Oral Coomunication Apprehension Theory

State of the Art
ORAL COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION:

A SUMMARY OF RECENT THEORY AND RESEARCH
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JAMES C . McCROSKEY
Editors Note: With this issiw we innrigiircite ri n(’\t>sec~tioriof‘HCR de\vted to .sritnintiritJ,v

of‘ research rind theory in specicili:c~cltireus tL.if/iitithe fi’rltl of’ hitmati cornmiinictition.
Papers in this section will be designed to bring rescrrrch t i r i d theory in ( I gilvn meir
together so thnt both specitrli.sts cincl tiotr.specicrlist.c (‘on rleterrnine the ‘state ofthe urt’ ’
in that ureu iip to the time the pczper i3 piihlished. Scholars n’ho it~ishto prc‘pure pripers
,for this section are reque.stecl to contrict the editor and nitrkc their interests knoic~n.
Generally, pupers ,j?)rthis section will be c.otnirrissiotred. H o i r w w , rrn.colicitedl~iipc‘rs
ill he given ,full considertition.
For over four decades scholars concerned with experiencing the fear or anxiety the person has
oral communication have focused attention on the learned to associate with communication encoun-
impact of a person’s fear or anxiety about commu- ters. This, of course, does not mean that the person
nication on a person’s communication behavior. with high CA will never engage in oral communica-
From the early work of Lomas (1934) and Henning tion. Rather, the person will choose to do so much
(1935) to the more recent work of Phillips (1965, less frequently than persons with lower levels of
1968) and McCroskey (cf. 1970, 1975, 1976c, CA. An individual with high CA may also be de-
1976e) it has been consistently observed that some scribed as a “reticent” individual. Phillips (1968)
people are more apprehensive orally than are other has defined a “reticent” person as one “for whom
people and that this apprehension has a negative anxiety about participation in oral communication
impact on their communication behavior as well as outweighs his (or her) projection of gain from the
on other important aspects of their lives. situation” (p.40).
Research concerned with fear and anxiety about It is important at the outset that we distinguish
oral communication has been conducted under a among the constructs of “communication ap-
variety of labels, most notably stage fright (cf. prehension” (McCroskey , 1970), “reticence”
Clevenger, 1959), reticence (cf. Phillips, 1968), (Phillips, 1968, 1977), and “unwillingness to
shyness (cf. Zimbardo, 1977), audience sensitivity communicate” (Burgoon, 1976). In much of the
(cf. Paivio, 1964), and communication apprehen- previous literature these constructs have been
sion (cf. McCroskey, 1970, 1975). The term treated as interchangeable. This has led to confusion
“communication apprehension,” or more simply, in the application of the research from one area
CA, has been chosen for our purpose here because it within the context of another. “Reticence” is the
more broadly represents the total of the fears and most global of the constructs in that it refers to a trait
anxieties studied previously, and the research con- of an individual which results in that individual
ducted under the other labels can be integrated eas- characteristically remaining silent rather than par-
ily within the context of the theory underlying the ticipating in communication. While the original
work with CA. formulation of the construct identified “anxiety” as
CA is defined as an individual’s level of fear or the causative agent producing this characteristic be-
anxiery associated with either real or anticipated havior pattern (Phillips, 1968), later theoretical
communication with unother person or persons. statements have noted additional causative agents
The person with a high level of CA will avoid (Phillips, Dunham, Brubaker, & Butt, 1970), and
communication much of the time in order to avoid the most recent formulation has removed anxiety
McCroskey 79
from its centrally defined causative role (Phillips, important person for a new job at a given time and
1977). The “unwillingness to communicate” con- place.
struct i s essentially the same as the most recent Although our primary concern here will be with
formulation of the reticence construct. It focuses on trait CA, we need also to examine state CA so we
a global predisposition to avoid communication and can draw a clear distinction between them. The
recognizes a niultiplicy of potential causative ele- most striking example of state CA is the phenom-
ments which could lead to such a predisposition, enon commonly called “stage fright.” Stage fright
including apprehension, alienation, low self- is the fear or anxiety a person experiences when one
esteem, introversion, and so forth. communicates orally in a situation where other in-

The construct of “communication apprehen- dividuals are in a position to observe and evaluate
sion’’ should be considered a subconstruct of reti- the communication attempt. Giving a public
cence or unwillingness to communicate. While the speech, acting in aplay, singing before an audience,
construct specifies that people with high levels of and participating in a public symposium are com-
CA characteristically avoid and/or withdraw from mon situations which cause many people to experi-
communication, it differs from the other constructs ence stage fright. Research has indicated that stage
in that it specifies only fear and/or anxiety as the fright is experienced by most people at one time or
causal element. Although theory relating to CA another. In fact, in anationwide survey of American
recognizes that avoidance and withdrawal be- adults, Bruskin Associates (1973) found that the
haviors can be the result of other causes, these are most frequently reported fear was that of speaking
seen as falling beyond the scope of the CA con- in public. Thus, state CA is a normal response that
struct. The constructs of “audience sensitivity” and most people experience when confronted with oral
“shyness” are essentially similar to the CA con- communication in a public setting. Other people
struct. The differences in naming of the construct may have little difficulty with a public speaking
appear to be more function of academic discipline in experience but undergo high state CA when forced
which they were formulated than any theoretic or to interact with a stranger or talk to a boss or super-
empirical distinctions. “Shyness” comes from so- visor. It should be stressed that state CA is a normal
cial psychology and “audience sensitivity” origi- response to a threatening situation experienced by
nated in developmental psychology, while “com- most normal people and is in no way pathological.
munication apprehension” envolved from earlier In fact, it would not be unreasonable to suspect the
work in speech communication. emotional stability of an individual who never expe-
riences state CA in the face of a threatening oral
STATE VERSUS TRAIT APPREHENSION communication situation.
While state CA is a normal experience of most
Most recent research involving CA has taken the people, trait CA is not characteristic of normal,
perspective that CA is a broad-based response to well-adjusted individuals. People with high levels
oral communication. Thus, CA is conceptualized as of trait CA characteristically experience high levels
a trait ofthe individual which has many implications of apprehension about almost all oral communica-
for the person’s everyday life. Spielberger (1966) tion encounters, both those which rationally could
and Lamb (1 973) have made a useful distinction be described as threatening and those which could
between what they call “trait” and “state” ap- not be so described. While people with high levels
prehension. Trait apprehension is characterized by of trait CA are far less common than those with
fear or anxiety with respect to many different types occasional high levels of state CA, the extent of this
of oral communication encounters, from talking to a problem is far greater than many would suspect.
single person or within a small group to giving a Extensive studies of college student populations
speech before a large crowd. State apprehension, on suggest that approximately 20 percent of the stu-
the other hand, is specific to a given oral communi- dents in major universities may be appropriately
cation situation, such as giving a particular speech described as having high trait CA, with even higher
to a group of strangers or interviewing with an percentages existing in some smaller colleges and
80 HUMAN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH / VOL. 4, NO. 1, FALL 1977
community colleges (cf. McCroskey, 1970, CA. The child also is likely to have developed
1976b). Similar frequencies of high trait CA have communication skills at a lower level than other
been observed in public school settings (at each children, since the avoidance of communication
level, K-12), among adult populations, and among conditioned into the child early will have limited the
senior citizens (McCroskey, 1976d, Moore, 1972, child’s communication experiences. As a conse-
Scott, McCroskey, & Sheahan, in press). While quence, the school is very likely to strengthen the
some people who suffer from high levels of trait CA CA response. While the school environment de-
also have speech problems, such as articulation or mands the child communicate, the lower skill level

voice disorders (and stutters almost always have of the child likely will result in less reinforcement
high trait CA), the overwhelming majority have no for communication than that given to other children
problems with basic speech skills. This has led (by both teachers and peers). In addition, the school
Phillips (1968) to refer to the problem of high trait demands silence much of the time. The child with
CA as the “pathology of the normal speaker.” It is high CA will find it easy to conform to this require-
this pathology, its causes, measurement, correlates, ment, and will be reinforced for it, but also will
effects, and treatment, with which the remainder of observe the aversive stimuli given to the “normal”
this paper is concerned. Unless specifically noted, children who are not silent when the school expects
hereafter “CA” will refer to this trait. quiet. This will provide additional reinforcement
for the child’s withdrawal behavior. From this point
CAUSES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION on, the high level of CA is most likely to sustain
APPREHENSION itself through similar interactions with the environ-
ment.
While the causes of CA are not, and may never While the extensive literature in the field of learn-
be, fully known, both case study analyses (Phillips ing provides strong support for the above explana-
& Butt, 1966) and broader surveys (Wheeless, tion of the conditioned learning of CA, research
1971) suggest the development of CA during early concerning the treatment of CA provides additional
childhood years. It is clear that many children enter support. Treatment approaches based on counter-
kindergarten with high levels of CA already estab- conditioning, which we will discuss later, have
lished. Thus, if CA is not a hereditary function, and been found to be particularly effective for the reduc-
there are few data pointing in this direction, the tion of high levels of CA (cf. McCroskey, 1972).
cause of CA must lie primarily in a child’s experi- Although the conditioning-through-rein-
ences during the formative years. forcement theory advanced above probably is an
Since a child probably is not born with CA, it is adequate explanation of how CA is acquired (Ickes,
important that we describe how the child acquires 1971), the theory does not explain why one child is
this trait. We believe it is a learned trait, one that is conditioned in this way while another is not, even
conditioned through reinforcement for the child’s though in some cases the two children may be in the
communication behaviors. It is well established that same family. While several theoretical explanations
a child will learn to repeat behaviors that are rein- have been advanced, only a few have received em-
forced, while behaviors that are not reinforced gen- pirical support. Most of these theoretical explana-
erally will be extinguished over time (cf. Bugelski, tions point to differences between families, and
1971). Thus, if a child is reinforced for being silent cannot explain differences which occur within a
and is not reinforced for communicating, the proba- single family.
ble result is a quiet child. In addition, if the child not
only is not reinforced for communicating, but often CA AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FAMILY
experiences some aversive experience (parent ENVIRONMENTS
shouting, big brother hitting) when attempting to
communicate, the quiet child result is even more It is obvious that differences among parents and
probable. Such a child is likely to enter the school family environments could result in differential
environment with a well-established, high level of reinforcement patterns for children’s communica-
McCroskey 81
tion. But what specific differences make a contribu- norms of expectency of their schools. Taken to-
tion are much less obvious. The extensive survey gether, these studies suggest children from rural
and case study efforts of Phillips and his associates environments may develop lower levels of commu-
(1 968) have suggested several possibilities. For nication skill, thus receiving less reinforcement for
example, Phillips and Butt (1966) found that a dis- communication, which may lead to hightened levels
proportionately large percentage of the college stu- of CA.
dents they identified as experiencing high levels of While these explanations for differences in CA
CA were children from first and second generation levels all are persuasive, their impact is limited to
differences between families. Little attention has

ethnic families. Why such children are more likely
to develop high CA is not completely clear; how- been directed toward differences in CA level among
ever, two explanations appear tenable. First, such children within the same family. Randolph and
children may have more difficulty acquiring lan- McCroskey (1977) advanced what initially ap-
guage skills because of the mixture of languages to peared to be a promising theory designed to explain
which they are exposed, particularly after entering differential CA levels among children within the
school, and thus they may receive less reinforce- same family as a function of birth order and family
ment for communication. Second, the parents may size. The first study they conducted yielded substan-
have lower language and communication skill tial support for their theory (Randolph & McCros-
levels and consequently be more hesitant to provide key, 1977), but subsequent research, which in-
reinforcement (or provide mixed reinforcement pat- volved a much larger sample of subjects permitting
terns) to their child who is learning to communicate a more powerful test of the theory, indicated that the
in a society which is linguistically foreign to them. predictive power of the theory was minimal, al-
Phillips (1968) also advances the attitude of the though statistically significant in some cases (Ran-
parents toward communication as a possible expla- dolph, 1977). At this point, therefore, there is no
nation of the development of CA. If parents use empirically supported theoretical explanation of
communication as a weapon against each other why some children have higher (or lower) CA levels
and/or against the children, the child may be con- than other children in the same family.
ditioned to avoid communication to escape such
abuse. Such children may fail to learn that commu- MEASUREMENT OF ORAL
nication may be useful to obtain the rewards avail- COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION
able in the society and, thus, fail to be reinforced for
successful communication attempts. The measurement of oral CA has been a major
Recently, Richmond and Robertson (1977) ad- interest of many researchers over the past four de-
vanced the theory that children who are reared in a cades. During most of this period measurement of
rural environment are more likely to develop high CA has focused on state rather than trait CA. The
levels of CA than are children reared in a more early work in this area has been summarized by
urban environment. They reasoned that in the rural Clevenger (1959) and thus wiIl not be examined
environment children are typically exposed to fewer thoroughly here. Rather, we will focus our attention
adults and are less likely to encounter situations on current measurement approaches. In order to
where effective communication is necessary to avoid confusion, we will divide our discussion be-
avoid aversive consequences. In their study of 813 tween state and trait measurement.
college students from Nebraska they found signifi-
cantly higher levels of CA among students who had Measurement of State CA
lived most of their lives on farms or in towns with a
population under 5,000 than among students from The measurement of state CA has focused almost
cities with populations of 5,000 to 50,000 and from exclusively on stage fright. Early research iden-
large urban areas. In an earlier study, Grutzeck tified three major approaches to measuring stage
(1970) found that rural children have more diffi- fright, including Redding’s physiological approach
culty than others in communicating according to the (1936), Henning’s observer rating approach (1935),
82 HUMAN COMMLWICATION RESEARCH / VOL. 4, NO. 1, FALL 1977
and Gilkinson’s self-report approach (1942). More ment is expensive, cumbersome, and requires con-
recent research indicates a continuing emphasis on siderable skill and training on the part of the re-
the same three approaches. Contemporary exam- searcher. In addition, it is subject to problems of
ples include Behnke and Carlile’s work with interpretation, because simple activation of physio-
physiological measurement ( 197 l ) , Mulac and logical systems may as well come as a result of
Sherman’s work with rating scales (1974), and Por- enthusiasm as it does from CA. Observer ratings
ter’s work with self-report scales (1974). From the suffer from similar problems of validity. While ob-
early work, only Gilkinson’s Personal Report of servers with extensive training can be taught to

Confidence as a Speaker (1942) has been retained in record similar observations about a speaker’s be-
usage, and the shortened version of the instrument havior, inexperienced speakers (and in some cases
reported by Paul (1 966) has virtually supplanted the more experienced ones) often will exhibit many of
original measure. the behaviors generally thought to be associated
Clevenger (1959) has noted that the correlations with stage fright even though the speaker is confi-
among these various approaches in the early re- dent and not experiencing CA, while many highly
search were generally low, thus indicating little frightened speakers will not exhibit those behaviors
isomorphism among the measurement approaches. as a result of extensive training and experience
Later research has failed to improve the picture. through which they have learned to control their
Clevenger’s conclusion in 1959 could as well be external behaviors. In addition, those with the high-
written today: est levels of CA are seldom available for observa-
tion, since they simply refuse to engage in public
Results of comparisons of various indices of stage speaking at all!
fright suggeststhat the emotional disturbance which is The research involving measurement of state CA,
recorded on physiological measuring devices is differ- therefore, presents a less than perfectly clear pic-
ent from both the emotional disturbance which the
speaker reports having experienced, and the emotional ture. However, at this point the measure of state
disturbance which a group of judges report having anxiety developed by Spielberger (1966) shows the
observed, and that the latter are different from each most promise for yielding valid data. This instru-
other. (p. 137) ment consistently has proven reliable and has pro-
duced results consistent with theoretical predictions
Thus, it would appear that selection of an appropri- in several studies. A major advantage of this in-
ate measure of state CA depends on how one strument, because of the way it is constructed, is
chooses to define the construct. Is it a cognitively that it can be employed across the full range of
experienced state, a physiologically experienced communication contexts. This permits direct com-
state, or a behavior pattern observable by others? parison of state CA levels between even widely
Since we have defined CA (including both state divergent communication contexts. In recent re-
and trait versions) as a cognitively experienced search we have found the reliability of the instru-
state, we obviously prefer to select a measure that is ment consistently to exceed .90.
cognitively based, such as the Porter self-report
measure. This type of measure has been the choice Measurement of Trait CA
of the overwhelming majority of researchers in both
communication and psychology who have worked While the measurement of state CA has been
with the development and testing of treatment ap- fraught with definitional problems and conflicts
proaches for helping people to overcome CA, al- among approaches, as noted above, no similar diffi-
though several have included other measures as culty has arisen in the research concerned with trait
well. In addition to this definitionally-based prefer- CA. Scholars concerned with trait CA consistently
ence, as has been noted elsewhere (McCroskey, have viewed it as a cognitively experienced phe-
1970, 1975), there are problems with the other nomenon. While the theory underlying trait CA
measurement approaches which are difficult if not research argues that there are behavioral correlates
impossible to overcome. Physiological measure- of the cognitive experience (physiological corre-
McCroskey 83
lates have not yet been considered seriously), in no approach-avoidance factor and the PRCA was re-
case has a one-to-one correlation between behavior ported as .69, while the reward factor was not sig-
and cognitively experienced CA been expected. It nificantly correlated with the PRCA. However,
has been recognized that many behaviors that would there is an important distinction between the PRCA
be predicted from knowledge that a person experi- and the other instruments. While the items in the
ences a high level of CA can also be a result, either PRCA specifically relate to fear or anxiety about
in part or whole, of some other influence. For communication, many of the items on the other
example, a person with high CA might be expected instruments relate to a desire to communicate or a
to communicate less in a small group setting, but a report of communication behavior. Thus, these in-

person with lower CA who is not interested in the struments cannot be considered direct measures of
topic of the discussion might evidence the same trait CA. Rather they are measures of a general
behavior. On the other side of the coin, the person predisposition toward communication which may
with high CA might be expected to be less willing to develop as function of social introversion, reti-
interview for a job with an important individual than cence, ethnic heritage, or a variety of other sources
would a person with lower CA, but the prospect of as well as trait CA. Consequently, these instruments
unemployment might motivate the person with high may more appropriately be described as measures of
CA to undertake the threatening experience any- Burgoon’s (1 976) “unwillingness to communi-
way. cate” construct than trait CA. Clearly, all of these
Since researchers have consistently viewed trait measures are tapping the underlying construct of
CA as a cognitively experienced phenomenon, it is trait CA.
not surprising that the self-report approach to mea- A variety of new scales designed to measure trait
surement of trait CA has held exclusive sway. Until CA are in advanced stages of development. Scott,
recently, one self-report scale has been preeminent McCroskey, and Sheahan (in press) have recently
in the research. This scale, the Personal Report of reported an instrument designed to measure trait CA
Communication Apprehension (PRCA), was first among people in an organizational environment.
reported in 1970 by McCroskey (1970) and has been Items composing the scale were drawn from the
employed in over 50 studies since that time. The PRCA, Lustig, and Burgoon instruments as well as
instrument consistently has yielded reliability esti- some items specifically written for the business or
mates above .90 and a summary of the research government organizational environment. Garrison
employing the instrument through I975 provided a and Garrison (1977) have developed a scale, named
comprehensive argument in support of its validity as the Measure of Elementary Communication Ap-
a measure of oral trait CA (McCroskey, 1975). prehension, which is designed to measure trait CA
Two additional instruments have received some among preliterate children. McCroskey (1976a) has
use in the literature, the Lustig Verbal Reticence also developed a scale, called the Personal Report of
Scale ( 1 974) and the Phillips-Erickson Reticence Communication Fear (PRCF), which is to be ad-
Scale (Rosenfeld & Plax, 1976). Both of these in- ministered orally to preliterate children as well as in
struments have been found to correlate with the written form to others of all ages. In this same
PRCA at about .70. A later version of the Lustig research program, McCroskey ( 19764 has devel-
scale (Mortensen, Arntson, & Lustig, 1977) has oped a short (10-item) version of the PRCA which
been found to have a similar relationship with the correlates above .90 with the original version and a
PRCA. Burgoon (1976) has recently reported a Verbal Activity Scale which is designed to measure
new instrument called the Unwillingness-to- self-perception of the amount of oral communica-
Communicate Scale which includes two dimen- tion activity in which an individual engages inde-
sions, one labeled “approach avoidance” (with pendently of the measurement of trait CA.
items isomorphic with the definition of trait CA) Although each of these new measures holds
and the other labeled “reward” (with items not promise for future research in the area of trait CA,
directly related to the definition of the trait CA and to the extent they are correlated with the original
construct). The observed correlation between the PRCA have concurrent validity, none have yet been
used widely enough to establish strong, indepen- recent study reported by Witteman (1976) found a
dent arguments for their validity. At this time. the -.45 correlation between CA and an individual’s
only measure with clearly established reliability and innovativeness or willingness to accept change.
validity as a measure of oral, trait CA is the PRCA The picture of the person with a high level of CA
(McCroskey, 1970, 1975). that emerges from these studies generally is a nega-
tive one. Such a person might be described as typi-
CORRELATES OF ORAL CA cally an introverted individual who lacks self-
esteem and is resistent to change, has a low toler-

Since CA is conceptualized as a trait of an indi- ance for ambiguity, and is lacking in self-control
vidual, it is reasonable to suspect that this trait might and emotional maturity. Persons at the other end of
be associated with a variety of other personality the CA continuum, on the other hand, might be
traits of the individual. Several studies have described as typically adventurous, extroverted,
examined this possibility and the results suggest that confident, emotionally mature individuals with
CA is meaningfully associated with a fairly wide high self-esteem, tolerant of ambiguity, and willing
variety of personality variables but has little or no or even eager to accept change in their environment.
association with others. In one major study, Based upon profiles such as these, many hypotheses
McCroskey, Daly, and Sorensen (1976) found CA have been tested concerning the behaviors and at-
to have a moderately high positive correlation with titudes of people with different levels of CA, and of
general anxiety and moderately high negative corre- other people’s perceptions of such individuals. We
lations with tolerance for ambiguity, self-control, will consider the results of many of these studies in
adventurousness, surgency, and emotional matur- the next section of this paper. However, before
ity. Significant but less meaningful correlations continuing to that section, we need to consider one
were found between CA and dogmatism, external additional correlate of oral trait CA-CA concern-
control orientation, trustfulness, and Mac hiavel- ing writing.
lianism (positive), and cyclothmia, dominance, Phillips (1968) has observed that some of the
character, confidence, and need to achieve (nega- college students he has identified as reticent have
tive). No significant relationships were observed indicated a preference for writing, and may even
between CA and intelligence, sophistication, self- develop higher than normal skills in this form of
sufficiency, sensitivity, eccentricity, or radicalism. communication in order to compensate for their
A similar personality profile appears in the results of perceived inadequacies in oral communication.
a similar study reported by Rosenfeld and Plax Until recently the relationship between CA concern-
(1976). ing oral communication and CA concerning written
In addition to the research focusing on general communication could not be tested because there
personality structure and CA, several studies have was no available measure of the latter trait. Daly and
examined the relationship of individual personality Miller (1975a, 1975b) have recently reported the
variables to CA. Huntley (1969) found a positive development and validation of such a measure,
correlation of .36 between CA and introversion as which they call the Writing Apprehension Test
measured by the Eysenck instrument. Lustig (1974) (WAT). Correlations between the PRCA and the
found a -.48 correlation between CA and self- WAT have ranged between .30 and .40 for a wide
esteem, and a -.52 correlation between CA and variety of samples of both college students and other
self-acceptance. In an extensive series of studies in- adults. This moderate positive relationship between
volving a wide variety of subject populations, oral and written CA traits suggests the probability
McCroskey, Daly, Richmond, and Falcione (1977) that the students Phillips (1968) found to substitute
found negative correlations between CA and self- writing for oral communication represent the excep-
esteem ranging from -.52 to -.72. A similar tion rather than the rule. While correlations of this
strong relationship between low self-esteem and magnitude do not rule out the possibility of a person
high CA was found by Snavely and Sullivan (1976) having high CA for oral communication and low
and Snavely, Merker, Becker, and Book (1976). A CA for written communication, they d o suggest that
MeCroskey 85
it is more likely for a person to be high in both or low summarize the research relating to each proposition
in both than to be high in one and low in the other. in turn.
EFFECTS OF ORAL CA CA and Communicution Avoidance
While the title of the section focuses on “ef- Virtually all of the studies that have tested hy-
fects,” it should be stressed at the outset that casual- potheses based on the proposition that people with
ity in most of the studies to be discussed below is high CA will seek to withdraw and avoid communi-
inferred rather than directly demonstrated. Most of cation have produced supportive results. In addi-

these studies have been conducted in naturalistic or tion, some data are available which support the
simulated environments and have not involved proposition which were not collected with the inten-
specific experimental manipulations which would tion of testing the proposition. We will consider
permit direct inferences of causation. However, these data first.
since CA has been demonstrated to develop in early In a continuing research program designed to test
childhood (Wheeless, 197 I ) , it is clearly a potential methods of helping students to overcome high CA,
antecedent condition of the effects examined in McCroskey (1970) screened all students entering
these studies. While the presence of a third variable public speaking classes at two major universities.
which could function as both a cause of CA and the Between one and two weeks after the initial screen-
other observed effects cannot be ruled out entirely, ing, attempts were made to contact students with
the casual inferences suggested by these studies high CA and offer them a treatment program. In
should be considered tenable until such time as that both institutions it was found that during that period
variable (or those variables) is isolated and iden- between 50 and 70 percent of these students had
tified through research. dropped the class, even though for most it was a
Before examining the specific research related to required course. This compared with an attrition
the effects of CA, we need to outline the general rate of 5 to 10 percent for students with low or
theoretical framework within which most of this moderate CA. In another university the basic course
research has been conducted. Three general theoret- program was modified to permit students to choose
ical propositions are central to this line of research, among classes focusing on dyadic, small group, or
all of which are cast in terms of persons who experi- public communication. During the first year of the
ence a high level of CA: operation of that new program, information was not
readily available to the students in advance which
1. People who experience a high level of CA will would indicate the differential nature of the three
withdraw from and seek to avoid communica- classes (no catalog listing, for example). The pro-
tion when possible. portion of individuals with high CA enrolled was
2 . As a result of their withdrawal from and avoid- comparable across the three courses. Two years
ance of communication, people who experience later, however, there was readily available informa-
a high level of CA will be perceived less position on classes, revealing very few people with high
tively than people who experience lower levels C A enrolled in the public speaking course
of CA by others in their environment. (McCroskey, 1975).
3. As a result of their withdrawal and avoidance Another incidental observation of the withdrawal
behaviors, and in conjunction with the negative and avoidance behavior of people with high CA
perceptions fostered by those behaviors, people occurred when the instructor of a section of a course
who experience a high level of CA will be nega- in interpersonal communication reported to her
tively impacted in terms of their economic, supervisor that she was having extreme difficulty
academic, political, and social lives. getting her class to interact, but there was no short-
age of interaction in her other two sections of the
Each of these theoretical propositions has re- same course. Since all students in the course had
ceived support from the available research. We will been administered the PRCA at the beginning of the
term, the scores of the students in that section were In one of the above studies, Weiner (1973) went
examined. It was found that virtually all of the further in the examination of the behavior of people
students had high levels of CA. Subsequently it was with high CA in a small group setting. He had each
noted that this section had been added to the person indicate a preference for seating position in a
schedule during the final day of registration to ac- variety of group settings. He found a clear and
comodate freshmen who had failed to appear for a significant pattern indicating that people with high
previously scheduled orientation and advisement CA avoided seating positions which have been
period and had not seen an advisor until the last demonstrated in previous research to be the focal
moment. points of interaction and influence. People with low

In each of the above cases the data were obtained levels of CA, on the other hand, indicated a marked
incidentally and were not collected in order to test preference for such seats.
any hypothesis. Nevertheless, they demonstrate a Although people with high levels of CA presum-
clear pattern of avoidance of communication on the ably want to avoid communication in general, it
part of people with high levels of CA, particularly may also be hypothesized that some types of com-
such threatening communication experiences as munication will appear more threatening to the in-
public speaking and interviewing with an influential dividual and thus avoided even more than others,
person. The following studies were designed speci- such as was the case with public speaking and see-
fically to test the prevalence of the behavior in a ing an advisor as previously noted. Following this
variety of additional settings. line of reasoning, three studies have tested the hy-
One method of avoiding communication, particu- pothesis that people with high CA will engage in
larly in a small group communication setting, is to less self-disclosure than other people. All three ob-
talk less. If a person does not talk, others may tained support for the hypothesis (Hamilton, 1972;
attempt to draw the person into the group for a McCroskey & Richmond, in press; Wheeless, Nes-
while, but likely will reduce such attempts over ser, & McCroskey, 1976). Whether this pattern is
time. Five studies have tested the hypothesis that produced by lack of self-esteem, the desire to avoid
people with high CA talk less in a small group the reciprocity and subsequent interaction normally
setting and all five found significant support for the produced by self-disclosive communication, or
hypothesis (Hamilton, 1972; Sorensen & McCros- some other element, is not known. It is known,
key, in press; Weiner, 1973; Wells, 1970; Fenton however, that these lower levels of self-disclosure
&Hopf, 1976). In addition, it has been found that are not simply a function of the overall lower total
when people with high CA do participate, their amount of talking. After correcting for the total
verbalizations are likely to differ from those of amount of talking, Hamilton (1972) found that the
people with lower CA. For example, Powers (in self-disclosure level of the individuals with high CA
press) has found that people with high CA include was significantly lower than that of individuals with
significantly more rhetorical interrogatives (i.e., lower CA.
you know?, you see?, okay?) in their interaction A similar line of thought led McCroskey and
than other people. Weiner (1973) and Wells (1970) Andersen (1976) to hypothesize that students with
found that when people with high CA do partici- high CA would prefer large lecture classes over
pate, their comments are likely to be irrelevant to small classes which permit (or require) extensive
the ongoing discussion. This has been explained as participation on the part of the student, while the
a function of wanting to avoid further interaction. If preference pattern for students with lower CA
what a person says is not relevant, it is less likely would be reversed. Their results confirmed the hy-
that additional interaction will be pressed by other pothesis. In another study of student behavior in the
group members. Jablin and Sussman (1976) report instructional environment, Scott, Yates, and Whee-
that highly apprehensive members of brainstorming less (1975) found that in a modified personalized
groups tend to be lower producers of original ideas system of instruction (PSI) the students with high
than the less apprehensive members of the groups. CA were significantly less likely to seek the assis-
McCroskey a1
tance of available tutors than were students with (McCroskey, Daly, Richmond, & Cox, 1975) as
lower levels of CA. In still another study of student well as adults in an organization environment (Fal-
behavior, McCroskey and Sheahan (1976) found cione, McCroskey, & Daly, 1977).
that while students with low levels of CA chose
One of the clearest predictions based on the prop-
seats in the front and center of a classroom with
osition that people with high CA will seek to avoid
traditional, straight-row seating for 25 students, the
communication is that they will prefer occupations
students with high CA avoided these seats and in-
that require less communication. Daly and
stead chose seats on the periphery of the room, on
McCroskey (1975) tested this hypothesis and found
the sides and in the back. The front and center area,

that not only was this pattern clearly present, and the
of course, is the most accessible to the teacher and
reverse pattern present for people with low CA, but
the place where a person is more likely to be called
that the pattern held even when the occupations
upon to participate. An extension of this research
requiring more communication also provided more
(McCroskey & McVetta, 1977) replicated the pre-
status and economic reward than the occupations
vious findings concerning classroom seating, and
requiring less communication. In afollow-up study,
also found that in semicircular and modular seating
Scott, McCroskey, and Sheahan (in press) not only
arrangements the students with high CA avoided the
found that the preferences observed in the previous
seats in areas that would be likely to induce high
study were shared by government employees but
interaction requirements.
also that the individuals actually held jobs that con-
McCroskey and Sheahan (in press) have also
formed to their preferences. In addition, it was
investigated the social behavior of college students
hypothesized that people with high CA would be
with regard to their level of CA. As hypothesized,
less likely to desire advancement than others, since
they found that students with high CA, interacted
they would forsee that such advancement would
less with peer strangers, and were more likely to
increase the communication requirements imposed
engage in exclusive (steady) dating. The latter find-
on them. This hypothesis was also supported.
ing was predicted on the basis that, for a person with
high CA, it would be difficult to engage in the In a study that may have probed the outer reaches
normal courtship behaviors leading to dates with a of the generalizability of the withdrawal and avoi-
variety of persons and, consequently, steady dating dance proposition, McCroskey and Leppard (1975)
would be an attractive alternative to the option of hypothesized that people with high CA would prefer
interacting with a significant number of other peo- housing that was remote from centers of interaction
ple in order to secure dating partners. In an exten- while people with low CA would prefer housing
sion of this research, McCroskey and Kretzschmar closest to such centers. The study required the sub-
(1977) found that college graduates with high CA jects to indicate their preference for housing within
are more likely to marry immediately upon gradua- a variety of settings including a dormitory, a mobile
tion than graduates with lower CA. This effect was home park, and a surburban housing development.
hypothesized on the basis of the presumed difficulty On the basis of previous research that had identified
for the person with high CA to engage in courtship where the primary interaction zones were in each of
behaviors and the attractive alternative of marrying these settings, predictions were made for each type
the person with whom the person had been dating of housing. The hypothesis was supported: people
steadily in college. with high CA preferred remote housing while peo-
Although McCroskey and Sheahan (in press) did ple with low CA preferred housing near major in-
not find any difference between people with high teraction areas.
and low CA in their desire for dates, other research The pattern of evidence generated from this
has found a general pattern indicating that people group of studies is clear and strong. People who
with high CA find other people in their environment experience a high level of CA will withdraw from
to be less attractive than do people with lower CA. and seek to avoid communication whenever possi-
This has been observed among college students ble.
CA und Other People’s Perceptions Since it is clear that differential behaviors of

people with high and low CA are observable by
others, it is useful to consider the results of research
As was the case with the research relating to the that has examined the impact of such differential
previous proposition, virtually all of the related communication behaviors on other people’s qualita-
research is supportive of the proposition that people tive judgements of the people who engage in the
who experience a high level of CA will be perceived behaviors. Four studies are particularly relevant.
less positively by others in their environment than McCroskey. Hamilton, and Weiner (1974) found
will people who experience lower levels of CA. that people who exhibited high tension in their

This appears to be true regardless of the CA level of communication behaviors in a small group were
the other person. Even people with high CA tend to perceived to be less socially attractive, and less
perceive other people with high CA less positively interpersonally similar. Daly , McCroskey, and
than they perceive other people with lower CA (cf. Richmond (in press) found that there was a gener-
McCroskey, Daly, Richmond, & Cox, 1975). ally positive linear correlation between the amount
The work of Knutson and Lashbrook (1976) pro- of time a person was perceived to talk in a small
vides a useful base upon which to begin our review group and other people’s perceptions of their com-
of the effects of CA on other people’s perceptions. petence, sociability, extroversion, composure,
Their research focused on the relationship between power, social attractiveness, and task attractive-
perceived social style and CA. As they ness. Similarly, Freimuth (1976) found that as the
hypothesized, people with high CA were perceived amount of silence increased during the presentation
as low in both assertiveness and responsiveness, the of a speech, there was a corresponding decrease in
two central components of social style perceptions, perceived competence of the speaker. Mulac and
while people with low CA were perceived high in Sherman (1975) also observed a significant nega-
both assertiveness and responsiveness. Previous re- tive relationship between perceived anxiety in male
search by Merrill (1974) characterized people who public speakers and perceptions of their competence
are perceived as responsive as warm, communica- and trustworthiness.
tive, easy-to-know, friendly, and relationship- Each of these studies suggests that behaviors that
oriented; people low in responsiveness were charac- we would expect people with high CA to exhibit
terized as cool, independent, uncommunicative, more frequently in their communication are associ-
disciplined, rational, hard-to-know, task oriented, ated with negative perceptions on the part of other
and business-like. Merrill (1974) also characterized people. Studies specifically directed toward testing
people perceived as high in assertiveness as com- this hypothesis have produced supportive results.
petitive, risk takers, fast to take action, take-charge People exhibiting high CA, compared to those
individuals, and directive. People perceived as low with lower CA, have been found to be perceived as
in assertiveness were characterized as cooperative, less socially attractive, less task attractive, less
risk-avoiders, slow to take action, “go-along’’ per- competent, less sexually attractive, less attractive as
sons, and nondirective. a communication partner, less sociable, less com-
It will be noted in the above descriptions that the posed, and less extroverted but of slightly higher
elements that characterize the behaviors of both low character (McCroskey, Daly, Richmond, & Cox,
responsives and low assertives are typified by re- 1975; McCroskey & Richmond, f976; Quiggens,
duced communication while high responsives and 1972; Fenton & Hopf, 1976; Wissmiller & Merker,
high assertives reflect the opposite pattern. It is 1976). In addition, they are perceived to exert less
clear from the Knutson and Lashbrook (1976) re- leadership in a group (Wenzlaff, 1972; Fenton &
search, therefore, that communication behaviors Hopf, 1976). With the presence of these generally
predicted for people with high and low CA are negative perceptions, therefore, it is not surprising
observed by other people in their environment and that three studies (Hurt & Joseph, 1975; Hurt, Pre-
are reflected by the other people’s perceptions of the iss, & Davis, 1976; McCroskey & Richmond,
level of responsiveness and assertiveness. 1976) have found that people are very unlikely to
McCroskey 89
turn to a person who has a high level of CA for Impact of CA on lndividuul Lives
opinion leadership. Not only do people indicate that
they will not turn to a person with high CA for Since the two propositions concerning communi-
opinion leadership-apparently they do not. Wit- cation avoidance and other people’s perceptions of
teman (1976) recently found a significant negative people with high CA have received such strong
correlation between CA and the frequency with support, the proposition that these two phenomena
which his subjects reported that others turned to lead to a negative impact on the life of the person
them for opinion leadership. with high CA may seem almost self-evident. Even
so, several studies have been designed to test this

Not only has high CA been found to be associated
proposition directly.
with negative interpersonal perceptions, it has also
Strong support for this proposition has been pro-
been found to generate negative expectations of the
vided by the studies which have examined effects on
individuals’ future success in both the academic
employment. As noted in a previous section, Daly
world and the business world. McCroskey and Daly
and McCroskey (1975) found that people with high
(1975), for example, found that teachers exposed to
CA would rather accept a position with lower pay
a brief description of an elementary school child
and lower status than to take one with higher com-
with high CA, as compared to teachers exposed to a
munication requirements; and Scott, McCroskey,
similar description of a child with low CA, indi-
and Sheahan (in press) found that this professed
cated expectations that the child would have lower
desire was actually present in the employment pat-
overall academic achievement, lower achievement
terns of a large sample of government employees.
in all subjects in the elementary school curriculum,
Additionally, in the job applicant screening studies
have less satisfactory relationships with other stu-
it was found that people with high CA were less
dents, and have lower probability of success in
likely to be offered an interview (Daly & Leth,
future education.
1976) and, even if interviewed, would be less likely
In a study employing a simulation of the job to be offered a job (Daly & Leth, 1976; Richmond,
applicant screening process, with students in their 1977).
second or third year in a school of business adminis- Even with the apparent bias working against peo-
tration, Richmond (1977) found that job applicants ple with high CA, most do obtain employment. But
with excellent credentials-except for passing re- from the evidence that is available, they do not
ferences to behaviors typical of people with high always find work that is pleasing to them. In a study
CA, as compared to comparably credentialed appli- of a large sample of federa1 employees, Falcione,
cants with low CA-were perceived to be less task McCroskey, and Daly (1977) found that high CA
and socially attractive and were projected to be less was negatively associated with job satisfaction, par-
satisfied in their job, to have poorer relationships ticularly as it related to satisfaction with the per-
with their peers, supervisors, and subordinates at son’s supervisor and the actual work the person is
work, to be less productive, and to have less likeli- required to perform. In the same study it was found
hood for advancement in the business organization. that for a large sample of teachers in public schools a
In a very similar study, Daly and Leth (1976) found similar pattern was evidenced in terms of satisfac-
that the high CA applicant was perceived as less tion with the teacher’s supervisor.
competent, and projected to be less successful on On the basis of the results of the studies concern-
the job, to require more training, to be less satisfied ing potential employer’s negative perceptions of
on the job, and to have more difficulty establishing people with high CA and the finding that such
good relationships with co-workers. people are less satisfied with their job, Scott,
The pattern of evidence generated from this McCroskey , and Sheahan (in press) hypothesized
group of studies provides clear support for the prop- that in an intact group of government employees
osition that people who experience a high level of (local, state, and federal) people with low CA
CA will be perceived less positively than people would have more years of service to the organiza-
who experience lower levels of CA. tion than people with high CA. After controlling for
90 HUMAN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH / VOL. 4, NO. I, FALL 1977
age of the employees, it was found that people with clear support for the proposition that high CA re-
low CA had served over 50 percent longer with the sults in a negative impact on an individual’s eco-
organization than employees with high CA (an av- nomic, academic, political, and social life.
erage of 11.3 years versus 7.5 years). Whether
people with high CA that should have been present METHODS OF HELPING PEOPLE
in the population to equalize the averages were OVERCOME CA
never hired, left because they were dissatisfied, left
to avoid moving into a supervisory position, or were Since it is clear that high CA can result in many

fired, remains to be determined in later research. negative consequences for the person who experi-
Within the academic environment, the negative ences it, communication scholars as well as
impact of high CA has also been established (cf. psychologists have become interested in determin-
McCroskey, 1976; McCroskey , 1977; McCroskey ing methods for helping people to reduce their level
& Andersen, 1976). Students with high CA, as of CA. Until the last decade only one method was
compared to those with low CA, have been found to employed, and it is still the most widely employed.
have lower overall college grade-point averages This is most unfortunate, because the method is
(McCroskey & Andersen, 1976), to evidence lower demonstrably not only ineffective but seriously
achievement on standardized tests administered at harmful to the individual with high CA. The
the completion of high school (Bashore, 1971; “method” to which we refer is requiring the indi-
McCroskey & Andersen, 1976), to receive lower vidual to speak in a public setting. The most com-
marks in small classes in junior high school (Hurt, mon example of the application of this “method” is
Preiss, &Davis, 1976) and college (Scott & Wheel- the required public speaking class, but its applica-
ess, 19761, and to develop negative attitudes toward tions also include “show and tell” in the elementary
school in both junior high school (Hurt, Preiss, & school, oral book reports, recitation of current
Davis, 1976) and college (McCroskey & Sheahan, events, required oral reading, graduate student
1977). All of these effects have been found to occur seminar reports, church recitations, as well as a host
in spite of the fact that no meaningful relationship of similar activities foisted on young people in the
has been found between CA and intelligence name of education.
(Bashore, 1971; Davis, 1977; McCroskey, Daly, & While required public performances and training
Sorensen, 1976) or between CA and success in large in public speaking have great value for people with
lecture classes at the college level (McCroskey & moderate or low CA, for people with high CA such
Andersen, 1976). experiences are worthless at best, harmful in most
Only one study has been reported concerning the instances, and deeply traumatic in many. After
impact of CA in the political life of an individual. In teaching required public speaking courses for a
that study, Sheahan (1976) found that people with period of nine years (prior to the first reports of
high CA were less likely to register and vote than research relating to trait CA), this writer began to
people with lower CA. Within the social realm, question the validity of this approach for helping
McCroskey & Sheahan (in press) found that al- students gain confidence in a public setting. While
though there was no difference between students significant improvements had been observed in sev-
with high and low CA in terms of the number of eral hundred students, many others were apparently
dates they desired over a 14-day period, and stu- no better at the end of the course than at the begin-
dents with high CA were more than twice as likely ning. During this period, also, he had experienced
to be engaged in exclusive (steady) dating, the stu- several students fainting while giving a speech,
dents with low CA reported having almost twice as dozens of students who “disappeared” when their
many dates during the preceeding 14-day period as first speech was due, similar dozens who cowered in
the students with high CA. the back of the room when called on claiming not to
While many more potential effects of CA on be “ready,” absences on days when speeches were
everyday lives of people remain to be studied, the due that were too numerous to count, instances of
results of the studies that have been reported point to students vomiting when called upon to speak, and
McCroskey 91
even one attempted suicide allegedly brought on by The immediate neurotic response to an aversive condi-
tion is avoidance. The student avoids enrolling in a
fear of a speech due the next morning. speech course or fails to attend on days of assigned
When a measure of trait CA became available speeches. Avoidance behavior should not be permit-
(PRCA), it was decided to examine the impact of a ted. . . because then the neurotic response becomes
public speaking course on CA empirically. The excessively dominant. However, . . .individuals
PRCA was administered to over 600 students enrol- should not be placed in a situation that will reinforce
the anxiety state, i.e., a public speaking class in which
led in the class. Although over half of the students evaluations and criticisms are given by instructor and
who were identified as having high CA dropped the peers. (p. 4)
course before the end of term, the remaining stu-

dents with high CA showed a significant increase in
While the public speaking class as a method for
CA as measured by the PRCA. When considering
helping people with high CA can be discounted, this
all of the students who completed the course, how-
should not be taken to indicate that all communica-
ever, the average CA level was found to drop signif-
tion instruction has negative effects. An interper-
icantly. Thus, while the large majority of the stu-
sonal communication course, for example, has been
dents were helped by the class, those in most need of
found to produce markedly positive effects in reduc-
help were actually hurt. Research reported sub-
ing CA (Barnes, 1976).
sequent to that time indicates that these results were
not specific only to that university, that course, or Several more formal treatment methods have
that particular group of teachers and students. been tested for their usefulness in helping overcome
While some research has been reported that indi- CA. The most extensively studied is the behavior
cates that a course in public speaking does not modification method known as systematic desen-
reduce students’ CA (Brooks & Platz, 1968; Taylor sitization (cf. McCroskey, 1972). This method has
& Hamilton, 1974), most studies indicate that the been found to be highly effective for most people
impact, when considering all students enrolled, is a with high CA, but not all, and is relatively easy to
reduction in CA (cf. Giffin & Friedrich, 1968). administer and inexpensive.
Interestingly, this reduction cannot be attributed to The positive impact of systematic desensitization
the required speaking activities in the class, for of CA has been demonstrated not only on subjects’
Dymacek (1971) found that a class in communica- self-reports of CA (McCroskey, 1972) but also on
tion theory was at least as effective in reducing CA their actual communication behavior in small group
as classes which required from one to seven (Wells, 1970) and public speaking (Goss, Thomp-
speeches. Phillips and Metzger (1973) have ob- son, & Olds, 1977) settings. While this method may
served that public speaking training may result in be safely employed by lay personnel, it is highly
higher CA for those students with high entering advisable that at the outset of a program designed to
levels of CA. Their observation is strongly sup- provide such treatment at least one person involved
ported by the research reported by Brooks and Platz have a background in counseling or clinical
(1968). They found that while 75 percent of the psychology, have been trained by such a person, or
students in the classes they studied reduced their CA have worked in a similar program previously (Bar-
as a result, the other 25 percent reported increased rick, 1971).
CA. A variety of additional methods have been sug-
Barnes (1976) provides an explanation for the gested in the literature in recent years, but most have
Brooks and Platz findings as well as similar obser- yet to receive sufficient empirical validation to jus-
vations by others: tify recommending use outside a research environ-
ment. These include hypnosis (Barker, Cegala,
For the least confident students. . . anticipated speak- Kibler, & Wahlers, 1972), relaxation induced by
ing experiences have a traumatizing effect, resulting biofeedback (Fenton, Hopf, & Beck, 1975), group
in weak performances followed by negative evalua-
tions and criticisms. For 20-30 percent of the students,
counseling (Griffin & Bradley, 1969), reality ther-
a course in public speaking does not seem to fulfill apy (Phillips & Metzger, 1973), and reduction of
objectives of increased competency and confidence. state CA through false heart-rate feedback (Motely ,
92 HUMAN COMMUNICATION RESEARCH I VOL. 4, NO. 1, FALL 1977
1974). Two very promising methods have appeared cessful, such success may breed ulcers and unhap-
recently. A method called conditioned relaxation piness as well as increased status and economic
was found to be as successful as systematic desen- reward.
sitization by Heald (1976). Studies by Fremouw Too much should not be made of this cavaet, but
( 1 9 7 9 , Fremouw and Zitter(in press), and Schwalb it is important that it be made. Thus far, the research
(1976) have pointed to the effectiveness of skills on CA has focused on potential negative conse-
training directed toward specific communication quences of high levels of CA, and many have been
behaviors (public speaking skills for the Fremouw found. Future research may focus on potential nega-
research; mediating family crises for Schwalb) in tive consequences of low levels of CA, and we

generating a reduction in trait CA. should not be surprised if many of these are found
Although at this point only systematic desensiti- also.
zation has been clearly demonstrated by numerous
researchers to be an effective method of reducing PREVENTION OF HIGH CA
CA for people with high levels of CA, it is reason-
able to expect that, from among the variety of meth- While there are available methods to help reduce
ods described above that are in the trial stage, there extremely high levels of CA, prevention is obvi-
will emerge several effective methods in the near ously better than cure. On the basis of the available
future. data several steps may be recommended that should
reduce the chance of a child developing high CA.
THE OTHER SIDE O F CA
These include the following:
It has consistently been the position taken in this
paper that high CA is a pathology that visits disag- 1. Extra effort should be exerted to provide chil-
reeable consequences on people unfortunate enough dren with reinforcement for their communica-
to be so afflicted. While the research surveyed cer- tion during their formative years, particularly in
tainly is supportive of that general position, this large families.
paper should not be concluded without looking at 2 . Children with slow language development or
CA from the view of the person with high CA who deficient speech skills should receive help as
does not share this view. early as possible so that they do not lose positive
To begin with, we should not assume that every reinforcement as a result of deficient skills.
person with high CA would prefer to change places 3 . Teachers should be trained to recognize the
with someone with a lower level. Most adults with presence of CA in a child and provide extra
high CA are adjusted to their lives. To dramatically reinforcement for the child’s communication,
change their level of CA could cause a severe dis- particularly in the early school years.
ruption. Their CA level probably has affected their 4. Classroom teaching procedures should be mod-
choice of occupation, their choice of housing, their ified so that children are not required to perform
choice of friends, and possibly even their choice of orally at a level beyond their skill development,
mate. To suggest that all people with high CA are such as eliminating required oral reading of
unhappy would be to stretch the data from the avail- material in the first and second grades that in-
able research far beyond what is justified, cludes sounds that the child has not yet mas-
Similarly, one should take caution before assum- tered.
ing that the life of the low CA is necessarily the ideal
state. Highly verbal people frequently find them- Finally, when a child has been found to have high
selves in difficulties as a result of their communica- CA, treatment to overcome the problem should be
tion that other people are most unlikely ever to made available as early as possible so that the nega-
experience. Additionally, while such people ag- tive effects of high CA on the child’s learning may
gressively seek advancement and generally are suc- be held to a minimum.
McCroskey 93
FUTURE RESEARCH ON CA DALY, J.A.,& LETH, S. Communicationapprehensionandthe

personnel selection decision. Paper presented to the Interna-
tional Communication Association convention, Portland,
While we now know a great deal about the corre- Oregon, 1976.
lates and effects of CA, there is still much we do not DALY, J.A., McCROSKEY, J.C., & RICHMOND, V.P. The
know, particularly about the effects of unusually relationships between vocal activity and perception of com-
municators in small group interaction. Western Speech
low CA. Thus, additional research concerning cor- Communication, in press.
relates and effects is still needed. However, a major DAVIS, G.F. Communication apprehension, intelligence, and
thrust in the future probably should be in the areas of achievement among secondary school students. Unpublished
M.A. thesis, West Virginia University, 1977.

causes of CA and development of treatments, both DYMACEK, D.A. Effects of number of classroom speeches on
clinical treatments and treatments that can be used anxiety reduction and performance improvement. Paper pre-
by parents and teachers. We now know that unac- sented to the Speech Communication Association conven-
tion, San Francisco, 1971.
ceptably high levels of CA are experienced by about ERTLE, C.D. A study of the effect of homogeneous grouping on
20 percent of the children in our schools and the systematic desensitation for the reduction of interpersonal
adults in our society. It is vital that we learn more communication apprehension. Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan
State University, 1969.
about why this is true and what we can do to elimi- FALCIONE, R.L., McCROSKEY, J.C., & DALY, J.A. Job
nate what is clearly the most pervasive communica- satisfaction as a function of employees' communication ap-
tion problem in our contemporary society. prehension, self-esteem, and perceptions of their immediate
supervisor. In B.D. Ruben (Ed.), Communication Yearbook
I . New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, Inc., 1977.
REFERENCES FENTON,R.J., &HOPF,T.S., Someeffectsofcommunication
inhibition on small groups: Participation, member satisfac-
BARKER, L . L . , CEGALA, D.J., KIBLER, R . J . , & tion, perceived effectiveness, credibility, and leadership.
WAHLERS, K.J. Hypnosis and the reduction of speech Paper presented to the Speech Communication Association
anxiety. Central States Speech Journal, 1972, 23, 28-35. convention, San Francisco, 1976.
BARNES, R.E. Interpersonal communication approaches to re- FENTON, R.J., HOPF, T.S., & BECK, D. The use of EMG
ducing speech anxiety. Paper presented to the Central States biofeedback assisted relaxation training to reduce communi-
Speech Association convention, Chicago, 1976. cation apprehension. Paper presented to the Western Speech
BARRICK, J.E. A cautionary note on the use of systematic Communication Association convention, Seattle, 1975.
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PUBLIC BROADCASTING
The Role of the Federal Government 1912 76
CFORCt H CIKSON
Detdiling a l l aspect\ of federal action on public bioadcasting from legislative and exetu
tive etforts to cabinet and regulatory agency endeavors to tormulate broadcasting policy
and gLiidelinps Gibson documents the tederal government \ instrumental role in gener-
ating governmcnt<il policies re\ponublc for mnking noncommercial broadcasting a n
American institution 2 % pp 19-7 1 C 24421 l5l3h 0 0 1 O 2 L U l I X $18 5 0
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Economic vs Journalistic Perceptions
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Foreword by RICHARD B MANCKE
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ORAL COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION:

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EFFECTS OF ORAL CA CA and Communicution Avoidance

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CA und Other People’s Perceptions Since it is clear that differential behaviors of

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FUTURE RESEARCH ON CA DALY, J.A.,& LETH, S. Communicationapprehensionandthe

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OIL C O M P A N Y DIVESTITURE A N D THE PRESS

ASPEN H A N D B O O K ON THE M E D I A , 1977-79 E D I T I O N

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