Chapter 1

LINEAR EQUATIONS IN LINEAR ALGEBRA

 Specific Objectives
After the completion of this chapter, students will be able to :
 The system of linear equations
 Test the consistency and inconsistency of the system of linear equations
 Form the Echelon for all reduced Echelon form
 Define vector equations
 Define the matrix equation Ax=b
 Solve the system of linear

Historical Background
Linear algebra is the study of lines and planes, vector spaces and mappings that are required for
linear transforms. It is a relatively young field of study, having initially
been formalized in the 1800s in order to find unknowns in systems of
linear equations. Linear algebra is called linear because it is the study of
straight lines.
A linear function is any function that graphs to a straight line, and linear
algebra is the mathematics for solving systems that are modeled with
multiple linear functions. In simplex words, linear algebra helps us to
understand geometric concepts such as planes in higher dimensions and
perform mathematical operations on them. William Hamilton

The power and progress in linear algebra did not come to fruition until the late 17 th century. The
2 Mathematics - II

emergence of the subject came from determinants, values connected to a square matrix, studied
by the founder of calculus Leibnitz, in the 17th century. In 1843, sir William Rowan Hamilton
invested linear equation and in 1844. Hermann Grassmann published his "Theory of Extension"
which included foundational new topics of what is today called linear algebra. In 1848, James
Joseph Sylvester introduced the term matrix.

System of Linear Equations

In mathematics, a system of linear equations (or linear system) is a collection of one linear or
more linear equations involving the same set of variables.
For example
i. A linear equations in two variables x and y is an equation of the form ax + by = c; where a and
b are coefficients and c are real (or complex) number.
ii. A linear equation in three variables x, y and z is an linear equation of the form
ax + by + cz = d; where a, b, c are coefficients and d are real (or complex number).
iii. A linear equation in n variables x1, x2, x3, ..., xn is an equation of the form a1x2 + a2x2 + a3x3 + an = b;
where a1, a2, a3, ..., an are the coefficients and b are real (or complex number).

Solution of the System of Linear Equations

A solution of a linear system is an assignment of values to the variables x 1, x2, x3, ..., xn such that
each of the equation is satisfied. The set of all possible solution is called the solution set.

For example
i. The solution of the linear systems of the equations x – y = –1 and 3x + y = 9 is shown below:
Y
Solution set

(2, 3)

X
O

ii. The solution of the linear systems of the equations 4x + 3y = 7, x – 2y = –1 and 3x + 5y = 8 is

shown below:
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 3

Solution

(1, 1)
X
O

Types of Solution of Linear System

There are three types of solution of the system off linear equations. The following diagram
represents the types of solution of linear systems.
Solution of Linear System

Consistent and Consistent and Inconsistent and

independent dependent independent

1. Consistent and Independent Solution: If a system has at least one solution, it is said to be
consistent. If a consistent system has exactly one solution, it is called independent. In other
words, the system of linear equation is said to have consistent and independent solution if
they have only one solution (Unique solution). If we plot this type of equations in graph, we
get only one point of intersection.
As represented in the graph below, The pair of lines intersects at a point and therefore, it is
consisted and independent linear system having unique solution.
Y
(3, 4)
Consistent and Independent solution
(Exactly one solution)
4

X' X
O 3
x1 + 2x2 = 11
Y'

2. Consistent and Dependent Solution: A system of linear equation is said to have consistent
and dependent solution if they have infinitely many solution. In fact, all points lie on the lines
are called solutions.
As represented in the graph below, the pair of lines coincides i.e. same line and therefore it is
consistent and dependent linear system having infinitely much solution.
4 Mathematics - II

Y Y

2x1 + 3x2 = 6 and

x + y = 2 and 4x1 + 6x2 = 12
2x + 2y = 4
Same line
Same line (coincides)
(coincides)

O O
X X
3. Inconsistent and Independent Solution: A system of linear equation is said to have
inconsistent and independent solution if they have no solution.
As represented in the graph below, the pair of lines are parallel and therefore, it is inconsistent
and independent linear system having no solution.
Y
Y

x + 2y = 5 x=3 x=4

X
O X
O
x + 2y = 7

(Inconsistent and independent solution (Inconsistent and independent solution

(i.e. no solution) (i.e. no solution)

Matrix Form of Linear Systems

A system of linear equation can be represented in matrix form using a coefficient matrix, a
variable matrix and a constant matrix.
The system of linear equations in n–variables x1, x2, x3, …, xn is an equation of the form
a1,x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + … + a1n = b1
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + … + a2n = b2
……………………………………..
am1x1 + am2x2 + … + amn = bm
can be represented in the matrix form as
a11 a12 a13 … a1n x1 b1
a a22 a23 … a2n
 x   b 
 .  . = . 
21 2 2

. . . .
a ml am2 am3 … amn  x   b 
n n

And, it can be written simply as Ax = B

 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 5

a11 a12 … a1n

a a22 … a2n

where A =   = coefficient matrix
21

. . . .
a m1 am2 … amn 
x1
x 
x=
. 
2
= output matrix (or variable matrix)

x  n

b1
b 
B=
. 
2
= input matrix

b  n

a11 a12 … a1n : b1

a a22 … a2n : b2

[A B] or [A/B] =   = augmented matrix
21

: :…: : b3
a m1 am2 … amn : b3 
For example: Let us consider the systems
x1 + 3x2 – x3 = 4
2x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 10
3x1 – x2 + x3 = 4
Then, the coefficients matrix is
 1 3 –1 
A= 2 1 2 
 
 3 –1 1 
Variable matrix is
 x1 
x =  x2  = output matrix
 
 x3 
And, the constant matrix
 4 
B =  10  = input matrix
 
 4 
1 3 –1 : 4 
Remarks: The matrix of the systems of the form [A B]  [A/B] =  2 1 2 : 10  is called
 
3 –1 1 : 4 
the augmented matrix.

Ways of Solving Linear System

There are many ways to solve a linear systems. Some of the most commonly used methods in the
6 Mathematics - II

earlier level are substitution method, additional/subtraction method, graphical method etc. These
methods are useful for the system with only a few number of variables.
To solve the system whose number of variables are higher, matrix method is introduced. In the
matrix method, we perform some operations, called the elementary row operations. Elementary
row operation are performed in the augmented matrix of the system.

1. Elementary Row Operation Method

Elementary row (or column) operations on integer matrices are important because they permit
the patterning of integer matrices into simpler forms such as triangular and diagonal forms.
For example,
1 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0
i. A 0 2 0  ii.  0 1 4  iii.  2 1 0 
     
0 0 3   0 0 1  3 4 6
(Diagonal matrix) (Upper triangular matrix) (Lower triangular matrix)
An elementary row operation on an integer valued matrix is defined to be any of the following
type:
Type I: Interchange two rows
Type II: Multiply a row by a non–zero constant
Type III: Add an integer multiply of a row to another row

Row–equivalent Matrix
If one matrix can be obtained by performing to the other matrix, then these two matrices are said
to be row equivalent matrices.
Alternatively, two m  n matrices are row equivalent if and only if they have the same row space.
Remarks:
1. If the augmented matrices of two linear systems are row equivalent, then the two system have
the same solution set.
2. There are three possibilities of existence and uniqueness of a solution for a system.
i. The system is consistent if the system has a unique solution i.e. exactly one solution.
ii. The system is consistent if the system has infinitely many solution i.e. there is at least one
solution.
iii. The system is inconsistent if the system has no solution.
Now, we solve some examples to determine the existence and uniqueness of a solution of a linear
system using row equivalent matrix method (i.e. Gauss elimination method) of the augmented
matrix.

W OR KE D O UT E X AM P LE

Example 1:
Solve the linear system if the following system is consistent.
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 7

x1 + 3x2 – 2x3 = 0
2x1 – 3x2 + x3 = 1
4x1 – 3x2 + x3 = 3

The augmented matrix of the given system is,

 1 3 –2 : 0 
 2 –3 1 : 1 
 4 –3 1 : 3 
Now, we change this matrix into upper triangular form, for this,
Applying R2  R2 – 2R1 and R3  R3 – 4R1, we get
 1 3 –2 : 0 
  0 –9 5 : 1 
 0 –15 9 : 3 
1
Applying R2  – 9 R2 we get

 1 3 –2 : 0 
  0 1 –5/9 : –1/9 
 0 –15 9 : 3 
Applying R3  R3 + 15 R2 we get
 1 3 –2 : 0 
  0 1 –5/9 : –1/9 
 0 0 2/3 : 4/3 
which is upper triangular matrix .
 The linear system of equation can be reduced to
x1 + 3x2 – 2x3 = 0 ... ... ... (i)
5 1
x2 – 9 x3 = – 9 ... ... ... (ii)
2 4
3 x3 = 3 ... ... ... (iii)
Using backward substitution, then
2 4
from (iii), 3 x3 = 3  2x3 = 4
 x3 = 2
5 1
from (ii), x2 – 9  2 = – 9
1 10
 x2 = – 9 + 9 = 1
from (iii), x1 + 31 – 22 = 0
 x1 + 3 – 4 = 0
 x1 = 1
Hence, the solution set is
(x1, x2, x3) = (1, 1, 2) which shows that the system have unique solution.
 The given system is consistent.
8 Mathematics - II

Example 2:
Examine whether the following system of equations are consistent. If so, solve the system by using upper triangular
matrix.
a. x1 – x2 + x3 = 1
3x1 + x2 + 5x3 = 11
4x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 = 16
b. x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 4
4x1 + 5x2 + 6x3 = –7
7x1 + 8x2 + 9x3 = 10

a. The given system is

x1 – x2 + x3 = 1
3x1 + x2 + 5x3 = 11
4x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 = 16
The augmented matrix of the given system is
 1 –1 1 : 1 
 3 1 5 : 11 
 4 2 7 : 16 
Now, we change this matrix into upper triangular form. For this,
Applying R2  R2 – 3R1 and R3  R3 – 4R1, we get
 1 –1 1 : 1 
 0 4 2 : 8 
 0 6 3 : 12 
3
Applying R3  R3 – 2 R2 we get

 1 –1 1 : 1 
 0 4 2 : 8 
0 0 0 : 0
which is upper triangular matrix. The system can be reduced to
x1 – x2 + x3 = 1 ... ... ... (i)
4x2 + 2x3 = 8 ... ... ... (ii)
0 = 0 i.e. 0.x3 = 0 ... ... ... (iii)
The equation (iii) is true for all values of x3. The variable x3 is called free variable. So, we get infinitely many
solution.
Hence the system is consistent in such case.
This, if x3 = k then from (ii),
4x2 + 2k = 8
8 – 2k 4 – k
 x2 = 4 = 2
4–k
from (i), x1 – 2 + k = 1
 2x1 – 4 + k + 2k = 2
 2x1 = 4 + k + 2k = 2
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 9

6 – 3k
 x1 = 2
 Solution set is,
6 – 3k 4 – k
(x1, x2, x3) =  2 ‚ 2 ‚ k
 
b. The given system is,
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 4
4x1 + 5x2 + 6x3 = –7
7x1 + 8x2 + 9x3 = 10
The augmented matrix of the given system is,
1 2 3 : 4 
 4 5 6 : –7 
 7 8 9 : 10 
Now, we change this matrix into upper triangular matrix. For this
Applying R2  R2 – 4R1 and R3  R3 – 7R1, we get
1 2 3 : 4 
  0 –3 –6 : –23 
 0 –6 –12 : –18 
Applying R3  R3 – 2R2 we get
1 2 3 : 4 
  0 –3 –6 : –23 
 0 0 0 : 28 
which is upper triangular matrix. The system is reduced to
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 4 ... ... ... (i)
–3x2 – 6x3 = –23 ... ... ... (ii)
0 = 28 i.e. 0.x3 = 28 ... ... ... (iii)
The equation (iii) is not true for any values of x3. So, we get no solution.
Hence, the given system is inconsistent.

Example 3:
For what values of h and k is the following system consistent?
2x1 – x2 = h
–6x1 + 3x2 = k

The given system is

2x1 – x2 = h
–6x1 + 3x2 = k
The augmented matrix of the given system is
 2 –1 : h 
 –6 3 : k 
Now, we change this matrix into upper triangular matrix. For this
Applying R2  R2 + 3R1 we get
2 –1 : h 

 0 0 : k+3h 
10 Mathematics - II

Which is upper triangular matrix. Since the given system is consistent so, the system have infinitely many solution if k + 3h
= 0.
Hence, the system is consistent for h, k satisfying k + 3h = 0.

Example 4:
Solve the linear system if the following system is consistent.
a. x – 2y = 1 b. x – y = 1
x – 3y = –3 –3x + 3y = –3

y
We have,
x – 2y = –1 (3, 2)
x – 3y = –3
The augmented matrix of the given system is x
O
 1 –2 : –1 
 1 –3 : –3 
For upper triangular matrix, applying R2  R2 – R1, we get
1 –2 : –1 

 0 –1 : –2 
Which is an upper triangular matrix, the system can be written as
x – 2y = –1 … (i)
–y = –2 … (ii)
Using backward substitution,
from (ii), y = 2
from (i), x – 4 = –1  x = 3
Hence, the solution is,
(x, y) = (3, 2); which shows that the system have unique solution. So, the given system is consistent.
b. We have,
x–y=1
–3x + 3y = –3
The augmented matrix of the given system is
 1 –1 : 1 
 –2 2 : –3 
For upper triangular matrix, applying R2  R2 + 3R1, we get y
1 –1 : 1 

0 0 : 0
x
The system can be reduced to O
x–y=1 … (i)
0.y = 0 … (ii)
The equation (ii) is true for all values of y. The variable y is free. So, we get infinitely many solution.
Hence, the system is inconsistent. In such case,
if y = k then from (i), x – k = 1 i.e. x = 1 + k
 Infinitely many solution is, (x, y) = (1 + k, k) for all kR
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 11

Example 5:
Test the consistency and inconsistency of the following system
x + 2y = –1
x + 2y = 2
y
The augmented matrix of the given system is,

x
1 2 : –1  O
1 2 : 2 
For upper triangular matrix, applying R2  R2 – R1, we get
1 2 : –1 

0 0 : 3 
The system can be reduced to
x + 2y = –1 … (i)
0.y = 3 … (ii)
The equation (ii) is not true for any values of y. So, we get no solution and the system is in consistent i.e. parallel.

Exercise 1A
1. Test the consistency or inconsistency of the following system. If so, solve the system.
a. x1 + 2x2 = 5
5x1 – 3x2 = –1
b. 3x1 – 2y1 = 5
4x1 – y1 = 0
c. 2x1 – x2 = –1
–6x1 + 3x2 = 3
2. Determine the value of h and k so that the system have (i) unique solution (ii) infinitely many
solution.
a. x + 3y = 2
3x + hy = k
b. x1 + hx2 = 2
4x1 + 8x2 = k
3. Examine whether the following system of equations are consistent. If so, solve the following system.
a. x1 + 3x2 – x3 = –2
3x1 + 2x2 – x3 = 3
–6x1 – 4x2 – 2x3 = 18
b. x1 + 3y1 + 4z1 = 8
2x1 + y1 + 2z1 = 5
5x1 + 2z1 = 7
4. Show that the following system are inconsistent.
a. x1 + x2 + x3 = –3
12 Mathematics - II

3x1 + x2 – 2x3 = –2
2x1 + 4x2 + 7x3 = 7
b. x2 – 4x3 = 8
2x1 – 3x2 + 2x3 = 1
5x1 – 8x2 + 7x3 = 1

1. a. (x1, x2) = (1, 2), consistent

b. (x1, y1) = (3, 2), consistent

c. (
(x1, x2) =
k–1
)
2 ‚ k , consistent (Infinitely many solution).
2
2. a. h = 9 and k = 3
b. h = 2 and k  8
3. a. (x1, x2, x3) = (1, –3, –6), consistent
b. (
(x1, y1, z1) =
7 – 2k 11 – 6k
)
5 ‚ 5 ‚ k , consistent (Infinitely many solution)
4. a. No solution, inconsistent
b. No solution, inconsistent

Row Reduction and Echelon Forms

Row–Echelon Form
A rectangular matrix is in row echelon form if the following conditions are satisfied:
 The first entry in any row with non–zero entries is 1
 Rows consisting entirely of 0's (if there are any) occur at the bottom of the matrix.
 The column subscript of the leading entries increases as the row subscript increases.
Remark:
Upper triangular matrix is a row echelon form matrix.
For example,
1 –2 1 7 
a. 1 3 –2   upper triangular matrix b. 0 1 –2 –7   upper triangular matrix
0 5 4 
0 0 1 3 
[Echelon form] [Echelon form]
1 4 5 –9 –7
 0 –2 –1 3 1 
c.  0 0 0 3 –1 
 0 0 0 0 9 
[Echelon form]

Reduced Echelon Form

An Echelon form of matrix is said to be reduced echelon form if the leading entry in each row
must be the only non–zero number. It is a type of matrix used to solve systems of linear
equations.
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 13

For example
Leading entry of R1
Leading entry of R2 (Pivot)
Leading entry of R3 (Pivot)

 2 4 –1 6

a.  0 5 3 1
 0 0 7 5
[Echelon form]
Leading entry of R1
Leading entry of R2
Free
Leading entry of R3
Leading entry of R4

 
3 2 1 4 6
0 6 4 5 8
b.
 0 0 0 –1 4 
 0 0 0 0 2 
[Echelon form]
Pivot element (Leading entry element 1)
Pivot element (Leading entry element)
Pivot element (Leading entry element 1)

 1 0 0
  pivot row1
c.  0 1 0   pivot row2

 0 0 1   pivot row3

Pivot column
Pivot column
Pivot column
(Reduced echelon form)

Leading entry element 1 (Pivot element)

Leading entry element 1 (Pivot element)
Leading entry element (Pivot element)

 1 0 –2 3 0 –5
  pivot row
d.  0 1 –2 2 0 6   pivot row [Reduced echelon form]
 0 0 0 0 1 4   pivot row

Pivot col. Pivot col. Pivot col.

In above matrix form, Ist, II2nd and Vth columns are pivot columns.

Pivot Position
A pivot position in a matrix is the location of a leading entry in the row echelon form of a matrix.
14 Mathematics - II

A pivot column is a column that contains a pivot position. In example the column one column
two, column five are the pivot columns because they have pivot element.
But the column three, column four and column six are not the pivot column because they have no
pivot element.
For example,
Change into echelon form then into reduced echelon form of the matrix
 0 3 –6 
A =  3 –7 8 
 3 –9 12 

We have (zero number i.e. not pivot)

 0 3 –6 
A=  
 3 –7 8 
 3 –9 12 
Since the first element of first row of the matrix is zero. A non–zero number or pivot element must be placed in this
position.
So, interchange R1 and R2
Pivot

 3 –7 8 
 0 3 –6 


 3 –9 12 
Applying R3  R3 – R1, then the above matrix reduces to
 3 –7 8 
 0 3 –6  Pivot
 
 0 –2 4 
2
Applying R3  R3 + 3 R2, then the above matrix reduces to

3 –7 8 
 0 3 –6 
0 0 0 
Which is in echelon form of matrix and c1, c2 are the pivot columns.
For Reduced Echelon Form
1
Applying R1  3 R1 then the above matrix reduces to
7 8
 1 –3 3 
  0 3 –6 
 0 0 0 
1
Applying R2  3 R2 we get
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 15

7 8
1 –3 3 

0 1 –2 
0 0 0 
7
Applying R1  R1 + 3 R2 we get
Pivot element 1
Pivot element 1

 1 0 –2

 0 1 –2 
 0 0 0 
which is in reduced echelon form.

Solution of Linear System Using Row–reduction Echelon Form

The principles involved in row–reduction of matrices are equivalent to those we used in the
elimination method of solving systems of equations. That is, we are allowed to
1. Multiply a row by a non–zero constant
2. Add one row to another
3. Interchange between rows
4. Add a multiple of one row to another.
To solve the systems of linear equations, we follow the steps.
Step 1: Write the augmented matrix of the system.
Step 2: Row reduce the augmented matrix.
Step 3: Write the new, equivalent, system that is defined by the new, row reduced, matrix.
Step 4: Solution is found by going from the bottom equation.

General Solution of System Using Row Reduction Method

 Free Variables: The variables that are zero are called free variable. It is also called non–basic
variables. In other words, a variable is free (or non–basic) variable if it does not correspond to
a pivot column.
 Non–Free Variables: The variables that are non–zero are called non–free (or basic) variables.
In other words, a variable is a non–free variable (or basic) if it corresponds to a pivot column.
16 Mathematics - II

For example
In row–reduction echelon form of matrix
pivot
free variable

 
1 3 0 5 7
0 0 0 2 6
 0 0 1 8 3  pivot

 0 0 0 0 4  free

In above row–reduction echelon form matrix, c1, c3 are pivot column. So, they have no free variables.
But, c2 and c4 have no pivot element. So, they have free variables.
The associated system of equation is
x1 + 3x2 + x3 + 5x4 = 7
x2 is free
2x4 = 6
x3 + 8x4 = 3
x4 is free.
The general solution is,
x1 = 7 – 3x2 – 5x4
x2 is free.
x3 = 3 – 8x4
x4 is free.

W OR KE D O UT E X AM P LE S

Example 1:
Applying elementary row operation, convert the following matrix into echelon form then into reduced echelon form
1 1 : 3
 1 –1 : 1 

We have,
1 1 : 3
 1 –1 : 1 
For echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 – R1, we get
1 1 : 3 

 0 –2 : –2 
Which is in echelon form
For reduced echelon form
1
Applying R2  – 2 R2, we get
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 17

1 1 : 3
 
0 1 : 1 
Applying R1  R1 – R2, we get
1 0 : 2

0 1 : 1
Which is in reduced echelon form.

Example 2:
Applying elementary row operation to transform the following matrix first into echelon form and then into reduced
echelon form.
 0 3 –6 6 4 –5 
 3 –7 8 –5 8 9 
 3 –9 12 –9 6 15 

Since the first number (Leading entry) of first row is zero. A non–zero number or pivot element must be placed in this
position. For this,
Interchanging R1  R2 we get
 3 –7 8 –5 8 9 
  0 3 –6 6 4 –5 
 3 –9 12 –9 6 15 
Applying R3  R3 – R1 we get
Pivot

 3 –7 8 –5 8 9 
 0 3 –6 6 4

–5 

 0 –2 4 –4 –2 6 

2
Applying R3  R3 + 3 R2, we get
Pivot
3 –7 8 –5 8 9
0 
 
3 –6 64 –5
2 8
0 0 0 0 3 3 
which is in echelon form of matrix.
For reduced echelon form
1
Applying R1  3 R1, we get
Pivot element 1

18 Mathematics - II

7 8 5 8
 1 –3 3 –3 3 3 

 0 3 –6 6 4 –5 
 2 8 
 0 0 0 0 3 3 
1
Applying R2  3 R2, we get
7 8 5 8
 1 –3 3 –3 3 3

 
4 5
 0 1 –2 2 3 –3

 0 0 0 0
2
3
8
3 
3
Apply R3  2 R3, we get
7 8 5 8
1 –3 3 –3 3 3 

 0 1 –2 2
4 5
–3
 3

0 0 0 0 1 4 

Pivot element 1
4 8
Applying R2  R2 – 3 R3 and R1  R1 – 3 R3, we get
7 8 5 23
1 –3 3 –3 0 – 3 

 0 21 
 1 –2 2 0 – 3

0 0 0 0 1 4 

Pivot element 1
7
Applying R1  R1 + 3 R2, we get

 1 0 –2 3 0 –24

 0 1 –2 2 0 –7 
 0 0 0 0 1 4 
which is in reduced echelon form; where c1, c2, c5 are pivot columns and c3, c4, c6 are not pivot columns because they
have no pivot element.

Example 3:
Solve the system of equations using row reduced echelon method.
x1 + x2 + x3 = 4
x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 2
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 19

2x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 5

Step 1: Write the augmented matrix of the system:

1 1 1 4
1 2 2 2
2 2 1 5
Step 2: Row reduce the augmented matrix:
Applying R2  R2 – R1 and R3  R3 – 2R1, the given matrix reduces to
1 1 1 4 
  0 1 1 –2 
 0 0 –1 –3 
Applying R3  (–1) R3, the above matrix reduces to
1 1 1 4 
  0 1 1 –2 
0 0 1 3 
Applying R2  R2 – R3, R1  R1 – R2
1 0 0 6 
  0 1 0 –5 
0 0 1 3 
Step 3: Rewrite the system using row reduced matrix:
x1 + 0.x2 + 0.x3 = 6
0.x1 + 1.x2 + 0.x3 = –5
0.x1 + 0.x2 + 1.x3 = 3
Step 4: Solution is found
x1 = 6
x2 = –5
x3 = 3
Hence, (x1, x2, x3) = (6, –5, 3)

Example 4:
Find the general solution of the linear system whose augmented matrix is

1 –3 –5 0   3 –4 2 0 
a.  b.  –9 12 –6 0 
0 1 1 3
 –6 8 –4 0 

1 –3 –5 0 
a. We have the augmented matrix is 
0 1 1 3
Applying R1  R1 + 3R2, the matrix reduces to
1 0 –2 9 
 
0 1 1 3
Which is reduced echelon form. And the associated system is
x1 – 2x3 = 9
x2 + x3 = 3
20 Mathematics - II

x3 is free.
 The general solution is
x1 = 9 + 2x3
x2 = 3 – x3
x3 is free.
b. The augmented matrix is
 3 –4 2 0 
 –9 12 –6 0 
 –6 8 –4 0 
For reduced echelon form,
1
Applying R1  3 R1, we get

 1 –4/3 2/3 0 
  –9 12 –6 0 
 –6 8 –4 0 
Applying R2  R2 + 9R1 and R3  R3 + 6R1, we get
 1 –4/3 2/3 0 
 0 0 0 0
0 0 2 0
1
Applying R3  2 R3, we get

 1 –4/3 2/3 0 
 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
2
Applying R1  R – 3 R3 we get

 1 –4/3 0 0 
 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
Interchanging R2  R3, we get
 1 –4/3 0 0 
 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Which is reduced echelon form. And the associated system of equation is
4
x1 – 3 x2 = 0
x2 is free
x3 is free
 The general solution is,
4
x1 = 3 x2
x2 is free
x3 is free
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 21

Example 5:
Using elementary row reduction echelon form, test the consistency or inconsistency of the system
2x1 – 3y1 + 7z1 = 5
3x1 + y1 – 3z1 = 13
2x1 + 19y1 – 47z1 = 32

We have,
2x1 – 3y1 + 7z1 = 5
3x1 + y1 – 3z1 = 13
2x1 + 19y1 – 47z1 = 32
The augmented matrix of the given system is
 2 –3 7 : 5 
 3 1 –3 : 13 
 2 19 –47 : 32 
For row reduce echelon form
3
Applying R2 R2 – 2 R1 and R3  R3 – R1, we get

 2 –3 7 : 5 
  0 11/2 –27/2 : 11/2 
 0 22 –54 : 27 
Applying R2  2×R2, we get
 2 –3 7 : 5 
  0 11 –27 : 11 
 0 22 –54 : 27 
Applying R3  R3 – 2R2 we get
 2 –3 7 : 5 
  0 11 –27 : 11 
0 0 0 : 5 
Which is in echelon form and the last row is in the form of [0 0 0 b] and b  0.
Hence, the given system is in consistent.

Exercise 1B
1. Apply elementary row operation to transform the following augmented matrix first into echelon
form and then into reduced echelon form.
1 3 4 7 1 4 0 7 
a.  b. 
3 9 7 6  2 7 0 10 
1 2 3 4
1 2 0 4  0 1 –2 5
 
c.  0 0 0 0  d.  
  0 0 1 2
 0 0 2 –3 
0 0 0 0  
22 Mathematics - II

1 –3 0 –1 0 –2
0 1 0 0 –4 1

e. 0 0 0 1 9 4 
0 0 0 0 0 0 
2. Find the general solution of the linear system whose augmented matrix is given bellow:
1 3 4 7 1 4 0 7 
a.  b. 
3 9 7 6  2 7 0 10 
1 2 3 4
1 2 0 4  
0 1 –2 5

c.  0 0 0 0  d.  
  0 0 1 2
 0 0 2 –3 

0 0 0 0 
1 –3 0 –1 0 –2

0 1 0 0 –4 1

e. 
0 0 0 1 9 4 

0 0 0 0 0 0 
3. Applying elementary row reduce echelon form, test the consistency or inconsistency of the system
y – 8z = 8
2x – 3y + 2z = 1
5x – 8y + 7z = 1
4. Find the general solution of the system
a. x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 = 7
3x1 + 9x2 + 7x3 = 6
b. x – 3z = 8
2x + 2y + 9z = 7
y + 5z = –2
c. x1 – 2x2 – x3 + 3x4 = 0
–2x1 + 4x2 + 5x3 – 5x4 = 3
3x1 – 6x2 – 6x3 + 8x4 = 2

1.
Echelon form Reduced echelon form

[ ] [ ]
1 3 4 7 1 3 0 –5
a.
0 0 –5 –15 0 0 1 3

[ ] [ ]
1 4 0 7 1 0 0 –9
b.
0 –1 0 –4 0 1 0 4
1 2 0 4 1 2 0 4
   
c. 0 0 1 –3  0 0 1 –3 
0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 23

1 2 3 4
 1 0 0 –20

d.
0 1 –2 5  0 1 0 9 
0 0 1 2  0 0 1 2 
0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 
1 –3 0 –1 0 –2
 1 0 0 0 –3 5

e.
0 1 0 0 –4 1  0 1 0 0 –4 1 
0 0 0 1 9 4  0 0 0 1 9 4 
0 0 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 
2.
a. x1 = –5 – 3x2 b. x1 = 9
x2 is free x2 = 4
x3 = 3 x3 is free
c. x1 = 4 – 2x2 d. x1 = 5 + 3x5
x2 is free x2 = 1 + 4x5
x3 = –3 x3 is free
x4 = 4 – 9x5
x5 is free
3. Consistent
4.
a. x1 = –5 – 3x2 b. x=5
x2 is free y=3
x3 = 3 z = –1
10
c. x1 = 1 + 2x2 – 3 x4
x2 is free
1
x3 = 1 – 3 x4
x4 is free

Vector Equation
Today we want to introduce two more ways to think of linear system. The first is vector equation
and the next one is matrix equation. This will have given us four different ways to think of linear
system. Switching back and these different ways to think of linear systems is useful for solving
systems. First we need to define row vector, column vector in R 2, R3, …, Rn.
Column Vector in R2: A matrix with only one column and only two rows is called a column
vector in R2.
For example,
2 4
u =  ,   are column vector in R2.
3 1
Column Vector in R3: A matrix with only one column and only three rows is called column vector
in R3.
For example,
3
u= 1  is a column vector in R3.
 
4 
Column Vector in Rn: A matrix with only one row and n columns is called column vector in Rn.
For example
24 Mathematics - II

v1
 v 
u1
u
 ,v= v  are column vector in R . It is also called n–dimensional column vector.
2 2

u= u n

.  . 
3 3

u n  v n 
Algebraic Properties of Column Vectors in Rn
Let u, v and w are vectors in Rn and c, d are some scalars. Then,
i. u + v = v + u (Commutative law)
ii. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (Associative law)
iii. u + 0 = 0 + u = u (Existence of additive identity)
iv. u + (–u) = u – u = 0 (Associative law for vector multiplication)
v. c(u + v) = cu + cv (Left istributive law)
vi. (c + d)u = cu + du (Right distributive law)
vii. c(du) = d(cu) = (cd) u (Associative law for vector multiplication)
viii. 1.u = u.1 = u (Existence of multiplication identity)
For Example,
 1   1 
u =  –3  and v =  –1  . Then verify u + v = v + u. Also, compute the values of u – 2v and 2u + v.
 2   3 

We have
 1   1 
u =  –3 , v =  –1 
 2   3 
Here,
 1   1   2 
u + v =  –3  +  –1  =  –4 
 2   3   5 
 1   1   2 
v + u =  –1  +  –3  =  –4 
 3   2   5 
Hence, u + v = v + u is verified.
Also, for the values of u–2v and 2u+v
 1   1 
u – 2v =  –3  – 2 –1 
 2   3 
 1   2   –1 
=  –3  –  –2  =  –1 
 2   6   –4 
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 25

 1   1 
and, 2u + v = 2 –3  +  –1 
 2   3 
 2   1 
=  –6  +  –1 
 4   3 
 '3 
=  –7 
 7 

Linear Combinations
If x1, x2, x3, …, xn are column vectors in Rn and c1, c2, c3, … cn are scalars, then any vector y of the
n
form y = c1x1 + c2x2 + … + cnxn =  cixi is called the linear combinations of the vectors x1, x2, x3,
i=1
…, xn with scalars c1, c2, c3, …, cn.
Remarks:
i. A vector yRn is a linear combination of vectors x1, x2, x3, … xn in Rn if linear system with
augmented matrix [x1 x2 x3 … xn y] represents consistent system i.e. the system x1c1 + x2c2 +
… + xncn = y have infinitely many solution. (i.e. consistent)
ii. A vector yRn is a linear combination of vectors x1, x2, x3, …, xn in Rn if linear system with
augmented matrix [x1 x2 x3 … xn y] represents consistent system i.e. the system x 1c1 + x2c2 + …
+ xncn = y have unique solution. (i.e. consistent)
iii. A vector y  Rn is not a linear combination of vectors x1, x2, x3, …, xn in Rn if the system x1c1 +
x2c2 + … + cnxn = y have no solution (i.e. inconsistent).
For Example
 1  0   5   2 
If x1 =  –2 , x2 =  1  , x3 =  
–6 , b =  –1 . Then, show that b is a linear combination of vectors x1, x2, x3.
 0  2   8   6 

We have
 1  0  5   2 
x1 =  –2  , x2 =  1  , x3 =  –6  , b =  –1 
 0  2  8   6 
b is a linear combination of vectors x1, x2, x3 if the augmented matrix form of x1, x2, x3 and b i.e. [x1 x2 x3 b]
represents consistent system.
The augmented matrix form of x1, x2, x3 and b is
 1 0 5 2 
[x1 x2 x3 b] =  –2 1 –6 –1 
 0 2 8 6 
For row reduction echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 + 2R1, the matrix reduces to
26 Mathematics - II

1 0 5 2
 0 1 4 3
0 2 8 6
Applying R3  R3 – 2 R2 we get
1 0 5 2
  0 1 4 3  [Echelon form]
0 0 0 0
In the last row of the augmented matrix are all zero. It means that the system have infinitely many solution. Thus, the
system [x1, x2 x3 b] is consistent.
Hence, b is a linear combination of vectors x1, x2, x3.
Remarks:
i. The augmented matrix of the equation Ax = b has a solution if and only if b is a linear combination of the columns
of A.
ii. If the augmented matrix in echelon form has a row as the form [0 0 0 b] then system is inconsistent i.e. b is not a
linear combination of the vectors.

The Span of a Set of Vectors

The set of all linear combinations of a set vectors x1, x2, x3, …, xn in Rn is called the span of that set
of vectors denoted by
Span {x1, x2, x3, …, xn}
is the collection of all vectors that can be written in the form of c 1x1 + c2x2 + … + cnxn with scalars
c1, c2, …, cn.
For a vector be to be in span {x1, x2, x3}, it must be a linear combination of these vectors if b  span
{x1, x2, x3}. that is, c1x1 + c2x2 + … + cnxn = b has a solution equivalently the linear system with
augmented matrix [x1 x2 x3 b] has a solution (consistent system).

Example 1:

 1   5   –3 
If x1 =  –2  , x2 =  –13  and b =  8  then, show that b is not in the span of {x1, x2}.
 3   –3   1 

Here, we have
 1   5   –3 
x1 =  –2 , x2 =  –13  and b =  8 
 3   –3   1 
The augmented matrix form of vectors x1, x2 and b is
 1 5 –3 
[x1 x2 b] =  –2 –13 8 
 3 –3 1 
For echelon form, applying R2  R2 + 2R1 and R3  R3 – 3R1, we get
 1 5 –3 
  0 –3 2 
 0 –18 10 
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 27

Applying R3  R3 – 6R2 we get

 1 5 –3 
  0 –3 2 
 0 0 –2 
The last row is in the form [0 0 b] = [0 0 –2] which shows that the given system is inconsistent. Hence, b is not in the
space of {x1, x2}.

W OR KE D O UT E X AM P LE S

Example 1:
If b is in the span of {u, v} then find the value of h from the following
 1   –2  4
u =  4  , v =  –3  , b =  1 
 –2   7  h

We have
 1   –2  4
u =  4  , v =  –3  , b =  1 
 –2   7  h
Since b is in the span {u, v}. It means that the augmented matrix form of u, v and b is
[u v b] must be consistent system.
 1 –2 4 
Here, [u v b] =  4 –3 1 
 –2 7 h 
For echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 – 4R1 and R3  R3 + 2R1
we get
 1 –2 4 
  0 5 –15 
 0 3 h+8 
Applying R3  R3 – 3/5 R2 we get
 1 –2 4 
  0 5 –15 
 0 0 h+17 
The system gives the solution only when h + 17 = 0
 h = –17
Thus, b is in the span of {u, v} for the value of h = –17

Example 2:

 6   –3 
Let u =  –1  and v =  4 
 5   0 
a. u + v b. u – v d. 2u – 3v
28 Mathematics - II

We have,
 6   –3 
u =  –1  and v =  4 
 5   0 
 6   –3   3 
a. u + v =  –1  +  4  =  3 
 5   0  5
 6   –3   9 
b. u – v =  –1  –  4  =  –5 
 5   0   5 
 6   –3   12   –9 
c. 2u – 3v = 2 –1  – 3 4  =  –2  –  12 
 5   0   10   0 
 21 
=  10 
 10 
Example 3:

 1  0  2   –5 
If u1 =  –2 , u2 =  , u3 =  0 , b =  11 . Then, show that b is a linear combination of vectors u1, u2, u3
5
 2  5  8   –7 

We have,
 1  0 2  –5 
u1 =  –2 , u2 =  , u3 =   and b =  11 
5 0
 2  5 8  –7 
To show b is a linear combination of the vectors u1, u2, u3, we have to show that the augmented matrix form of u1, u2, u3
and b i.e. [x1, x2, x3, b] represents consistent system.
The augmented matrix form of u1, u2, u3 and b is
 1 0 2 –5 
[u1, u2, u3, b] =  –2 5 0 11 
 2 5 8 –7 
For row reduce echelon form, applying R2  R2 + 2R1 and R3  R3 – 2R1, we get
 1 0 2 –5 
 0 5 4 1 
0 5 4 3 
Applying R3  R3 – R2, we get
 1 0 2 –5 
 0 5 4 1 
0 0 0 2 
Which is in echelon form and the last row is in the form of [0 0 0 b] and b  0. It means that the system [u1 u2 u3 b]
has no solution and the system is inconsistent.
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 29

Hence, b is not a linear combination of the given vectors u1, u2 and u3.

Example 4:
Does b in the span of u1, u2, u3; where
1 3 0 3
 
–1  
–1  –1 1
u1 =  
0
, u2 =  
–4
, u3 =  and b =  –8 
2
 
2  0   3  –1 
We have,
1 3 0 3
 –1   –1   –1  
1
u1 =   0  
, u2 =
–4  
, u3 =
2
and b =  
–8
  2   0   3  
–1
Here, b is in the span of {u1, u2, u3} if the augmented matrix form of u1, u2, u3 and b i.e. [u1, u2, u3, b] represents
consistent system.
The augmented matrix is
1 3 0 3
 –1 –1 –1 1 

[u1, u2, u3, b] =
0 –4 2 –8 
 2 0 3 –1 
For row reduction echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 + R1, R3  R3 – 2R1, we get
1 3 0 3
 0 2 –1 4 
  0 –4 2 –8 
 0 –6 3 – 7 
Applying R3  R3 + 2R2 and R3  R3 – 3R2 we get
1 3 0 3
 0 2 –1 4 
  0 0 0 0 
 0 0 0 5 
Which is in echelon form and the last row is in the form of [0 0 0 0] and b  0, x3 is free. So, the system have no
solution and it is inconsistent.
Hence, b is not in the span of {u1, u2, u3}

Exercise 1C
 1   –3 
1. If u =  –7  and v =  4  be two vectors. Compute
   
 –5   0 
a. u + v b. u – v
30 Mathematics - II

c. 2u – 3v d. 3u – 2v
2 5 4  –3
2. Let A =  ,u= ,v=  and c = 2. Verify that
3 1  –1   5 
a. A( u + v) = Au + Av b. A(cu) = c(Au)

1  –2   –6   11 
3. u1=  0  ,u =  3  ,u =  7  , b =  –5 . Then, show that b is a linear combination of vectors
  2   3    
1  –2   5   9 
u1, u2, u3.

 1   –4   2   3 
4. If u1=  0  , u2 =  3  , u3 =  5 , b =  –7 . Then, show that be is not a linear combination of
       
 –2   8   –4   –3 
the vectors u1, u2, u3.
5. Determine if b is a linear combination of the formed from the columns of the matrix A
 1 0 2  –5 
A=  –2 5 0  , b =  11 
   
 2 5 8  –7 
6. Find the value of h so that vector b is in span {u, v}.
 7   –5  4
u= 1 ,v= 3 ,b= 1 
   
     
 –6   0   h
7. For what value of h will y be in the span of {v 1, v2, v3} if
 1   5   –3   –4 
v1 = –1 , v2 = –4 , v3 = 1 and y =  3 
     
       
 –2   –7   0   h 
5 8 7   2 
8. Le A =  0 1 –1  and u =  –3  . Is u in the subset of R3 spanned by the columns of A? Explain
   
1 3 0   2 
why or why not?

 1 3 4   b1 
9. Let A = –4 2 –6 and b =  b2  . Is the equation Ax = b consistent for all possible b1, b2, b3?
 
   
 –3 –2 –7   b3 

 –2   4
  10
  9

1. a.  –3  b.  –11  c.  –26  d.  –29 
 –5   –5   –10   –15 
5. b is not a linear combination
51
6. h = – 13
7. if and only if h = 5
9. Inconsistent for every b
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 31

Homogeneous Linear System

A system of linear equations is homogeneous if all of the constant terms are zero. A homogenous
system is equivalent to a matrix equation of the form Ax = 0, where A is m×n matrix, x is a
column vector with n entries and 0 is the zero vector with m entries.
For example
A system of linear equations is homogenous if it can be written in the form
a11x1 + a12x2 + … + a1nxn = 0
a21x1 + a22x2 + … + a2n xn = 0
………………………………..
am1x1 + am2x2 + … + amnxn = 0
Equivalently, a homogenous system to a matrix equation of the form Ax = 0
Where A is m×n matrix, x is a column vector with n entries and 0 is the zero vectors with m entries.

Homogeneous solution Set

Every homogenous system has at least one solution, known as the zero solution. This solution is
also known as trivial solution. And the non–zero solution of the homogenous system Ax = 0 is
known as non–trivial solution.

Trivial Solution
The homogenous system Ax = 0 has a trivial solution if the system does not have any free
variables.
For Exmple
Solve the following homogeneous system of linear equations. And, test whether the system has trivial solutions.
x – 3y + 7z = 0
–2x + y – 4z = 0
x + 2y + 9z = 0

We have the homogenous system as

x – 3y + 7z = 0
–2x + y – 4z = 0
x + 2y + 9z = 0
The augmented matrix of Ax = 0 is
 1 –3 7 0 
[A 0] =  –2 1 –4 0 
 1 2 9 0
For echelon form,
Applying R1  R2 + 2R1 and R3  R3 – R1 we get
1 –3 7
 0 0 –5 
  10 0 0 
 5 2 0 
Applying R3  R3 + R2 we get
32 Mathematics - II

1 –3 7 0 
 0 –5 10 0 
0 0 12 0 
This matrix shows that there are no any free variables. So, all the variables are basic variables. 1 st, 2nd and 3rd
columns are pivot columns.
The system of equations reduced to
x – 3y + 7z = 0
–5y + 10z = 0
12z = 0
This implies, x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
Hence, the given homogenous system has trivial solution.

Non–trivial solution
The homogenous system Ax = 0 has a non–trivial solution if the equation has at least one free
variable.
For example
Solve the following homogeneous system of linear equations. And, test whether the system has non–trivial solutions.
2x – 5y + 8z = 0
–2x – 7y + z = 0
4x + 2y + 7z = 0

The given homogenous system is

2x – 5y + 8z = 0
–2x – 7y + z = 0
4x + 2y + 7z = 0
The augmented matrix of Ax = 0 is
 2 –5 8 0 
[A 0] =  –2 –7 1 0 
 4 2 7 0
For row reduce echelon form,
Applying R2  R3 + R2 we get
 2 –5 8 0 
  0 –12 9 0  which is in echelon form.
0 0 0 0
For reduced echelon form:
1
Applying R1  2 R1 we get

 1 –5/2 4 0 
 0 –12 9 0 
0 0 0 0
1
Applying R2  – 12 R2 we get
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 33

1 –5/2 4 0
 0 1 –3/4 0 
0 0 0 0
5
Applying R1  R1 + 2 R2 we get

 1 0 17/8 0 
  0 1 –3/4 0 
0 0 0 0
Which shows that there is one free variable and first and second columns are pivot column but third column is not
pivot column.
Hence, the given system has non–trivial solution.
The last matrix gives
17 17
x+ 8 z=0x=– 8 z
3 3
y–4z=0y=4z
z is free  z is free
Thus, the system Ax = 0 has the general solution in the form.
17 17
     
–8 z – 8
x
x= y =
 3 =z 3  = zv
z  4z   4 
 z   1 
17
– 8 
where v =
 3  is the non
 4 
 1 
Solution of Non–Homogeneous System
When a non–homogeneous linear system has many solutions, the general solution can be written
in the parametric form as the sum of one vector and arbitrary linear combination of vectors that
satisfy the corresponding linear system.

Parametric Form
If there are m free variables in the homogenous system Ax = 0, the solution set can be expressed
as the span of m vectors x = s1v1 + s2v2 + … + smvm. This is called a parametric equation or
parametric vector form of the solution.
Remarks:
i. In the non–trivial solution of the system Ax = 0 is x = zv (for z is free) then the form x = tv for t R is called
parametric vector equation and vector notation of this solution is called parametric vector form.
ii. When the two variable y and z are free variables then the parametric equation is
x = su + tv (for all s, t  R)
34 Mathematics - II

For example:
Solve the following system of linear equations and write the solution in parametric form if possible.
x + 3y + z = 1
–4x – 9y + 2z = –1
–3y – 6z = –3

The augmented matrix form of the given linear system is

 1 3 1 1 
 –4 –9 2 –1 
 0 –3 –6 –3 
For echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 + 4R1 we get
1 3 1 1 
 0 3 6 3 
 0 –3 –6 –3 
Applying R3  R3 + R2 we get
1 3 1 1
  0 3 6 3  which is in echelon form.
0 0 0 0
For reduced echelon form,
1
Applying R2  3 R2, we get

1 3 1 1
 0 1 2 1 
0 0 0 0
Applying R1  R1 – 3R2, we get
 1 0 –5 –2 
 0 1 2 1 
0 0 0 0 
Here, the first and second column have a pivot. So, x and y are basic variables and third column is not pivot column.
The last matrix gives,
x – 5z = –2  x = –2 + 5z
y + 2z = 1  y = 1 – 2z
z is free  z is free
 The general solution of the system is
 x   –2 + 5z   –2   5 
x =  y  =  1 – 2z  =  1  + z  –2 
z  1   0   1 
 –2   5 
 x = s + tv; where s =  1  and t =  –2  be the parametric equation of solution of given system.
 0   1 
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 35

Linear Independence/Linear Dependence

The set of vectors {v1, v2, v3, … vn} in Rn is called linearly independent if the vector equations x1v1
+ x2v2 + … + xnvn = 0 implies x1 = x2 = … = xn = 0
The set of vectors {v1, v2, … vn} in Rn is called linearly dependent if the vector equation implies
not all xi are zero for i = 1, 2, 3, … n.
In fact
i. The columns of matrix A are linearly independent if and only if the equation Ax = 0 have only
trivial solution that is, the columns of a matrix A are linearly independent if and only if the
echelon form of A has no free variables.
ii. The columns matrix A are linearly dependent if and only if the equation Ax = 0 have only
non–trivial solution that is, the echelon form of A has at least one free variable.
To test the linearly independent or linearly dependent of the homogenous system Ax = 0, we
have the following steps:
Step 1: Write the vectors v1, v2, v3, …, vn as a vector equation x1v1 + x2v2 + … + xkvk, where xi
are scalars.
Step 2: Write the given vector equation in augmented form as [v 1 v2 v3 … vk 0]
Step 3: Change the augmented matrix into echelon form
i. The set of vectors are linearly independent if there is no any free variable i.e. the
system has trivial solution.
ii. The set of vectors are linearly dependent if there is at least one free variable i.e. the
system has non–trivial solution.
For example:
Test the linearly independent or dependent for the following set of vectors
2  –5   –1  1  4 2
a. v1 =  4  , v2 =  3 , v3 =  –1  b. v1 =  2  , v2 =  5  , v3 =  1 
1  2   5  3  6 0

a. The given set of vectors are

2  –5   –1 
v1 =  4  , v2 =  3  , v3 =  –1 
1  2   5 
The augmented matrix form of the vectors v1, v2, v3 for the system Ax = 0 is
 2 –5 –1 0 
[v1 v2 v3 0] =  4 3 –1 0 
1 2 5 0
For echelon form,
Applying R1  R3, we get
36 Mathematics - II

1 2 5 0
 4 3 –1 0 
2 –5 –1 0 
Applying R2  R2 – 4R1 and R3  R3 – 2R1 we get
1 2 5 0
  0 –5 –21 0 
 0 –9 –11 0 
9
Applying R3  R3 – 5 R2 we get

 1 2 5 0


 0 –5 –21 0 
 134 
 0 0 5 0

This matrix shows that there is no any free variable. So, this implies x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0.
This implies, the system has only the trivial solution.
Hence, the set of vectors are linearly independent.
b. The given set of vectors are
1 4 2
v1 =   , v2 =   , v3 =  1 
2 5
3 6 0
The augmented matrix form of the vectors v1, v2, v3 for the system Ax = 0 is
1 4 2 0
0 2 5 0 
[v1 v2 v3 0] = 1 0 3 0 
 6 0 0 0 
For echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 – 2R1 and R3  R3 – 3R1, we get
1 4 2 0
  0 –3 –3 0 
 0 –6 –6 0 
Applying R3  R3 – 2R2 we get
 1 4 –2 0 
  0 –3 –3 0 
0 0 0 0
Which is in echelon form and shows that the variable x3 is free. So, the system has non–trivial solution.
Hence, the given sets of vectors are linearly dependent.

W OR KE D O UT E X AM P LE S

Example 1:
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 37

Find the trivial solution of the system

x – 2y + 3z = 0
–2x – 3y – 4z = 0
2x – 4y + 9z = 0

We have,
x – 2y + 3z = 0
–2x – 3y – 4z = 0
2x – 4y + 9z = 0
The augmented matrix of the given system is
 1 –2 3 : 0 
 –2 –3 –4 : 0 
 2 –4 9 : 0 
For row echelon form applying R2  R2 + 2R1 and R3  R3 – 2R1, we get

 1 –2 3 : 0

 0 –7 2 : 0 
 0 0 3 : 0
This matrix shows that there is no any free variable and all the columns are pivot columns.
Hence, the given homogenous system has only trivial solution.

Example 2:
Show that the following system has only non–trivial solution.
2x + 2y + 4z = 0
–4x – 4y – 8z = 0
–3x – 3y = 0

We have,
2x + 2y + 4z = 0
–4x – 4y – 8z = 0
–3x – 3y = 0
The given system has only non–trivial solution if they have at least free variable.
Form this,
The augmented matrix form of the given system is
 2 2 4 : 0
 –4 –4 –8 : 0 
 –3 –3 0 : 0 
1
Applying R1  2 R1, we get

 1 1 2 : 0
  –4 –4 –8 : 0 
 –3 –3 0 : 0 
Applying R2  R2 + 4R1 and R3  R3 + 3R1, we get
38 Mathematics - II

1 1 2 : 0
 0 0 0 : 0
0 0 6 : 0
Applying R2  R3, we get
1 1 2 : 0
 0 0 6 : 0 
0 0 0 : 0
This matrix shows that these are two free variable (i.e. x2 is free and x3 is free). This implies that the given system has
only non–trivial solution.

Example 3:
Solve the following system of linear equations and write the solution set in parametric form if possible.
2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 8
–4x1 – 4x2 – 8x3 = –16
–3x2 – 3x3 = 12

We have
2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 8
–4x1 – 4x2 – 8x3 = –16
–3x2 – 3x3 = 12
The augmented matrix form of the given system is
 2 2 4 : 8 
 –4 –4 –8 : –16 
 0 –3 –3 : 12 
For row echelon form, applying R2  R2 + 2R1 we get
2 2 4 : 8 
 0 0 0 : 0 
 0 –3 –3 : 12 
Applying R2  R3, we get

 2 2 4 : 8

  0 –3 –3 : 12 
 0 0 0 : 0 
Which is in echelon form and shows that there is one free variable (i.e. x3 is free variable).
The general solution of the above system is
2x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 8
–3x2 – 3x3 = 12
x3 is free
 x1 + x2 + 2x3 = 4
x2 + x3 = –4
x3 is free
 x1 = 4 – x2 = 2x3
x2 = –4 – x3
x3 is free
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 39

 x1 = 8 – x3
x2 = –4 – x3
x3 is free
Thus,
 x1   8 – x3   8   –1 
x =  x2  =  –4 – x3  =  –4  + x3  –1 
 x3   x3 is free   0   1 
x = s + x3 r (i) which is in parametric form, where
 8   –1 
s =  –4  and r =  –1 
 0   1 
Here, the equation (i) describes the solution set of Ax = b in parametric vector form.

Example 4:

1  4 2
Show that the given set of vectors u1 =  2  2   3  1  i.e. {u1, u2, u3} is linearly independent.
, u = 5 , u =
3  6 0

We have
1 4 2
u1 =   , u2 =   , u3 =  1 
2 5
3 6 0
The given set of vectors {u1, u2, u3} is linearly independent if the augmented matrix of the system [u1, u2, u3, 0] has only
non–trivial solution.
1 4 2 : 0
The augmented matrix form is [u1, u2, u3, 0] =  2 5 1 : 0 
2 6 0 : 0
Applying R2  R2 – 2R1 and R3  R3 – 3R1, we get
1 4 2 : 0
 0 –3 –3 : 0 
 0 –6 –6 : 0 
Applying R3  R3 – 2R2, we get

 1 4 2 : 0

 0 –3 –3 : 0 
 0 0 0 : 0
Which is in echelon form and shows that there is one free variable (i.e. x3 is free). This implies that, the system has
non–trivial solution.
Non–trivial solution  Linearly independent
Hence, the given set of vectors {u1, u2, u3} is linearly independent.

Example 5:
Determine for what value of h, is {v1, v2, v3} linearly dependent?
40 Mathematics - II

 1   –3   5 
v1 =  –3  , v2 =   , v3 =  –7 
9
 2   –6   h 

The augmented matrix form of the vectors v1, v2, v3 for the system Ax = 0 is
 1 –3 5 0 
[v1 v2 v3 0] =  –3 9 –7 0 
 2 –6 h 0 
For echelon form,
Applying R2  R2 + 3R1 and R3  R3 – 2R1, we get
 1 –3 5 0 
 0 0 8 0
 0 0 h–10 0 
Which is in echelon form and this matrix shows that the variable x2 is free. So, the system of equation have non–trivial
solution.
Hence, the set of vectors {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent for any value of h.

Exercise 1D
1. Determine if the system has a trivial solutions.
a. x1 – 3x2 + 7x3 = 0
–2x1 + x2 – 4x3 = 0
x1 + 2x2 + 9x3 = 0
b. x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x 1 – x 2 + x3 = 0
3x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
2. Determine if the system has a non trivial solution.
2x1 – 5x2 + 8x3 = 0
–2x1 – 7x2 + x3 = 0
4x1 + 2x2 + 7x3 = 0
3. Determine if the vectors v1, v2, v3 are linearly independent.
5  7   9 
v1 = 0 , v2 = 2 , v3 =  4 
   
     
0  –6   –8 
4. Show that the columns of the matrix
0 1 4 

A= 1 2 –1  are linearly independent.
 
5 8 0 
5. Show that the columns of the matrix.
 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra  CHAPTER 1 41

 1 4 –3 0 
A =  –2 –7 5 1  are linearly dependent.
 
 –4 –5 7 5 
 1 3 –1 
6. For what value of h, the columns of the matrix A =  –1 –5 5  is linearly dependent?
 
 4 7 h 
7. For what value of h, the set of vectors {v1, v2, v3} is linearly dependent?
 1   –2   3 
v1 =  5  ,v =  –9  ,v = h 
  2   3  
 –3   6   –9 

1. a. Trivial solution
17
  
–8
x1

2. x =  x2 =x  3 
3
 x3  4
1 
3. Linearly independent (x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0)
6. Linearly dependent if h = 6
7. Linearly dependent of any value of h

Application of Linear System

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