepare a plate, make a photographic film,
print, publish, sell, lets or hire any book or magazine to which this Act
applies or has any such book or magazine in his possession.
Punishment for this offence carries imprisonment of six months or a fine

of 100 pounds or both. However, whoever is accused under this Act, and
can prove that he had not examined the content of the publication and
had no reason to believe it contravened the Act will be discharged.
A magistrate can order the search of any premises suspected to contain

publications, articles or materials contravening or order the seizure of
such.
There is a little contention on whether a harmful publication is closer to

obscene or indecent publications.
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Adeyemi (1969) asserts that “…the provisions of the Children and

Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, 1961 can properly be
described as ‘the law on indecent publications’. For this purpose then, a
harmful publication is an indecent publication, though the latter is wider
in meaning.”
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) however posit that “…describing the act as
the law on indecent publication is not entirely accurate. In the first place,
some of the incidents listed in Section 2(2) can in fact be described as
obscenity, as opposed to mere indecency. Aside from this, the
expression “indecent” may well be inappropriate for the types of acts
envisaged under the Act. The argument that all harmful publications
must be indecent is not particularly helpful here as it does not assist in
clarifying the meaning of “indecent”. After all, all obscenity must also
be indecent.”
Discuss the controversy on the Children and Young Persons (Harmful

Publications) Act of 1961 being described as the ‘the law on indecent
publications.’
4.0 CONCLUSION
The regulation on indecent, obscene and harmful publications is at the

heart of ensuring public morality and values. The law is however
regarded as suspect because many believe that it threatens the right of
the press to freedom of expression and freedom to hold opinions.
At any rate, it is the duty of the media to ensure that they entrench the
freedom of expression without depraving public morality and values.
5.0 SUMMARY
An ‘indecent publication’ may be defined as a communication to

another person (be this by distribution or projection, printing, making or
manufacturing for distribution or projection) of any article which,
having regard to all relevant circumstances, has a tendency to corrupt
persons who are likely, to read, see or hear it. This definition also
applies to an ‘obscene publication’, except that the corrupting tendency
here is much stronger than that required for an ‘indecent publication’
(Adeyemi, 1969).
Before a conviction can be made on obscene and indecent publications,

the following conditions must subsist, according to Adeyemi (1969):
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MAC 411 MODULE 3
there must be an article, it must be obscene or indecent, and it must be

published.
The core defenses in an obscene/indecent publication case are that the

individual is not aware of the content of the publication in his
possession, the publication was not made in a public case, the
prosecution commenced two years after the publication has been made
and the publication can be justified as being for the public good on the
ground that it is in the interests of science, literature, art or learning or of
other objects of general concern.
Justify the need for an obscene and indecent publications law.
Adeyemi, A. A. “Obscene and Indecent Publications.” (1969). In: T. O.

Elias (Ed.). Nigerian Press Law. Edinburgh: University of Lagos
and Evans Brothers Limited.
Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act of 1961.
“Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, No. 52.”

(1961). In: Y. Osibajo & K. Fogam (1991). Nigerian Media Law.
Lagos: Gravitas Publishments Ltd.
Crone, T. (2002). Law and the Media (4th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
Obscene Publications Act No. 15. (1961). In: Y. Osinbajo, & K. Fogam.
Nigerian Media Law. (1991). Lagos: Gravitas Publishments Ltd.
Osinbajo, Y. & Fogam, K. Nigerian Media Law. (1991). Lagos:

Gravitas Publishments Ltd.
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MODULE 4 MEDIA LAWS: INTELLECTUAL AND

INSTITUTIONAL
Unit 1 Copyright
Unit 2 New Media
Unit 3 Protection of News Sources or Whistle Blowers
Unit 4 Contempt of Court
UNIT 1 COPYRIGHT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of Copyright
3.2 Subjects and Conditions for Copyright
3.3 Duration of Copyright
3.4 Ownership and Transmission of Copyright
3.5 News Events and Copyright
3.6 Infringement of Copyright
3.7 Defenses to Infringement of Copyright
3.8 Remedies to Infringement of Copyright
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is dedicated to explaining the law of copyright, its nature,

conditions, duration, ownership, the factors that constitute infringement,
and the remedies available in law.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain clearly the concept of copyright

• identify the ownership of copyright and the situations in which it
can be transmitted
• discuss the subjects and conditions for copyright
• enumerate what constitutes an infringement of copyright
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• identify the remedies available for infringement of copyright.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nature of Copyright
Copyright is an area of the law that deals with intangible property-

property that a person cannot touch or hold or lock away for safekeeping
(Pember, 2003/04). Copyright is the right of an author to prevent others
from publishing or reproducing his work without his consent (Adesanya,
1969).
The law of copyright is important to those working in the media. It

determines the extent to which a quotation or the work of a third party
can be used in an article or broadcast. It also establishes the right of a
writer, newspaper or television company to exploit his own work or the
work of the company and prevent others from taking benefit from it.
There is no copyright in an idea, nor is there any copyright in news.
However, the law of copyright protects ideas or information expressed
in a particular way. Anyone can report the happening of a particular
event. Besides, a newspaper or programme cannot use verbatim another
newspaper’s report or broadcast another programme’s footage of an
event (Cranwel, 2002).
A lot of creativity would be lost if there was no copyright law- a law that
protects the author of a work, idea, skill or creativity from having his
work printed, published, sold and distributed without his permission.
The essence of copyright, therefore, is to ensure that individuals benefit
maximally for a stated period of time, from their ingenuity, creativity
and efforts, and prevent the reproduction, publishing, performance,
adaptation, recording and distribution of the work of others without their
consent and permission.
What does the law of copyright seek to protect?
3.2 Subjects and Conditions for Copyright
Section 1(1) of the Copyright Decree of 1988 provides that: “Subject to

this section, the following shall be eligible for copyright:
(a) literary works

(b) musical works
(c) artistic works
(d) cinematograph films
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(e) sound recordings

(f) broadcasts.
Literary work: Includes, irrespective of the literary quality, any of the

following works or works similar thereto: novels, stories, and poetical
works; plays, stage directions, film scenarios and broadcasting scripts;
choreographic works; computer programmes; text-books, treaties,
histories, biographies, essays and articles; encyclopedias, dictionaries,
and anthologies; letters, reports and memoranda; lectures, addresses and
sermons; law reports, excluding decisions of courts; written tables or
compilations.
Musical work: Means any musical work, irrespective of musical quality

and it includes works composed for musical accompaniment.
Artistic work: Includes, irrespective of artistic quality, any of the

following work or works similar thereto- paintings, drawings, etchings,
lithographs, woodcuts, engravings and prints; maps, plans, and
diagrams; works of sculpture; photographs not comprised in a
cinematograph film; works of architecture in form of buildings models;
and works of artistic craftsmanship and also pictorial woven tissues and
articles of applied handicraft and industrial art.
Cinematograph film: Includes the first fixation of a sequence of visual

images capable of being shown as a moving picture and of being the
subject of reproduction, and includes the recording of a sound tract
associated with the cinematograph film.
Sound recording: Means the first fixation of a sequence of sound

capable of being perceived aurally and of being reproduced but does not
include a sound track associated with a cinematograph film.
Broadcast: Means sound or television broadcast by wireless telegraphy

or wire or both, or by satellite or cable programmes and includes re-
broadcast.
Adesanya (1969) also states the following about works that are subject
to copyright:
“A letter is an ‘original literary work’ and is therefore covered by

copyright. The publication of the private letters of another in book form
will also be protected. Advertisements, as literary work, are entitled to
copyright protection. Copyright subsists in a newspaper report. Hence a
reporter was held entitled to the copyright of his verbatim report of a
public speech. But there can be no copyright in news as such, but only
in the literary form given to news. But news agencies may be protected
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from having information obtained by them disseminated in breach of

faith. As regards law reporting, the head notes or the side or marginal
notes are regarded as products of such skill and mental exertion that they
are accorded copyright protection. Photographs and cartoons, at least
those which exhibit original skill and labour in the choosing or
arrangement of the subject, are covered by copyright.”
However, there are works that cannot be copyrighted. One major

kind of work that cannot be copyrighted is a works that is “libelous,
immoral, obscene or irreligious.” Adesanya (ibid) says “Even where a
work is a proper subject of copyright, an infringement of the copyright
in such a work will not be enforced if the work is libelous, immoral,
obscene or irreligious. This is because copyright in a work pre-supposes
a right to sell the work, but an author of an obscene, immoral or
irreligious work cannot sell it. Similarly, there will be no copyright in
work calculated, and likely to deceive the public.”
Pember (2003/04) also explains other work that cannot be copyrighted.

They are:
1. Trivial matters cannot be copyrighted. Such things as titles,

slogans and minor variations in works in the public domain are
not protected by the law of literary property. (But these items
may be protected by other law such as unfair competition, for
example).
2. Ideas are not copyrightable. The law protects the literary or
dramatic expression of any idea, such as a script, but does not
protect the idea itself. “This long established principle is easier to
state than apply,” notes law professor David E. Shipley. It is
often difficult to separate expression from the ideas being
expressed.
3. Utilitarian goods- things that exist to produce other things-are not
protected by copyright law, according to William Strong in The
Copyright Book. A lamp is a utilitarian object that exists to
produce light. One cannot copyright the basic design of a lamp.
But the design of any element that can be identified separately
from the useful article can be copyrighted, according to Strong.
The design of a Tiffany lamp can be copyrighted. The unique
aspects of a Tiffany lamp have nothing to do with the utilitarian
purpose of producing light; these aspects are purely decorative.
4. Methods, systems, and mathematical principles, formulas, and
equations cannot be copyrighted. But a description, an
explanation or an illustration of an idea or system can be
copyrighted. In such an instance the law is protecting the
particular literary or pictorial form in which an author chooses to
express herself or himself, not the idea or plan or method itself.
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For example, an individual writes or publishes a book in which

she outlines a new mathematical formula. Although the book
itself may be protected by copyright, the formula cannot be, and
others may use it freely. In other words, the copyright on an
article or a book does not preclude the public from making use of
what the book teaches.
To be eligible for copyright, the work that fall under this section must
satisfy certain conditions.
According to [Osinbajo and Fogam (1991], the conditions are:
A. Originality
B. Reduction into concrete form
C. Qualified person
D. Work originating in Nigeria
Before explaining the conditions, the authors make a noteworthy

observation:
“A preliminary observation is that under the Copyright

Decree 1988, no formalities are required for the
subsistence of copyright in Nigeria. The Decree does
not provide for any system of registration of copyright
whether voluntary or compulsory. As a result, the
subsistence of copyright in a particular subject matter
can only be made by ascertaining first, whether it is the
type in which copyright can subsist. The works eligible
for copyright have already been mentioned; but whether
copyright does in fact exist in those works is subject to
some other conditions.”
Originality: Implies that before copyright can subsist in a particular

work, the work must owe its origin to the author. An author cannot
claim copyright for a work that is not originally his. The work may be of
high quality or it may be low, that is not significant to the test of
originality. Adesanya (1969) posits that copyright subsists in every
original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work. The work concerned
must be ‘original’ in the sense that it must not be a verbatim
reproduction of prior work, but not in the sense that it must itself be a
product of original or inventive thinking. Thus once originality in skill
and language have been exhibited, the work will be given copyright
protection notwithstanding that its ideas and thoughts are a piracy of
another copyright work.”
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Reduction into concrete form: Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) say that
“In addition to a work being original, the decree also requires that the
work must have been fixed in any definite medium of expression from
which it can be perceived, reproduced or otherwise communicated either
directly or with the aid of any machine or device. An author must
therefore reduce his ideas into a material form i.e. writing it down or
recording the material. It is not until it is reduced into writing or some
tangible form that there is any right to copyright.”
Qualified person: According to Section 2(1), “Copyright shall be

conferred by this section on every work eligible for copyright of which
the author or, in the case of a joint authorship, any of the authors is at
the time when the work is made, a qualified person, that is to say – an
individual who is a citizen of, or is domiciled in Nigeria; or a body
incorporated by or under the laws of Nigeria.”
Work originating in Nigeria: According to Osinbajo and Fogam

(1991), “By section 2 of the Decree, copyright can also be conferred on
every work other than broadcast which is eligible for copyright provided
the work is first published in Nigeria; or in the case of a sound
recording, is made in Nigeria and which has not been the subject of
copyright conferred by Section 2 of the Decree.”
Justify the basis for which some works may not be eligible for
copyright.
3.3 Duration of Copyright
Copyright is a monopoly right. The law of copyright attempts to balance

the protection of the author with the need for a free flow of ideas and
information in order to allow people free access to works in order to
achieve this balance, copyright is limited in duration (Cranwell, 2002).
The expiration of copyright for different categories of work in Nigeria is

spelt out in Schedule 1 of the Nigerian Copyright Decree 47 of 1988.
For literary, musical or artistic works other than photographs, the
expiration is “70 years after the end of the year in which the author dies;
in the case of government or a body corporate, 70 years after the year in
which the work was first published”.
For cinematograph films and photographs, the expiration is “50 years

after the end of the year in which the work was first published.”
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For sound recordings, the expiration is “50 years after the end of the
year in which the recording was first made.”
For broadcasts, the expiration is “50 years after the end of the year in
which the broadcast first took place.”
Under what category will newspapers and magazines fall and when will
their copyright expire?
3.4 Ownership and Transmission of Copyright
Copyright belongs to the author of the work. It seems quite simple to

determine but that is not always the case. There are circumstances and
situations that have made it controversial or ambiguous to determine
who the real author of a work is. However, much of such controversies
have been sorted out and there are general principles and agreements on
the owner of copyright in different situations and for different kinds of
work.
Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works belongs to the

author of the work. This means that the person whose skill and efforts
produced the work – for example the writer of the book, not the
secretary who typed it (Cranwell, 2002).
If the author was, however, employed by another under a contract of

service or of apprenticeship, and the work was done in the course of that
person’s employment, copyright in the work shall, in the absence of any
agreement to the contrary, vest in that employer. If, however, the work
is an article or other contribution to a newspaper, a magazine or a
similar periodical, there is, in the absence of any agreement to the
contrary, deemed to be reserved to the author a right to restrain the
publication of the work unless it is published as part of a newspaper, a
magazine, or a similar periodical. Thus, an author is given a statutory
right to restrain anyone from publishing his work except in a newspaper
(Adesanya, 1969).
Whether a person is employed under a ‘contract of service’ or not is a

question of fact and not of law. In this regard, ‘the greater the amount of
direct control exercised over the person rendering the services by the
person contracting for them the stronger the ground for holding it to be a
contract of service; and similarly, the greater the greater the degree of
independence of such control, the greater the probability that the
services rendered are of the nature of professional services, and that the
contract is not one of service. It, therefore, follows that persons on the
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regular employment of a newspaper will usually be regarded as

employed under contracts of service. But such persons will be able to
retain the copyright in any work done by them outside their working
hours and outside the scope of their employment (Adesanya, 1969).
But the courts have often sought to distinguish “contract of service”

from a “contract of services.” The traditional test for distinguishing
between the two is to determine whether the person employed is under
the direction and control of the employer as to the manner in which he
shall carry out his work, or whether he was employed to exercise his
skill and achieve an indicated result in such manner as he should, in his
own judgment determine. In the former case, the person employed
would be regarded as a servant and thus subject to a “contract of
service” while in the latter he would be regarded as an independent
contractor and subject to a “contract for services” (Osinbajo and
Fogam, 1991).
If two or more people jointly create a work and their contributions are
indivisible, then, unlike the tune and the lyric in a song, copyright is
owned jointly. If a ghost writer produces an autobiography or a
newspaper series, the ghost writer owns the copyright subject to any
agreement otherwise (Cranwell 2002).
In a collective work, defined by the Act as meaning among other things,

‘a newspaper, review, magazine, or similar periodical; or any work
written in distinct parts by different authors…’, two distinct copyrights
exist: there is the copyright for the collective work as a whole, and there
is another in the different works of the various contributors to the
collective. Thus, the author of the collective work will be the person
who edits the whole work, while each contributor will be the author of
his own contribution (Adesanya 1969).
Is it possible to transfer the right to a work? Yes, copyright is

transmissible. That is to say that a person in which the copyright to a
work subsists can transfer the copyright to another. Section 10(1) of the
Nigerian Copyright Decree 47 of 1988 states that “Subject to the
provision of this section; copyright shall be transmissible by assignment,
by testamentary disposition or by operation of law, as movable
property.” Section 10(7) provides that “An assignment, license or
testamentary disposition may be effectively granted or made in respect
of a future work or an existing work in which copyright does not yet
subsist; and the prospective copyright in any such work shall be
transmissible by operation of law as movable property.”
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Therefore, a person can transfer the copyright of his work in part, fully,
for a specified period, in specific geographical area to another based on
the provisions above, through an assignment or a license.
An assignment, according to Black Laws Dictionary, “Is the transfer by

a party of all or part of its rights to some kind of property, usually
intangible property.” According to Section 10(3) of the Nigerian
Copyright Decree, an assignment must be in writing before it can be
recognised. Osinbajo and Fogam (1991), referring to Section 10(3) and
(8) note that “Assignments may relate to specific areas or for a limited
period and future works or even an existing work in which copyright
does not yet subsist can also be assigned.” They however observes that
“No particular form of writing is prescribed by the statute and so makes
it difficult at times to determine the legal effect of a document dealing
with the disposition of a work or the copyright subsisting in it.”
A license is a permission given by the owner of a copyright to another

(individual or body corporate) to undertake actions on the work (that
would not be legal) if the license had not been given or issued.
According to Section 10(4), a non-exclusive license to do an act the
doing of which is controlled by copyright may be written or oral, or may
be inferred from conduct.
As it relates to materials written for the media, the copyright to the work
of a journalist working under the full employ of a media organisation
belongs to the organisation, unless otherwise stated while the copyright
to the work of a freelance journalist may vary, depending on the
agreement that is reached with the organisations to whom he submits his
articles and/or pictures.
Pember (2003/04) highlights and explains the different arrangements

that may be available in this regard. They are provided below:
1. All rights: The creator sells complete ownership of the story or

photograph.
2. First serial rights: The buyer has the right to use the piece of
writing or picture for the first time in a periodical published
anywhere in the world. But the publisher can use it only once,
and then the creator can sell it to someone else.
3. First North American serial rights: The rights are the same as
those provided in number two, except the publisher buys the right
to publish the material first in North America, not anywhere in
the world.
4. Simultaneous rights: The publisher buys the right to print the
material at the same time other periodicals print the material. All
110
the publishers, however, must be aware that simultaneous

printing will occur.
5. One-time rights: The publisher purchases the right to use a piece
just one time, and there is no guarantee that it has not been
published elsewhere first.
Does a newspaper editor require any form of license to publish a letter to

the editor or an article sent to his organisation by a member of the
public?
3.5 News Events and Copyright
The issue of news events and copyright is being clearly and distinctively
addressed because of its peculiarity and its importance to the operations
of the media as it relates to the law on copyright.
Is there copyright in a news story? Yes, there is but there is no copyright

in the information and/or facts contained in the story. The copyright
only covers the literary manner and form in which the information is
presented, not the information itself. There are many principles that
support and explain this position.
“Copyright law protects the expression of the story- the way it is told,
the style and manner in which the facts are presented-but not the facts in
the story. For many writers, this concept is a difficult one to understand
and to accept. After all, if one reporter works hard to uncover a story,
shouldn’t he or she have the exclusive right to tell that story? Even some
courts have had a hard time acknowledging this notion. The so-called
sweat-of-the-brow doctrine rejected by the Supreme Court in the Feist
ruling is evidence that some judges believe hard work should be
rewarded. But whether it is fair or not, the law is clear. Hard work must
be its own reward. Copyright only protects the way the story is told, not
the story itself” (Pember, 2012).
An example of a judgment to support this view is the ruling:
“In Nash v. CBS, 899 F.2d 1537 (1990) a case involving the
infamous John Dillinger, the subject of a widely publicised
manhunt by local police and the FBI during the 1930s. Most
historians believed that Dillinger was killed on July 22, 1934,
when he was shot by government agents who ensnared him in an
ambush as he left the biography movie theatre in Chicago. Jay
Robert Nash has written at least two books that dispute this
conclusion. Nash argues that Dillinger learned about the ambush
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and sent a look-alike to the theatre instead. The FBI, embarrassed

that its setup failed, kept quite. And Dillinger retired from a life
of crime and lived the rest of his life on the West Coast. A 1984
episode of the CBS television series “Simon and Simon”
involved a story that suggested that Dillinger was still alive,
living in California. Nash sued the network, claiming copyright
infringement. The officials at the network admitted that they had
seen Nash’s books and said that they used some of his ideas. But,
they argued, Nash claimed to be writing history, and history is a
collection of facts. Such material cannot be copyrighted. The
court agreed. The network might be liable if Nash portrayed his
work as a novel, as fiction. But he didn’t. “The inventor of
Sherlock Holmes controls the character’s fate while the copyright
lasts; the first person to conclude that Dillinger survives does not
get his dibs on the history,” Judge Easterbrook wrote. Nash’s
rights lie in his expression, not in the naked truth.”
Therefore, “A news story or even an entire issue of newspaper is literary

work and as such eligible, to copyright; but the news element in a
newspaper story is not subject to copyright. The law of copyright does
not operate to give any person an exclusive right to state or describe
particular facts. News is publici juris (i.e. the history of the day) which
is not the creation of the reporter. It is in the public domain and cannot
therefore be appropriated by an individual” (Osinbajo and Fogam,
1991).
It is however worthy of note that some newspapers and magazine in

Nigeria plagiarise other publications by publishing their stories and/or
articles word-for-word in their publications, albeit citing that the story is
“culled from” so and so publication as a way of acknowledging the
source. On this, Osinbajo and Fogam (1969) observe that “the general
rule is that is an infringement of copyright for a newspaper to publish
without permission copies of news stories, articles or photographs
published in another paper, even though the source of information is
acknowledged. Being “literary works” the article or news story is an
eligible work for copyright protection. The copying newspaper therefore
will be liable if the source of work is Nigeria. But it so happens that
most of the articles or news stories so copied are from foreign
newspapers or periodicals. They may not be eligible for protection by
the Copyright Decree 1988. This is so because as seen earlier, section 2,
3, and 4 of the Decree confer protection only on works published by
individuals who are citizens or domiciled in Nigeria; or if the work is
first published or made in Nigeria. The copying newspapers can
therefore escape liability on that score.”
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Can a Nigerian newspaper sue another for copyright infringement on a

news story they both sourced from the News Agency of Nigeria?
3.6 Infringement of Copyright
When can it be said that the copyright on a work has been infringed
upon and what actually constitutes an infringement on the copyright on a
work?
Copyright confers on an owner, inter alia, the sole right to produce or

reproduce the work concerned or a substantial part of it in a material
form. Therefore, one who reproduces the work of another or a
substantial part of it, without the other’s consent, infringes the copyright
in the work (Adesanya, 1969).
Persons who believe that their exclusive right to control the use of a
copyrighted work has been violated will sue for infringement. The
federal copyright statute does not actually define infringement. The law
simply states that anyone who violates any of the “exclusive rights” of
the copyright holder is guilty of an infringement of copyright (Pember,
2003/04).
In considering the question of infringement, it must be borne in mind

that copyright protection is not given to ideas or information, but only to
the particular mode of giving expression to one’s ideas or thoughts.
Thus, if two authors produce similar works independently of each other,
neither will be guilty of infringing the other’s copyright, even if the
latter was inspired by, and got his ideas from, the earlier work.
According to Section 14 of the Nigerian Copyright Decree of 1988,

copyright is infringed by any person who without the license or
authorisation of the owner of copyright:
(a) Does, or causes any other person to do an act, the doing of which
is controlled by copyright.
(b) Imports into Nigeria, otherwise than for his private or domestic
use, any article in respect of which copyright is infringed under
paragraph (a) of this subsection.
(c) Exhibits in public any article in respect of which copyright is
infringed under paragraph (a) of this subsection.
(d) Distributes by way of trade, offers for sale, hire or otherwise or
for any purpose pre-judicial to the owner of the copyright, any
article in respect of which copyright is infringed under paragraph
(a) of this subsection.
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(e) Makes or has in his possession, plates, master tapes, machines,

equipment or contrivances used for the purpose of making
infringed copies of the work.
(f) Permits a place of public entertainment or of business to be used
for a performance in the public of the work, where the
performance constitutes an infringement of the copyright in the
work, unless the person permitting the place to be so used was
not aware, and had no reasonable ground for suspecting that the
performance would be an infringement of the copyright.
(g) Performs or causes to be performed for the purposes of trade or
business or as supporting facility to a trade or business, any work
in which copyright subsists.
Adesanya (1969) provides that the following acts do not constitute an

infringement of copyright:
1. Any fair dealing with any work for the purposes of private study,
research, criticism, review or newspaper summary. A student,
who reproduces a book for his own use as opposed to use by
other students, will be protected by this provision. Where the
work is reproduced for the purposes of criticism or review an
acknowledgement of the source is advisable.
2. The making or publishing of paintings, drawings, engravings or
photographs of a work or sculpture permanently placed in a
public place or building.
3. The inclusion of short passages from published literary works
into a collection which consists mainly of non-copyright
materials, and which are genuinely intended and so described in
the title, for the use of schools; provided that not more than two
of such passages from works by the same author are published by
the same publisher within five years; and provided also that the
source of such passages are acknowledged.
4. The publication in a newspaper of a report of a lecture delivered
in public, unless a written or printed notice prohibiting the report
is conspicuously displayed at the main entrance to the building in
which the lecture is to be delivered. Despite the presence of that
notice, however, a newspaper may safely publish a fair summary
of the lecture. Also, notwithstanding the presence of such
conspicuous notice of prohibition, a newspaper report of a
political address delivered at a public meeting will not constitute
an infringement of a copyright.
5. The reproduction, 25 years (or 30 years in the case of a work in
which copyright subsists at the passing of the Act) after the death
of the author, of a copyrighted work, provided the person
reproducing the work has given a written notice of his intention
to do so and has paid royalties in respect of all copies sold by him
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for the benefit of the owner of the copyright, at the rate of ten per
cent of the published price of the work.
In order to determine that a work is an infringement on an author’s

copyright, some elements have to be proved. Pember (2003/04) says
“Courts that litigate copyright cases seem to focus most often on three
criteria to determine whether a particular use is an infringement. A brief
outline of each of these three points follows:
i. Is the copyright on the plaintiff’s work valid? While this inquiry

will look at matters such as the proper registration of the work,
the heart of this examination is to determine whether the
copyrighted work is an original work that can be protected by
copyright.
ii. Did the defendant have access to the plaintiff’s work prior to the
alleged infringement?
iii. Are the two works the same or substantially similar?”
For a plaintiff to be able to win a case of copyright infringement, he has

to be able to prove certain elements, the first of which is that his work is
original and that the work is copyrightable. Originality presupposes
that the content of the work or the information contained therein is
original to the author. An author cannot lay claim to information in the
public domain or historical facts. Similarly, a work on an illegal,
immoral, indecent, obscene and irreligious matter is not copyrightable
and as such, the author of such work cannot claim that the copyright on
his work has been infringed. There cannot be copyright infringement on
a work that is not copyrightable in the first instance.
Pember (2003/04) cites the case of Alexander v. Haley, (450 F. Supp. 40

1978) in which “Margaret Alexander brought an infringement suit
against Alex Haley, claiming that he had copied portions of her novel
Jubilee and her pamphlet How I Wrote Jubilee when he wrote and
published his successful novel Roots. But the court noted that most of
what Alexander claimed Harley had stolen was history-the story of the
slave culture in the United States-or material in the public domain, such
as folktales about early American black culture. “Where common
sources exist for the alleged similarities, or the material that is similar is
not original with the plaintiff, there is no infringement,” the court ruled.
The second element that will have to be proved to convince a court that
a defendant had indeed infringed on the copyright of a work is to
establish that she/he had access to the work. It is normal to assume that
an individual cannot infringe the copyright on a work he does not have
access to. The concept behind the principle is that it is possible for two
individuals to author a very similar work without either of them copying
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
from the other. Judge Learned Hand in Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn-

Mayer Pictures 81 F.2d 49 (1939) was quoted by Pember (2003/04) as
saying “If by some magic a man who had never known it were to
compose a new Keats’s “Ode on a Grecian Urn,” he would be an
“author” and if he copyrighted it, others might not copy that poem,
though they might of course copy Keats’s.”
The thrust of the matter is that if the plaintiff cannot establish access to
his work by the infringer, he cannot establish an infringement of his
work.
The third and most popular element which the plaintiff has to establish
is the substantial similarity between his work and the work of the
individual who is accused of infringing on his copyright. Similarity can
be easily established by showing that the defendant copied from the
plaintiff.
“More often than not, however, direct or literal copying is not an issue.
In these cases the defendant is not accused of taking a particular line or
segment of a work, but of appropriating “the fundamental essence or
structure of the work.” There must be more than minor similarities
between the two works; they must be substantially similar” (Pember,
2003/04).
But it has become quite clear that the important factor is not necessarily
the quantity or proportion of the original work which has been exploited.
The courts have observed on several occasions that the quality of the
piracy is of much greater significance than the quantity, so that there
may be infringement though the quantity is a tiny portion of the whole.
The amount of work used is not as important as the relative proportion

of a work used. Word counts, for example, really don’t mean as much as
percentages. The use of 500 words from a 450-page book is far less
damaging than the use of 20 words from a 40-word poem. How much of
the work, in relation to the whole, was used? Courts will consider exact
copying when looking at this question; but they will also consider
paraphrasing. Pirates will find little refuge in a dictionary of synonyms
(Pember, 2003/04).
The essence is to show that the vital qualities of the original work can be
recognised from the infringed copy. The fact that the original work is
also in circulation matters, as an infringement on the work will diminish
the value on the original.
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Why will a newspaper report of a political address delivered at a public

meeting not constitute an infringement of a copyright, despite the
presence of a conspicuous notice of prohibition at the venue of the
meeting?
3.7 Defenses to Infringement of Copyright
If litigation on copyright is successfully pursued against a defendant, the

defendant may be found guilty unless he/she is able to bring up any of
the following defenses:
1. The work is not original.

2. The work is not eligible for copyright (due to its immoral,
indecent or irreligious content).
3. The copyright has elapsed.
4. Fair dealing (the infringement was a fair use).
5. The infringement is an exception from copyright control (as
specified in the statute).
Points one to three (1-3) have been discussed already. The fourth and the
fifth are the ones that require more clarification.
Fair dealing “is a concept which permits the limited copying of an

original creation in which copyright subsists. The concept is found in
Schedule 2(a) of the decree which is to the effect that any fair dealing
with literary, musical, artistic or cinematograph film for the purposes of
research, private use, criticism or review or the reporting of current
events is not an act constituting an infringement of copyright” (Osinbajo
and Fogam, 1991).
The concept of fair dealing is similar to the common law and American
concept of fair use. Pember (2003/04) writes that “the 1976 copyright
law contains the common law doctrine of fair use. Section 107 of the
law declares, “The fair use of a copyrighted work…for purposes such as
criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies
for classroom use), scholarship or research is not an infringement of
copyright.” In declaring whether the use of a particular work is a fair
use, the statute says that courts should consider the following factors.
1. The purpose and character of the use.

2. The nature of the copyrighted work.
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to
the copyrighted work as a whole.
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
4. The effect of the use on the potential market for or value of the
copyrighted work.
Each factor on this list will be considered separately as the doctrine of

fair use is explored.
Fair use which was defined by an American court [Triangle

Publications v Knight-Ridder, 626 F. 2d 1171 1980 as cited in Pember
(2003/04) as “A rule of reason …to balance the author’s right to
compensation for his work, on the one hand, against the public’s interest
in the widest possible dissemination of ideas and information on the
other.”
Pember (2003/04) says that “This doctrine, then, permits limited

copying of an original work that has been properly copyrighted and has
not yet fallen into the public domain. 150 years ago all copying of a
copyrighted work was against the law. This absolute prohibition
constituted a hardship for scholars, critics and teachers seeking to use
small parts of copyrighted material in their work. A judicial remedy for
this problem was sought. It was argued that since the purpose of the
original copyright statute was to promote art and science, the copyright
law should not be administered in such a way as to frustrate artists and
scientists who publish scholarly materials…the doctrine of fair use
emerged from the courts, and under this judicial doctrine, small amount
of copying were permitted so long as the publication of the material
advanced science, the arts, criticism and so forth.
If a defendant therefore is able to prove to the court that the

infringement was a fair use of the work, and the court, after considering
the specific use believes it to be fair, may have a defense against
copyright infringement.
The last available defense in law for litigation on copyright violation is

that the infringement is an exception from copyright control based on
the provisions of the statute in Schedule 2 of the Copyright Decree of
1988. The following acts, in addition to fair dealing are exempted from
the right of copyright:
i. The doing of any of the aforesaid acts by way of parody,

pastiche, or caricature.
ii. The inclusion in a film or a broadcast of an artistic work situated
in a place where it can be viewed by the public.
iii. The reproduction and distribution of copies of an artistic work
permanently situated in a place where it can be viewed by the
public.
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i. The incidental inclusion of an artistic work in a film or a

broadcast.
ii. The inclusion in a collection of literary or musical work which
includes not more than two excerpts from the work, if the
collection bears a statement that it is designed for educational use
and includes an acknowledgement of the title and authorship of
the work.
iii. The broadcast of a work if the broadcast is approved by the
broadcasting authority as an educational broadcast.
iv. Any use made of a work in an approved educational institution
for the educational purposes of that institution, subject to the
condition that, if a reproduction is made for any such purpose it
shall be destroyed before the end of the prescribed period, or if
there is no prescribed period, before the end of the period of 12
months after it was made.
v. Subject to schedule 3 of this Decree, the making of a sound
recording of a literary or musical work, and the reproduction of
such a sound recording by the maker or under license from him,
where the copies thereof are intended for retail sale in Nigeria
and the work has already been previously recorded under license
from the owner of the relevant part of the copyright whether in
Nigeria or abroad, subject to such conditions and to the payment
of such compensation as may be prescribed.
vi. The reading or recitation in public or in a broadcast by any
person of any reasonable extract from a published literary work if
accompanied by a sufficient acknowledgement: provided that
such reading or recitation is not for commercial purpose.
vii. Any use made by a work by or under the direction or control of
the government, or by such public libraries, non-commercial
documentation centres or scientific or other institutions as may be
prescribed, where the use is in the public interest, no revenue is
derived thereof and no admission fee is charged for the
communication, if any, to the public of the work so used.
viii. The reproduction of a work by or under the control of a
broadcasting authority where the reproduction or any copies
thereof are intended exclusively for a lawful broadcast and are
destroyed before the end of a period of six months immediately
following the making of the reproduction or such longer period as
may be agreed between the broadcasting authority and the owner
of the relevant part of the copyright in the work.
ix. The broadcasting of a work already lawfully made accessible to
the public and subject (without prejudice to the other provisions
of this schedule) to the condition that the owner of the
broadcasting right in the work shall receive a fair compensation
determined, in the absence of agreement, by the court.
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
x. News of the day publicly broadcast or publicly communicated by

any other means.
xi. The communication to the public of a work, in a place where no
admission fee is charged in respect of the communication, by any
club whose aim is not profit making.
xii. Any use made of a work for the purpose of judicial proceeding or
of any report of any such proceeding.
xiii. The making of not more than three copies of a book (including a
pamphlet, sheet or music, map, chat or plan) by or under the
direction of the person in charge of a public library for the use of
the library if such a book is not available for sale in Nigeria.
xiv. The reproduction for the purpose of research or private study of
an unpublished literary or musical work kept in a library,
museum or other institutions to which the public has access.
xv. Reproduction of published work in Braille for the exclusive use
of the blind, and sound recordings made by institutions or other
establishments approved by the government for the promotion of
the welfare of other disabled persons for the exclusive use of such
blind or disabled persons.
Justify the principle of fair dealing or fair use under the copyright law.
3.8 Remedies to Infringement of Copyright
When an individual or body corporate that has violated a copyright

control is unable to put forth any of the defenses provided above in
copyright infringement litigation, the infringement is proved and the
individual or body corporate is found guilty by the court.
Section 16 of the decree says that all infringing copies of any work in
which copyright subsists, or of any substantial part thereof, and all
plates, master tapes, machines, equipment or contrivances used, or
intended to be used for the production of the infringing copies shall be
deemed to be the property of the owner who may take recovery of them.
According to Section 17 of the Copyright Decree, the person whose
rights have been infringed shall be entitled to an award of damages,
injunctions and any other remedies as the court may deem fit to award in
the circumstances.
In addition, Section 26 says that a plaintiff whose right to copyright has

been infringed shall be entitled to damages, injunction, and account for
profit or conversion.
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It can therefore comfortably be said that the remedies for infringement

of copyright are:
1. Damages
2. Injunction
3. Account of profit
4. Conversion or recovery of infringing copies of work.
Damages: This is the money or compensation that is awarded to the

winning party (usually the plaintiff) in a civil lawsuit. The owner of
copyright is entitled to damages if it is proved that the copyright on the
work was infringed and he suffered losses as a result of the defendant’s
action. Adesanya (1969) cites Lord Wright in Sutherland Publishing Co.
v. Caxton Publishing Co. (1936) as saying that “the owner of an
infringed copyright may bring action in damages, and the measure of
damages is the depreciation caused by the infringement to the value of
the copyright as a chose in action”.
Adesanya (ibid) says a “‘chose in action’ is any intangible object of

property, e.g. shares in a company, a contract debt, a copyright” and that
“any loss suffered by the copyright owner as a result of the reduction in
the sale of his work or any reduction in the probable profit will be taken
into account in awarding damages to him.”
Injunction: Is an order of the court restraining the commission or the

continuance of a wrongful act or omission [Adesanya, 1969]. It is
important that the plaintiff secures an injunction to limit the loss, havoc
or impact of the infringement on his work pending the determination of
the case by a court.
An injunction may be interlocutory or perpetual, depending on the case.

An interlocutory injunction is granted prior to the determination of the
case to limit the impact of the infringement on the owner of the
copyright. It is usually issued immediately after the issuance of the writ,
but at the application of the plaintiff and the discretion of the court.
If a plaintiff is unsuccessful in proving that an infringement has been

made on the copyright that subsists in his work, the injunction will be
lifted and the defendant will be discharged and acquitted. If however,
the plaintiff is successful in convincing the court in his claim of an
infringement on his work, the injunction becomes perpetual. A perpetual
injunction is a permanent order of the court restraining the defendant,
permanently from the commission or the continuance of a wrongful act.
If the infringement of the copyright on a work is such that it is done
once, the havoc is irredeemable and is unlikely to be repeated, then, an
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
injunction is unlikely to be the best form of remedy (for the plaintiff) in

such a case.
Account of profit: Is another form of remedy for copyright

infringement. It requires the court to enquire into the profit the infringer
has made, and hand them all over to the owner of the copyright as a
compensation for the impact of the infringement on his work. This
presupposes therefore that it is only the owner of an existing copyright
that can be due for an account of profit.
That probably explains why, according to Adesanya (1969) “A plaintiff

cannot, however, obtain both an account and damages for the same
infringement, since a claim for an account condones the infringement.”
Conversion or recovery of infringing copies of work: According to
Section 16 of the Decree, the owner of a copyrighted work which is
infringed is regarded as the owner of all infringing copies of the work,
or of any substantial part thereof, and all plates, master tapes, machines,
equipment or contrivances used, or intended to be used for the
production of the infringing copies shall be deemed to be his property
and he is entitled by law to take recovery of them.
“He may, therefore, bring an action for the recovery of possession of the
plates and infringing copies, or for damages for conversion. Where the
defendant, in a proceeding in respect of the infringement of the
copyright in a work, alleges and proves that he was not aware, at the
date of the infringement, of the existence of copyright in the work, and
that he had no reasonable cause to suspect that copyright subsists in the
work, the plaintiff is entitled to only an injunction in respect of the
infringement” (Adesanya, 1969).
A person who infringes on an author’s copyright, especially a

performer’s right, according to Section 27 of the Copyright Decree, can
also be held criminally liable. The penalty after conviction ranges from
fine or imprisonment or both.
A Nigerian newspaper publishes an article that had been earlier

published by another Nigerian newspaper without permission.
(a) Would the citation at the end of the latter publication that the
article was “culled from so and so newspaper” exonerate the
infringing newspaper from being culpable?
(b) Which of the remedies discussed above would be ideal in
compensating the newspaper in which the copyright of the article
subsists.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
It has been argued in some quarters that copyright is restrictive and
hinders creativity. But it is obvious that the law of copyright actually
seeks to protect creativity by ensuring that individuals benefit from the
efforts of their hard work and ingenuity.
The message for media professionals is that they should do their own
work and acknowledge it when they have no other choice than to cite a
“small” and “insignificant” portion of another’s work.
5.0 SUMMARY
property that seeks to prevent people from publishing and reproducing
the works of others without their consent and permission.
Copyright subsists in every original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic
work and it belongs to the author of the work or the individual who
commissions and/or pays for it. Copyright is infringed with the
unauthorised publication, production, reproduction or copying of an
author’s original work without his consent or permission.
Injunctions, damages, account of profits and recovery or conversion of

infringing copies or work are the remedies available for the violation of
the copyright in a work.

Why are there exemptions to a violation of copyright?

Adesanya, M. O. (1969). “Newspapers and Copyright.” In: T. O. Elias
(Ed.). Nigerian Press Law. Edinburgh: University of Lagos and
Evans Brothers Limited.
Black Laws Dictionary. (5th ed.). St. Paul Minn: West Publishing Co.
Copyright Decree No 47 (1988). In: Y. Osibajo & K. Fogam. Nigerian

Media Law (1991). Lagos: Gravitas Publishment Ltd.
Cranwell, M. (2002). Copyright. In: Tom Crome (Ed.). Law and the
Media (4th ed.) Oxford: Focal Press.
Osinbajo, Y. & Fogam, K. (1991). Nigerian Media Law. Lagos:

Pember, D. R. (2003/2004). (Ed.). Mass Media Law. New York:

McGraw-Hill Companies.
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UNIT 2 LAW AND ETHICAL REGULATION OF THE

NEW MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 New Media and Regulation in Nigeria
3.2 Internet and Defamation
3.2.1 International Nature of Internet Defamation
3.3 Internet and Copyright
3.4 Internet and Morality
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit explores the new media, the challenges that accompany its
regulation and the implications of publishing defamatory or indecent
materials through the Internet or infringing on the copyright of author’s
work on the Internet.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the various aspects of the new media

• enumerate regulations against indecent publication on the Internet
• state the implications of publishing defamatory materials on the
Internet
• write on copyright infringement on author’s work on the Internet.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 New Media in Nigeria: The Challenges of Regulation
The media are the channels of communication that allow information to

be passed to a large, heterogeneous and widely dispersed audience. Until
the 19th century, the known media of communication, which are now
referred to as the traditional mass media are; newspapers and magazines,
radio, television, and film.
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With the advent of the computer came new channels of communication

that involve the transmission of information, also to a large
heterogeneous audience, but through the use of digital technology,
usually the Internet. These media are popularly referred to as the ‘new
media’ and there are different forms of new media channels but almost
all are accessible only using new and recent technologies like the
desktop computers, laptops, smart phones, and tablets all linked to the
Internet.
Information is available on the Internet through websites, news groups,

chat forums, bulletin boards, e-mails, blogs and social networking sites.
A plethora of laws are available to protect private individuals and
corporate bodies from the activities of the media and check the
commission of civil and criminal offences using the traditional media.
However, there are a lot of challenges when it comes to the protection of
the rights of individuals from publications on the Internet or remedying
violations of rights committed on or via the Internet.
This is because there is a dearth of laws on Internet regulation in

Nigeria, and indeed the world over. Besides, the global nature of the
Internet makes it very cumbersome and almost impossible to regulate its
use and this probably explains why a lot of individuals publish whatever
they deem fit with reckless abandon on the Internet as it is regarded as a
regulation-free zone. So pathetic is it that in September 2011in Nigeria,
a video was posted on the Internet of an alleged female student of Abia
State University in South East Nigeria who was gang-raped by five male
students. The ordeal (based on the video recording) lasted for about an
hour and at a point, the victim became suicidal, asking that she be killed.
I do not know which is worse, the fact that she was raped or the fact that
the rapists found it exciting enough to share their atrocity with the
world! Some people who watched the video commented (on chat
forums) that she was not a student but a street hawker. I ask: does
anyone deserve to be raped? In any case, the essence of the illustration is
just to show one fact; people the world over see the Internet as a no-law
zone and a ‘space’ in which they can do as they please!
Unfortunately, this is not the case. There is regulation in the world and
the new media and indeed the Internet is not exempted. The laws that
apply to the traditional media also apply to the new media and violations
executed on the Internet can be redressed.
There are no specific laws on the new media in Nigeria but there are
laws that regulate the media that can be extended to proceedings on their
violations if and when they occur on the Internet. The statutes that seek
to regulate violations committed using the Internet or the new media are
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more concerned with cyber crimes or financial crimes, not intellectual

property or other civil rights.
In all, it is obvious that Nigeria is far behind in legislating on crimes and

offences that can be committed using the Internet and until this is done,
proceedings on violations of rights committed via the Internet may not
be instituted. This is a big loop-hole that will encourage the violation of
civil and intellectual property rights and an impairment of creativity.
Surprisingly, the new media is in wide use in Nigeria. Almost all
traditional media organisation have a website on which they publish
and/or broadcast the messages and audio and/or video messages that
have been earlier published or that are simultaneously published in the
new media.
It is therefore advisable for these media organisations, individual

journalists or authors and private persons and organisations who use the
new media to apply existing media law and ethics to their publications
on the Internet in order not to be culpable as a judge or court may derive
a law or principle to try criminal and/or civil violations on/via the
Internet pending the time that Nigeria will derive contemporary laws to
address this area.
In dealing with the Internet and media laws, we will have to depend on
cases from the West as there is a scarcity, if not an absence of such
litigations in Nigeria.
Why do you think there is a dearth of Internet or new media specific

laws in Nigeria?
3.2 Internet and Defamation
We have learnt that “defamation is a communication which exposes a

person to hatred, ridicule, or contempt, lowers him in the esteem of his
fellows, causes him to be shunned, or injures him in his business or
calling”. (Phelps and Hamilton, 1996)
In a proceeding for defamation, an element that must be proved is

publication, and publication occurs when a third party, (other than the
defamer and the one who is defamed) is exposed to the defamatory
message.
According to Overs (2002) “Those working in the media should apply

the existing legal principles of defamation to any material published in
new media format in order to avoid being sued for defamation.’’
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3.2.1 International Nature of Internet Defamation
The nature of the Internet is delicate, so delicate is it that whatever is

published automatically is available to be read, heard, viewed and
downloaded worldwide. This increases the impact of defamatory
messages published online.
This provides the prospective claimant the opportunity to choose where

to issue proceedings and what law to use. This is due to the fact that an
action for defamation can arise in the country where the information is
downloaded and viewed as well as in the country where it is posted
online. Claimants will just have to confirm the law and the opportunities
and challenges of the respective countries and the provisions they have
on defamation via the Internet.
In Overs (2002), “the courts are beginning to recognise the complex

issues involved in defamatory statements published on the Internet and
read in other jurisdictions. In 2000, the House of Lords held that a
Russian businessman could sue a United States magazine called Forbes
in England in respect of alleged defamatory statements published on the
magazine’s website (Berezovsky v Michaels (2000). In the case of
Gutnick v Dow Jones (2001) the Australian Supreme Court allowed
Gutnick, an Australian, to sue Dow Jones, a United States company, for
defamation in Australia in relation to an article published by Dow Jones
on its website. The court rejected the contention by Dow Jones that the
proceedings should take place in the United States because the article
was only intended to be read there.”
If an individual or body corporate however issues proceeding in another

jurisdiction, they must worry about enforcement as there are courts that
do not recognise judgments in other jurisdiction if there is no mutual
agreement or joint law between them and the issuing jurisdiction.
Why is defamation on the Internet actionable?
3.3 Internet and Copyright
Copyright is a law that protects intangible property. It seeks to prevent

people from publishing and reproducing the works of others without
their consent and permission.
Copyright subsists in every original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic

work and it belongs to the author of the work or the individual who
commissions and/or pays for it. Copyright is infringed with the
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unauthorised publication, production, reproduction or copying of an

author’s original work without his consent or permission.
There are domestic laws in every country of the world to protect the
copyright in works published in their jurisdictions. However, the
Internet makes works (print, multimedia) available to everyone
worldwide and the copyright law that protects these works in the
countries where they are posted does not protect them in other countries
(jurisdictions) the world over where they will be assessed.
Even the Nigerian Copyright Decree No 47 of 1988 (See Section 2

(1a&b)) protects only copyright in works printed or published: in
Nigeria, by Nigerian authors, by persons domiciled in Nigeria, or body
corporate incorporated under the laws of Nigeria. The modification to
the Nigerian Copyright law: Copyright Act CAP. 68 LFN 1990 has not
altered this section.
“For international copyright protection under the Universal Copyright

Convention the formula ©, the name of the copyright owner and the date
of first publication must be placed on a work” (Overs, 2002).
The global nature of the Internet means that the international protection
of copyright is of considerable importance. Two international treaties on
copyright, the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention, provide for possible world-wide protection of copyright for
authors of original material. Many countries, including the United
Kingdom and the United States, are signatories to both conventions. In
addition, the WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organisation) co-
ordinates and administers international treaties relating to intellectual
property protection (ibid).
Different continental organisations are also working hard to collaborate

on the protection of copyright of authors in their domain. “There is a
little harmonisation of copyright laws throughout the member states of
the European Union. In an effort to provide a more uniform system of
regulation, the European Union has recently approved two directives
that promote and facilitate the exchange of information in new media
formats. The Copyright Directive (2002/29/EC) was approved in 2001
and is aimed at ensuring that all works protected by copyright are
adequately protected throughout the European Union. The E-commerce
Directive (2000/31/EC) was approved in 2000 and is aimed at
harmonising certain legal aspects of ‘information society services’ in
Europe, in particular electronic commerce” (ibid).
Another important aspect of copyright and the Internet which the media
must note involve the aspect of contract. When full time employees
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write or produce (broadcast) for a media organisation, the organisation

can publish it in print or broadcast version and still publish it on the
Internet because the copyright belongs to the employer. However, when
a media organisation commissions a freelance journalist to write or
produce a multimedia product for it, it must ensure it is clearly spelt out
that the work will be used in the traditional media as well as the Internet
so as not to be culpable as the freelance journalist may sue for
infringement if the agreement is not clear.
Sometimes, a media organisation which is recently hosted on the

Internet may post pre-existing works and contributions on its pages. As
stated earlier, if the contributions are from full time employees, there
will be no problem. But if the pre-existing contributions are from third
parties, it is important to secure their consent/permission before posting
such works on the Internet in order to avoid an infringement proceeding.
Does the Berne Convention have any impact on the Nigerian copyright
law?
3.4 Internet and Morality
The laws still affect publications on the Internet as such publications of

any article are capable of corrupting persons who are likely to read, see
or hear it.
In Nigeria, Obscene Publications Act No 15 of 1961, Children and

Young Persons (Harmful Publications Act, 1961, Child’s Right Act of
2003 and Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Law Enforcement and
Administration Act, No. 24 2003 are some of the laws that can be
evoked to combat the publication of indecent and obscene material on
the Internet in Nigeria.
A lot of them forbid the publication of indecent and obscene articles but
they are not specific to the Internet. The Child’s Right Act of 2003 now
makes publication of pornographic pictures of children an offence.
In the United Kingdom, under the Obscene Publications Act 1959, as

amended by the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, a person
who makes obscene material available for transmission or downloads or
communicates obscene material by electronic transmission commits an
offence.
“It is not possible to access the Internet without an Internet service

provider. As a result, the Internet Service Providers have been targeted
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by law enforcement agencies and action groups for providing access to

obscene material. For example, in Germany in 1997 the local manager
of CompuServe was prosecuted in connection with child pornography
on the Internet, which was hosted on CompuServe’s servers. However,
the Government and the European Union support self-regulation by
Internet service providers rather than the passing of specific obscenity
legislation. Under article 15 of the E-commerce Directive, Internet
service providers will not be obliged to monitor the information and
content transmitted and stored on their systems, although they will be
required to remove unlawful material from their sites if it is brought to
their attention” (Overs, 2002).
Adebiyi (2009) says “The dissemination of pornography, via the Internet

has raised numerous legal questions. The major issues that need to be
examined are in respect of the liability of the author of the material and
the additional liability of the network service provider.”
Adebiyi (ibid) cites the “American case of State of New York v. BuffNet,
An Internet service provider (ISP) pleaded guilty to the misdemeanour
charge of knowingly providing access to child pornography. A two-year
investigation found that ISP, BuffNet, knowingly hosted a child
pornography newsgroup called "Pedo University". The police notified
BuffNet that they were hosting illegal content, yet BuffNet failed to
remove the newsgroup from its servers. Police then seized the ISP's
servers. BuffNet was levied a $5000 fine, and removed the obscene
content.”
In what respect does the mass media law in Nigeria relevant to social
media?
4.0 CONCLUSION
There are no much law regulating the legal and social atrocities
committed on the Internet and little or nothing is being done to address
this grave challenge in Nigeria. Adebiyi’s (2009) comment captures the
situation completely: “Much of the international work has so far been
centered in western European and OECD countries; the potential extent
of computer crime is as broad as the extent of the international
telecommunication systems. All regions of the world must become
involved in order to prevent this new form of criminality. Ensuring the
integrity of computer systems is a challenge facing both developed and
developing countries. It is predicted that within the next decade, it will
be necessary for developing nations to experience significant
technological growth in order to become economically self-sufficient
130
and more competitive in world markets. As dependence on computer

technology grows in all nations, it will be crucial to ensure that the rate
of technological dependence does not outstrip the rate at which the
corresponding social, legal and political frameworks are developing. It is
important to plan for security and crime prevention at the same time that
computer technology is being implemented.”
5.0 SUMMARY
We have discussed the Internet and how defamation, obscene

publication and copyright infringement can be committed on the
Internet. The Internet, by making information posted on it available to
the whole world simultaneously publishes the information posted on it
automatically, an important element in defamation and obscene
publication cases.
Media organisations and individual authors must ensure that they apply
the regular media laws in their publications on the Internet as they do
while publishing in traditional media.
Will regulation of the Internet hinder the freedom of expression?

Interview a member or executive of the Nigerian Union of Journalist for
his/her opinion, on the question.
Adebiyi, A. (2009). Internet Crime: The Nigerian Perspective.

Presented at the 1st Annual Conference on Cyber Security by the
Anti-Money Laundering and Cyber Security Coalition.
Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications Act, 1961.
Child’s Right Act of 2003.
Copyright Decree No 47 of 1988.
Creech, K. C. (2003). Electronic Media Law and Regulation (4th ed.).

USA: Focal Press (Elsevier Science).
Obscene Publications Act No 15 of 1961.
Overs, E. (2002). “Copyright.” In: T. Crome (Ed.). Law and the Media
(4th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
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Phelps, R. & Doughlas H. (1996). Libel. New York: Macmillan.
Spilsbury, S. ( 2000) Media Law. London: Cavendish Publishing Ltd.
Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Law Enforcement and

Administration Act, No. 24 2003.
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UNIT 3 PROTECTION OF NEWS SOURCES OR

WHISTLE-BLOWERS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Importance of Information to the Media
3.2 News Sources and Confidentiality
3.3 Nigerian Journalists and Protection of News Sources
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information is the life wire of communication: without it (the latter)

cannot endure. And the sources of information for the media are the
springs that have continuously nourished the profession. Without news
sources or whistle-blowers, the media will be unable to effectively carry
out its function as a watchdog in the society. The media must therefore
ensure they protect the sources of information in order to ensure their
survival as agents of communication and change.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• identify sources of news for news media

• explain the importance of protecting the identity of news sources
(whistle-blowers)
• cite cases to present the different positions of the law on
protection of news sources
• enlighten journalists on how to deal with sources that require
confidentiality.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Importance of Information to the Media
The responsibility of the media is to publish information that will

entertain, educate and enlighten the masses. More importantly, the
media has a responsibility to ensure the revelation of crime and the
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identities of individuals who commit crime and disturb the welfare of

the society. Ultimately, they are to serve as watchdogs to the
government and ill-minded individuals in the society and check their
excesses.
All these responsibilities and enormous tasks cannot be performed

without information, the kind that is not readily available in the public
domain. The media therefore require news sources or whistle-blowers
who are interested in ‘providing’ the media with important information
intended to help them in their watchdog role.
3.2 News Sources and Confidentiality
If news and information are the lifeblood of the press, then news sources
are one of the important wells from which that lifeblood springs. Many
journalists, especially those who consider themselves investigative
journalists, are often no better than the sources they can cultivate. News
sources come in all shapes and sizes. Occasionally, their willingness to
cooperate with a reporter is dependent on assurances from the journalist
that their identity will not be revealed (Pember, 2003/04).
A news source, also popularly referred to as a whistle-blower is

someone who reveals alleged fraudulent or illegal activities to the
media. The illegal or fraudulent activity may be a violation of law or
actions that pose a threat to public interest such as fraud, health/safety
violations, corruption, misappropriation or other inequities.
This explains why these individuals crave or out rightly demand for
confidentiality. This is because the revelation of their identity will
expose them to threats to their lives, jobs, livelihood or social
acceptance in the society. Remaining anonymous thus protects them
from the consequences of being identified as the source of the
information.
In order to get access to information that will lead to the revelation of

crime or uncovering of fraudulent activities, journalists have had to
promise news sources confidentiality. Such promises, when made must
be fulfilled as it is a core media ethics to keep promises made to news
sources at the time of procuring information.
“It is not uncommon today for people outside the news-gathering

business to want access to the information gathered by journalists.
Sometimes, they merely seek copies of what has already appeared in
print or been carried over the airwaves. Sometimes, they want more:
information that has not been published; photos or videos that have not
been broadcast; the names of persons who provided the information to
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the journalist. Judges, grand juries and even legislative committees all
have the power to issue subpoenas to try to force journalists to reveal
this information” (Pember, ibid).
The promise of confidentiality places a great burden on reporters as they

are to keep their words even in the face of the law. This explains why
journalists have had to go to jail for refusing to reveal their sources to
the legislature or judiciary.
“The jailing of a reporter who refuses to cooperate with government

authorities who want him or her to divulge confidential information is
not a common occurrence in the United States today. But it does happen.
In 1993, Staurt (Fla.) News reporter Tim Roche served 18 days in jail
because he refused to reveal the name of the person who gave him a
copy of a sealed court order in a child custody case. In December of
1995 Houston Chronicle reporter Jennifer Lenhart was jailed for
refusing to reveal the names of grand jury members who told her about
secret deliberations in a police shooting case. In October of 1996 a judge
in Florida sentenced Miami Herald reporter David Kidwell to 70 days in
jail because he refused to answer a prosecutor’s questions about an
interview he had with a man accused of killing his step-daughter.
Kidwell spent two weeks in jail before a federal judge freed him and
directed the state appeals court to reconsider the case in light of
numerous federal court rulings that recognise a first amendment
privilege for reporters.
In June of 1999 a federal judge ordered two Atlanta Journal-Constitution

reporters, Ron Martz and Kathy Scruggs, to be jailed for refusing to
reveal who told them that security guard Richard A. Jewell was leading
suspect in the bombing at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. In
February of 2000, reporter Tim Crews of the Sacramento Valley Mirror
was jailed for five days for refusing to reveal the names of the sources of
his story that a former California Highway Patrol officer had stolen a
gun from a county police drug task force. And in 2001 a freelance writer
named Vanessa Leggett was jailed for almost five months in Texas
because she refused to give her notes from an interview to a grand jury
investigating a murder” (ibid).
Journalists are most of the time able to access materials and gather
information that may be difficult for other individuals and institutions.
They have sources’ confidence and are able to elicit information from
them, they are able to interview rebels and the rebellious, they gain
access to protests and protesters and more often than not, the
government and law enforcement agencies want to obtain this
information from the media for their purposes.
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“Hence, reporters are often asked to reveal information they have

gathered but chosen not to publish or broadcast. Most of the time
journalists comply with such requests. At times, however, they refuse.
When this happens, the persons interested in obtaining this information
often get a subpoena to force the journalist to reveal the name of the
news source or to disclose the confidential information. Or government
agents may get a warrant to search a newsroom or a reporter’s home to
find the information they want” (ibid).
Pember (ibid) shares David Utevsky’s tips for reporters on promising

confidentiality:
i. Do not routinely promise confidentiality as a standard interview

technique.
ii. Avoid giving an absolute promise of confidentiality. Try to
persuade the source to agree that you may reveal his or her name
if you are subpoenaed.
iii. Do not rely exclusively on information from a confidential
source. Get corroboration from a non-confidential source or
documents.
iv. Consider whether others (police, attorneys, etc) will want to
know the identity of the source before publishing or broadcasting
the material. Will you be the only source of this information or
can they get it elsewhere?
v. Consider whether you can use the information without disclosing
that it is obtained from a confidential source.
Pember (ibid) adds that reporters should always consult with a

supervisor or editor before promising anonymity to a source; if a legal
action results the journalist will have to rely on the news outlet to assist
in defending the action.
It does happen that some unprincipled journalists break their promises

without a reasonable excuse. This action is unethical and can affect the
image of the medium and the goodwill of the reporter. Not only those,
instances have shown that news sources can actually sue for a breach of
contract and win!
Pember cites the case of Cohen v. Cowles Media Co., 445 N.W. 2d 248
(1989) “In 1982 Dan Cohen, who was closely associated with the
Republican campaign for the governorship of Minnesota, approached
reporters for both the Minneapolis Star and Tribune and the St. Paul
Pioneer Press Dispatch and said he would give them previously
unpublicised information about Marlene Johnson, the Democratic-
Farmer-Labour candidate for lieutenant governor. All the reporters had
to do was to promise never to reveal Cohen’s name as the source of the
136
information. The reporters agreed and Cohen supplied them with 12 and
13-year-old court records showing that Johnson had been arrested for
unlawful assembly (she was at a protest rally) and that she had been
convicted of petty theft for leaving a store without paying for a $6 worth
of sewing goods (the conviction was later vacated). Editors at both
newspapers decided to publish the information about the candidate, but
because the election was just days away, they felt it was necessary to
include Cohen’s name as the source of the information to give readers
the opportunity to evaluate the charges against Johnson. When Cohen’s
name was published, he lost his job. He angrily sued for breach of
contract, claiming he and the reporters had entered into a contract
agreement when he provided the information for a promise of
confidentiality. A Minnesota trial court agreed and awarded the public
relations man $200, 000 in compensatory damages and $500, 000 in
punitive damages”. The case moved from one appeal court to the other.
In 1992, Cohen was finally awarded $200, 000 in damages in his
suit against the newspaper by the Minnesota Supreme Court.
Should a journalist lose an opportunity to publish an exclusive story

because of his/her inability to make a confidentiality pact?
3.3 Nigerian Journalists and the Protection of News Sources
Journalists cannot survive without news sources and news sources will
not reveal information to journalists if their anonymity cannot be
guaranteed. Government agencies, legislative chambers and the
judiciary sometimes demand that journalists reveal their news sources or
the vital information obtained from these sources for their purposes.
Journalists are thus in a serious dilemma.
Unfortunately, there is no outright law that protects the journalist or

supports them in their efforts to protect their news sources. Many have
argued that the need for journalist to protect their news sources is purely
an ethical issue and the law and society cannot be hindered as a result of
this.
Therefore, whether a journalist will be forced to release his news

sources or information derived from them is determined on a case by
case basis. In the United States, the court is less likely to require a
journalist to reveal his sources and information obtained from them in a
civil case. But a subpoena may not be squashed if the information
required from the reporter is deemed to be necessary and critical to the
prosecution and that the information may not be available through any
other means.
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Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) cite the following three cases regarding
journalists and the protection of news sources in Nigeria:
“In Tony Momoh vs. The Senate [(1981) 1 N.C.L.R. 105, Court
of Appeal decision (1983) 4 N.C.L.R], for example, the Daily
Times Newspaper published an article on how senators of the
Second Republic lobbied for contracts from the executive branch
of the government. The senate invited the editor to disclose the
source of his information. He went to court seeking a declaration
that such demands constituted a violation of his constitutional
rights of freedom of expression. The High Court of Lagos State
held that to force a person who disseminates information
through the medium of the newspaper to disclose the source of
information given in confidence was indeed an interference with
the freedom of expression granted by Section 36 of the
constitution then in force. The Court of Appeal, without
reversing the decision of the High Court, stated however that,
there is nothing in Section 36 which confers any express or
implied right on a pressman not to disclose the source of
information if he is required to do so.
In Innocent Adukwu & Ors. vs. Federal House of

Representatives, an article entitled “Fraud – Legislators Claim
Salaries and Allowances for Fictitious Staff” appeared in one of
the issues of Sunday Punch Newspaper. The editor and some
journalists of that paper were summoned by a committee of the
House of Representatives to give evidence on the information
contained in that issue. They applied to the court complaining
that the action of the house amounted to an interference with
their rights under section 36 of the 1979 Constitution. On the
issue of disclosure of sources of information by a journalist,
Balogun J, had this to say:
“…I think, that newspapers are agents so to speak of the public

to collect information which it is in the public interest to make
known, and to feed the public of it. In support of this
constitutional right of press freedom the newspaper cannot be
required to disclose its sources of information except in grave or
exceptional circumstances, neither by means of discovery before
trial nor by questions or cross-examination at the trial nor by
means of subpoenas from courts or summons by a legislative
investigating body. The reason is because if newsmen were
compelled to disclose their sources of information which it is not
in the public interest to make known, Charlatans would not be
exposed, unfairness would go un-remedied. Misdeeds and
serious faults in the corridors of power and elsewhere would
138
never be made known to the public…the freedom of the

press…cannot be hampered or restricted…save within the
permissible exceptions built in under the constitution” [(1982) 3
N.C.L.R. 394].
The Lagos State High Court in Oyegbami v. Attorney-General of

the Federation & Ors, applied the same theory as in the other
two cases. It was again stated that a newspaper editor or
journalist cannot be guilty of contempt of court for refusing to
disclose the source of information, unless it is established to the
satisfaction of the court that disclosure is necessary in the
interests of justice, national security, public safety, public order,
public morality, welfare of persons or for the purpose of
prevention of disorder or crime.”
It is worthy of note however that the law only protects journalists and
give them privilege (sometimes) from revealing their sources,
information retrieved from those sources and unpublished materials (in
situations that are not grave and exceptional). The law does not
whatsoever grant this privilege or exception to non-journalists and
pressmen.
A journalist is “someone who gathers news for a news medium”

(Pember, 2003/04). A journalist, according to a three-judge panel from
the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals is a person:
• who is engaged in investigative reporting

• who is gathering news
who possesses the intent at the beginning of the news-gathering
process to disseminate this news to the public.
Now this presupposes that individuals working with non-conventional

news organisations may not be regarded as journalists. Are staffs of soft-
sell media journalists? The question may require a juristic response.
Smith (1978) says that “The refusal to reveal sources is not a matter of
heroics: it is part of the job which, in many instances puts the journalist
between two entrenched factions. A journalist’s responsibility is to the
law: his duty is to his source. If he dislikes the consequence of this, he
should consider a less onerous profession.”
Majority of journalists will not quit the profession because of this

challenge but a good number of them will not want to go to jail either.
That is why journalists and pressmen in general must learn how to relate
with sources who demand confidentiality.
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Pember (2003/04) has suggested seven tips for reporters when

confronted with a source who demands confidentiality. They are:
1. Assume the interview is on the record unless the subject seeks

anonymity.
2. There is no obligation to grant anonymity for information that has
already been provided.
3. Before making any promise to a source, try to find something out
about the information and where it comes from.
4. Try to talk to an editor or news director before making any
promises to a source.
5. Keep any promise made to a source simple and easy to fulfill, and
be certain both you and the source completely understand the
conditions to which you have agreed.
6. Record any promise you make to a source.
7. Avoid adding material to a story that a source has already
approved, or try to avoid promising the source that he or she has
story approval.
Will a promise of confidentiality made to a source be valid, if it is oral

and/or unrecorded?
4.0 CONCLUSION
The protection of news sources or whistle-blowers is an ethical issue

that every professional journalist and media practitioner must take
seriously as news and information, according to Pember “are the
lifeblood of the press and the news sources are the wells from which that
lifeblood springs.” Therefore, corruption, ineptitude, inequities and
violations of law will not be exposed if news sources, fearing for their
safety and livelihood refuse to reveal such information if their
anonymity cannot be guaranteed.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have learnt that protection of news sources is an ethical issue for

journalists and the media must ensure the confidentiality of their news
sources if they will continue to gain access to information that will help
them perform their function of informing and acting as a watchdog and
agents of change in the society.
The judiciary, government agencies and the legislature have the

authority to demand journalists to reveal their sources and information
gathered from the source, whether published or unpublished.
140
There is no legislation that protects journalists from revealing their

sources, but they can appeal against it if they can prove that the
information can be gotten from another source, the information is not
critical to the determination of any case and the state does not have a
compelling and overriding interest in the case.
Defend the need for the media to protect the anonymity of their news
sources.
Ludlam, J. (2002). “Protection of Journalistic Sources.” In: T. Crome

(Ed.). Law and the Media (4th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.

Pember, D. R. (2003/2004 (Ed.). Mass Media Law. New York:

Robin, C. S. (1978). Press Law. London: Sweet and Maxwell.
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
UNIT 4 CONTEMPT OF COURT AND PARLIAMENT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Understanding Contempt of Court
3.2 Laws on Contempt of Court in Nigeria
3.3 Forms of Contempt of Court
3.4 Defenses against Charge of Contempt of Court
3.5 Understanding Contempt of Parliament
3.6 Categories of Contempt of Parliament
3.7 Contempt of Parliament: Jurisdiction and Penalty
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The law protects legislative houses and grants their members privileges
during the performance of their duties so that they can effectively debate
and participate in proceedings that will enhance the development of the
country. In the same way, the society has to uphold the integrity of the
courts if the integrity and trust in the judiciary as the harbinger of justice
is to be maintained.
To ensure this, the law on contempt is instituted to enhance the capacity

of the legislature and the judiciary to ensure authority in their
institutions. The aim of this unit is to explain in detail the contempt of
court and parliament and its implications for media practice and
practitioners.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define contempt of court and parliament

• analyse the laws on contempt of court and parliament
• explain how the media can run afoul of contempt of court and
parliament.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Understanding Contempt of Court
Hundreds of years ago in England, the monarch dispensed justice to the

people. The king or queen was above the law, someone whose power
was divinely inspired, and resistance to royal orders was a sin,
punishable by damnation. When judges eventually began to administer
the courts on behalf of the monarch, they retained much of this power
since it was believed, though absent from the courtroom, the king or
queen nevertheless was spiritually guiding the hand of justice. As
representative democracy developed in England and royal influence of
the government diminished, judges retained the contempt power, and it
became institutionalised in common-law courts in both Great Britain and
the United States. Courts today rarely justify the exercise of the
contempt power on the grounds that it protects the integrity of the judge.
Instead, protection of the authority, order and decorum of the court is the
usual reason given for the use of the contempt power. Alternatively, the
court will use contempt to protect the rights of the litigants using the
court to settle a dispute [Pember, 2003/04].
Therefore, “any act or publication that delays or interferes with the

administration of justice in the courts, or that causes justice to miscarry,
or that tends to have either of these effects may, under the law, be held
to be in contempt of court and be punished by fine or imprisonment or
both” (Arthur and Crossman, 1940).
Munro (1979) quotes J. F. Oswald as explaining contempt to mean

“…any conduct that tends to bring the authority and administration of
the law into disrespect or disregard or to interfere with or prejudice the
parties or their witnesses during litigation.”
From all the foregoing, contempt of court can be defined as: any act,
which is calculated to embarrass, hinder or obstruct court administration,
of justice, or which is calculated to lessen its authority or its dignity,
committed by a person who does an act in willful contravention of its
authority or dignity, or tending to impede or frustrate the administration
of justice or by one who, being under the court’s authority as a party to a
proceeding willfully disobeys its lawful orders or fails to comply with
an understanding which he has given (Okoye, 1998).
The law of contempt is consequently a regulation aimed at ensuring that

the court, judges and litigants are protected from any acts or publication
that may undermine the court or thwart the efforts of citizens from
getting justice or defending their innocence.
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This is important because the moment there is no respect for the court
system and citizens are uncertain about the opportunity to have redress
for wrongs done to them, there will be chaos in the state as citizens will
take laws into their hands. Thus, the law of contempt exists to ensure
respect and authority in the court system and also to guarantee a system
where individuals can gain justice and/or prove their innocence in
conflicts through the judiciary without fear of interference from outside
factors.
Considering the origin of the law of contempt, is it still relevant or

required in the 21st century?
3.2 Laws on Contempt of Court in Nigeria
The laws of contempt of court in Nigeria are in Acts of Parliament,

Criminal Code, Penal Code and the Constitution.
Starting with the most elaborate, Section 133 of the Criminal Code
provides as follows:
“Any person who:
(1) Within the premises in which any judiciary proceeding is being

had or taken, or within the precincts of the same, shows
disrespect, in speech or manner, to or with reference to such
proceeding, or any person before whom such proceeding is being
had or taken
(2) Having been called upon to give evidence in a judiciary
proceeding, fails to attend or, having attended, refuses to be
sworn or make an affirmation, or, having been sworn or affirmed,
refuses without lawful excuse to answer a question, or to produce
a document or prevaricates, or remains in the room in which such
proceeding is being had or taken, after the witnesses have been
ordered to leave such a room
(3) Causes an obstruction or disturbance in the course of a judicial
proceeding; or
(4) While a judiciary proceeding is pending, makes use of any speech
or writing, misrepresenting such proceeding, or capable of
prejudicing any person in favour of or against any party to such
proceeding, or calculated to lower the authority of any person
before whom such proceeding is being had or taken; or
(5) Publishes a report of the evidence taken in any judicial
proceeding which has been directed to be held in private
144
(6) Attempts wrongfully to interfere with or influence a witness in a

judicial proceeding, either before or after he has given evidence,
in connection with such evidence
(7) Dismisses a servant because he has given evidence on behalf of a
certain party to a judicial proceeding
(8) Retakes possession of land from any person who has recently
obtained permission by writ of court
(9) Commits any other act of intentional disrespect to any judicial
proceeding, or to any person before whom such proceeding is
being had or taken, is guilty of a simple offence, and liable to
imprisonment for three months.”
This law presupposes therefore, that any person who is charged under
Section 133 of the Criminal Code “must be tried by a magistrate or
judge or other judicial officer other than the one against whom the
offence is committed, since it is one of the fundamental principle of
natural justice that a man cannot be a judge in his own case”
(Adaramaja, 1969).
Section 6 of the Criminal Code provides that:
“Nothing in this Act or in the Code shall affect the authority of courts of
record to punish a person summarily for the offence commonly known
as contempt of court; but so that a person cannot be so punished and also
punished under the provisions of the Code for the same act or
omission.”
From section 6 therefore, it is evident that a judge, after observing a

conduct and having the conviction that the conduct is a contempt of
court can, there and then, punish the contemnor for contempt of court.
No formal charge need be made and no trial conducted.
Adaramaja (ibid) posits that “Why the courts have always chosen the
latter procedure does not seem to be farfetched. In the first place, the
offence carries a maximum punishment of three months’ imprisonment.
It is doubtless that an act or omission constituting the offence may be so
grievous or serious that a much greater punishment is necessary to purge
it or make it a deterrent to prospective contemnors of court. In the latter
procedure there is no limit to the punishment that can be inflicted.
Secondly, the punishment under this latter procedure is summary in the
sense that no charge is formally laid and no witnesses are called to prove
the offence. Sometimes the offender is summoned before the court
against whom the contempt is committed and, after having been told the
gist of the offence, he is there and then punished without a trial. At other
times, if the contempt is committed in facie curiae (that is in the face of
the court or within the court precincts), the offender is there and then
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punished. These are two great advantages and they save the expense and
time involved in a formal trial.”
Critics have condemned the summary judgment of contempt, saying that

it is against the laws of natural justice, noting that since to punish a
person summarily implies that a court can punish a person for contempt
of itself without charging before another court for trial and therefore it is
a breach of fundamental principle of justice that a person cannot be a
judge in his own case.
Pember (2003/04) adds that “The most onerous application of contempt

power occurs when it is summarily applied. When a judge uses a
summary contempt power, the jurist acts as a prosecutor (“I accuse you
of …”), jury (“Guilty as charged”) and judge (I sentence you to…”).
This power is actually reserved for those occasions when the judge has
actual firsthand knowledge of the contemptuous act; for example, if the
defendant misbehaves in the courtroom or if the reporter refuses to
answer questions relating to the identity of a source. When the summary
power is applied, the accused has few of the rights normally associated
with due process of law. There is no jury trial, no right to call witnesses.
The accuser and the judge are one and the same.”
Other critics have argued further that summary contempt power allows a
judge to sentence an individual for an offence which may not be
expressly written in law as it is left to the judge to determine what act(s)
amount to contempt of itself and what punishment is due for it. They
cite Section 22(10) of the constitution which provides that: “No person
shall be convicted of a criminal offence unless that offence is prescribed
in a written law’. Unfortunately, their argument is thwarted by a proviso
to s.22 (10) of the constitution which expressly saves the abolition of
unwritten and undefined criminal offence of contempt of court. It is as
follows: ‘Provided that nothing in this subsection shall prevent a court
of record from punishing any person for contempt of itself
notwithstanding that the act or omission constituting the contempt is not
defined in a written law and the penalty thereof is not so prescribed.”
Another provision on contempt of court is Section 155 of the Northern

States Penal Code which provides as follows:
“Whoever intentionally offers any insult or causes any interruption to

any public servant while such public servant is sitting in any stage of a
judicial proceeding shall be punished with imprisonment for a term
which may extend up to six months or with a fine which may extend to
£20 or with both.”
146
It will be noticed that the wording of Section 155 of the Northern States
Penal Code is so wide and all-embracing that the press can always be
charged with contempt of court in almost the same circumstances as it
can be charged under the Criminal Code (Adaramaja, 1969).
Section 39 (3) of the 1999 Constitution also provides a legislation for

contempt of court. It says:
“Nothing in this section shall invalidate any law that is reasonably

justifiable in a democratic society: (a) for …maintaining the authority
and independence of courts …”
Different situations and conduct can result in contempt problems for the
press. According to Section 133:
“Any person who:
(4) While a judiciary proceeding is pending, makes use of any speech or

writing, misrepresenting such proceeding, or capable of prejudicing any
person in favour of or against any party to such proceeding, or
calculated to lower the authority of any person before whom such
proceeding is being had or taken; or (5) Publishes a report of the
evidence taken in any judicial proceeding which has been directed to be
held in private; or (9) Commits any other act of intentional disrespect to
any judicial proceeding, or to any person before whom such proceeding
is being had or taken, is guilty of a simple offence, and liable to
imprisonment for three months.”
On his part, Pember (2003/04) lists five common ways that members of
the press might become involved in a contempt problem, although the
list is by no means exhaustive:
1. Failure to pay a judgment in a libel or invasion-of-privacy case.

2. Failure to obey a court order. The judge rules that no photos may
be taken in the courtroom or orders reporters not to publish
stories about certain aspects of a case. If these orders are
disobeyed, a contempt citation may result.
3. Refusal of a journalist to disclose the identity of a source or to
testify in court or before a grand jury.
4. Critical commentary about the court. This might be an editorial
critical of the court or a cartoon mocking the judge. Contempt
citations have been issued to punish the press in such cases.
5. Tampering with a jury. A reporter tries to talk with jurors during
a trial, asking questions about their views on the defendant’s
innocence or guilt.
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Is summary contempt power a violation of the fundamental human

rights of citizens?
3.3 Forms of Contempt of Court
There are different classifications of contempt based on different

criteria. “Varieties of contempt are recognised through the common law,
and efforts have been unsatisfactory: there are frequently disagreements
among courts about what kinds of behaviour constitute what kinds of
contempt” (Pember, 2003/04). This unit will not be authorising any
particular form or joining in the debate. Rather, it will adopt the civil
and criminal contempt classification applied by Osinbajo and Fogam
(1991).
Civil contempt
Civil contempt (also known as “contempt in procedure” or “constructive

contempt”) is a wrong done to a person who is entitled to the benefit of
an order or judgment. Thus, the failure of a party to a civil suit to carry
out the terms of a verdict or decision, or the willful disobedience of
court orders or disobedience of court orders or disobedience of a
subpoena, constitute examples of civil contempt. The primary purpose
of this class of contempt is therefore to coerce compliance with the court
order or ruling. Although the act constituting civil contempt always
occurs outside the court; and it is essentially an infringement against
private rights, the effect is usually a delay, interference or an obstruction
of the fair administration of justice. Accordingly civil contempt is often
punished in the same manner as criminal contempt – with a jail sentence
which is terminated when the contemnor obeys the court order. Thus, a
publisher for example, who fails to pay damages awarded to a victim of
a defamatory article may be booked for civil contempt and put in jail
until he pays or is willing to pay (Osinbajo and Fogam, 1991).
Criminal contempt
Criminal contempt on the other hand, “consists of any acts or words

which obstruct or tend to obstruct or interfere with the administration of
justice”. Criminal contempt is charged to protect the court itself. Thus
any obstruction of court proceedings or court officers, attack on court
personnel, and deliberate acts of bad faith or fraud are examples of
criminal contempt. There are two principal forms namely, direct and
indirect criminal contempt (Osinbajo and Fogam, ibid).
148
Direct criminal contempt
Direct contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding

judge (in facie curiae – in the face of the court) and may be dealt with
summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has
acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the
administration of justice. After giving the person the opportunity to
respond, the judge may impose the sanction immediately.
Acts that constitute direct criminal contempt will include but not limited
to: refusal to give evidence in court, taking photographs inside the
courtroom, actions which interrupt or disturb court proceedings like
noise, protests and actions that disrespect or insult the judge or other
officers of the court present in the court.
The main feature of direct criminal contempt, that is, in facie curiae – in
the face of the court is that the act occurs in the presence of the judge.
The judge has firsthand knowledge of the contemptuous act and he/she
can there and then summarily punish the contemnor for the act
committed.
Judges wield power to summarily punish for contempt and they can use
this power at any time. An interesting example occurred on April 4,
2012 when a Magistrate attached to the Lagos High Court, Ikeja,
ordered the arrest of the journalists waiting to cover the judgment of a
coroner inquiring into the cause of death arising from the August 15,
2010 ghastly accidents along the Otedola bridge end of the
Lagos/Ibadan Expressway.
At the orders of Magistrate Oshoniyi, the journalists were arrested for

noise making. The journalists were then taken to Area F Police
Command in Ikeja and their mobile phones and cameras seized.
Channels Television’s Judiciary Correspondent, Shola Soyele reported
that trouble started when a female police prosecutor in mufti simply
identified as Rose and attached to one Magistrate A. A. Oshoniyi of the
Lagos State Judiciary accosted the journalists, raised her voice and
shouted on them to vacate the court premises while they gathered for
proceedings to commence on the inquest.
According to him, attempts by the journalists to explain their mission

fell on deaf ears and in the course of the exchange of words, Magistrate
Oshoniyi came out of her chambers and without trying to find the cause
of the noise immediately ordered the arrest of the journalists.
The journalists beaten include Wale Busari of Silverbird Television,

Wahab Abdullahi of Vanguard Newspapers, Akintunde Akinwale of
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Thisday Newspapers and Channels Television’s cameraman Polynous

Odedeyi. Those arrested are journalists from the Nigerian Compass,
Thisday, Leadership, Vanguard, PM News, Nigerian Tribune, and
Moment Newspapers.
The matter was later resolved. The essence of citing this incident is not
to debate its legality or otherwise. Rather, it is to show the extent of the
power of a judge to deal with individuals and/or the media for contempt
committed in the face of the court.
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) cites the case of Ex Parte Sturm [152 Md.
114, 136 A. 312, 51 A.L.R. 356 (1972)]. “The court ordered the
surrender of the photographic plates of a photographer and ordered that
no picture of a suspect be taken. William Strum a photographer with the
Baltimore News nevertheless secretly took several pictures of the
suspect. The pictures appeared in two newspapers viz the Baltimore
News and Baltimore American. Contempt proceedings were instituted
against the Managing Editor of both newspapers and the photographer.
They were adjudged in contempt of court for violation of its orders
about photographing the suspect.”
Indirect criminal contempt
Indirect criminal contempt involves acts or publications that (occur ex

facie curiae – outside the face of the court) but which nonetheless tend
to interfere with the course of justice or impede the judge or court
officials from performing their duties or litigants from the opportunity of
getting justice or a fair trial.
Acts and words (spoken or written) that tend to interfere with the
proceedings of the court and/or the administration of justice done
outside the face of the court fall under indirect criminal contempt.
Different acts can impede proceedings or interfere with the proper

administration of justice. The list is endless. However, any action that is
calculated at coercing witnesses or preventing them from giving
evidence in court, or communicating with a judge on a case outside of
court proceedings or impedes other judiciary staff in the performance of
their duties are forms of indirect contempt.
In Oluyemi Adekoya v. L. K. Jakande (as cited by Chief Gani

Fawehinmi, The Law of Contempt in Nigeria (Case Book) pg. 40 in
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991), “the plaintiff instituted an action against
the defendant and two others on their own behalf and on behalf of all the
members of the Newspapers Proprietors Association of Nigeria
(NPAN). Whilst the matter was still pending, L. K. Jakande wrote a
150
letter to all newspaper executives requesting them to blacklist and refuse

adverts from plaintiff’s advertising agency if he (the plaintiff) did not
withdraw the case against the NPAN. The relevant paragraph of the
letter read as follows:
“Should the AAPN fail to fulfill this part of its agreement,

council would regard it as an evidence that AAPN was unable to
control its members and if by 9th May, the pending matter was
not withdrawn or alternatively, if the AAPN did not expel the
offending member, all members of the NPAN would be advised
to blacklist the agency concerned and refuse advertisement of any
type from the agency.
The third paragraph of the letter concluded by saying that:
“…no member of the association should receive any
advertisement from Olu Adekoya Press Agency either on credit
or cash basis or any terms.”
These paragraphs according to the court were calculated to inhibit
Mr. Olu Adekoya, a suitor from availing himself of his
constitutional right of having his legal right determined by the
court. The letters were calculated to have the effect of interfering
with one of the parties to the action. This constituted a contempt
of court for which the defendant was found guilty. The court then
ordered the defendant contemnor:
(a) To withdraw the offending letter from all those to whom it

was circulated,
(b) Direct all members of his association and others to whom
the letter was circulated to receive any advertisement from
Olu Adekoya for any determined consideration, and
(c) Publish a suitably worded apology to the court.”
Publications on the court/judge, judicial proceedings, and litigants to a

case can be contemptuous. Journalists and newsmen generally have to
be very careful about their write-ups in order not to run afoul of the law.
Different kinds of publications can be contemptuous. According to
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991), “Three important species of contempt
which can easily be perpetuated in writing are:
i. Publication of false and inaccurate report of court proceedings.

ii. Publications which discredits the court or judge.
iii. Publications likely to prejudice the fair trial or conduct of
criminal or civil proceedings.”
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False and inaccurate report of court proceedings
It is mandatory for the media to ensure it reports judicial proceedings

and indeed all matter fairly, truthfully and accurately. It is indeed more
obligatory for the judiciary to make certain that its proceedings are not
inappropriately reported. Hence, any journalist or media organisation
that makes an unreal or fictitious or unbalanced report of a proceeding
may be charged for contempt of court.
In Dr. Ola Oni v. Attorney-General of the Federation and four others:

(Re contempt Committed by: (1) Edward Aderinokun; (2) Ayodeji
Adekunle). (as cited by Chief Gani Fawehinmi, The Law of Contempt in
Nigeria in Osinbajo and Fogam (1991), “The Daily Express newspaper
of 29th June 1971 in a front page article under the bold headlines
“Battle: Government Loses Round one”, stated that the Chief Justice of
Lagos while hearing a motion remarked that the Federal Executive
Council had no statutory powers over the Price Control Board. In fact
this was one of the main issues to be decided in the substantive suit
fixed for a later date. The headline and the article gave the impression
that a ruling, order or decision had already been given in the matter as a
result of which the government had lost round one. The court found this
to be fallacious and a complete misrepresentation of the proceedings of
the court. Such, according to the court, could only have “gained birth in
the fertile imagination of an ignorant, cheap, publicity seeking and
unintelligent reporter”.
Publications which discredit the court or judge
The power of contempt is also used to protect and/or enforce the

authority of courts and the integrity of judges. If contempt power is not
used for these purposes, the society may lose confidence in the
judiciary; its institutions, personnel and judgments and if this happens,
there will be chaos in the society.
Therefore, any publication that unscrupulously criticises the judiciary

and courts, casts aspersions on the integrity of judges or alleges that
judge(s) are partial can be adjudged to be contemptuous.
Osinbajo and Fogam (1991) cite some cases which are very good
examples of publications that discredit the court, judge or judiciary in
general. Four of the cases are presented below:
One is the case of R. v. Gray [(1990) 2 Q.B. 36; (1900-3) All E.R. 54],
for example, the editor of the Birmingham Daily Argus newspaper
described a judge as “The impudent little man in horsehair, a microcosm
of conceit and empty-headedness.” He went further to comment that “no
152
newspaper can exist upon its merits, a condition from which the bench,
happily for Mr. Justice Darling is exempt. Mr. Justice Darling would do
well to master the duties of his own profession before undertaking the
regulation of another.” The court had no difficulty in finding this to be a
scurrilous abuse of a judge in his capacity as a judge and the editor
guilty of contempt.
The second is the case of Deduwa v. The State [(1975) 1 ANLR (Pt. 1)
pg. 1.], the appellants who are parties to a civil action, before Atake J.
(as he then was) wrote a letter to the registrar of the High Court asking
him to bring to the attention of his Lordship, their fears about his ability
to try the case without bias, having regards to the fact that the appellants
were Urhobos and their opponents were Itsekiris, the same tribe to
which his Lordship belonged. They were also concerned about the fact
that since their opponents were the Itsekiri Communal Land Trustees,
and the learned judge was a beneficiary, it would be difficult for them to
be fairly treated. The learned judge convicted the appellants. Although
the conviction was squashed on appeal on the grounds that the learned
judge did not comply with the constitutional provisions on fair hearing
by the procedure adopted in trying and convicting the accused persons,
the court nevertheless observed that the letter was grossly contemptuous
of the court.
Third is that of Atake v. President of the Federation of Nigeria [1982 11

S.C. 153], Senator Atake asked for the transfer of a case which he had
instituted against the President. He suggested in his request that the
judge was unlikely to do justice in the proceedings, since he had
received a gratification or favour from the President in the form of a
national honour sometime during the proceedings. He withdrew the
statement when asked to do so by the court. Ruling was delivered in
favour of the President. He filed an appeal. In an affidavit in support of
the notice for leave to appeal, he set out three proposed grounds of
appeal, one of which repeated the imputation of bias against the judge.
On his refusal to withdraw the repeated imputation when requested to do
so by the trial judge, he was committed to prison for contempt. He
appealed. The Court of Appeal held that “every insult offered to a judge
in the exercise of the duties of his office is contempt and is even a
(more) grievous contempt, whereas here the object is to taint the source
of justice.”
The fourth and the last that will be cited is that of a case, in 1928 [R. v.
New Stateman (Editor) 1928 44 T.L.R. 301] in which Dr. Marie Stopes,
a birth control advocate lost a libel action which arose out of the refusal
of a newspaper, Daily Telegraph to publish her advertisement
advocating birth control. Commenting on the trial, the editor of another
newspaper, The New Statesman, suggested that Dr. Marie Stopes could
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not have expected a fair hearing before Justice Avory who was a Roman
Catholic. This comment implied partiality and the editor was found
guilty of contempt.
Going through these cases may give the impression that it is forbidden
to criticise judges, courts or the judiciary in any form. This may be
wrong as many have argued that the conduct of judges and decisions of
courts are legitimate matters of public concern which the media has a
right to report and comment on. The only issue to it is that the comment
must be fair and the criticism constructive.
In Ambard v. A.G. of Trinidad & Tobago [(1936) A.C. 322 at pg. 355],
Lord Atkin commented in favour of the freedom to criticise the Bench
when he said:
“But where the authority and position of an individual judge or the due
administration of justice are concerned, no wrong is committed by any
member of the public who exercises the ordinary right of criticising in
good faith, in private or public, the public act done in the seat of justice.
The path of criticism is a public way, the wrong-headed are permitted to
err therein; provided that members of the public abstain from imputing
improper motives to those taking part in the administration of justice,
and are genuinely exercising a right of criticism and not acting in malice
or attempting to impair the administration of justice, they are immune.
Justice is not a cloistered virtue. She must be allowed to suffer the
scrutiny and respectful even though outspoken comments of common
men.”
From the foregoing therefore, the media can criticise the Bench
(judiciary/judges) but the criticism has to be free from malice and fair. It
must not allege misconduct, partiality or unfairness to the court or any
judge and it must be in the interest of the public.
Publications likely to interfere with the cause of justice
The law of contempt is also used to protect litigants and defendants who
look to the judiciary for justice. If the media or private individuals
(using any other medium) are allowed to publish whatsoever they desire
about a proceeding, especially such that can interfere with the course of
justice, the populace will lose confidence in their ability to seek justice
from the court.
According to Osinbajo and Fogam (1991), “from the media point of

view, publications which can be punished under this class of contempt
may be grouped into two namely: publications intended or likely to
154
prejudice a fair trial; and publications that prejudge issues in a pending

trial”.
i. Publications intended or likely to prejudice a fair trial
The role of the media in every free state is to inform and educate. They
thus have a responsibility to ensure that the public are aware of
important issues that are of common interest and concern. Nonetheless,
the media has to ensure that they refrain from publishing articles that
may hinder the court in its duty of ensuring fair and impartial judicial
proceedings; be it before, during and after.
Consequently, publications referring to an accused as if he has been

convicted, or a publication highlighting the evil characters of an accused
that make it obvious that he most likely committed the offence, or
publications that reveal the personality and/or photograph of a suspect
whose identity is still in doubt are all likely to prejudice a fair trial.
“Suffice it to simply say that during a trial, nothing should be published

that could do any of the parties harm in the eyes of a judge or the public.
There is no hard and fast rule or exhaustive category of publications that
might have this effect” (ibid).
A few cases will be cited in this regard from Osinbajo and Fogam (ibid).
“In R. v. Bolam (93 Solicitors Journal 220) the Daily Mirror after the
arrest of John George Haigh on a murder charge ran a front-page story
describing him as “Vampire” and describing other murders which he
had committed. Though he was not named in the publication, there was
little doubt as to the fact that it was referring to Haigh “the man in
custody”. Silvester Bolam, the newspaper’s editor was jailed for three
months and the newspaper fined £10,000 for contempt.”
“In 1976, [R. v Evening Standard Co. Ltd., ex parte Attorney General
(1976) The Times, 3 November] the London Evening Standard
published a front-page photograph of Mr. Peter Hain, on the day he was
to take part in an identification parade at a police station. He had been
charged with a bank robbery of which he was subsequently acquitted.
The newspaper was fined £1,000 for contempt. Delivering judgment,
Chief Justice Lord Widgery pointed out that an identity parade was the
only method available for deciding whether a witness could identify a
suspect. He went to say:
“In order that the identity parade should be worth the ground it
stood on, it must be totally fair and none of the witnesses
approaching the line should be given any kind of indication that
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one particular individual should be preferred to another as the

choice of suspect. In the present case, the witnesses could easily
have gone to the identification parade with copies of Evening
Standard sticking out of their pockets. That did not happen but
might have happened. The court must have that very much in
mind.”
This class of contempt that is (publications that are likely to interfere

with a fair trial) can occur as long as the case is sub-judice. A case is
sub-judice from the time an arrest is made up to the time the appeal is
heard (if the need arises). In short, a case remains sub-judice until the
case is ended.
“The Director and Deputy Director of Military Intelligence and State

Security Service respectively were charged with conspiracy to murder
and the murder of Dele Giwa (a journalist). The information was
squashed by an order of Longe J. The first appellant was present in court
during the proceedings and thereafter commented to the press that:
“What happened in court on Monday and yesterday

could be likened to a drama Sketch by the Alawada
Group.”
The second appellant, (Punch Newspapers) were alleged to have

published the statement in the Punch. Consequently, both appellants
were charged with contempt of court contrary to section 133(a) of the
Criminal Code of Lagos State. The appellants argued that the statement
was made after the conclusion of proceedings. The Court of Appeal
disagreed on the grounds that proceedings remain sub-judice until the
period within which parties may appeal has expired.”
ii. Publications that prejudges issues in a pending trial
Publications that fall under this heading are those that predict what the
judgment will or ought to be. Such publications are held to be
contemptuous due to the fact that they may affect the actual outcome of
the judgment or bring about dissatisfaction with the court and/or its
judgments.
The judiciary will vehemently hold such publications in contempt

because it is important that when individuals take cases to the court, the
court be allowed to handle such cases without interference or
obstruction from the media or any other individual or institution.
156
Therefore, the media must avoid the publications of articles that suggest
what the judgment ought to be or is likely to be based on evidences
presented before the court or their own investigative journalism.
If a publication discredits the personality or integrity of a judge in his

personal capacity and not in his official capacity as a judge, which of the
following offences can the judge sue for?
a) Contempt
b) Defamation.
Explain the reason(s) for your choice.
3.4 Defenses against Charge of Contempt of Court
It is rather uncommon to have discussions on defenses against charges

of contempt. This is because contempt can be punished summarily (by a
judge, after observing a conduct and having the conviction that the
conduct is a contempt of court can, there and then, punish the contemnor
for contempt of court. No formal charge need be made and no trial
conducted). In this situation, the accused will not likely have any
opportunity to defend his action, so there can be no appeal.
However, when there is a formal charge for contempt (according to

section 133 of the Criminal Code), an accused will likely have the
opportunity to defend himself since there will be a trial in another court
by another judge, separate from the one who is charging. In this
situation, a person or body corporate accused of contempt of court may
present the following defenses against the charge (as the situation
demands).
However, Adaramaja (1969) posits that “There is a general right of

appeal against summary punishment for contempt of court in all the
customary courts of the States because the relevant section of the
appropriate Customary Courts Law of each of the States gives a general
right of appeal to any party aggrieved by the ‘decision or order’ of a
customary court without specifying how that decision or order might
have arisen.”
The British Contempt of Court Act 1981 provides three defenses to

strict liability contempt. Strict liability contempt in English law applies
to any publication that creates a substantial risk that the course of justice
in the proceedings in question will be seriously impeded or prejudiced.
The three defenses are:
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1. Innocent publication
2. Fair and accurate contemporary reports
3. Discussion of public affairs
Innocent publication can be a defense against contempt if a writer or

publisher can show that reasonable care was taken and he had no cause
to suspect or believe that proceedings are active on the matter that was
published. The burden of proof is on the writer or publisher as he or she
has to prove that he made all necessary efforts to verify from the police,
court or lawyers of the accused to determine this. If there is insufficient
evidence that effort was made to find out if the case was active or if
negligence is perceived on the part of the writer or publisher, this
defence will be quashed. This defence is rather painstaking. “However,
the defence may be of assistance to a media company in circumstances
where the person was arrested or the warrant was issued just as the
presses were rolling or the programme was broadcast” (Dowson-Collins,
2002).
Fair and accurate contemporary reports can be a defence when a

writer or publisher can prove that the report or article being held in
contempt of court is, according to Section 4(1) of the Contempt of Court
Act 1981 a “fair and accurate report of legal proceedings held in public,
published contemporaneously and in good faith”.
According to Dowson-Collins (2002), the elements of the defence are

that the report must:
• Be fair and accurate

• Relate to proceedings held in public ( in other words that the
public are freely entitled to attend)
• Be published ‘contemporaneously’ (in other words during or as
soon as practical after the hearing)
• Be published in good faith (in other words honestly and without
ulterior motive).
Discussion of public affairs
Section 5 of the Contempt of Court Act 1981 provides that “…a

publication made as, or as part of, discussion in good faith of public
affairs or other matters of general public interest is not to be treated as a
contempt of court under the strict liability rule if the risk of impediment
or prejudice to particular legal proceedings is merely incidental to the
discussion”.
The rule exists to ensure that discussions of issues of public interest are
not prevented out of fear of falling afoul of the law of contempt.
158
What opportunities are there for a journalist or news medium which is

charged with contempt of court to defend the publication?
3.5 Understanding Contempt of Parliament
Contempt of parliament is any act or words that disrupt or impede the

proper working of either House or disrupt, intimidate or wrongly
influence MPs in discharge of their duty (Cassels and Handler, 2002).
The various statutes regulating the powers and privileges of all these
Legislative Houses attach a cardinal value to freedom of speech, debates
and proceedings without which Members would find it difficult to
discharge their functions effectively. Thus, no civil or criminal suits may
be instituted against a Member for any words spoken by him either on
the floor of the House or in any of its committees. The same protection
extends to words contained in any documents placed before the House
such as reports, petitions, bills, resolutions, motions or questions
(Adegbite, 1969).
The essence of contempt as it relates to parliament is to ensure that

Members have the freedom and the protection to carry out their
legislative duties without any form of impediment or obstruction from
private individuals and/or the media.
Therefore, any action which directly interferes with parliamentary

proceedings or publication which impede the proper working of the
parliament can be charged for contempt of parliament.
According to Cassels and Handler (2002), it is worthy of note, that

numerous examples of MPs who have used the absolute privilege
afforded them to ‘punish the un-punishable’ or make allegations which,
if said in public outside the chamber of the House of Commons, would
probably result in an action for defamation. The spies Kim Philby and
Anthony Blunt were exposed by being named in the House of
Commons. The MP Geoffrey Dickens named suspected sex offenders on
a number of occasions in the House of Commons. However, the media
should take care when reporting such accusations. The publication of
fair and accurate accounts of parliamentary debates and extracts from
parliamentary papers is protected only by qualified privilege. The media
can report a potentially defamatory statement made during proceedings
in parliament as long as the report is fair and accurate. However, if the
claimant can show that the report was made maliciously; qualified
privilege will be no defence.
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Why should the Members of Parliament enjoy absolute privilege based

on their utterances made on the floor of the legislative house or in any of
its committees?
3.6 Categories of Contempt of Parliament
In Nigeria, the Legislative Houses (Powers and Privileges) Act regulates

the powers and privileges of the Legislative Houses. The most recent of
which is the Legislative Houses and Privileges Act 1990.
Different actions may be committed which may constitute contempt of

parliament. According to Cassels and Handler (op.cit), “Conduct that
disrupts proceedings, for example, shouting and throwing things from
the strangers’ gallery, is punishable as contempt.”
As regards offences which may be committed by the press which may

constitute contempt of parliament, Adegbite (1969) says “Two broad
categories of such offences may be mentioned:
i. Offences relating to admittance to the Chamber or precincts of a

House;
ii. Offences which arise directly from the publication of reports of
parliamentary proceedings.”
According to Adegbite (ibid), the first category involves:
1. Entering the house without due permission, or where a

permission duly given before has been revoked.
2. Assaulting or willfully obstructing a member or an official of the
house in the conduct of his business.
3. Refusing to obey the order of the house or that lawfully made by
an official of the house.
4. Disrespectful conduct in the precincts of the house.
5. As strangers, sitting and voting in the house.
Again, Adegbite (ibid) highlights and explains the offences in the

second category which seem to affect the press more. According to him,
they are:
1 Irregular printing of law and reports: It is an offence to print a

copy of any enactment, or of any report, paper, minutes or
proceedings of the House, and to hold out any document as
having been printed by the Government Printer or by or under the
160
authority of the House or any of its committees, when in fact the

document has not been so printed.
2 Publication of prohibited report: The publication of any matter
which the house or its committee has expressly prohibited is an
offence. So is the willful publication of any report of any debate
or proceedings of the house or committee conducted behind
closed doors. It is relevant to point out that, as a rule, members of
the public are not allowed to watch the proceedings of standing
and select committees of the house. Members of the press are not
therefore, normally permitted to pretend to report such
proceedings. It is otherwise in the case of committee of the whole
house where the committee is presided over by a chairman rather
than the president of the house or the speaker as such.
3 Misrepresentation of proceedings: The law punishes the
publication of any matter containing a gross, willful or
scandalous misrepresentation of the proceedings of a house or of
the speech of any member. There has as yet been no prosecution
in Nigeria in respect of this offence…The suppression of
speeches of particular Members where others are given
prominence has been held to constitute a misrepresentation of
proceedings. So is the publication, under the colour of a report of
a member’s speech, of a gross libel on the character and conduct
of another member.
4 Defamation of the house or its committees: It is an offence to
publish any statement which falsely or scandalously defames a
house or any of its committees. Again, we are obliged to turn to
the British Parliament for an illustration of this offence.
In 1947 there appeared an article in the World Press News alleging that
some MPs were in the habit of selling to newspapers secret information
which had come into their possession through parliamentary party
meetings. All the representatives of the newspapers involved needed to
do was to buy drinks for the MP informers. On investigation, it was
found that the offending article was written by an MP who was one of
those secretly selling the information to the press. He was expelled from
the House of Commons, while the publisher was reprimanded by the
House for breach of privilege.
Another interesting incident occurred in 1956 when petrol rationing was

in force following the Suez crisis. An article appeared in the Sunday
Express written by Mr. John Junor speculating that the operation of
rationing would favour the politicians to whom would be issued
‘prodigious supplementary allowances’. The article then warned: ‘If
politicians are more interested in privileges for themselves than in fair
shares for all, let it simply be made plain that the public do not propose
to tolerate it.’ The House of Commons ruled that this was a serious
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contempt of the House, notwithstanding that the writer referred to

politicians generally and not specifically to MPs.
5 Publications reflecting on character of officers of the house: A

publication reflecting on the character of the President of the
House or the chairman of a committee of the House in the
conduct of his official duty constitutes an offence. These are
leading officers of the house; it is, therefore, fitting and necessary
that they should be singled out for protection. Moreover,
sometimes, they have to give rulings which may not always be
popular.”
Okoye also comments on the various ways by which a journalist can

show disrespect for parliament. According to him, they are:
a) Misrepresentation of parliamentary proceedings

b) Scandalous publications about parliamentarians
c) Refusal to honour the invitation of the parliament
d) Refusal to correct misrepresentation about parliament or its
leaders, etc. (2008)
Refusal to mention the name of a source of a story or criticisms of a

member of parliament in his official capacity as a legislator can also be
contemptuous of parliament.
Analyse the actions and publications that may be contemptuous of

parliament.
3.7 Contempt of Parliament: Jurisdiction and Penalty
When a member of parliament, an individual or the press undertakes an

action or publishes an article that undermines the integrity and/or hinder
the performance of duty of the House, its leader or a chairman of
committee or a member of parliament in his capacity as a legislature, the
action or publication is considered contemptuous of Parliament and is
due for reprimand or punishment.
However, who or which institution is entitled to punish a contemnor

who acts in a way that may hinder the house or its members from the
discharge of its functions or publishes materials that places the house or
its members in bad light or misrepresent proceedings on the Floor of the
House or any other matter that may hamper the performance of
legislative duties in the country or any of its states. The issue will be
162
addressed based on who commits the offence. The offence of contempt

can be committed by two categories of individuals:
i. A member of parliament
ii. Private individuals or the press
Our focus is on the second category because it is the one that concerned
the media practitioners is those committed by the journalists or media
outfits.
Private individuals or the press: When a private individual commits

an act or publishes a document that is contemptuous of the legislature,
the person or journalist can be punished in the following ways:
a) Reprimand by the president from the bar of the house

b) Request for an apology from the individual to the house
c) An order for the withdrawal of the publication or an order for a
correction of the misrepresentation
d) Referral of the trial of contempt to a court
The first three reprimands are clear enough. The last is what will be
explained below.
Parliament can impose punishments on non-members but the

punishments are minor and cannot be in form of imprisonment or fine. If
the parliament believes that the contempt requires a punishment of
imprisonment or fine, it has to refer the case to court.
The House of Representative or Senate can refer a case of contempt of

itself to a court. To do this, the house will request the Attorney-General
to refer the alleged offence to the High Court. The Attorney-General’s
application must be accompanied by a supporting affidavit. The court
would examine the papers and make a preliminary ruling stating
whether there is a prima facie case against the alleged offender. If so,
the latter is then summoned to appear before the court to show the
reason why he should not be convicted of the offence for which he has
been arraigned.
Okoye (2008), notes that, “Parliament can, and indeed, has issued
warrants for the arrest of persons who were summoned by parliament
but failed or refused to show up. Parliament can also withdraw the
accreditation of any journalist who disrespects it. But it has been the
custom of parliament to exercise utmost caution in such matters so as to
avoid unnecessary altercations with the media, since both institutions are
partners in progress.”
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
Cite any other case in which the parliament in Nigeria has punished for
contempt of itself.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The court and parliament are two great important institutions in the
country that must be protected if law, order, sanity and decorum are to
be maintained in the society. It is not therefore surprising that every state
has put in place, through laws, mechanisms to ensure that individuals
and state officials do not abuse these institutions, thereby preventing,
hindering or obstructing justice administration or legal proceedings in
the state.
The law of contempt does not exist to place the judiciary or the
legislature above the law. Rather, it subsists to ensure confidence in the
institutions while ensuring that citizens can comment on their conduct
without malice or prejudice.
5.0 SUMMARY
Contempt of court is any act that interferes with the course of justice or
cause justice to miscarry or degrades the personality of a judge in his
official capacity or hinders court officials in the performance of their
responsibilities. There are direct and indirect contempt of court. And a
court can punish summarily for contempt of itself and it can also (in case
of criminal contempt) direct the case to another court. The press is likely
to fall into contempt by refusing to give the name of a source, publishing
articles on matters that are sub judice or writing maliciously negative
comments about the personality of the judge in his official capacity
amongst others. Fair comment, innocent publication and others are some
of the few defenses against a charge of contempt.
Contempt of parliament are acts or publications (whether by a member

of parliament) or other individuals that obstructs members of parliament
or the house from the performance of its legislative duties. Contempt of
parliament, like contempt of court can also be committed either in the
face of the parliament or outside. In most instances, the parliament
punishes directly for contempt of itself.
Justify the need for laws of contempt in a democratic society.
164
Adaramaja, A. (1969) “Contempt of Court.” In:, T. O. Elias (Ed.).

Nigerian Press Law. Edinburgh: University of Lagos and Evans
Brothers Limited.
Adegbite, L.O. (1969). “Reports of Parliamentary and Judicial

Proceedings.” In: T. O. Elias (Ed.). Nigerian Press Law.
Edinburgh: University of Lagos and Evans Brothers Limited.
British Contempt of Court Act 1981.
Cassels, T. & Handler, R. (2002). “Parliamentary Proceedings and

Elections.” In: T. Crome (Ed.). Law and the Media. (4th ed.).
Oxford: Focal Press.
Colin, R. M. (1979).Television Censorship and the Law. Saxon House.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999.
Dowson-Collins, S. (2002). “Contempt of Court.” In: T. Crome (Ed.)

Law and the Media. (4th ed.) Oxford: Focal Press.
Legislative Houses and Privileges Act 1990.
Ludlam, J. (2002). “Protection of Journalistic Sources.” In: T. Crome

(Ed.). Law and the Media. (4th ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
Okoye, I. (2008). Media Law and Ethics. Lagos: National Open

University.

Pember, D. R. (2003/2004). ( Ed.). Mass Media Law. New York:

Smith & Hogan Criminal Law. (4th ed.). Butterworths.
The Criminal Code (Laws of Southern Nigeria).
The Penal Code (Laws of Northern Nigeria).
William R. A. & Ralph L. C. (1940). The Law of Newspapers. (2nd ed.).

McGraw-Hill Book Comapany Inc.
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
UNIT 5 REPORTS OF PARLIAMENTARY AND

JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Report on Parliamentary Proceedings
3.2 Report on Judicial Proceedings
3.2.1 Closed Proceedings
3.2.2 Postponing Media Reports
3.2.3 Other Reporting Restrictions
3.2.4 Report on Proceedings of International Courts
3.2.5 Fair and Accurate Report of proceedings
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The media have to report the proceedings in the courts and parliament
for public consumption for obvious reasons; the administration of justice
is a matter of legitimate public concern and it is in the interest of the
entire society that proceedings in the court and parliament be fairly and
adequately reported in order to avoid rumours and miscarriage of justice.
However, the media has run afoul of the law and committed contempt of
parliament in its reportage of these proceedings. It is therefore obvious
that to prevent this problem, the media have to follow certain rules and
procedures that will guarantee freedom of expression and at the same
time, ensure the integrity of the bench and House.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• differentiate between accurate and inaccurate reporting of

parliamentary proceeding
• enumerate restrictions on reporting parliamentary proceedings
• explain rules and procedures guiding reporting of judicial
proceedings.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Report on Parliamentary Proceedings
“Members of Parliament and the proceedings of parliament are cloaked

with certain traditional rights and privileges that are aimed at
safeguarding the freedom and independence of the individuals involved
and the dignity of the institution. Foremost among these privileges are:
i. Complete freedom of speech or ‘absolute privilege’, which

protects debates and official proceedings in the House of
Commons and the House of Lords.
ii. The power of each House to regulate its own procedures,
including the power to punish members and outsiders for breach
of privilege known as ‘contempt of parliament’ (Cassels and
Handler, 2002).
“The various statutes regulating the powers and privileges of all these
legislative houses attach a cardinal value to freedom of speech, debates
and proceedings without which members would find it difficult to
discharge their functions effectively. Thus, no civil or criminal suits may
be instituted against a member for any words spoken by him either on
the floor of the house or in any of its committees. The same protection
extends to words contained in any documents placed before the house
such as reports, petitions, bills, resolutions, motions or questions”
(Adegbite, 1969).
That explains why Article 9 of British Bill of Rights as far back as 1688
says that ‘freedom of speech and debates or proceedings in parliament
ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of
parliament’.
There is absolute privilege for comments made on the floor of the House
but there exists only qualified privilege for a report of it. Hence, the
media must exercise caution when reporting potentially defamatory
comments made on the floor of the House or in reports.
“Parliamentary privilege may be invoked to prevent the publication of

evidence, including the publication of draft reports, taken by a select
committee before it has been reported to the house in cases where
publication has not been authorised by the select committee or, if it is no
longer in existence, by the Speaker” (Cassels and Handler, op.cit).
In reporting proceedings from parliamentary proceedings, reporters and

the media must, according to Adegbite (1969) as presented in the
previous unit avoid the following:
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1. “Irregular printing of law and reports: It is an offence to print a

copy of any enactment, or of any report, paper, minutes or
proceedings of the house, and to hold out any document as
having been printed by the Government Printer or by or under the
authority of the house or any of its committees, when in fact the
document has not been so printed.
2. Publication of prohibited report: The publication of any matter
which the house or its committee has expressly prohibited is an
offence. So is the willful publication of any report of any debate
or proceedings of the House or committee conducted behind
closed doors. It is relevant to point out that, as a rule, members of
the public are not allowed to watch the proceedings of standing
and select committees of the house. Members of the press are not
therefore, normally permitted to pretend to report such
proceedings. It is otherwise in the case of committee of the whole
house where the committee is presided over by a chairman rather
than the president of the house or the speaker as such.
3. Misrepresentation of proceedings: The law punishes the
publication of any matter containing a gross, willful or
scandalous misrepresentation of the proceedings of a house or of
the speech of any member. There has as yet been no prosecution
in Nigeria in respect of this offence. The suppression of speeches
of particular members where others are given prominence has
been held to constitute a misrepresentation of proceedings. So is
the publication, under the colour of a report of a member’s
speech, of a gross libel on the character and conduct of another
member.
4. Defamation of the house or its committees: It is an offence to
publish any statement which falsely or scandalously defames a
house or any of its committees. Again, we are obliged to turn to
the British Parliament for an illustration of this offence.
In 1947 there appeared an article in the World Press News alleging that
some MPs were in the habit of selling to newspapers secret information
which had come into their possession through parliamentary party
meetings. All the representatives of the newspapers involved needed to
do was to buy drinks for the MP informers. On investigation, it was
found that the offending article was written by an MP who was one of
those secretly selling the information to the press. He was expelled from
the House of Commons, while the publisher was reprimanded by the
house for breach of privilege.
Another interesting incident occurred in 1956 when petrol rationing was

in force following the Suez crisis. An article appeared in the Sunday
Express written by Mr. John Junor speculating that the operation of
rationing would favour the politicians to whom would be issued
168
‘prodigious supplementary allowances’. The article then warned: ‘If

politicians are more interested in privileges for themselves than in fair
shares for all, let it simply be made plain that the public do not propose
to tolerate it.’ The House of Commons ruled that this was a serious
contempt of the house, notwithstanding that the writer referred to
politicians generally and not specifically to MPs.
5. Publications reflecting on character of officers of the house: A

publication reflecting on the character of the President of the
House or the chairman of a committee of the house in the conduct
of his official duty constitutes an offence. These are leading
officers of the house; it is, therefore, fitting and necessary that
they should be singled out for protection. Moreover, sometimes,
they have to give rulings which may not always be popular.
Any journalist or media organisation that publishes any article that is

reflective of the errors above may be charged with contempt of
parliament.
Does the absolute privilege that members of parliament enjoy place

them above the laws of the land? Explain in detail.
3.2 Report on Judicial Proceedings
There are laws, rules and regulations that guide the media reporting of
proceedings in the court. These regulations are provided to ensure that
citizens have access to fair report of judicial proceedings, litigants have
access to a fair trial and the bench does and is seen to do justice. Some
of the guidelines will be presented shortly.
3.2.1 Closed Proceedings
The Nigerian Constitution requires that the proceedings of a court or any

other tribunal performing judicial functions shall be held in public. The
privilege of reporting such proceedings for the benefit of a wider public
derives from this requirement (Adegbite, 1969).
Lord Halsbury in Scott v. Scott (1913) was quoted in Colston (2002) to

have said “…publicity is the very sole of justice…and the surest of all
guards against improbity. It keeps the judge himself, while trying, under
trial.”
And Lord Diplock in AG v. Leveller Magazine also gives reasons why

open justice is important. He said:
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
“As a general rule, the English system of administering justice does

require that it be done in public. If the way that courts behave cannot be
hidden from the public ear and eye, this provides a safeguard against
judicial arbitrariness or idiosyncrasy and maintains the public
confidence in the administration of justice. The application of this
principle of open justice has two aspects: as respects proceedings in the
court itself, it requires that they should be held in open court to which
the press and public are admitted and that, in criminal cases at any rate,
all evidence communicated to the court is communicated publicly. As
respects the publication to a wider public of fair and accurate reports of
proceedings that have taken place in court, the principle require that
nothing should be done to discourage this.”
Despite the merits of having court proceedings in the public, there are
some circumstances that require that judicial proceedings be held in
private for security and other reasons for the public good. The courts
have the authority to exclude persons other than parties to it, including
the media.
Part 39.2(3) of Britain’s Civil Procedure Rules sets out when a hearing,
or part of it, may be held in private. It says “A hearing, or any part of it,
may be in private if:
a) Publicity would defeat the object of the hearing

b) It involves matters relating to national security
c) It involves confidential information (including information
relating to personal financial matters) and publicity would
damage that confidentiality
d) A private hearing is necessary to protect any child or patient
e) It is a hearing of an application made without notice and it would
be unjust to any respondent for there to be a public hearing
f) It involves un-contentious matters arising in the administration of
trusts or in the administration of a dead person’s estate
g) The court considers this necessary in the interest of justice.”
On matters of national security, the court may sit in private in part or

fully to safeguard the country’s defence and territorial integrity. That is
why court-martials sit in private fully or in part because the information
that may come out may be useful to the enemy. Even civilian courts may
hold proceedings in private if the case touches on official secrets or
intelligence reports. Courts have sat in private in instances where secret
agents under cover were required to give evidence in court.
Courts have also sat in private in instances where certain witnesses or

the evidence(s) that either the prosecution or the defence may present is
likely to affect public morality and decency.
170
For instance, on July 22, 2011, Anders Behring Breivik, a 32-year-old

Norwegian right-wing extremist, planted a car bomb in front of the
office of Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg and other government
buildings. The explosion killed eight people and injured at least 209
people, 12 of them seriously. Less than two hours later at a summer
camp on the island of Utøya at a camp organised by the AUF, the youth
division of the ruling Norwegian Labour Party (AP) Breivik dressed in
a homemade police uniform and showing false identification gained
access to the island and subsequently opened fire at the participants,
killing 69 of them and injuring at least 110, 55 of them seriously. One
died two days later in hospital, becoming the 69th victim. Among the
dead were personal friends of Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg and the
stepbrother of Norway's crown princess Mette-Marit.
In court proceedings that started on April 16, 2012, Breivik admitted to

having carried out the actions he was accused of, but denied criminal
guilt and claimed the defence of necessity (jus necessitatis), saying that
he was waging war against those who allowed immigration and the
subsequent Islamisation of Europe.
When his trial started, 170 media organisations were accredited to cover
the proceedings but they were not allowed to cover his defence in order
not to give the accused a platform to disseminate his pervasive views.
In matters relating to children and under-aged, the proceedings or part of
it may be held in private if these children are billed to give evidence or
act as witnesses, especially in cases involving decency and morality. In
certain instances, children may even be the accused. It is left to the
discretion of the judge to either hold the proceedings in public or in
private.
The bench may also hold proceedings in private if it involves the private
or financial lives of the litigants. Cases like fraud, divorce, trade secrets
and others.
Adegbite (1969) adds that “A minister of any of the governments in the

federation can move the court to sit in private if it is felt that certain
matters which would be raised before the court ought not, in the interests
of the state, come to the knowledge of the public. Such a certificate is
conclusive and the court has no discretion in the matter.”
Now when proceedings are held in private, it means the media are not
permitted in the court room but it does not mean that they cannot report
or comment on what happened. To report on closed proceedings, the
media will have to rely on interviewing outside the courtroom those who
were present during the proceedings. The media is only checked from
reporting happenings in closed proceedings if the report or comments
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will jeopardise the administration of justice or if the court has made an

order restricting reporting on the case.
It has also been argued that publications or reports from closed

proceedings will not be entitled to the qualified privilege that protects a
fair and accurate report of proceedings in open courts.
According to Adegbite (ibid), “Section 133 of the Nigerian Criminal

Code treats as contempt of court the publication of any evidence taken
in a judicial proceeding which has been directed to be held in private.
The other view is that the reason for holding a proceeding in camera
determines the fate of subsequent publication of the proceeding. If the
reason is that publicity would destroy the subject-matter of the suit, then
publication must be withheld. It follows also that, if a portion of a
proceeding is being kept secret from the public, only that portion would
be forbidden from publication. Even if the entire proceeding is held in
camera, the actual judgment may be published. This is the basis of the
decision in Allbutt v. General Council of Medical Education, where the
publication of a report of the decision of a domestic tribunal held in
private was held legitimate, since there is a public interest in knowing
the outcome of such a tribunal.”
Cite an instance in Nigeria in which legal proceedings in a case have

been held in private and the reason(s) stated by the court for taking the
decision.
3.2.2 Postponing Media Reports
The court may order (for reasons aimed at avoiding substantial risk to
the administration of justice) that the publication of any report of entire
proceedings or part of the proceedings be postponed.
The specifics of the proceedings must be made clear and the period for
which it must be postponed must also be specified clearly to avoid
ambiguity. There should also be provisions for the media to seek
clarifications where required.
Section 4(2) Britain’s Contempt of Court act 1981 provides that:
“The court may, where it appears necessary for avoiding a substantial

risk of prejudice in those proceedings or any other proceedings, pending
or imminent, order that the publication of any report of the proceedings
or any part of the proceedings be postponed for such period as the court
thinks necessary for that purpose.”
172
Spilsbury (2000) notes the following about the section:
• “The court must order postponement. A judicial request will not

suffice.
• The risk of prejudice must be to the proceedings in question or to
other proceedings which are imminent or pending. The same
uncertainty as to the meaning of ‘imminent’ bedevils the
application of this section as it does the application of the
common law of intentional contempt. What is clear is that the
risk must be to some specific proceedings rather than in the
interest of the administration of justice generally.
• The risk of prejudice must be substantial… the risk must not be
remote.
• The order is for postponement of a report of the whole or any part
of the proceedings. It is not an open-ended postponement. The
period of delay must be as long as the court thinks necessary for
avoiding the substantial risk of prejudice.
• The order must be necessary.”
Any individual journalist or media organisation who publishes the

reports of a proceeding despite a court order restricting same may be
charged for contempt of court.
3.2.3 Other Reporting Restrictions
There are other numerous restrictions on the reporting of judicial

proceedings. They cannot all be exhausted but some of the most
common ones are presented below:
a) Committal hearings or proceedings
A committal hearing is a proceeding in which a magistrates’ court

decides if there is enough evidence for the case to go to trial. Committal
proceedings do not form part of the trial.
According to Spilsbury (ibid), “such reports are limited to the provision

of general information – typically the names of the parties (if not
prevented by other reporting restrictions), the charges and the decision
of the bench to commit.”
“It is felt by some that if reports of committal proceedings are available

to the public, the accused runs the risk of his case being prejudiced
before the trial because of the one-sided nature of the report. For, more
often than not, only the case of the prosecution is heard at length during
the preliminary examination…The prejudice is even more formidable
when it is recalled that the prosecution is not obliged to repeat at the trial
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the evidence adduced by them at the preliminary stage. Thus, the

accused would not be able to convert such evidence, however
damnatory. On the other hand, there is a view that any matter discussed
in the open court should not be kept from the wider public who depend
on the press to keep them informed of what goes on in the courts of
justice” (Adegbite, 1969).
“The Tucker Committee on Proceedings before Examining Justices,

which considered this problem as it affected England, suggested in their
report published in 1958, that only a restricted report of committal
proceedings should be published” (ibid).
Section 8(1) of England’s Magistrates’ Court Act 1980 governs

reporting restrictions at committal hearings. Like the Tucker Committee
on Proceedings before Examining Justices, it provides that only the
following details may be published:
i. The identity of the court and the names of the examining justices.
ii. The names, addresses and occupations of the parties and
witnesses, and the ages of the accused and witnesses.
iii. The offence or offences, or a summary of them.
iv. The names of counsel or solicitors engaged in the proceedings.
v. Any decision of the court to commit the accused, or any of the
accused, for trial, and any decision of the court on the disposal of
the case if any accused is committed.
vi. The charges on which the accused is committed or summary of
them, and the court to which the accused was committed.
vii. If there is any adjournment, the date and place of the next
hearing.
viii. Any arrangements regarding bail – for example, the amount of
any surety.
ix. Whether legal aid was granted.
According to Colston (2002), “The reasons given by the police for

opposing bail, the magistrates’ reasons for refusing bail and the
defendant’s previous convictions cannot be reported…section 8 of the
Magistrates’ Court Act 1980 places restrictions only on reports of the
actual proceedings. It would not be a breach of section 8 to publish, for
example, the fact that the defendant was driven to court by his wife in
the family car, or that large crowds assembled outside the courthouse to
witness his arrival. The media should not report, however, information
that carries a risk of serious prejudice to any trial, such as any
admissions of guilt or previous convictions”.
There are however exceptions to the rule. Colston (ibid:) says “full
reporting of committal proceedings is permitted:
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i. If the magistrates decide not to commit the accused for trial at the
crown court and dismiss the charges
ii. After the accused is tried, or
iii. If the court lifts the restrictions (even then the media should be
cautious of about the nature and scope of the information they
report to avoid being in contempt of court).
b) Matters which are sub judice
A matter is sub judice as long as the proceeding in which it is in issue

subsists. Even when a case is already decided, comment thereon is
forbidden until the time within which an appeal must be lodged has
expired, or while the appeal, though duly begun, has not been disposed
of. reference to the executive for pardon or the consideration of an
application for commutation of a death sentence by the Advisory
Committee on the Prerogative of Mercy, does not form part of a
proceeding; therefore comment may be legitimately made at that stage
of the case. On the other hand, comment between the decision of a
court-martial and its confirmation by a confirming authority is not
allowed because confirmation forms part of a court-martial proceeding
(Adegbite, 1969).
c) Reports of quasi-judicial tribunals
A court is an institution that the government sets up to settle disputes

through a legal process. The definitive section of the Defamation Act
defines ‘court’ as meaning ‘in relation to any claim, the court or
arbitrator as the case may be, by or before whom the claims falls to be
determined, and in all other cases, any court of competent jurisdiction’.
Therefore, “all manner of courts are thus covered, irrespective of their
grade. The determining factor would appear to be the nature of the
proceedings, whether it is judicial or not, rather than the dignity of the
court members. It follows that the reports of the proceedings of
customary courts are privileged, as are those of a registrar in bankruptcy,
a coroner, or even a judge in chambers. Reports of proceedings of
commissions of inquiry fall within the same category…The reports of
proceedings of domestic tribunals, like the Legal Practitioners’
Disciplinary Tribunal, the Nigerian Medical Council, and the Surveyors’
Disciplinary Committee, would thus be privileged if published”
(Adegbite, ibid).
d) Restriction on publication of names of parties
A court may place some restrictions on the reporting or publication of

names of some parties to a proceeding in an open court. To do this, the
court must ensure that the name it intends to withhold from being
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reported in the media has not been made known to the public audience
sitting in court.
Cases that may warrant such restriction are blackmail cases, fraud cases
and cases under the Official Secrets Act. This is usually done to
encourage victims of blackmail and fraud to report the crime.
To effect the restriction, the court must made a formal order (in writing),
stating what the restriction is, its scope, the time in which it will cease to
take effect and why the order has been made. Not until this is done can
the media be held in contempt for disobeying.
“In R v Socialist Worker (1975), the judge in a blackmail case directed

that the victims should be referred to as Mr. X and Mr. Y. A subsequent
article written by Paul Foot in the Socialist Worker headed ‘Y. Oh Lord,
Oh Why?’ named the two men. Both Mr. Foot and the magazine were
successfully prosecuted for contempt of court” (Colston, 2002).
e) Restriction on publication of information relating to

children/young persons
In order to protect the sensitive nature of children and their future,

judges sometimes order restriction on the publication that will identify
children involved in cases before them either as the claimant, defendant
or witness.
The decision to order restriction is discretionary and not compulsory.

Usually, the restrictions are usually on the name, address, school, picture
(moving or still) or any other information that may lead to an easy
identification of the child(ren) involved in the proceeding.
In the case of young offenders below the age of 18 who are involved in
criminal charges, the proceedings is usually closed to the general public
but open to the representatives of the media. It is the responsibility of
the media to report the case but NOT the identities of the young people
involved in the proceedings.
Details like name, address, school, picture, identification of witnesses or

any other detail that may lead to easy identification of all or any of the
juveniles to the proceedings may be published.
f) Restrictions concerning sexual offences and indecency
There are restrictions on the publication of information that will identify

the victim of a sexual offence from the moment the complaint is filled.
Unless the victim, who is expected to be an adult decides to wave
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her/his anonymity, the media is prevented from publishes details like

name, home address, school or work address, pictures or any other
material or information that may lead to the identification of the victim.
There are also instances where the accused may request that the
restriction be waived by a court in order to encourage witnesses to come
forward. It is in the discretion of the court to take an appropriate
decision in this instance.
There are debates and controversies on why sexual offence victims

should be kept anonymous. Many critics, including some women
activists have even argued that rape victims, especially women need to
be bold and face the world, insisting that they are not ‘damaged goods’
because they have been raped. However, unless a victim of rape wants
to be identified, the media has a responsibility to keep the identity of the
individual secret.
3.2.4 Report on Proceedings of International Courts
In Nigeria, there is qualified privilege for fair and accurate reports of

proceedings of courts of Commonwealth countries and international
courts like the International Court of Justice, Permanent Court of
Arbitration in The Hague, Commissions of Mediation, Conciliation and
Arbitration between States are covered.
The decision on whether there is qualified privilege for reports of

judicial proceedings in foreign courts is unclear. However, Adegbite
(1969) presents instances of foreign proceedings that may be of interest
to the Nigerian public:
1. Cases heard by the Supreme Court of the United States on a point

of general common law.
2. Foreign proceedings having special relation to national affairs.
Thus what a Togolese court did to the crew of the aircraft caught
in January 1968 in Lome with thousands of Nigerian currency
notes would be of legitimate interest to the Nigerian newspaper-
reading public.
3. A report of foreign judicial proceedings may have intrinsic
world-wide importance; for example, the trial in a Belgian court
of the manufacturers of thalidomide pills would be of world-wide
interest.
For instance, a former two-time Governor of Delta State in Nigeria and

chieftain of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), James Ibori, was jailed
for 13 years by a United Kingdom (UK) court sitting in Southwark,
London in April 2012 for allegations of money laundering and multiple
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frauds. The trial was widely covered by the Nigerian media and feasted
on by the media audiences because of its obvious peculiarities.
3.2.5 Fair and Accurate Report of Proceedings
To ensure that media owners and their reporters do not commit contempt
of court in their efforts at reporting judicial proceedings, the following
guidelines, as presented by Adegbite (1969) are as follows:
1. A counsel should not be reported to have said in court what he

did not say.
2. The object should always be to pronounce impartial reports; in
this regard, statements of counsel on both sides must be given
equal prominence.
3. While it is pertinent to publish abridged reports, care should be
taken to ensure that no evidence is suppressed to the prejudice of
one of the parties.
4. It is unsafe to assume the outcome of a particular case. The law
does not sanction ‘trial by newspapers’. Hence, a newspaper
report which states that the accused ‘is likely to meet the legal
punishment of his villainy’, has been held to be an unfair report.
5. Judgments must be accurately inserted. The summing up of a
judge, or his judgment alone, may be published without including
the evidence adduced in the case, and the privilege would still
attach.
6. The proceedings of a long trial lasting several days may be
published day by day, except when the court has forbidden such
daily reports until the whole trial has been completed.
7. Once a trial is over, the news value in the proceeding recedes. If,
long after the trial, a newspaper chooses to report a particular
portion of the proceedings, and the publication injures one of the
parties, such partial publication may be regarded as evidence of
malice.
8. Documents read out in open court may be published as well as
accurate statements of the contents of such documents. The
privilege does not, however, extend to newspaper publication of
the contents of pleadings, affidavits, and similar documents
which are not tendered in open court.
9. The report must not go beyond the actual proceedings in court.
Extraneous defamatory observations or comments would not be
protected. Neither would defamatory headlines even if the main
report is fair and accurate.
10. It is an offence to take photographs, or make portraits or sketches
of persons in open court. A further point may be made with
regard to photographs. It is unsafe to publish the photograph of
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an accused person, or that of a mere suspect who has not yet been
charged.”
It is important to note that a reporter should only go into a court or

parliament with tape recorders, camera and other recording equipment
only with permission and due authorisation.
Can the details of a proceeding held in private be published by the

press? Justify your position.
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is obvious from the foregoing that reporting judiciary and

parliamentary proceedings is not a tedious or an onerous task, it only
requires that media practitioners follow the guidelines and rules put in
place by the law to maintain the integrity of the institutions while
performing its duties of informing the public.
To avoid committing contempt of court or parliament, reporters must

follow guidelines and rules, and they must not flout court orders
regarding reporting restrictions and court orders.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we learnt about the guidelines for reporting parliamentary

and judicial proceedings.
We also learnt about closed-proceedings, postponement of reporting

proceedings and reporting restrictions.
Mention common errors and mistakes reporters make in recent times in

their coverage of parliamentary and judicial proceedings.
Adegbite, L. O. (1969). “Reports of Parliamentary and Judicial

Proceedings.” In: T. O. Elias (Ed.). Nigerian Press Law.
Edinburgh: University of Lagos and Evans Brothers Limited.
Britain’s Contempt of Court Act 1981.
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MAC 411 MODULE 4
Britain’s Magistrates’ Court Act 1980 Britain’s Civil Procedure Rules

1999.
Britain’s Tucker Committee on Proceedings before Examining Justices

of 1958.
Cassels, T. & Handler, R. (2002). “Parliamentary Proceedings and

Elections.” In Tom Crone (Ed.). Law and the Media (4th Ed.).
Oxford: Focal Press.
Colston, J. (2002). “Reporting Restrictions.” In: Tom Crone (Ed.). Law

and the Media. (4th Ed.). Oxford. Focal Press.
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999.
Legislative Houses and Privileges Act 1990.
Spilsbury, S. (2000). Media Law. London: Cavendish Publishing

Limited.
The Criminal Code (Laws of Southern Nigeria).
The Penal Code (Laws of Northern Nigeria)
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MAC 411 MODULE 5
MODULE 5 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF MASS

MEDIA REGULATION

UNIT 1 ETHICAL APPROACHES, THEORIES AND

MORAL REASONING
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Philosophical Principles and Traditions
3.2 Ethical Theories
3.3 Models of Moral Reasoning
3.3.1 The Potter Box
3.3.2 The SAD Formula
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
When confronted with situations that require more than one moral rule,
individuals and journalists alike have enormous challenges deciding
what to do. It is easy to make a decision between a right and wrong
alternative but it is very challenging to come to a decision when faced
with two moral decisions.
The purpose of this unit is to briefly present ethical theories and

perspectives, and models with which journalists can undertake moral
reasoning in taking real life decisions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• state philosophical principles in making ethical decisions

• enumerate some ethical theories
• highlight models of moral reasoning.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Philosophical Principles and Traditions
Philosophical principles and traditions are values we can refer to in

making decisions on ethical issues, especially when there are two
conflicting moral matters to decide on.
Bowles and Borden in their book Creative Editing provided three ethical
principles and traditions. These are:
• Immanuel Kant’s absolutist view

• John Stuart Mill’s principle of utility
• Aristotle’s golden mean
Immanuel Kant’s absolutist view is “based on a conviction that as

human beings we have certain moral rights and duties and that we
should treat all other people as free and equal to ourselves” (Bowles and
Borden, 2004).
The implication of this is that we must act only in ways in which we

will have other people act towards us. So it’s basically like saying do
unto others as you will have them do to you. It is based on the notion
that if everyone acts in this way, there will be order in the society and
indeed the world.
In other words, moral agents should check the principles underlying

their actions and decide whether they want them applied universally. If
so, these principles become a system of public morality to which
members of society are bound. Kant believed that moral behaviour was
measured by living up to standards of conduct because of the
consequences that might result. He argued that although individuals
should be free to act, they have a responsibility to act up to moral
principles. Because Kant’s theories emphasis duty, his ideas are
sometimes referred to as duty-based moral philosophy. In other words,
one has a duty to tell the truth, even if it might result in harm to others
(Day, 2006).
John Stuart Mill’s principle of utility is based on the notion that the
best action is the one that will bring the best results for the greatest
number of people. It doesn’t matter if the action will bring negative
consequences or impact for a few people.
“It is based on the notion that our actions have consequences, and those
consequences count. The best decisions, the best actions have good
consequences, and those consequences count. The utilitarian principle
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prescribes “the greatest happiness for the greatest number.” In media

situations, this maxim often translates into “the public’s right to know”
(Bowles and Borden, 2004).
Reporters who use deception to uncover social ills often appeal to the
principle of utility on the ground that, in the long run, they are
accomplishing some moral good for the public they serve. In other
words, the positive consequences for society justify the devious means
used in gathering the information (Day, 2006).
And Aristotle’s golden mean is a principle that seeks a middle point

between the extreme of the absolutists who insist the right thing must be
done regardless of the consequences and the other extreme of the
utilitarian who insists that the best decision is the one that will bring the
best good to the greatest number of people. The key value here is to find
a middle ground, undertake an action that will be close to the right thing
to do and at the same time bring good to all those who deserve it.
Aristotle’s golden mean holds that moral behaviour is the mean between
two extremes, at one end is excess and at the other deficiency. Find a
moderate position, a compromise between the two extremes, and you
will be acting with virtue. In this case, the moderate and ethical position
between the two extremes-stealing the medicine or allowing the loved
one to die-might be to offer to work for the pharmacist in return for the
medicine.
In your opinion, which of the philosophies should the media apply in

taking news gathering and publishing decision? Justify your position.
3.2 Ethical Theories
Day (2006) presents three categories of ethical theories that will be

adopted in this unit. They are:
i. Deontological (duty-based) theories

ii. Teleological (consequence-based) theories and
iii. Virtue theories
According to Deontological (duty-based) theories, “prohibitions

against certain kinds of behaviour apply, even if beneficial
consequences would result. Rather than focusing on the consequences,
(after all, foul deeds might produce good results), deontologists
emphasis the commitment to principles that the moral agent would like
to see applied universally, as well as the motive of the agent. Thus, in
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this view Robin Hood would have been a villain and not a hero for his
rather permissive to the redistribution of the wealth. Duty-based
theorists do not approve of using foul means to achieve positive ends.
The moral agent’s motives are important. According to Kant, people
should always be treated with respect and as ends unto themselves,
never as means to an end. Simply stated, “The ends do not justify the
means!” (Day, 2006).
Teleological (consequence-based) theories are predicated on the notion

that the ethically correct decision is the one that produces the best
consequences. Consequentialists, unlike deontologists, do not ask
whether a particular practice or policy is always right or wrong but
whether it will lead to positive results. There are of course, variations on
the teleological theme. At one extreme are the egoists, who argue that
moral agents should seek to maximise good consequences for
themselves. They should, in other words, look out for number one. At
the other extreme are the utilitarians, represented primarily by the
writings of philosophers such as Mill. As noted previously, utilitarians
believe that we should attempt to promote the greatest good (the most
favourable consequences) for the greatest number of people.
Utilitarianism is appealing because it provides a definite blueprint for
making moral choices. When confronting an ethical dilemma, moral
agents should analyse the benefits and harms to everyone (including
themselves) affected by the decision and then choose the course of
action that result in the most favourable outcome for the greatest
number. Appeals to the public interest to justify certain unpopular
decisions by media practitioners are a contemporary manifestation of
utilitarianism at work. Thus, a socially beneficial consequence is
sometimes used to justify an immoral means. Reporters who use
illegally recorded conversations from news sources on the ground of the
“public’s right to know” are attempting to justify what they believe to be
good consequences, even though the means of accomplishing the ends
are rather questionable (ibid).
For Virtue theories, many have argued they are not entitled to an
independent status because they focus more on building characters (what
personalities individuals ought to have) rather than what methods should
be used in providing a systematic way of reasoning morally.
However, one helpful theory can be extracted from virtue ethics:

Aristotle’s theory of the golden mean, discussed earlier. The golden
mean provides a moderate solution in those cases in which there are
identifiable extreme positions, neither of which is likely to produce
satisfactory results (ibid).
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The mean is not only the right quantity, but it occurs at the right time,
toward the right people, for the right reason, and in the right manner.
The distance depends on the nature of the agent as determined by the
weight of the moral case before them (Christians et al, 2008).
Would you argue that the media is justified in using teleological

(consequence-based) theories in making editorial judgments?
3.3 Models of Moral Reasoning
When journalists and media practitioners are faced with situations that
require them to make ethical decisions, it will be helpful if there are
models or frameworks that can guide that decision making process. This
is because making editorial decisions to publish or not to publish stories
can be very challenging and daunting.
3.3.1 The Potter Box
The Potter Box is a model of moral reasoning formulated by Dr. Ralph

Potter of Harvard Divinity School. Christians et al, (1998) describe the
model and its application.
According to Bowles and Borden (2004), the Potter Box helps dissect a
situation requiring an ethical response by introducing four dimensions of
analysis: definition, values, principles and loyalties. To make a decision,
we move through each dimension-from defining the situation to
considering values to appealing to an ethical principle to choosing
loyalties- eventually reasoning our way toward a solution.
The Potter Box in figure 3.1 can be used to analyse the dimensions of an
ethical problem for journalists. The first step is defining the situation. It
is followed by outlining the possible values at work and determining the
relevant moral principles to apply. The next step is choosing loyalties.
After the four-stage analysis, the final step is to make an ethical decision
about whether to publish.
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Judgment
Definition Loyalties
Values Principles
Fig. 3.1: The Porter Box
Source: Bowles and Borden (2004)
A typical example of how this model will work is presented below:
A magistrate court in Lagos is trying a 57-year-old man for the rape of

his neighbour’s daughter, a five-year-old girl. Your reporter covered the
committal proceeding and has the name, details and pictures of the girl
and the accused. He wants the News Editor to publish her details (e.g.
name, age, address, school, but not photograph) to convince readers that
the story is genuine.
The reporter believes the public should be informed of the evil, the
person who committed it and on whom it was committed. The News
Editor however believes that the story can be reported with only the age
of the victim and that of the defendant so that the public is not given
information about the man in such full details as will make it easy to
identify who the girl is. As the Editor, the final decision rests with you.
You can therefore use the Potter Box to take a final decision in this way:
• Step 1: Define the situation. The Reporter sees the situation as

that of an evil that the public must be informed of while the News
Editor sees publishing the full details of the victim and the
alleged criminal in bad taste.
• Step 2: Identify the values in the choices.
• The Reporter has identified these values as benefits of publishing
the details of the girl and her assailant in the story:
• It is an important event the public ought to be aware of.
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• The public need have the details of the girl so they can protect
children her age, thereby correcting the erroneous impression that
children that age cannot be victims.
The News Editor has identified these values as benefits of not publishing
the details of the girl and her assailant in the story:
• The story may affect the girl if anyone can refer it to her in the
future.
• It is an ethical value not to publish the details of rape victims,
especially children. Children involved in criminal proceedings
should be protected.
• The story can still be published without the full details of the girl.
• The newspaper’s unwritten policy is to protect minors in all
situations.
• Step 3: Appeal to moral principles to justify your decision.
• You can use the utilitarian principle which advocates “The
greatest good for the greatest number” by agreeing that the
society needs to be aware that such evil can occur and be
enlightened on the possibilities of preventing it by giving them
the full details of the victim.
• At the same time, you can apply the absolutist view of “Right is
right and wrong is wrong” by sticking to the paper’s policy of
protecting minors.
• Step 4: Choose loyalties.
This is the last step and it is also the most challenging. It is the point at
which you decide where your loyalty lies. “To whom is the highest
moral duty owed? Is the first loyalty to yourself, to the newspaper, to the
family of the victim, to the readers, to your readers, to your colleagues
or to the society?” Bowles and Borden (2004).
The reporter might argue that the ultimate loyalty is to the society and
the readers who the newspaper owe an obligation to inform and educate
on such menace as rape occurring to children from trusted individuals.
The News Editor might argue that the loyalty is to the newspaper’s
policy and to the victim and her family who will likely be traumatised
by the publication of a story that gives their full identification to the
entire public.
After reasoning through the four dimensions of the Potter Box which are
definition, values, principles and loyalty, you can therefore take a
decision using the reasoning process while bringing your personal ethics
and values to bear.
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Bowles and Borden (ibid) however note that “Unfortunately, reporters

and editors do not often use such methods to make moral judgments.
They either react instinctively, hoping that they will make the right
decision and that the negative consequences will not be too
overpowering, or they try to find answers in a professional code of
ethics.”
3.3.2 The SAD Formula
Louis Alvin Day (2006) in his book Ethics of Communication put

together a system of moral reasoning called the SAD Formula that can
assist media professionals and organisations make ethical decisions and
deal with ethical issues.
He says “Moral reasoning is a systematic process that involves

numerous considerations, all of which can be grouped into three
categories: (1) the situation definition; (2) the analysis of the situation,
including the application of moral theories; and (3) the decision, or
ethical judgment. For the sake of simplicity, I will refer to this as the
SAD formula. There are, of course, other models available, but the SAD
formula seems particularly adaptable to the needs of the moral reasoning
neophyte (ibid).
It is obvious that this model is similar to Potter Box and Day (2006)
himself agrees that his model is based, in part, on ideas advanced by
Ralph B. Potter in “The Logic of Moral Argument,” in Paul Deats’
Toward a Discipline of Social Ethics.
Situation Definition
Description of facts
Identification of principles and values
Statement of ethical issue or questions
Analysis
Weighing of competing principles and values
Consideration of external factors
Examination of duties to various parties
Discussion of applicable ethical theories
Decision
Rendering of moral agent’s decision
Defence of that decision based upon moral theory
Fig. 3.2: The SAD Formula

Source: Louis Day (2006)
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From the foregoing therefore, it is apparent that there are different or

numerous models of moral reasoning but they all focused on helping the
journalist and/or the media organisation appreciate the situation, analyse
it using ethical theories and principles and then finally make a decision
based on the systematic process.
Your newspaper’s most creative investigative and interpretative reporter

submits a most compelling story about a former Senate President who
had been diagnosed with full blown AIDS. As the editor of the
newspaper, using any of the models of moral reasoning presented above,
decide whether to publish or drop the story.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There are no absolutely right or wrong answers or decisions where

ethics is concerned, as different decisions can be justified using different
ethical theories or principles.
The most important thing therefore is for media professional to take the
decision that will have the lesser negative impact on the society and one
that will bring the greatest good to the greatest number.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed three ethical principles which are Immanuel

Kant’s absolutist view, John Stuart Mill’s principle of utility and
Aristotle’s golden mean.
We also discussed ethical theories that derived from these principles and
they are: Deontological (duty-based) theories, Teleological
(consequence-based) theories and virtue theories.
And two models of moral reasoning (using the ethical principles and
theories) in making decisions are discussed and they are the Potter Box
and the SAD Formula.
Discuss the ethical implications of the following scenarios:
a. A newspaper’s publication of the photograph of a university

undergraduate that was raped by her colleagues.
189
b. A newspaper’s publication of the manifest of a crashed plane

before the families of the victims is all officially notified by the
airline.
Black, J., Steele, B. & Barney, R. (1999) Doing Ethics in Journalism.

(3rd ed.). Massachusetts: Allyn & Bacon.

Thomas Wadsworth.
Christians, C. G., Mark Fackler, Rotzoll, K. B. & Kathy Brittain Mckee

(1998). Media Ethics: Cases and Moral Reasoning. (5th ed.).
New York: Longman.
Day, L. A. (2006). Ethics in Media Communications (5th ed.). Belmont:

Thomas Wadsworth.
Neher, W. W. & Sandin, P. J. (2007). Communicating Ethically:

Character, Duties, Consequences, and Relationships. Boston:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Olen, J. (1998). Ethics in Journalism. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-

Hall.
Sinha, J. (2009). A Manual of Ethics. Kolkata: New Central Book

Agency (P) Ltd.
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UNIT 2 ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE NIGERIAN MASS

MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Ethical Principles in Journalism
3.2 Code of Ethics for Nigerian Journalists
3.3 Ethical Problems in Nigerian Journalism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The profession of journalism is an important but delicate one as articles

or publications by the media can cause war, chaos or anarchy in the
society. This is why the profession has to be regulated by a system of
ethics to guide the activities and operations of its practitioners.
This unit will therefore explain the cardinal ethical principles in

journalism, the code of ethics for Nigerian journalists and the ethical
problems confronting the media in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• highlight the ethical principles in journalism

• state the code of ethics for Nigerian journalists
• enumerate ethical problems in Nigerian journalism.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Ethical Principles in Journalism
The ethical principles in journalism are the fundamental codes that guide
journalism practice the world over. They are the pillars on which the
profession of journalism is built; without their application to the news
gathering and production process, the profession will lose its integrity.
There are numerous ethical principles but the following are some of the
core universally acknowledged ethical principles of media practice:
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1. Truth
2. Objectivity
3. Fairness
4. Accuracy
Truth: Truth is fact, the reality told as it is. It is the avoidance of

deception, dishonesty and lying in any or every form.
The commitment to truth is perhaps the most ancient and revered ethical
principle of human civilisation. Despite our constant temptation to lie
and use deception in our self-interest, the idea of truth as a positive
value is well entrenched in moral and legal philosophy (Day, 2006).
Day (2006) discusses the standards of journalistic truth. He presents the

following standards for ensuring truth. They are:
First, the reporting of a story must be accurate. The facts must be

verified; that is, they should be based on solid evidence. If there is some
doubt or dispute about the facts, it should be revealed to the audience.
This is a threshold requirement, because inaccurate, unsubstantiated, or
uncorroborated information can undermine the credibility of any
journalistic enterprise.
A second requirement for journalistic truth is that, in addition to being

accurate, a truthful story should promote understanding. Time and space
limitations preclude providing a comprehensive understanding of any
situation. The goal should be to provide an account that is essentially
complete. A story should contain as much relevant information as is
available and essential to afford the average reader or reviewer at least
an understanding of the facts and the context of the facts.
The third criterion for a truthful article is that it be fair and balanced.
These twin concepts involve, first, the avoidance of any discernible bias.
In addition to avoiding bias, fairness and balance require that journalist
accord recognition to those views that enhance the understanding of the
issue. Every effort should be made to represent them fairly and in
proportion to their significance to the issue.
Another issue about truth in journalistic practice is the use of deception

in news gathering and reporting. Some moralists argue that it is wrong
to use deception in news gathering and reporting but some media
practitioners have argued that they may sometimes have to use
deception to unravel a greater truth for the benefits of the society. They
therefore use hidden cameras and recorders, act as undercover
participants in criminal situations and other forms of deception to gather
information for publication.
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According to Kovach and Rosenstiel (2001), a three-step test should be

applied for employing deceptive news-gathering techniques. They are:
1. The information must be sufficiently vital to the public interest to

justify deception.
2. Journalists should not engage in masquerade unless there is no
other way to get the story.
3. Journalists should reveal to their audience whenever they mislead
sources to get information, and explain their reasons for doing so,
including why the story justifies the deception and why this was
the only way to get the facts.
Meanwhile, there are some truths that the media is not expected to
publish. Un-publishable truths are truths that are not in the interest of the
public or truths that can compromise national security and integrity.
According to Okoye (2008), “Un-publishable truths are truths that are

not of public interest. For example, the fact that this writer ate bread
with sardine this morning is his private affair and not of public interest.
If the writer is a newsman, he would not have to “inflict” the
information on the readers since it is of no use to them. Another
example of un-publishable truth is truth that undermines national
security or national cohesion or truth that may be considered
blasphemous by any religious group.”
Objectivity: Objectivity means the absence of subjectivity, bias,

prejudice or partisanship. Media audiences expect utmost objectivity
while some media analysts have asserted that absolute objectivity is not
possible.
Frost (2007) defines the antonyms of objectivity or related terms thus:

“Bias: Means the deliberate slanting of a story to favour one side of the
argument rather than another on the grounds of the personal choice of
the writer.
Balance: Is the idea that the journalist can and should present equally
two sides of an argument.
Comment: Is an explanatory remark or criticism. ‘Comment’ in

journalistic terms can range from an expert opinion of a correspondent
to the unwarranted insertion of unsupported views.
Objectivity: Is the most contentious description. That which is objective

cannot and should not contain that which is subjective. This is often
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taken to mean that a journalist should not allow his or her feelings and
beliefs intrude into the article.
Neutral or impartial: Taking neither side. This does not exclude

subjectivity but necessitates that the journalist stands aloof from any
decision-making.
Prejudice: A preconceived opinion. This differs from bias in that bias

may slant a story without there being a preconceived idea. Prejudice is
more likely to determine what information is gathered for a story while
bias is more likely to determine how it is written and used.
Fairness: The idea that the journalist gives all sides of the argument a
fair hearing.”
Individuals see events through their viewpoints like the lens of a camera.
And their background, orientation, religion, race, nationality,
philosophies and personality shape these viewpoints. So, even when
they try to objectively gather information and report such information as
accurately as possible, their viewpoints are (indirectly) subjectively
influencing the news gathering and news reporting process. So, can a
reporter be really objective? How objective can objective reporting be?
It has been argued that there cannot be complete objectivity but media
practitioners must strive to be as objective as possible. Some factors
have been identified as likely impediments to objectivity. According to
Okoye (2008), “Objectivity can be hindered by any of the following
factors:
(i) Limited space

(ii) Laziness on the part of the reporter
(iii) Lack of openness on the part of one party to a controversy
(iv) Conflict of interest
(v) Advertiser pressure
(vi) Government pressure
Fairness
Fairness presupposes that all parties to a story or event are given equal
and fair hearing (through adequate reporting), information about all the
angles to a story is reported and all the sides to an argument or
controversy are presented.
The Washington Post’s Code of Ethics as cited in Okoye (ibid] says

concerning fairness:
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i. No story is fair it if omits facts of major importance or

significance. Fairness includes completeness.
ii. No story is fair if it includes essentially irrelevant information at
the expense of significant facts. Fairness includes relevance.
iii. No story is fair if it consciously or unconsciously misleads or
even deceives the reader. Fairness includes honesty-leveling with
the reader.
iv. No story is fair if reporters hide their biases or emotions behind
such subtly pejorative words as “refused”, “despite”, “quietly”,
“admit”, and “massive.” Fairness requires straightforwardness.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the truthfulness, correctness, exactness or precision in the

information that media practitioners provide for their audience. Media
audiences must be able to trust whatever information they are getting
from the media and for the media not to lose the trust of its audience,
they must go the extra-mile in checking the correctness of information
derived from sources and interviewees.
Crediting information to sources is one way of ensuring accuracy.

Getting exact figures in cases that require statistics like population
reportage, accidents and similar event is important. If the exact figure is
unknown, approximations can be made using the lowest possible figure
or a clear statement stating that the exact figure is unknown should be
made.
Care should also be taken to ensure that names, addresses, positions,

locations, age and other related information are accurate and correctly
spelt.
It is better to drop a story when in doubt than to publish and later issue a
retraction or apology.
Cite a story published in any local medium in which any of the ethical
principles discussed above are neglected.
3.2 Code of Ethics for Nigerian Journalists
In every country, there are codes of ethics that regulate the practice of
professions. The journalism or media profession is not an exception and
there is a code of ethics that controls the practice of journalism in the
country.
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There have been four codes of conduct in Nigeria, but the latest is the
one adopted in Ilorin in 1998 (Momoh, 2002).
The Code is popularly referred to as the Ilorin Declaration. It was jointly

ratified by the Nigerian Union of Journalist, the Newspaper Proprietors
Association of Nigeria, the Nigerian Guild of Editors and the Nigerian
Press Council.
Interview a reporter and editor with the intent to find out to what extent
they abide by the code of ethics.
3.3 Ethical Problems in Nigerian Journalism
Despite the existence of a nationally accepted code of ethics in Nigeria,

there are still challenges of ethical violations in the country’s media
industry. Some of these ethical problems are so entrenched in the
industry that many fear that they may not be easily expunged.
Okoye (2008) reveals that “freebies, conflict of interest,

misrepresentation, brown envelope syndrome and cartel journalism” are
some of the glaring ethical problems inherent in journalism in Nigeria.
The reality is that there is no exhaustive list of all the unethical issues
that the Nigerian media is challenged with. Only a very few will be
discussed here while journalists are expected to allow their conscience
and the ethics of the profession guide their activities and operations on
the field.
Freebies: Freebies are various assorted gifts given to reporters or

editorial staff of media organisations to gain their goodwill in order to
overtly or covertly influence their writings. These gifts can range from
sample products or souvenirs like calendars, pencils, jotters to Christmas
or Sallah hampers, laptops to external hard drives or other equipment
will, without doubt sway the reporter to the side of the individual or
organisations giving the gifts.
However, it has been observed that reporters and/or editors in Nigeria

look forward to or sometimes even demand for these gifts and this is no
doubt an ethical issue.
Junkets, brown envelopes, and paying for news: Junkets are free or
highly subsidised transport, travel or accommodation tickets. At times,
transport (luxurious buses and airlines) give subsidised or free travel
tickets to reporters covering the transport or aviation beats. Hotels too
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also sometimes give free or subsidised tickets for accommodation to

tourism reporters.
These forms of junkets will automatically affect balance and objective

writings from such reporters that benefit from them. They will
unconsciously launder the image of such organisations, water down bad
events or kill such stories altogether.
Brown envelopes are money that are given to reporters after covering
events, press conferences or interviewing prominent news sources,
especially politicians and those in government.
Organisations and individuals justify the giving of brown envelopes to

reporters with different reasons. Some say they empathise with reporters
who will have to use their personal money to transport themselves to
their various beats while others say they are merely subsidising or
facilitating the movement of reporters to and from their beats while
others call it a public relations strategy.
The reality is that more media organisations in Nigeria are becoming

financially responsible and making prompt payment of salaries and beat
transport allowances (B.T.As) but the brown envelope syndrome has
come to say and it will be very difficult to weed out.
Paying for news is another ethical challenge. It either comes in form of

‘Let Them Pay’ in which organisations pay media companies to cover
such events as annual general meetings, new product launch and similar
events and make them report it as regular news or in the form of media
houses or their reporters paying sources to get information or
documents.
Both options are wrong. Adverts should be carried as adverts and not
news in order not to deceive the unassuming audience while paying
sources for news can lead the sources to provide false information or
document just to get money from reporters.
Conflict of interest: This occurs when a reporter or editor has an

interest or a stake in a matter and allows it to affect their editorial
function. That is why reporters should not review companies in which
they have invested in the form of shares and stocks.
Conflict of interest can also come to play if a reporter or editor is a

member of a political party or on the pay roll of certain politicians and
public office holders. It will be irrelevant to say that many a news will
be totally killed while others will be modified.
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Handling stories that affect loyal advertisers of specific medium is also

another challenge. It is not uncommon to find that newspapers have
challenges writing exposes and critical stories about companies that
patronise them well in terms of advertisements.
In fact, it has been said that newspapers avoid strong criticism of

politicians so that they do not stop their allies from advertising in their
papers. A good example in point is that of 234Next newspapers, a
Nigerian newspaper run by a Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist that
stopped appearing on the newsstands in September 2011 after 2½ years
of muckraking and sometimes controversial coverage of issues in the
country. Dele Olojede, a former foreign editor for New York's Newsday
said the newspaper's crusading political stance also hurt advertising
sales, as the salutatory advertisements heaping praise on politicians and
the country's elite that fill other publications never made it into its
editions. Next, which began publishing its print edition in January 2009
continued to publish stories on its website after the print edition was
stopped for financial reasons.
Carter journalism: Almost every beat in Nigeria has a beat association

comprising all the journalists covering such beats. The beat associations
are now so powerful that they collect money from the organisations
working in those beats for onward distribution to their members. They
write stories and send to the e-mail addresses of all journalists covering
those beats and they have the power to influence what stories to be
written or ‘killed’ by their members.
Sycophancy and ethnocentrism: The last, but certainly not the least,
ethical issue that will be discussed is sycophancy, which involves
journalists turning themselves to praise singers, idolising politicians and
the powerful in the society in their writings, while neglecting social
issues that need to be addressed.
A “New” moral problem: The fact that Nigeria is multi-ethnic and

multi-religious is creating another problem, in that the media
organisations are allowing their medium to be used as platforms for
attacking specific political organisations, religious or ethnic groups or
individuals. It is now uncommon to hear newsreaders classifying media
organisations according to their political or ethnic leanings.
Interview a media organisation on what it is doing to curtail ethical

misdemeanours among its staff.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
Every profession has its ethical challenges and media profession is no

exception. That is why there are codes of conduct professional
associations and other regulatory mechanisms to check the excesses of
those who might be interested in exploiting the system.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we examined the cardinal principles of ethics, which are

Truth, objectivity, fairness and accuracy. We also highlighted the code
of ethics for Nigerian journalists and the ethical issues that are
bedeviling journalism practice in Nigeria.
Go through a national newspaper for a month and identify three stories

you feel are ethically wrong (due to any of the reasons that have been
identified above).

Thomas Wadsworth.

Thomas Wadsworth.

Kovach, B. & Rosenstiel, T. (2001). The Elements of Journalism. New

York: Crown.
Momoh, P. T. (2002). Nigerian Media Laws. Lagos: Efua Media

Associates Limited.
Okoye, I. (2008). Media Law and Ethics. Lagos:National Open

University.
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UNIT 3 REGULATORY INSTITUTIONS IN THE

NIGERIAN MASS MEDIA
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Laws
3.2 Statutory Bodies
3.3 Professional Associations and Codes
3.4 Media Review Publications and Programmes
3.5 Non-Media Mechanisms
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Regulation is an inevitable part of ensuring standards in everyday

modern life. Without regulation of much of the rest of society with
which we come into contact on a regular basis, life would become more
dangerous and more uncomfortable. The media cannot be exempted
from the need for regulation to ensure acceptable standards and so any
debate about media regulation concerns the amount of regulation and
how it should be enforced.
There are a number of issues to be considered by media regulation. First

are the social and economic issues. Society needs to decide what
controls, if any, it should place on the ownership of newspapers or
broadcast stations. It also needs to consider whether there are any social
limitations and how these should be enforced. Then the concept of
content regulation needs to be considered. Should newspapers and
broadcast stations have their content controlled or limited in some way?
(Frost, 2007).
This unit will focus on the various available ethical mechanisms for the
regulation of the mass media in Nigeria.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• list media laws in Nigeria

• enumerate statutory bodies set up to regulate the media in Nigeria
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• highlight professional bodies and codes the media have

established to guard their activities
• explain non-media mechanisms that the society employ to curtail
the media.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Laws
In Nigeria, there is a plethora of media laws that have been promulgated

to regulate the media. Media professionals have criticised a good
number of these laws as antithetical to the progress and freedom of the
media but these laws exist nonetheless.
Most of the laws that still affect the operations of the media in Nigeria
the most have been explained and discussed in detail in the previous
units. However, the laws that affect the media in Nigeria will still be
presented.
Momoh (2002) highlights all the laws that have been enacted to regulate
the media in Nigeria from 1917 to 1999 under four categories. The list
will be presented below:
A As at Independence in 1960
1. The Newspaper Act, 1917

2. Printing Presses Registration Act, 1933
3. The Criminal Code Act and schedules thereto in so far as it deals
with:
• Sedition: Sections 50 and 51 (ss 416 & 417 of Penal Code)
• Injurious Falsehood: Section 59 (sec 418 PC)
• Criminal Defamation: ss 373-379 (ss 391-392 PC)
• Power to prohibit importation of publications: Sec 58
• Seditious publication against foreign head of state: sec 60
• Contempt of Court: sec 6 Criminal Code Act & Sec 133
B Between 1960 and the Coup d’etat of 1966
1) Children and Young Persons (Harmful Publications) Act, 1961

2) Defamation Act 1961
3) Emergency Powers Act 1961
4) Seditious Meeting Act 1961
5) Obscene Publications Act 1961
6) Official Secrets Act 1962
7) Newspaper (Amendment) Act 1964
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C Between 1966 and 1979
1) Circulation of Newspaper Decree No. 2, 1966

2) The Defamatory and Offensive Publications Decree No 44, 1966
3) Newspaper (Prohibition of Circulation) Decree No 17, 1967
4) Public Officers (Protection Against False Accusation) Decree No
11, 1976
5) News Agency of Nigeria Decree No 19, 1976
6) Nigerian Television Authority Decree No. 24, 1977
7) Newspaper (Prohibition of Circulation) (Validation) Decree No
12, 1978
8) Nigerian Press Council Decree No. 31, 1978
9) Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria Decree No. 8, 1979
10) Daily Times of Nigeria (Transfer of Certain Shares) Decree No.
101, 1979
11) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Certain
Consequential Repeals etc) Decree No. 115, 1979
D From 1979 to Return of the Military in Dec. 1983 and Beyond
1) Constitution (Suspension and Modification) Decree No 1, 1984

2) State Security (Detention of Persons) Decree No. 2, 1984
3) Public Officers (Protection Against False Accusation) Decree No
4, 1984
4) The Federal Military Government (Supremacy and Enforcement
of Powers) Decree No 13, 1984
5) Nigerian Media Council Decree No 59, 1989
6) Nigerian Press Council Decree No 85, 1992
7) National Broadcasting Commission Decree No 38, 1992
8) Treason & Treasonable Offences Decree No 29, 1993
9) Offensive Publications (Proscription) Decree No 35, 1993
10) Newspapers etc (Suspension & Modification) Decree No 48,
1993
11) Newspaper Decree No 45, 1993
12) The Constitution (Suspension & Modification) Decree No 107,
1993.
13) State Security (Detention of Persons) (Amendment) (No 2)
Decree 14, 1994
14) Nigerian Press Council (Amendment) Decree No 60, 1999
Comment on the laws enacted to regulate the media between 1960 and
1966. How relevant and significant are they to the fourth estate of the
realm?
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3.2 Statutory Bodies
There are statutory bodies set up to regulate the media, whether by the
media themselves which is the ideal or sometimes by the government.
They are known as different names in different jurisdictions. In Nigeria,
we have a press council while such statutory bodies are known as News
Council in some parts of Europe and America.
“News councils, arguably the most democratic of regulatory devices, are

another breed of “watchdog” designed to foster a dialogue between the
media and their various publics. These councils, which are usually
composed of a cross section of the community and the media, are
designed to investigate complaints against the media, investigate
complaints against the media, investigate the charges, and then publish
their findings” (Day, 2006).
Press Councils are self-regulatory bodies for journalism practice, as the

initiatives for setting them up must come from the professionals or
media themselves. Ideally, press councils should be run entirely by the
practitioners, but there are those established by the government, like the
Nigerian Press Council (NPC). But the essence of a press council is to
handle extra-legal matters involving individual journalists and the media
(Okoye, 1998).
3.2.1 Nigerian Press Council
The need for a statutory body to regulate the activities of the Nigerian
press and protect its members was recognised towards the end of the last
millennium. Various attempts were made before what we now have as
the Nigerian Press Council was later established.
According to the council, formal efforts towards its establishment

commenced with “the setting up of a commission named the Ekineh
Commission. The commission which was set up after a distinguished
Nigerian attorney by the General Yakubu Gowon government was to
study the future of the Nigerian media. It however did not make its
findings public and so it was an exercise in futility. Further attempt was
made through the establishment of the Nigerian Media Council Decree
No 59 of 1988 but was aborted largely because journalists were a bit
apprehensive of the seemingly totalitarian powers conferred on the
council. The current statute, the Nigerian Press Council Act No. 85 is
more or less a consensus Act arising from hard bargaining between
government and the Nigerian Press Organisation (NPO), an umbrella
body for the major stakeholders in the industry. These stakeholders
include the Nigeria Union of Journalists (NUJ); the Nigerian Guild of
203
Editors (NGE); and the Newspapers Proprietors' Association of Nigeria

(NPAN).”
Nigerian Press Council is an agency under the Federal Ministry of

Information. It was established by the Nigerian Press Council Act No.
85 of 1992 as amended in Nigerian Press Council Act No. 60 of 1999 to
promote high professional standards for the Nigeria Press. Its vision is to
create a culture of ethical press in Nigeria driven through research and
documentation of contemporary press development; training and
workshop for journalists; accreditation of programmes in tertiary
institutions; enquiring into complaint about the press and monitoring the
activities of the press.
The council serves as buffer between the media, government and the
public by ensuring the maintenance of the highest ethical and
professional standards in the media. It is mutually beneficial to the
public as well as journalist themselves.
Essentially, press councils are forums for airing of complaints against

the news media. The council is not a law court, it considers complaints
against news media and journalists, concerning the messages they
publish besides their behaviour with regard to the people they encounter
in covering the news.
The complaints that people make about news publications and

broadcasts usually pertain to ethical standards such as truth, accuracy,
fairness, balance and decency, or issues such as bias, objectivity and
sensationalism.
The Nigerian Press Council thus has the following goals and objectives:
to promote professionalism and encourage the highest standards in
journalism; safe-guard freedom of the press; protect rights and privileges
of journalists; protect the public from excesses of journalists through
adjudication; renders the cheapest and fastest complaints resolution
mechanism between the media and the public among others.
The Nigerian Press Council's Board comprises a chairman and 18 other

members drawn from the Nigeria Union of Journalists; Nigerian Guild
of Editors; Newspaper Proprietors' Association of Nigeria; the
Broadcasting Organisation of Nigeria (BON); News Agency of Nigeria
(NAN); the Federal Ministry of Information and Communications
(FMIC); Journalism Training Institutions and the general public (ibid).
The mandates of the Nigerian Press Council as set out in section 3 of its
act include the following:
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• Enquire into complaints about the press and the conduct of any
person or organisation towards the press.
• Monitor the activities of the press with a view to ensuring
compliance with the code of professional and ethical conduct of
the Nigeria Union of Journalists.
• Receive application from, and documenting the print media and
monitoring their performance to ensure that owners and
publishers comply with the terms of their mission statement and
objectives in liaison with the Newspaper Proprietors Association
of Nigeria.
• Research into contemporary press development and engage in
updating press documentation.
• Review developments likely to restrict the flow of information
and advice on measures aimed at remedying such
developments.
• Ensure the protection of the rights and privileges of journalists in
the lawful performance of their duties.
• Foster the achievement and maintenance of high professional
standards by the Nigerian press.
The council is therefore, statutorily expected to monitor the activities of

the media. Essentially, this is performed through content analysis to
ensure that the code of professional and ethical conduct is strictly
adhered to.
The council also reviews media laws, policies and programmes or

developments perceived as hostile to the press in its performance and
advise on possible remedy.
The protection of the rights and privileges of Nigerian journalists is an

integral component of the press council's functions.
Since its establishment, the Nigerian Press Council has adjudicated in a

lot of ethical disputes and/or complaints against the Nigerian press,
promoted the promulgation of legislations and efforts towards ensuring
freedom of expression and the press and protected the rights of media
establishments and practitioners in the country.
How effective can you say the Nigerian Press Council has been in the
performance of its responsibilities?
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3.3 Professional Associations and Codes
Apart from the law and statutory organisations like news councils,
professional associations and/or codes are another form of regulatory
mechanism that media professionals themselves have put in place to
control ethical concerns among themselves.
Professional associations and codes are numerous and on different

levels. Some are national based while others are regional and
international. Others are interest or ideological based. Examples of
ideological based media associations existing in the United States of
America for instance include the National Centre on Disability and
Journalism and the National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association.
For the mass media in Nigeria, national media associations in the

country include:
• The Nigerian Union of Journalist (NUJ)

• The Nigerian Guild of Editors (NGE)
• The Newspaper Proprietors Association of Nigeria (NPAN)
• The Nigerian Institute of Public Relations (NIPR)
• The Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON)
All these associations determine the standard for admitting members and
they set and sometimes conduct examinations for those who intend to
join. Apart from that, they register those who qualify to become
members (whether by the association’s examination or other means like
professional or academic qualifications from recognised institutions).
After registration, members are also encouraged to participate in
seminars and trainings to upgrade their level in the associations. In
addition, they regulate the actions or professional practice of those
members using established codes of conduct or ethics and sanction
erring members and they also collect dues from members to sponsor
their activities and programmes.
Regional associations and codes guide the practice of media

practitioners in different regions or on different continents around the
world. Okunna (2005) in Okoye (1998) lists some of the available
regional codes the world over. They are:
i. The Inter-American Press Association adopted in 1926.

ii. The Declaration of Duties and Rights for Journalists, adopted by
six journalists’ union of the European community in 1971.
iii. The code of Arab journalists prepared under the auspices of the
Arab league.
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iv. The Charter of the West African Journalists Association (WAJA)

which was adopted in 1986.
International principles of professional ethics came into being, according

to Okoye (1998) in 1983 under the auspices of UNESCO. The
signatories include the following regional bodies:
i. International Federation of Journalists (IFJ)

ii. International Catholic Union of the Press (ICUP)
iii. Latin American Federation of Journalists (FELAP)
iv. Latin American federation of Press Workers (FELATRAP)
v. Federation of Arab Journalists (FAJ)
vi. Union of African Journalists (UAJ)
vii. Confederation of Asian Journalists (CAJ)
How do you think the profession of journalism would have fared

without codes of ethics and professional associations? What impact do
you think national media associations and codes have in the practice of
mass communication in Nigeria?
3.4 Media Review Publications and Programmes
The media, apart from regulation through professional media

associations and codes have also peer reviewed and corrected the errors,
mistakes and blunders of their colleagues in different media
organisations through media review programmes or publications.
In Nigeria, Media Review, published by Diamond Publication, and

edited by Lanre Idowu, has been doing a good job of critiquing ethical
conducts in the media. For example in 2006, the issue of “wrap around”
adverts, whereby some newspapers devoted four cover pages for adverts
for mouth-watering fees, was exhaustively addressed by Media Review,
with the verdict that such a practice was unethical. Unfortunately, the
practice still goes on (Okoye, 2008).
Does a media organisation have the right to condemn the practices

and/or broadcast or publications of another media organisation? What
words or actions should be avoided when doing so?
207
3.5 Non-Media Mechanisms
Societies worldwide have not left the regulation of the media in the
hands of the government and media industries alone. They have also
organised and designed ways by which they monitor and regulate the
practice of mass communication in their communities as private
individuals and their communities are most affected by the impact of
media publications and practices.
There are different non-media mechanisms employed by different

communities in reacting, responding, correcting and limiting the
activities of media news gathering and reporting practices and
publications. Some of them are:
• Letters to the Editor

• Request for apology and/or retraction
• Rejoinder or Right of Reply
• Boycott
• Media monitors and/or critics
• Surveys and polls
Letters to the Editor
A letter to the editor (sometimes abbreviated LTTE or LTE) is a letter

sent to a publication about issues of concern from its readers. Usually,
letters are intended for publication. In many publications, letters to the
editor may be sent either through conventional mail or electronic mail.
Letters to the editor are most frequently associated with newspapers and
newsmagazines. However, they are sometimes published in other
periodicals (such as entertainment and technical magazines), and radio
and television stations. In the latter instance, letters are sometimes read
on the air (usually, on a news broadcast or on talk radio).
In Nigeria, readers sometimes writes letters to the editors of newspapers

to complain or make requests about issues that are of concern to them
but not related to publications or articles previously written by the paper.
For instance, students seeking the release of their results by JAMB or
WAEC or residents appealing to PHCN to give them power supply in
their area.
When the editors of media organisations receive letters from their

readers complaining about the contents of their publication or broadcast,
they serve as a caution and check on their activities and their operations.
To the extent, LTEs constitute a mechanism used by the society to check
the media. When the society bombards the mails of a media organisation
208
MAC 411 MODULE 5
with complaints on an issue, the organisation will call itself to order and
avoid such mistakes in the future.
Request for apology and/or retraction
Sometimes, individuals are not comfortable with just expressing their

discontent about a news article with just a letter to the editor. They
sometimes demand for a published or broadcast apology by the media
organisation and/or a retraction of the story, headline or content from the
pages of the publication. Individuals demand for a retraction and/or
apology when false or misleading information are published about them.
This is done by writing a letter to the editor of the media organisation,

referring to the title or headline of the news content, the page or
programme on which it was published or broadcast and stating in clear
terms their grievances with the content and evidence to prove same.
Then, they either demand a published/broadcast apology only or in
addition to the apology; request that a retraction be published by the
media organisation, withdrawing its earlier publication.
Media organisations who are socially responsible and wish to avoid

legal suits apologise and publish retractions when it is clear that they
have made mistakes and wronged the organisation or individual
concerned.
Rejoinder or right of reply
Individuals or organisations who are aggrieved with a news content or

publication sometimes write a rejoinder explaining their side of the story
or stating the position they believe is the right position for members of
the public to consider.
The rejoinder is then sent to the media organisation which published the
initial story to publish. There is a right of reply and media organisations
are necessitated to publish such rejoinders. It is not expected that the
individual or the organisation will pay for the publication but some do in
order to ensure that their rejoinders are published. Others take the
rejoinder to another media organisation and pay for it to be published
there.
Boycott
Individuals, organisations or groups may call for or place a boycott,

proscription or embargo on the purchase of a newspaper or magazine or
disclaim any medium that is perceived to be against or unjust to their
cause.
209
Before this stance can be taken, some of the other mechanisms

explained above would have been exploited without success. Media
organisations are aware of this possible action and they therefore
exercise caution in handling grievances from individuals, organisations
or groups.
Media monitors and/or critics
Media monitors and/or critics are individuals or organisations who

monitor and critique the contents or broadcasts of media organisation.
They sometimes publish their observations for the consumption of the
media and the general public and they also make recommendations for
the correction, prevention or eradication of such errors or mistakes in the
future.
According to Okoye (2008), the following are examples of media

monitors:
• Media Watch
• Media Alert
• Media Forum
• Media Ombudsman
• Centre for Media and Public Affairs
• Columbia Journalism Review
• Project for Excellence in Journalism
• Media Channel.Org
• Media Tenor
• Media Centre Research Centre
• News Watch Centre for Integration and Improvement
• Slip Up.Com
• The Tyndall Report
Surveys and polls
Independent research outfits and academic institutions regularly conduct

surveys and polls about media institutions. The studies centre on some
or all of the following, sometimes in a single study or different study.
Some of those index used in determining the credibility of media
organisations, especially the print media include; the rate of distribution,
editorial value, quality of news, objectivity, balance, integrity and other
indices of good journalism practices.
Media organisations are aware of these studies and they strive to get
good ratings as organisations and advertising agencies use such ratings.
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MAC 411 MODULE 5
They therefore strive to apply best practices to their profession so as not

to tarnish their mage. Thus, polls and surveys are other equally good
mechanisms of curtailing the excesses of the media.
Cite any instance in Nigeria that an individual, organisation or group has

used any of the mechanisms discussed above to express a grievance,
correct the media or curtail their actions.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The media is the watchdog of the society. It is also obvious that the
society is the watchdog of the watchdog. Thus, the media has the
freedom to perform its responsibilities but the freedom is not absolute as
it is closely monitored and checked by the law, professional associations
and codes, statutory bodies, media review programmes and publications
and other non-media mechanisms.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have looked at the non-legal regulatory mechanisms

available in curtailing the media. We discussed statutory bodies like the
Nigerian Press Council and professional association and codes like the
NUJ, NGE, NIPR, APCON and others.
We equally discussed the impact of media review publications and

programmes and other non-media mechanisms like letters to the editor,
request for apology or retraction, rejoinder, boycott, media monitors and
polls and how they help the media in keeping with the best professional
practices.
Go to the office or archive of the Nigerian Press Council and report on

any ethical complaint case the council has adjudicated on in the last five
years.

Thomas Wadsworth.

211
Momoh, P. T. (2002). Nigerian Media Laws. Lagos: Efua Media

Associates Limited.
Nigerian Press Council (2011). History and Mandate. Retrieved from

http://www.presscouncil.gov.ng/the-nigerian-press-council-
mandate) on May 8, 2012.
Okoye, I. (2008). Media Law and Ethics. Lagos:National Open

University.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_to_the_editor
212
MAC 411 MODULE 5
APPENDIX
1. Editorial independence: Decisions concerning the content of

news should be the responsibility of a professional journalist.
2. Accuracy and fairness:
i. The public has a right to know. Factual, accurate, balanced
and fair reporting is the ultimate objective of good
journalism and the basis of earning public trust and
confidence.
ii. A journalist should refrain from publishing inaccurate and
misleading information. Where such information has been
inadvertently published, prompt correction should be
made. A journalist must hold the right of reply as a
cardinal rule of practice.
iii. In the course of his duties a journalist should strive to
separate facts from conjecture and comment.
3. Privacy: As a general rule, a journalist should respect the privacy
of individuals and their families unless it affects public interest.
A. Information on the private life of an individual or his
family should only be published if it infringes on public
interest.
B. Publishing of such information about an individual as
mentioned above should be deemed justifiable only if it is
directed at:
i. Exposing crime or serious misdemeanour
ii. Exposing anti-social conduct
iii. Protecting public health, morality and safety
iv. Preventing the public from being misled by some
statement or action of the individual concerned.
4. Privilege/Disclosure:
i. A journalist should observe the universally accepted
principle of confidentiality and should not disclose the
source of information obtained in confidence.
ii. A journalist should not reach an agreement with a source
of information as “off-the-record” or as “background
information”.
5. Decency:
i. A journalist should dress and comport himself in a manner
that conforms to public taste.
ii. A journalist should refrain from using offensive, abusive
or vulgar language.
iii. A journalist should not present lurid details, either in
words or picture, of violence, sexual acts, abhorrent or
horrid scenes.
213
iv. In cases involving personal grief or shock, enquiries

should be carried out and approaches made with sympathy
and discretion.
v. Unless it is in the furtherance of the public’s right to
know, a journalist should generally avoid identifying
relatives or friends of persons convicted or accused of
crime.
6. Discrimination:
A journalist should refrain from making pejorative reference to a
person’s ethnic group, religion, sex, or to any physical or mental
illness or handicap.
7. Reward and gratification:
i. A journalist should neither solicit nor accept bribe,
gratification or patronage to suppress or publish
information.
ii. To demand payment for the publication of news is
inimical to the notion of news as a fair, accurate, unbiased
and factual report of an event.
8. Violence: A journalist should not present or report acts of
violence, armed robberies, terrorist activities or vulgar display of
wealth in a manner that glorifies such acts in the eyes of the
public.
9. Children and minors: A journalist should not identify, either by
name or picture, or interview children under the age of 16 who
are involved in cases concerning sexual offences, crimes and
rituals or witchcraft either as victims, witnesses or defendants.
10. Access to information: A journalist should strive to employ
open and honest means in the gathering of information.
Exceptional methods may be only when the public interest is at
stake.
11. Public interest: A journalist should strive to enhance national
unity and public good.
12. Social Responsibility: A journalist should promote universal
principles of human rights, democracy, justice, peace and
international understanding.
13. Plagiarism: A journalist should not copy, wholesale or in part,
other people’s work without attribution and/or consent.
14. Copyright:
i. Where a journalist reproduces a work, be it in print,
broadcast, art work or design, proper acknowledgement
should be accorded the author.
ii. A journalist should abide by all rules of copyright,
established by national and international laws and
conventions.
Press freedom and responsibility: A journalist should strive at all
times to enhance press freedom and responsibility.
214

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: MAC 411

COURSE TITLE: MEDIA LAW AND ETHICS

Course Team Lateef A. Adelakun - NOUN & Ganiyat Adenle -

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

MAC 413: Media Law and Ethics is a three-credit course for

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

Media Law and Ethics equips prospective mass communication

• define law and ethics

• know the ethical mechanisms in Nigerian journalism and how

1. Introducing you to the essence and purpose of law and ethics in

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

9. You also need to read newspapers and magazines, listen to radio

Module 1 Mass Media and the Imperative of Law and Ethics

Unit 1 Understanding Law

Module 2 Nigerian Constitution and Media Regulation

Unit 1 Nigerian Legal System

Module 3 Media Laws: Reputation and Dignity of Persons

Module 4 Media Laws: Intellectual and Institutional

Module 5 Media Ethics and Regulation: An Introduction

Unit 1 Understanding Ethics

TEXTBOOKS AND REFERENCES

A number of books and other materials have been recommended for a

THE ASSIGNMENT FILE

Two kinds of assessment are involved in this course: tutor-marked

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (TMA)

You will be required to submit a specified number of TMAs. Each unit

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

This table shows the actual course marking scheme.

Module 1 Mass Media and the Imperative of Law and Ethics

Unit 1 Understanding Law

Module 2 Nigerian Constitution and Media Regulation

Unit 1 Nigerian Legal System

Module 3 Media Laws: Reputation and Dignity of Persons

Module 4 Media Laws: Intellectual and Institutional

Module 5 Ethical Principles of Mass Media Regulation

Unit 1 Ethical Approaches, Theories and Moral Reasoning

Module 5 Ethical Principles of Mass Media Regulation

Unit 1 Ethical Approaches, Theories and Moral Reasoning

Revision Week 21 and 22

HOW TO GET THE MOST OF THIS COURSE

i. A standard dictionary, such as the Oxford Advanced Learners.

A) At least four continuous, uninterrupted hours of study weekly.

FACILITATORS/TUTOR AND TUTORIALS

You should contact your tutor if:

a) You do not understand any part of the assigned readings

This is a particularly interesting course that opens your eyes to many

Module 1 Mass Media and the Imperative of Law

Unit 1 Understanding Law………………………. 1

Module 2 Nigerian Constitution and Media

Unit 1 Nigerian Legal System…………………….. 25

Module 3 Media Laws: Reputation and Dignity of

Module 4 Media Laws: Intellectual and

Unit 1 Copyright……………………………………. 102

Unit 1 Understanding Ethics………….…………… 181