BEACON OF LIGHT(2021-22)

Under the Guidance of

SHRI K.S. UPADHYAY
Regional Director of Education (East), GNCT Delhi
MUST DO CONTENT

(PHYSICS II TERM)

Authors:
1. Mr. Anil Kumar Sharma
Lecturer-Physics RPVV Surajmal Vihar
2. Dr. Hemender Kumar
Lecturer-Physics -SOE & SoSE Khichripur
3. Mr. Narendra Kumar
Lecturer-Physics RPVV Gandhi Nagar
4. Mr. Pradeep Kumar
Lecturer-Physics SBV -West Vinod Nagar
5. Mr. Satyendra Singh
Lecturer-Physics SBV Mandawali

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 Syllabus assigned for Term II (Theory)
Course structure Time: 2 Hours Max Marks: 35

Unit–V Electromagnetic Waves Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves

Unit–VI Optics Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Chapter–10: Wave Optics

Unit–VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Unit–VIII Atoms and Nuclei Chapter–12: Atoms Chapter–13: Nuclei

Unit–IX Electronic Devices Chapter–14: Semiconductor -Electronics

Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics, their Transverse nature (qualitative ideas only).

Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma

rays) including elementary facts about their uses.

Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Ray Optics: Refraction of light, total internal reflection and its applications, optical fibres,

refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lens maker's formula, magnification,

power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light through a prism.

Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and refracting) and

their magnifying powers.

Chapter–10: Wave Optics

Wave optics: Wave front and Huygen's principle, reflection and refraction of plane wave at a

plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of laws of reflection and refraction using Huygen's

principle. Interference, Young's double slit experiment and expression for fringe width, coherent

sources and sustained interference of light, diffraction due to a single slit, width of central

maximum

Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's

photoelectric equation, particle nature of light.

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Experimental study of photoelectric effect Matter waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation

Chapter–12: Atoms

Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model, energy levels,

hydrogen spectrum.

Chapter–13: Nuclei Composition and size of nucleus Nuclear force Mass-energy relation, mass

defect, nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.

Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits Energy bands in conductors,
semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only) Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward
and reverse bias, diode as a rectifier; Special purpose p-n junction diodes: LED, photodiode, solar cell.

CLASS XII PHYSICS THEORY TERM II SESSION 2021 – 22 (tentative pattern)

M.M : 35 TIME : 2 Hours
General Instructions:
(i) There are 12 questions in all. All questions are compulsory.
(ii) This question paper has three sections: Section A, Section B and Section C.
(iii) Section A contains three questions of two marks each, Section B contains eight questions of three marks
each, Section C contains one case study-based question of five marks.
(iv) There is no overall choice. However, an internal choice has been provided in one question of two marks and
two questions of three marks. You have to attempt only one of the choices in such questions.
(v) You may use log tables if necessary but use of calculator is not allowed.
Tentative Blue Print

Sr Unit 2 3 5
No Marks Marks Marks

1 Electromagnetic Waves 0 1 0

2 Optics 0 3 1

3 Dual Nature of Radiation and 1 0 0

Matter

4 Atoms and Nuclei 0 3 0

5 Electronic Devices 2 1 0

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 8.Electromagnetic Waves

1. Electromagnetic Waves An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an accelerated or oscillatory

charge in which varying magnetic field is the source of electric field and varying electric field is the
source of magnetic field. Thus two fields becomes source of each other and the wave propagates in a
direction perpendicular to both the fields.

2. Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature, i.e. electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to each other and to the direction of wave propagation. Electromagnetic waves are not. deflected by
electric and magnetic fields

3. E (electric field) and B (magnetic field) in electromagnetic waves are in same phase.

4. Speed of electromagnetic wave

5. The energy in electromagnetic wave is divided on average equally between electric and magnetic
fields. Energy associated with an electromagnetic wave is = +

6. Electromagnetic Spectrum The systematic sequential distribution of electromagnetic waves in

ascending or descending order of frequency or wavelength is known as electromagnetic spectrum. The
range varies from 10-12 m, to 104 m, i.e. from γ-rays to radio waves. The following properties are
common to all electromagnetic waves:

Increasing frequency

f(Hz) 103 108 1010 10141015 1022

R M I R V UV X G

λ(m) 105 100 10-3 10-6 10-8 10-10- 10-11 10-13

Decreasing wavelength

Where R- Radio waves M- Microwaves IR- Infra red V- Visible light UV- Ultraviolet X- X-rays G- Gamma
radiation

[Hint: Raju (R) Moves (M) In (IR) Van (V) with UV’s (UV) X (X) Girl friend (G)

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Production, detection and applications of electromagnetic radiations
EM
No Wave Range of λ Range of ν Source Uses Detection
Radi A few A few Oscillating Radio and TV Receiver aerials
1 o km to Hz9to electronic broadcasting
0.3 m 10 Hz
Wav circuits
e
Radar, analysis of fine
0.3 109 Hz details of atomic and
Micr to Oscillating molecular Point contact diodes
2 m to-3 3 x 1011 Hz
o 10 m electronic structures & Microwave
wave circuits oven

10-3 m 3 x 1011 Hz Industry, medicine, Thermopile,

Infra to to
3
Red 7.8 x 10-7 4 x 1014 Hz Molecules astronomy, night vision Bolometer, infrared
m and hot device, green house, photographic film
waves
bodies revealing secret writings on
ancient walls, etc.
Atoms and Optics and Optical The eye, photocell,
Visibl 7.8 x 10-7 14
4 x 10 Hz molecules Instruments, Vision, photographic films
4 photography, etc.
e rays m to when
14
to 8 x 10 Hz electrons
3.8 x 10-7 are excited
m
Atoms and Medical application,
3.8 x 10-7 8 x 1014 Hz molecules sterilization, killing bacteria Photodiodes,
Ultra to17 and germs in food stuff,
5 m in detection of invisible photographic films
violet to-10 3 x 10 Hz writing, forged documents,
6 x 10 m electrical finger print, etc.
discharges
and Sun
10-9 m 3 x 1017 Hz
to to Inner or more X-ray photography, Photographic films,
-12 19
6 X- Rays 6 x 10 m 5 x 10 Hz tightly bound treatment of cancer, skin Geiger tube
electrons in disease & tumor, locating
atoms cracks and flaws in finished
metallic objects, detection
of smuggled goods in bags
of a person, study of
crystal structure, etc.
They Information about structure Photographic films,
Gamm overlap the 3 x 1018 Hz Radioacti of nuclei, astronomical ionisation chamber
7 to research, etc.
a upper limit 3 x 1022 Hz ve
rays of the X- substanc
-10
Ray. 10 es
m to
10-14 m
Questions for Practice
SECTION-A (2 Marks)
1. A radio can tune into any station in the 7.5 MHz to 12 MHz band. What is the corresponding wavelength
band?
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2. State two properties of electromagnetic waves. How can we show that EM waves carry momentum?
3. In a plane electromagnetic wave, the electric field oscillates with frequency of 2 × 10
and an amplitude of 40 .
(i) What is the wavelength of the wave? (ii) What is the energy density due to electric field?
4. Identify the electromagnetic waves whose wavelengths lie in the range
(a) 10 < > 10 (b) 10 < < 10 Write one use of each.
5. (i) How are infrared waves produced? Write their one important use.
(ii) The thin ozone layer on top of the stratosphere is crucial for human survival. Why?
6. Gamma rays and radio waves travel with the same velocity in free space. Distinguish between them in terms
of origin and the main application.
7. (a) Why is it necessary in microwave ovens to select the frequency of microwaves to match the resonant
frequency of water molecules?
(b) Write two important uses of gamma ray.
8. Identify the part of the electromagnetic Spectrum used in (i) radar and (ii) eye surgery. Write their frequency
range.
9. How does Ampere-Maxwell law explain the flow of current through a capacitor when it is being charged by a
battery? Write the expression for the displacement current in terms of the rate of change of electric flux.
10. (i) Which segment of electromagnetic waves has highest frequency? How are these waves produced? Give
one use of these waves.
(ii) Which EM waves lie near the high frequency end of visible part of EM spectrum? Give its one use. In what
way this component of light has harmful effects on humans?
SECTION-B (3 Marks)
Q. No 1. Show that during the charging of a parallel plate capacitor, the rate of change of charge on each plate
equals ε times the rate of change of electric flux ‘Φ ‘linked with it. What is the name given to the term
?

Q. No 2. Answer the following questions:

(a) Name the EM waves which are produced during radioactive decay of a nucleus. Write their frequency range.
(b) Welders wear special glass goggles while working. Why? Explain.
(c) Why are infrared waves often called as heat waves? Give their one application.
Q. No 3. (a) How are electromagnetic waves produced by oscillating charges?
(b) State clearly how a microwave oven works to heat up a food item containing water molecules.
(c) Why are microwaves found useful for the radar systems in aircraft navigation?
Q. No 4. Which one of the following electromagnetic radiations has least frequency?

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(a)UV radiations, X-rays, Microwaves?
(b) How do you show that electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum?
(c) Write the expression for the energy density of an electromagnetic wave propagating in free space.
Q. No 5. (a) How are electromagnetic wave produced? Depict an electromagnetic wave propagating in Z-
direction with its magnetic field ⃗ Oscillating along X-direction.
(b) Write two characteristics of electromagnetic waves.
Section A [ ] Q.no 1 = , = , = ,Q.no3 (i) = ,m=1.5(ii) =
, = . × /

SECTION-C (5 Marks)

Read the following text and answer the following questions on the basis of the same: Microwave oven:
1. The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation contains a part known as microwaves. These waves have
frequency and energy smaller than visible light and wavelength larger than it. What is the principle of a
microwave oven and how does it work? Our objective is to cook food or warm it up. All food items such
as fruit, vegetables, meat, cereals, etc., contain water as a constituent. Now, what does it mean when
we say that a certain object has become warmer? When the temperature of a body rises, the energy of
the random motion of atoms and molecules increases and the molecules travel or vibrate or rotate with
higher energies. The frequency of rotation of water molecules is about 2.45 gigahertz (GHz). If water
receives microwaves of this frequency, its molecules absorb this radiation, which is equivalent to heating
up water. These molecules share this energy with neighbouring food molecules, heating up the food.
One should use porcelain vessels and non-metal containers in a microwave oven because of the danger
of getting a shock from accumulated electric charges. Metals may also melt from heating. The porcelain
container remains unaffected and cool, because its large molecules vibrate and rotate with much smaller
frequencies, and thus cannot absorb microwaves. Hence, they do not get eaten up. Thus, the basic
principle of a microwave oven is to generate microwave radiation of appropriate frequency in the
working space of the oven where we keep food. This way energy is not wasted in heating up the vessel.
In the conventional heating method, the vessel on the burner gets heated first and then the food inside
gets heated because of transfer of energy from the vessel. In the microwave oven, on the other hand,
energy is directly delivered to water molecules which is shared by the entire food.
Q. 1. As compared to visible light microwave has frequency and energy:
(A) more than visible light. (B) less than visible light. (C) equal to visible light. (D) Frequency is less but energy is
more.
Q. 2. When the temperature of a body rises:
(A) the energy of the random motion of atoms and molecules increases.
(B) the energy of the random motion of atoms and molecules decreases.
(C) the energy of the random motion of atoms and molecules remains same.
(D) the random motion of atoms and molecules becomes streamlined.
Q. 3. The frequency of rotation of water molecules is about:
(A) 2.45 MHz (B) 2.45 kHz. (C) 2.45 GHz. (D) 2.45 THz.

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Q. 4. Why should one use porcelain vessels and non- metal containers in a microwave oven? (A) Because it will
get too much hot. (B) Because it may crack due to high frequency. (C) Because it will prevent the food items to
become hot. (D) Because of the danger of getting a shock from accumulated electric charges.
Q. 5. In the microwave oven,
(A) energy is directly delivered to water molecules which is shared by the entire food.
(B) the vessel gets heated first, and then the food grains inside.
(C) the vessel gets heated first and then the water molecules collect heat from the body of the vessel.
(D) energy is directly delivered to the food grains.
Section C [ ] Q.no 1 (B) Q.no 2 (A) Q.no3 (C) Q.no 4(D) Q.no 5(A)

Chapter 9: Ray Optics

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
The phenomenon in which a ray of light travelling at an angle of incidence greater than the critical angle from
denser to a rarer medium is totally reflected back into the denser medium is called total internal reflection.

APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

Sparkling of diamond critical angle is very small, about 24.4°.
Mirage

TOTALLY REFLECTING PRISMS

A right-angled isosceles prism, i.e., a 45°-90°-45°prism is called a totally reflecting prism.

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OPTICAL FIBRES

LENS MAKER'S FORMULA

For refraction at surface ABC, we can write the relation between the object distance u, image distance v 1 and
radius of curvature R1 as − = …(1)

I1 acts as a virtual object placed in the medium of refractive index μ2 and I is the real image formed in the
medium of refractive index μ1. Therefore, the relation between the object distance v 1, image distance v and
radius of curvature R2 can be written as
− = ⋯(2) Adding equations (1) and (2), we get

− = (μ − μ ) − or − = − …(3)

If the object is placed at infinity (u = ∞), the image will be formed at the focus, i.e., v = f. Therefore,

= − …(4)

This is lens maker’s formula. When the lens is placed in air, μ = 1 and μ = μ.

The lens maker’s formula takes the form: = (μ − 1) −

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

From the quadrilateral AQNR, A + ∠ QNR = 180°

From the triangle QNR, r + r’ + ∠ QNR = 180°∴ A = r+ r’
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Now, from the triangle MQR, the deviation produced by the prism. is
δ = ∠ MQR + ∠ MRQ = (i - r) + (i’–r’) or δ = deviation at the first face + deviation at the second face
= (i+i’)-(r + r’) Or δ = i + i' - A or i + i'= A + δ
i.e., Angle of incidence + Angle of emergence = Angle of prism + Angle of deviation
So when a ray of light is refracted through a prism, the sum of the angle of incidence and the angle of emergence
is equal to the sum of the angle of the prism and the angle of deviation.
Factors on which the angle of deviation depends:
(i) The angle of incidence. (ii) The material of the prism. (iii) The wavelength of light used (iv) The angle of
the prism.
The minimum value of the angle of deviation suffered by a ray on passing through a prism is called the angle of
minimum deviation and is denoted by δm. may be calculated with help of graph
i = i', r = r‘, δ = δm As A + δ = i+i'
∴A + δm = i + i or i= Also A = r+ r' = r+ r = 2r ∴r =

From Snell's law, the refractive index of the material of the prism will be μ = =

 The deviation produced by a prism is maximum when the angle of incidence is 90°. ∴ δmax = 90°+i' - A
 For a small angled prism, angle of deviation δ = (μ - 1) A But for a prism with larger refracting angle,
 δ = i + i' - A
 There are two angles of incidence i and i' for which a ray of light passing through a prism deviates through
the same angle δ.
 There is one and only one angle of incidence for which the angle of deviation is minimum.
The deviation [δ = (μ - 1) A] produced by a prism of small angle is independent of the angle of incidence.
Moreover, this expression indicates that thin sheets of glass ( A ≈ 10°) cannot deviate light rays.
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
Purposes of using optical instruments
1.To form the images of close lying objects at the least distance of distinct vision.
2.To increase the visual angle and hence to obtain magnification. 3.To improve the resolving power of the eye.
Essential features 1. High magnification 2. Adequate resolution

COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

/
Magnification m= = = = . =m m , Here m = =
/

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As the eyepiece acts as a simple microscope, so

= = + ∴ = +

Spl. Case.. As the object AB is placed close to the focus F of the objective, therefore, u ≃ −f

Magnification due to objective, m0 = =

Angular magnification due to eyepiece, me = me =

Total magnification when the final image is formed at infinity, m=m0×me=− ×

Obviously, magnifying power of the compound microscope is large when both f0 and fe are small.
ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE

It is a refracting type telescope used to see heavenly bodies like stars, planets, satellites,

∠A' OB' = α Also, let ∠A''EB"=β

/
∴ Magnifying power, m= ≃ [∵ α, β are small] = = .
/ ’

According to the new Cartesian sign convention,

OB = +f = Focal length of the objective B E = −u = distance of A ℬ from me/ eyepiece, acting as an
object for it ∴ =−

Again, for the eyepiece: u = −u and v =−D As − = ∴ − = or = + = 1+

Hence m = − 1+

Question.1.[2] Define power of a lens. Give its SI units.

Solution. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length expressed in meters.
1 100
= =
( ) ( )
Question.2.[2] The image of a candle is formed by a convex lens on a screen. The lower half of the lens is
painted black to make it completely opaque. Draw the ray diagram to show the image formation. How will this
image be different from the one obtained when the lens is not painted black? [CBSE]
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Solution.
When the lower half of the lens is painted black, the image formed is still of the same size
as that with unpainted lens but it has now reduced intensity, as illustrated in Fig.

Question.3.[2] The layered lens shown in Fig. is made of two different

transparent materials. A point object is placed on its axis. How many
images does it form?
Solution. The lens is made up of two materials of different refractive
indices. It has two different focal lengths given by

= (μ − 1) − and = (μ − 1) −

So the given lens will form two different images of the point object.
Question.4.[2] Why do we prefer a magnifying glass of smaller focal length?
Solution. For a magnifying glass, m=1+

Clearly, the magnifying power m will be large when the focal length f is small.
Question.5.[2] Why must both the objective and the eye piece of a compound microscope have short focal
lengths?
Solution. The magnifying power of a compound microscope. = × = ×

Clearly, the magnifying power of the compound microscope will be large when both objective and eyepiece
have short focal lengths.
Question.6.[3] For the same angle of incidence, the angles of refraction in three different media A, B and C
are 15°, 25° and 35° respectively. In which medium will the velocity of light be minimum? [CBSE]

Solution. As μ = = or v = . C For a given angle of incidence, v ∝ sin r

vA∝ sin 15°, vB∝ sin 25°, vc∝ sin 35° But sin 15° < sin 25° < sin 35° ∴vA<vB<vc
i,e., velocity of light is minimum in medium A.
Question.7.[3] The radii of curvature of a double convex lens of glass (μ =1.5) are in the ratio 1:2. This lens
renders the rays parallel coming from an illuminated filament at a distance of 6 cm. Calculate the radii of
curvature of its surfaces.
Solution. Here f = +6 cm, μ = 1.5, R = +R, R = −2R
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As = (μ − 1) − ∴ = (1.5 − 1) +
. × ×
or = 0.5 × or R = = 4.5 cm ∴ R = +R = +4.5 cm and R = −2R = −9.0 cm.
Question.8.[3] Which two of the following lenses L1, L2 and L3 will you select as objective and eyepiece for
constructing best possible (i) telescope (ii) microscope ? Give reason to support your answer.

Lenses Power (P) Aperture (A)

L1 3D 8 cm

L2 6D 1 cm

L3 10 D 1 cm

Solution. (i) Telescope. L1 as objective and L3 as eyepiece.

Reason. The objective should have large aperture and large focal length while the eyepiece should have
small aperture and small focal length. Then the light gathering power and magnifying power will be larger.
(ii) Microscope, L3 as objective and L2 as eyepiece.
Reason. Both the lenses of the microscope should have short focal lengths and the focal length of the
objective should be smaller than that of the eyepiece. Magnifying power will be larger for short focal lengths of
objective and eyepiece.
Question.9.[3] A ray of light passes through an equilateral glass prism, such that the angle of incidence is equal
to the angle of emergence. If the angle of emergence is 3/4 times the angle of the prism, calculate (i) the angle
of deviation and (ii) the refractive index of the glass prism.
Solution, (i) Here A =60°, i = i' = A = 45°, μ = ? As A + δ= i+ i' ∴60 + δ = 45°+ 45° or
δ = 90°-60° = 30°.
∘ ∘
/√
(ii) μ = = ∘ = ∘ = = √2= 1.414.
/

Question.10.[3] Three rays of light - red (R), green (G) and blue (B) - are incident on the face AB of right-angled
prism ABC. The refractive indices of the material of the prism for red, green and blue wavelengths are 1.39, 1.44
and 1.47 respectively. Out of the three which colour ray will emerge out of face AC? Justify your answer. Trace
the path of these rays after passing through face AB.

How will the situation change if these rays were incident normally on one of the faces of an equilateral prism?
Solution. As light is incident normally on face AB, so no refraction occurs at face AB. Light is incident on face AC
at i = 45°. The face AC will not transmit light for which i < ic or sin i < sin ic
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or sin 45° < or μ >√2 =1.414

As μR< μ while μG and μB> μ, so only red colour will be transmitted through face AC while green and blue
rays will suffer total internal reflection.
If these rays fall normally on one of the faces of an equilateral prism, then all the rays will suffer total internal
reflection. This is because the angle of incidence on the inside face will be 60° >ic.
Question.11.[5] Case Study based

The object appear to be raised from its real position to apparent position. The distance through which the
position of the object appears to be raised is called normal shift. The normal shift in the position of the
objects depends upon the real depth of the object and the refractive index of the refracting medium.

1.What is the apparent depth of a tank 3 m deep when viewed outside (refractive index of water is 4/3).

(i).1.1 m (ii).2.26 m (iii).1.5 m (iv).0.5 m

2.A rectangular block of glass ABCD has a refractive index 1.6. A pin is placed midway on the face AB. When

Observed from the face AD, the pin shall

(i) Appear to be near A (ii).appear to be near D (iii).appear to be at the center of AD (iv).not to be seen at all

3.A short pulse of white light incident from air to a glass slab at normal incidence after traveling through the
slab the first colour to shift is

(i).blue (ii).green (iii).violet (iv).red

4.A mark at the bottom of a liquid appears to rise by 0.1m. The depth of the liquid is 1m. The refractive index
of the liquid is 1.33

(i).1.33 (ii).9/10 (iii) 10/9 (iv).1.5v

5.A double convex lens of refractive index u1 is immersed in a liquid of refractive index u2 . The lens will act as
transparent plane sheet when the lens will act as a transparent plane sheet when
(i)u1=u2 (ii)u1>u2 (iii)u1<u2 (iv)u1=1/u2

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 10. WAVE OPTICS

Wavefront: Locus of all points of the medium which are vibrating in the same phase.

Different type of wave front

Depending upon the shape of the source of light, wavefront are of

different shapes.
(i) Plane wavefront

(ii)Spherical wavefront

(iii)Cylindrical wavefront

Laws of reflection: On the basis of Huygens ‘wave theory As

shown in figure, consider a plane wave front AB incident on the
reflecting surface XY, both the wave front and the reflecting
surface being perpendicular to the plane of paper.

 = [ ℎ 90 ]

BC=BC [ ] AC=BD [ ℎ ]

∴∆ ≅∆ Hence =  DCB or i = r

Law of refraction on this basis of Huygens ‘wave theory Consider a plane

wavefront AB incident on a plane surface XY, separating two media 1 and 2,
as shown in Figure. Let and be the velocities of light in two media, with
<

sin = sin = sin = sin = ; = = =

This proves Snell ‘s law of refraction. The constant 1μ2 is called the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to first medium.

Young‘s double slit experiment:-

For a point P on the screen, the path difference − =

For constructive interference: = ; = where

n=0,1,2,3…….
And therefore, fringe width for bright will be,
( )
= − ; = −

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 = which remains the same for dark fringe
Intensity of interference pattern
Let and be the be the electric vectors of two light waves meet at
a point P, then = +
= + +2 cos if = =
 =4 and therefore ∝ =
4
= + +2 cos
Diffraction: The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle is called the diffraction of
light.

Diffraction at a Single Slit: the diffraction pattern

consists of bright fringe at O with alternate dark and
bright fringes on both sides

1. The single-slit diffraction pattern shows the

central maximum (at = 0), zero intensity at
angular separation = (2 − 1)
2. Angular spread of the central maxima

 Width of the central maxima: Where D is the distance of the slit from the screen, d is the slit
width
 Condition for the Minima on the either side of the Central Maxima: sin = , where n = 1,2, 3,….
 Relation between phase difference & path difference Δ = Δ
Where Δ is the phase difference & is the path difference?

Width of central maxima:

Distance between the first secondary minima on either side of central maximum.
Let y be the distance of Ist central Minimum from O
sin =  sin = = --------------
- (i)
If f is the focal length ,Their D ≃ b
= = ---------------------(2)
From equation (1) and (2)
= =
Width of central maximum = 2y
2y =

Physics, Page | 16
 Questions
Section A [2 Marks Question Each]
Q1. What are Huygen’s postulates. Draw converging wave front.
Q2. What are coherent sources. How do you realize them?
Q3. Give any two differences between single slit. Exp and double slit exp.
Q4. Ratio of intensity at maxima and minima in interference pattern is found to be . What will be the
ratio of width of two slits? =
Q5. A slit of width ‘d’ is illuminated by light of λ = 6500 for what value of d. The 1st minimum falls at an
angle of difference at 30o.
Section B [3 Marks Question Each]

Q6. What happens to the width of fringe in young’s double slit exp if:
a) Apparatus is immersed in water of µ = 1.33
b) Write light is used in place of monochromatic light
c) Separation between the two sources is reduced
Q7. Find the ratio of intensities at two points on a screen in young’s double slit experiment where the
interfering waves have a path difference of
a) 0
b)
Q8. In young’s double slit experiment, two slits are illuminated by a monochromatic light of λ = 450 nm.
The screens is 1m away from the source, find the distance of the
a) Second bright fringe from the centre? [ = ]
b) Second dark fringe from the centre? [ =
( )
]
Q9. a) Diffraction of radio waves and sound waves is much more pronounced than the light waves. Explain
why.
b) Why do we not observe diffraction from a wide slit illuminated in monochromatic light? [ =
]
Q10. In double slit experiment, find the formula for path difference and then show fringe width =
Q11. In single slit experiment find the condition for secondary maximum and minimum
Section C [Case Study Questions]

Q12. Two sources S1 and S2 of intensities I1 and I2 are placed in front of a screen. The pattern of intensity
distribution seen in the central portion is shown

Physics, Page | 17
 a) What is the ratio of the frequency of the waves emitted from S1 and S2? [coherent
sources]
b) Which are the phenomena shown above?
c) If separation between S1 and S2 is increased what will be the change in graph shown above.
d) If wave emitted from S1 and λ 2 is λ then what will be the fringe width?
[B= ]
e) If S1 is closed with dark paper then what will be the change in graph

11.Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

1. Photoelectric Effect The phenomenon of emission of photoelectron from the surface of metal, when a light
beam of suitable frequency is incident on it, is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric current.
2. Terms Related to Photoelectric Effects
(i) Free Electrons In metals, the electrons in the outer shells (valence electrons) are loosely bound to the
atoms, hence they are free to move easily within the metal surface but cannot leave the metal surface. Such
electrons are called free electrons.
(ii) Electron Emission The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal is called electron
emission.
(iii) Photoelectric Emission It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metal when light
radiations of suitable frequency fall on it.
(iv) Work Function The minimum amount of energy required to just eject an electron from the outer most
surface of metal is known as work function of the metal.

(v) Cut-off Potential For a particular frequency of incident radiation, the minimum negative (retarding)
potential V0 given to plate for which the photoelectric current becomes zero, is called cut-off or stopping
potential.
(vi) Cut-off Frequency The minimum frequency of light which can emit photoelectrons from a material is
called threshold frequency or cut-off frequency of that material.
(vii) Cut-off Wavelength The maximum wavelength of light which can emit photoelectrons from a material is
called threshold wavelength or cut-off wavelength of that material.
3. Effect of Intensity of Light on Photo current For a fixed frequency of incident radiation, the photoelectric
current increases linearly with increase in intensity of incident light.

Physics, Page | 18
4. Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current For a fixed frequency and intensity of incident light, the
photoelectric current increases with increase in the potential applied to the collector. When all the
photoelectrons reach the plate A, current becomes maximum it is known as saturation current.

NOTE Photoelectric current is zero whenever no electron even the fastest photoelectron can’t reach the
plate A. Hence, Maximum kinetic energy is given as = = where m is the mass of
photoelectron and is the maximum velocity of emitted photoelectron.

5. Effect of Frequency of Incident Radiation on Stopping Potential We take radiations of different frequencies
but of same intensity. For each radiation, we study the variation of photoelectric current against the potential
difference between the plates.

6. Laws of Photoelectric Emission

(i) For a given material and a given frequency of incident radiation, the photoelectric current number of
photoelectrons ejected per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
(ii) For a given material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to
the intensity of incident radiation, whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity.
(iii) For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which no
emissions of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron or equivalent
stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident light but depends only upon the frequency (or
wavelength) of the incident light.
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the incidence of radiations
and emission of photoelectron is very small, less than even 10-9 s.
7. Einstein Photoelectric Equation Energy Quantum of Radiation, Kmax = hv – Ф0 where,

hv = energy of photon and Ф = work-function

8. Relation between Stopping Potential (V0) and Threshold Frequency (v0)
We know that h = +

Where, = work function =ℎ − , Also, =h ,

Physics, Page | 19
So , =ℎ −ℎ , e =h ( − )e = ℎ( − )⇒ = ( − ) { ∵ = }

= = , = − , = −

For photoelectric emission < and >

De-Broglie wavelength in terms of potential difference (voltage)

 The K.E. of a charge moving under a potential difference of ‘V’ volts is, K qV=, where q is the charge.

 Thus = For an electron moving under a potential difference of ‘V volt

√

 The de Broglie wavelength λ of the electron is then = = =

√ √

.
 Substituting the numerical values of h, m, e, etc. we get, =
√

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

SECTION A (2 Marks)

1. In case of photoelectric effect experiment, explain the following facts, giving reasons.
(a) The wave theory of light could not explain the existence of the threshold frequency.

(b) The photo electric current increases with increase in the intensity of incident light.

2. Figure shows the stopping potential (V0) for the photoelectron versus 1/ λ graph, for two metals A and
B, λ being the wavelength of incident light.

(a) How is the value of Planck’s constant determined from the graph?

(b) If the distance between the light source and the surface of metal A is increased, how will the
stopping potential from electrons emitted from it be affected? Justify your answer.

3. If the frequency of light incident on the cathode of a photocell is increased, how will following be
affected? Justify your answer.
(i) Energy of the photo electrons

(ii) Photo current

Physics, Page | 20
 4. A photon emitted during the de-excitation of electron from a state n to the first excited state in a
hydrogen atom, irradiates a metallic cathode of work function 2 eV, in a photo cell, with a stopping
potential of 0.55 V. Obtain the value of the quantum number of the state n.
5. If light of wavelength 412.5 nm is incident on each of the metals given below, which ones will show
photoelectric emission and why?

6. The work function (W) of a metal X, equals 3 × 10-19 J. Calculate the number (N) of photons, of light of
wavelength 26.52 nm, whose total energy equals W.
7. Find the
(a) maximum frequency and

(b) minimum wavelength of X-rays produced by 30 kV electrons.

8. The energy flux of sunlight reaching the surface of earth is 1.388×103 W/m2. How many photons
(nearly) per square meter are incident on the earth per second? Assume that the photons in the
sunlight have an average wavelength of 550 nm.
9. The threshold frequency for a certain metal is 3.3×1014 Hz. If light of frequency 8.2×1014 Hz is incident
on the metal, predict the cut-off voltage for photoelectric emission.
10. Calculate the (a) momentum and
(b) de Broglie wavelength of the electrons accelerated through a potential difference of 56 V.

SECTION B (3 Marks)
1. Light of same wavelength is incident on three photo-sensitive surfaces A, B and C. The following
observations are recorded.
(a) From surface A, photoelectrons are not emitted.
(b) From surface B, photoelectrons are just emitted.
(c) From surface C, photoelectrons with some kinetic energies are emitted.
Compare the threshold frequencies of the three surfaces and justify your answer.

2. Find the frequency of light which ejects electrons from a metal surface, fully stopped by a retarding
potential of 3.3 V. If photo electric emission begins in this metal at a frequency of 8 × 1014 Hz, calculate
the work function (in eV) for this metal.

3. Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 × 1014 Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is 2.0 × 10-3
W. Calculate the
(i) energy of a photon in the light beam and
(ii) number of photons emitted on an average by the source.

Physics, Page | 21
 4. Using the graph shown in the figure for stopping potential V0 and the
incident frequency of photons, calculate Planck’s constant.

5. Using photon picture of light, show how Einstein’s photoelectric equation can be established. Write
two features of photoelectric effect which cannot be explained by wave theory.
6. Write three characteristic features in photoelectric effect which cannot be explained on the basis of
wave theory of light, but can be explained only using Einstein’s equation.
7. What is the de Broglie wavelength of:
(a) a bullet of mass 0.040 kg travelling at a speed of 1.0 km/s.
(b) a ball of mass 0.060 kg moving at a speed of 1.0 m/s.
(c) a dust particle of mass 1.0×10-9 kg drifting with a speed of 2.2 m/s.
8. An electron and a photon, each has a wavelength of 1.00 nm. Find
(a) their momenta (b) the energy of the photon and (c) the kinetic energy of electron.

9. (i) State two features of Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

(ii) Radiation of frequency 1015 Hz is incident on two photosensitive surfaces P and Q. There is no
photoemission from surface P. Photoemission occurs from surface Q but photoelectrons have zero kinetic
energy. Explain these observations and find the value of work function for surface Q.

10. (i) Define the term ‘intensity’ of radiation in photon picture.

(ii) Plot a graph showing the variation of photo current Vs. collector potential for three different
intensities I1 , I2 and I3 (I1> I2 > I3), two of which ( ) have the same frequency v and third has
frequency v1 > v. (iii) Explain the nature of the curves on the basis of Einstein’s equation.

SECTION-C

Read the following text and answer the following questions on the basis of the same: Photocell: A photocell
is a technological application of the photoelectric effect. It is a device
whose electrical properties are affected by light. It is also sometimes called
an electric eye. A photocell consists of a semi-cylindrical photo-sensitive
metal plate C (emitter) and a wire loop A (collector) supported in an
evacuated glass or quartz bulb. It is connected to the external circuit
having a high-tension battery B and micro ammeter (µA) as shown in the
Figure.
Sometimes, instead of the plate C, a thin layer of photosensitive material is pasted on the inside of the bulb. A
part of the bulb is left clean for the light to enter it. When light of suitable wavelength falls on the emitter C,
photoelectrons are emitted. These photoelectrons are drawn to the collector A. Photocurrent of the order of a
few microamperes can be normally obtained from a photo cell. A photocell converts a change in intensity of
illumination into a change in photocurrent. This current can be used to operate control systems and in light
measuring devices.

Physics, Page | 22
Q. 1. Photocell is an application of

(A) thermoelectric effect. (B) photoelectric effect. (C) photo resistive effect. (D) None of the above

Q. 2. Photosensitive material should be connected to

(A) –ve terminal of the battery. (B) +ve terminal of the battery. (C) any one of (A) or (B). (D) connected to
ground.

Q. 3. Which of the following statement is true?

(A) The photocell is totally painted black. (B) A part of the photocell is left clean.

(C) The photocell is completely transparent. (D) A part of the photocell is made black.

Q. 4. The photocurrent generated is in the order of

(A) ampere (B) milli ampere(C) micro ampere (D) None of the above

Q. 5. A photocell converts a change in ___ of incident light into a change in ____.

(A) intensity, photovoltage (B) wavelength, photovoltage (C) frequency, photocurrent (D) intensity,
photocurrent

12.ATOMS

Bohr’s Atomic Model & Hydrogen Spectrum: There are certain postulates/ condition of this model as below:

1. Nuclear Condition: Under this condition centripetal force acts on orbital electron in an atom (H-Atom
× will be
i.e. = ………(1) balanced by the
electrostatic
force between
electron and
proton
H Atom

2. Quantum Condition: Under this, angular momentum of revolving ē will be integral multiple of . i.e.
L=rmv= ……………….(2) where n=1,2,3,4….
3. Stationary Orbit Condition: During revolution of ē no radiation/no loss in the energy occurs
4. Frequency Condition: During jumping of ē from outer to inner or inner to outer orbit photon energy is
emitted or absorbed & equal to difference between energies of respective orbits i.e. hν=(E 2-
E1)………………..(3) and corresponding spectrum produced is said to be emission or absorption
spectrum of H-atom respectively
Radius, velocity & total energy of ē in H atom : and ∴, and for the revolving ē in H atom under nuclear
⋅
condition as in equation (1) : we have =

Physics, Page | 23
  mv2= r= ………………………(4)
And then due to quantum condition as in equation (2) we have angular momentum of revolving ē rms
= ; r= ………………………………………….(5)
from equation (4) & (5) we have
= v= = ………………………………….(6)

Moreover, mathematically introducing speed of light as the fraction of velocity of ē we have

V= ……………………………….(7) where = constant

 Constant =α= i.e. v= = …………………………….(8)

 v∝ ……………….(9) Also from equation (5) & (6) we have

r= = …………….(10) r∝n2……..(11)

and total energy of revolving ē will be T.E = K. E+P. E

 E= mv2- using equation (7) & (10) we have

 E= m -

 -
where
 − =α

 − α2------------------------(12) where mc2 α2=constant=13.6e.v

. --------------------------
i.e. E=- (13) or E∝ ………………………(14)
Total energy at different n (1,2,3…….); represents of quantization of an atom
Hydrogen spectrum: under frequency condition, as in equation (3) emission spectrum can be explained i.e
α α
hν=E2-E1= -

α α
 h λ= − −
λ
α α
 = − where Rydberg’s constant(=R)
λ

 = − ……………..(15) where R=1.097×107m-1

λ
This equation (15) represents wave number r i.e. no of waves / no of spectral lines produced in the emission
which are possible of five types as below :-

Physics, Page | 24
Emission Spectrum of H-atom
(and in absorption spectrum of H-atom only jumping of ē will be reversed)
*Generally equation (7), (9),(10),(11),(12),(13),(14),(15) are to be used in numerical
** α particle scattering experiment of Rutherford is to be used for the study of Atomic structure/nucleus in an
atom; using electrostatic force of repulsion & Impact parameter.

× /
where, m= mass of α particle
F= = & b= 1 v= velocity of α particle
2 z= Atomic number of Gold atom
= angle of
scattering
r= position of closest approach

PRACTICE QUESTION
SECTION A (TWO MARKS QUESTIONS)

1. Discuss wave number in the emission spectrum of h-atom, under frequency condition of Bohr’s model
of an atom {Hint: Direct derivation as in theory on page No 2}
2. The innermost orbit H-atom is 5.3×10-11 m of radius. Determine the radius of IIIrd excited state {Hint : r
∝n2}
3. Calculate speed of ē in n=2 orbit of Li++ ion {Hint :v = }
.
4. Energy of an ē in an H atom is En= e.v. Determine energy to required to excite ē from ground state to
nd
II state. {Hint: E=E3 –E1}
5. Calculate the longest and shortest wavelength in the Balmer series of H-atom. Given Rydberg constant
=R -1.097×107 m-1 { Hint: λ = − }
6. What is the distance of closest approach when a 5.0 MeV proton approaches a gold nucleus? {Hint:
Energy conservation K.E = E.P.E =k where r0=? Z=79}
7. Calculate the impact parameter of a 5 MeV α particle scattered by 10° when it approaches a gold atom
/
(z=79) {Hint: b= where =5MeV & tan 5°=0.0875}

8. Find the wavelength of H α line given R=1.097 × 107m-1 {Hint: λ = − where; H α line is the
.
first line in the Balmer series n2=3}

Physics, Page | 25
9. A h-atom initially in the ground state absorbs a photon which excites it to the next, n=4. Estimate
.
frequency of that photon. {Hint: hν= E2-E1 where E= ev}
SECTION B (THREE MARKS QUESTIONS)
10. Derive the expression for total energy of the ē in hydrogen atom using the orbital radius & velocity of
that ē. {Hint: Direct derivation in theory on page No 1 &2}
11. Which level (=n) of the doubles ionized lithium has the same energy as the ground state energy of
hydrogen atom? Compare the orbital radius of two levels {Hint: E Li=EH; where E ∝ & radius (r) ∝ }
12. The ground state energy of H-atom is 13.6 ev. Calculate (i) the kinetic energy of the ē in first excited
.
state (ii) Potential energy of the ē in the IIIrd excited state. {E=K.E+P.E where E= ev 4P.E=-2K.E}
13. Calculate the longest wavelength belonging to Lyman 4 Balmer series. Which of these lie in visible
region? {Hint: = − where Lymen => n1=1; n2=2; Balmer => n1= 2 n2=3}
λ
14. Show that the shortest wavelength lines in Lymen, Balmer & Paschen series have their wavelength in
the ratio 1:4:9 { Hint: = − where Lymen => n1=1; n2= ∞; Balmer => n1= 2 n2= ∞ ;
λ
Paschen => n1=1; n2= ∞}
15. Energy level diagram in given as following figure
(1) If transition is from n=3 to .
Hint: E= ev
n=2; then calculate the
wavelength of emitted E=E3-E2 = λ
radiation E=E4-E3
(2) Which transition is
corresponding to maximum
wavelength?

SECTION C: 5 MARKS QUESTION (CASE STUDY)

16 Read the following passage and answer the questions that follows: The nucleus was first discovered in
1911 by Lord Rutherford by-particles, scattering experiment. He found that the scattering results could be
explained, if atoms consist of a small, Central, massive and +ve core surrounded by orbiting electrons. The
experimental results indicated that, the size of nucleus is of order of 10-14m, and is thus 10000 times smaller
than the size of atom.

(i) Ratio of mass of nucleus with mass of atom is approximately:

(a) I (b) 10 (c) 10³ (d) 10¹
Ans: (a)
(ii) Masses of nuclei of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are in the ratio of
(a) 1: 2:3 (b) 1:1:1 (C) 1:1:2 (d) 1:2:4
Ans: (a)

(iii) Density of nucleus is:

(a) more for lighter elements & less for heavy elements (b) more for heavier-elements & less
for lighter elements (c) very less compared to ordinary matter (d) Constant

Ans: (d)
Physics, Page | 26
 (iv) If R is the radius and A is the mass number, then log R verrus log A graph will be a
: (a) straight line (b) parabola (c) an ellipse (d) None of these

Ans: (a)

(v) The ratio of nuclear radii of the gold isotope 79Au197 and Silver isotopes 47Ag107
is: (a) 1.23 (b) 0.216 (C) 2.13 (d) 3.46

Ans: (a)

13.NUCLEI
Size/radius of nuclei: it is to be explained by an important relation.

i.e.; r=r₀(A)⅓ —(1) where : A→Atomic mass number & r→ standard radius of

nucleus=1.1 fm=1.1×10-¹⁵ m.

=> using this equation, we have certain things as below:-

(I) Comparison of two radii (r1 and r2):

[ r1/r2=r₀(A1)⅓ / r₀(A2)⅓ = (A1/A2)⅓ ] —(2) wh:A1 & A2 —>atomic mass numbers of two atoms.

(II) Comparison of volumes of two nuclei: -

Due to spherical size of nuclei; we have;

V1/V2= (4/3) πr₁³ / (4/3) πr₂³ = r1³/r2³ = [r₀(A1)⅓ / r₀(A2)⅓]³ = A1/A2 —(3)

(III) Mass density of a nucleus: let avg. mass of nucleons = m & atomic mass number = A, then total mass of
the nucleus will be => M=mA —-(4)

& let volume of nucleus is v; then mass density of the nucleus will be;

=> mass density => d = Mass/Volume=M/V= mA / (4/3)πr³ = 3/4 mA / π[r₀(A⅓)]³

=> d=3/4 mA/ πr₀³A = 3/4 (m/πr₀³) = constant —(5)

And .: nuclear mass density is the same for all the atoms.

Nuclear binding energy: amount of minimum energy required to separate its nucleons or put them at rest at
infinite distance apart, known as nuclear binding energy. Moreover, energy emitted/evolved/released in the
formation of a nucleus/nuclei, known as nuclear binding energy.

Exp: As per the observation, during formation of nucleus by nucleons, mass of nucleus is decreased, then the
mass of nucleons. This decrease in mass is known as mass defect. Which is to be escaped/released in terms of
energy & known as binding energy of nucleus.

Physics, Page | 27
Let mass of nucleons =M₁ & mass of nucleus = M₂ wh: M₂<M₁ — observed

& mass defect will be; ∆M= (M1 - M₂) —> (6)

Due to the same mass defect, energy is released & explained by Einstein Energy Mass Relation.

i.e.; En. released=∆MC2 => binding energy (B.E.) =∆MC2 ∝ ∆M —(7)

Wh: C→ speed of light

Moreover; Binding energy per nucleon can be explained.

i.e; [(B.E.)/A ] = ∆MC2/A —(8) wh: A→ atomic mass number

[(B.E.)/A ] is a constant term but, it varies w.r.t. The variation in “A”

e.g. Calculate Bin. Energy for mass defect 1 amu (1.661 * 10-27 kg)

Sol : BE = ∆MC2 = 1.661 * 10-27 * (3*108)2 =( x ) joule wh: x→ calculated value

BE=( x ) / 1.6*10-19 * 103 = 931.15 MeV.

*Nuclear forces: strongest forces i.e., forces between nucleons and keep the properties of nuclear force.

**nuclear reactions: i.e; reactions between the nuclei as to split big nuclei into smaller nuclei & as to combine
small nuclei into one big nuclei & said to be nuclear fission & nuclear fusion respectively. Keep both the
reactions in basic forms.

Practice test questions

Section A (2 marks questions)

Q.1 Show that nuclear mass density of all atoms is constant.

Q.2 Determine the nuclear binding energy of nitrogen ( 7N14) in MeV. Given MH (proton) = 1.007834 amu,
Mn(neutron)=1.008674 amu and MN (nuclei)= 14.00307amu

Q.3 Find the ratio of nuclear size of nuclei 1H1 and 13Al27

Q.4 Binding energy per nucleons of 6C12 is 7.68MeV and that of 6C13= 7.47MeV. Find the energy released in a
nucleon from 6C13 nuclei.

Q.5 Calculate the nuclear mass density of 92U238 Given mass of each nucleon is 1.67 x 10 - 27 kg and Ro = 1.5x 10
-15
m

Q.6 If in a nuclear fusion reaction, mass defect is 0.3%, Then find energy released in fusion of 1 kg mass.
Physics, Page | 28
Q.7 If 200 Mev energy is released in the fission of nuclei 92U235, how many fissions must occur per sec to
produce a power of 1 KW?

Section B (3 marks questions)

Q.8 Define nuclear binding energy and discuss, the terms mass defect; binding energy and binding energy per
nucleons.

Q.9 Determine the energy released in the below fusion reaction in Mev.
1
1H + 1H3 = 2He4 +0 n1

Given that m(1H2) = 2.014102amu, m ( 1H3)=3.016049amu, m( 2He4)=4.002603amu and m(0n1)=1.008665amu

Q.10 It is observed that the atomic bomb exploded at Hiroshima released energy of 7.6 X 1013 joule.

If on average, 200 Mev-energy was released per fission; then calculate (I) the number of Uranium atoms
fissioned, (II) the mass of Uranium used in the bomb.

Q.11 Binding energies of 8O16 and 17Cl35 are 127.35 MeV and 289.3 Mev respectively, which of two nuclei it
more stable?

Q.12 Write the nuclear B+ decay process of 6C11. Is the decayed product X an isotope or Isobar? Given mass of
11
6C = 11.011434 a.m.u. + M(X) = 11.009305 a.m.u. Determine Q Value in the process.

Q.13 Write nuclear reaction equations for (i) alpha decay of 88Ra226 (ii) B- decay of 15P32 (iii) B- delay of Decay
of 83Bi210 (iv) B+ decay of 6C11(v) alpha decay of 94Pu242 (vi) Election Capture of 54Xe120

SECTION C (5 Marks Questions)

Q.14 The phenomenon of splitting of a heavy nucleus (= usually A>230) into two as more lighter nuclei by the
bombardment of proton, neutron, & alpha particle, etc, with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.

235
92U + 0n1 → 92U
236
→ 56Ba144 + 36Kr88 + 3 0n1 + Q ( energy released)

upon the above passage answer the following questions:

(1) In fusion process, these deuterons to form a He nucleus is impossible at ordinary temperature & pressure.
The reason for this can be traced to the fact.

(a) Nuclear forces have short range (b) nuclei are -ve ly charged

(c) the original nuclei must be completely ionised before fusion can take place

(d)none of these

(II) for the nuclear fission chain reaction, a process called elastic damping uses

(a) electrons

Physics, Page | 29
( b) lighter nuclei

(c) heavy nuclei

(d) none of these

(III) If a nucleus (A= 240) with binding energy 7.6 Mev breaks into two fragments of A = 120 and Binding Energy
= 8.5MeV, then energy released is (a) 216 Mev (b) 200 Mev (c) 100 Mev (d) cannot be determined

(IV) Assuming that about 20 Mev energy released in a fusion reaction,

1H²+ ₁ H³ = 0n1+2He4, then the mass of 1H² consumed per day in a fusion reactor of power 1 MW will be
approximately be (a)0.001gm (b)0.1gm (c) 10gm (d) 1000gm.

(V) In the fission reaction mass of the products will be (a) more than mass of reactants (b) less than most of
reactants (c) equal to mass of reactants (d) none of these.

Hints for solution

1. Direct derivation on page 1

2. BE= mc2 or BE = m x 931.15 where m is mass defect
3. r=roA1/3 ( ro =1.1x10-15m) and A = atomic mass number)
4. (Total binding energy of 6C13 - Total binding energy of 6C12 ) = Energy required to remove neutron
5.density = nuclear mass/ nuclear volume

Density = mA / {4/3 (Ro A1/3)3}

6. E = mc2 where m =0.3%(1kg) m = 0.3/100 = 0.3x 10-2 kg

7. Number of fission/secs= energy req per sec / energy released per sec

8.in theory

9. Calculate mass of reactant and product of fusion reaction as M1 and M2 and then find energy released=m2-
m1 x 931.15Mev

10. I) No of uranium atoms= Total energy released/ energy released per fission

II) Mass of uranium= (Mass number x n)/ 6.023x 1023

11. Stability of nucleus is proportional to ( BE/ nucleons)

12. 6C11 → 5X11 +1e0 +Q where 1e0= 0.000545amu and Q= ^mx 931Mev

13. Direct nuclear decay reaction in balancing form

14. I= a, II= b, III=a, IV=b, V =b

Physics, Page | 30
 14.Semi-conductor Electronics (Maximum Marks…7)
Question.1.[2] What are energy bands in solids.
Solution. The electrons of the outer shells are forced to have energies different from those in isolated atoms.
Each energy level splits into a number of energy levels forming a continuous band, called energy band.
The highest energy band filled with valence electrons is called valence band the lowest unfilled allowed energy
band next to valence band is called conduction band. The gap between top of valence band and bottom of the
conduction band in which no allowed energy levels for electrons can exist is called energy band gap or energy
gap.
Question.2.[2] Why does the conductivity of a semiconductor increase with rise of temperature?
Solution. When a semiconductor is heated, more and more electrons jump across the forbidden gap from
valence band to conduction band where these are free to conduct electricity. Hence the conductivity increases
with the increase in temperature.
Question.3.[2] Is Ohm's law obeyed by semiconductors?
Solution. In semiconductors, Ohm's law is obeyed only for low electric fields ( < Vm ). Above this field,
the current becomes independent of the applied voltage.
Question.4.[2] Name two factors on which electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductor at a given
temperature depends.
Solution, (i) The width of the forbidden band (ii) Intrinsic charge carrier concentration.
Question.5.[2] Define forbidden energy gap in solids.
Solution. The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band in which no allowed energy
levels can exist is called forbidden energy gap.
Question.6.[2] Why does the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction increase in reverse biasing?
Solution. During reverse biasing, the positive terminal of the external battery attracts electrons from the n-
region and its negative terminal attracts holes from the p-region i.e., the majority charge carriers move away
from the junction. This increases the width of the depletion layer.
Question7.[2] What happens when a forward bias is applied to p-n junction
Solution. When a p-n junction is forward biased, (i) the potential barrier across the junction decreases,
(ii) the width of the depletion layer decreases, (iii) the effective resistance across the junction decreases,
(iv) the junction conducts current.
Question.8.[2] Mention the important considerations required while fabricating a p-n junction diode to be
used as a Light Emitting Diode (LED). What should be the order of band gap of an LED if it is required to emit
light in the visible range?
Solution. Important points of consideration for fabricating a p-n junction diode to be used as an LED:
1. It should be a heavily doped p-n junction diode. 2. The reverse breakdown voltages be very low for LEDs.
3. The semiconductor used for fabrication of visible LEDs must at least have a band gap of 1.8 eV. For an LED to
emit visible light, the order of band gap is 1.8 eV to 3 eV.
Question.9.[3] Write two points of difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
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Solution.

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. Pure semiconductors not doped with any impurity Semiconductors doped with trivalent or
atoms penta- valent impurity atoms.

2. ne=nh n ≠

Intrinsic semiconductor n-type extrinsic semiconductor P - type semiconductor

Question.10.[3] Distinguish between n-type and p-type semi-conductors on the basis of energy band
diagrams. Compare their conductivities at absolute zero temperature and at room temperature.
Solution.

n-type Semiconductors p-type Semiconductors

1. An extra energy level, called donor level, lies just An extra energy level, called acceptor level, lies
below the bottom of the conduction band. just above the top of the valence band.

2. Most of the electrons come from the donor Most of the holes are due to the acceptor
impurity impurity.

3. (CB) >> (VB) (VB) >> (CB)

At absolute zero temperature, the conductivities of both n-type and p-type semiconductors are zero.
At room temperature, an equally doped for n-type semiconductor will have more conductivity than a p-
type semiconductor.
Question.11.[3] Draw a circuit diagram for p-n junction diode in forward bias. Sketch the voltage-current
graph for the same.
Solution. Figure shows a forward biased p-n junction diode in which p-side is connected to the +ve terminal
and n-side is connected to the -ve terminal of the battery and Fig. shows its voltage-current graph.
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 Question.12.[3] Distinguish between the light emitting diode and the photodiode.
Solution. Difference between light emitting diode and photodiode:

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Photodiode

It is forward biased. It is reverse biased.
Recombination of electrons and holes takes place at the Energy (hv) is supplied by light to take an electron
junction and emits e. m. radiation. from valence band to conduction band.

Question.13.[3] State two advantages of LED lamps over conventional incandescent lamps. Write the factor
which controls (a) wavelength of light emitted, (b) intensity of light emitted by an LED.
Solution. Advantages of LEDs over conventional lamps:
1. Low operational voltage and less power consumption. 2. Long life and ruggedness.
Controlling factors: (a) Energy band gap controls the wavelength of emitted light. (b) Forward
current controls the intensity of emitted light.
Question.14.[3] In half-wave rectification, what is the output frequency if the input frequency is 50 Hz. What
is the output frequency of a full-wave rectifier for the same input frequency?
Solution. Input frequency = 50 Hz In half-wave rectification, only one ripple is obtained per cycle of the output.
Output frequency of a half-wave rectifier = Input frequency = 50 Hz
In full wave rectification, two ripples are obtained per cycle of the output. ∴ Output frequency of full wave
rectifier = 2 x Input frequency = 2 × 50 = 100 Hz
Question.15.[3] What is dynamic resistance? Give the ratio of the number of holes and number of conduction
electrons, in an intrinsic semiconductor.
Solution. The current- voltage graph of junction diode is non-linear, i.e., Ohm's law is not obeyed. The resistance
of the junction diode varies with the applied voltage. In such cases, it is useful to define a quantity called
dynamic or ac-resistance of the diode. It is the ratio of the small change in applied voltage ∆V to the
corresponding change in current ∆I. It is given by =
In an intrinsic semiconductor, = = therefore, : = 1: 1
Question.16.[3] Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators
on the basis of energy band diagrams.

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Solution.

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

1. Either the conduction band is Valence and conduction bands are Valence and conduction bands are
partially filled or the valence and separated by a small energy gap. separated by a large energy >
conduction bands partly overlap. Eg = 0.2 eV to 3 eV
=0

2 They have large number of free They have a very small number of 'They have no free electrons in the
electrons in the conduction band free electrons in the conduction conduction band and so do not
available for conduction. band available for conduction. conduct electricity.

Question.17.[3] How is forward biasing different from reverse biasing in a p-n junction?
Solution.

Forward biasing of p-n junction Reverse biasing of p-n junction

(i) p-side is connected to the +ve terminal and n-side to p-side is connected to the -ve terminal and n-
the -ve terminal of the battery. side to the +ve terminal of the battery.

(ii) Forward current is due to majority charge carriers. Reverse current is due to minority charge
carriers.

(iii) Depletion layer becomes thin. Depletion layer becomes thicker.

(iv) Resistance across the ρ-n junction decreases. Resistance across the p-n junction increases.

Question.18.[3] With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the use of a junction diode as a half-wave rectifier.
Draw the input and output waveforms.
Solution A half-wave rectifier consists of a transformer, a junction diode D and a load resistance RL. The
primary coil of the transformer is connected to the a.c. mains and the secondary coil is connected in series
with the junction diode D and load resistance RL. We assume that the diode is ideal so that it offers infinite
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Working. When a.c. is supplied to the primary, the secondary of the transformer supplies desired alternating
voltage across A and B. During the positive half cycle of a.c., the end A is positive and the end B is negative.
The diode Dis forward biased and a current l flow through RL. As the input voltage increases or decreases,
During the negative half cycle
A becomes negative and B positive. The diode is reverse biased and no current flows. No voltage appears across
RL. The output voltage is unidirectional but pulsating, Since the voltage across the load appears only during the
positive half cycle of the input a.c., this process is called half-wave rectification.
Question.19.[3] With the help of a circuit diagram, explain full wave rectification using junction diodes. Draw
the waveforms of input and output voltages.
Solution A full wave rectifier consists of a transformer, two junction diodes D1 and D2 and a load resistance RL.
The input a.c. signal is fed to the primary coil P of the transformer. The two ends A and B of the secondary S
are connected to the p-ends of diodes D1 and D2 The secondary is tapped at its central point T which is connected
to the S-ends of the two diodes through the load resistance RL’

Working Suppose during the positive half cycle of a.c. input, the end A is positive and the end B is negative
with respect to the centre tap T. Then the diode D1 gets forward biased and conducts current along the path
AD1 XYTA, the diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. During the negative half cycle, the end A
becomes negative and the end B becomes positive with respect to the centre tap T. The diode D1 gets reverse
biased and does not conduct. The diode D2 conducts current along the path BD2 XYTB, as during both half cycles
of input a.c. the current through load RL flows in the same direction (X  Y), so we get a pulsating d.c. voltage
across RL, since output voltage across the load resistance RL is obtained for both half cycles of input a.c., this
process is called full wave rectification.
Question.20. [3] What is Solar cell give its working, advantages and uses of solar cell.
Solution. Solar cell. It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electricity and is based on
photovoltaic effect (generation of voltage due to bombardment of light photons).

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 Materials used in the fabrication of solar cells. The semiconductors with band gap close to 1.5 eV are ideal
materials for this purpose. Solar cells are made with semiconductors like
The important criteria for the selection of a material for solar cell fabrication are:
Band gap (from 1.0 eV to 1.8 eV), High optical absorption (~104cm-1), Electrical conductivity, Availability of the
raw material, Cost factor.
The advantages of solar cells are: Pollution free, long lasting, and Maintenance free.
Uses of solar cells:
1. We can use solar cells to charge storage batteries in day time and use the batteries for power during
nights.
2. Solar cells, or better called photocells, are used in light meters in photography.
3. Some wrist watches and hand calculators are powered by solar cells.
4. Spacecrafts make use of arrays of solar cells or solar panels to provide electrical energy.

Case Study Questions

Read the Case Study given below and answer the questions that follow:

Question.21. [5] Consider a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor wafer. By adding precisely, a small
quantity of pentavalent impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. There are several processes
by which a semiconductor can be formed. The wafer now contains p-region and n-region and a metallurgical
junction between p-, and n- region. Two important processes occur during the formation of a p-n junction:
diffusion and drift. We know that in an n-type semiconductor, the concentration of electrons (number of
electrons per unit volume) is more compared to the concentration of holes. Similarly, in a p-type
semiconductor, the concentration of holes is more than the concentration of electrons. During the formation
of p-n junction, and due to the concentration gradient across p-, and n- sides, holes diffuse from p-side to n-
side (p → n) and electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side (n → p). This mo on of charge carries gives rise to
diffusion current across the junction.
I. How can a p-type semiconductor be converted into n- type semiconductor?
a) adding pentavalent impurity b) adding trivalent impurity
c)not possible d) heavy doping Ans: a
II. Which of the following is true about n type semiconductor?
a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes. b) concentration of electrons is more than that of
holes.
c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes. d)None of these Ans: b

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III. Which of the following is true about p type semiconductor?
a) concentration of electrons is less than that of holes.
b) concentration of electrons is more than that of holes.
c)concentration of electrons equal to that of holes. d)None of these Ans: a
lV. Which of the following is the reason about diffusion current?
a) diffusion of holes from p to n b) diffusion of electrons from n to p
c) both (a) and (b) d) None of these Ans. c
V. What are the processes that occur during formation of a p-n junction?
a) drift b) diffusion
c) both (a) and (b) d) None of these Ans: c

Essential instructions for the preparation of MUST DO CONTENT (CBSE2021-22)

1. Do theory preparation specially by written practice
2. Do numerical preparation specially by written practice
3. Do CBSE & DOE Sample papers at least 4 to 5 by written practice.
4. Do practice of ray diagrams in Optics.
5. Do practice of circuit diagram in Semiconductor Electronics.

BEST OF LUCK

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