1

Capstone Project 2

College of Computer Studies

2
 Course Study Guide Contents
Week
Module Topic Page
No.

8
Lesson 1: Overview of the Research Process
1-5 16
Lesson 2: Ethics in Research

Lesson 3: CHAPTER 4. Research Results And

6-7
Analysis 61

Lesson 4: CHAPTER 5. Conclusion, Interpretation

8-9 72
and Discussion
Lesson 5: Writing of Thesis Paper (Final System
10-13 87
Project Documentation)
Lesson 6: Project Presentation (Final System
14-18 140
Project Defense)

Editorial Office

Course Developer Emily L. Ong

Alan A. Felicano
Content Experts
Engr. Kent Ivan R. Unabia
Dr. Aileen B. Catacutan
Language Editor
Mechelle D. Dimaloan, RL
Design/Media Specialist Emily L. Ong

3
 Flexible Course Syllabus

College of Computer Studies

Bachelor of Science in Information Technology

University of the Visayas
First Semester, Academic Year 2020-2021

Course I. Course Information

The course offers students an opportunity to produce a polished paper, along with a
Course Code  CAPRO 2  presentation and product that reflect their training and focus in the fields of
informatics, an applied form of Information Science. Emphasizes aspects of
Course integrating information systems, technical architectures, and enterprise functions. The
Capstone Description course also offers students an opportunity to incorporate issues involving research
Course Title and development or business and market strategies. The course, also, strongly
Project 2
encourages students to create a portfolio piece that can be shown to potential
employers or current supervisors.
At the end of the course the student should be able to:
Prerequisite(s) CAPRO 1  1. Implement the proposed IT Solution;
Course
2. Evaluate and interpret the performance results of the IT solution based on
Learning identified evaluation metrics; and
Credit Unit 3 Units Outcomes 3. Recommend possible improvements in the IT Solution due to implementation
issues.
II. Instructor's Information

Instructor Corporate
Emily L. Ong [email protected]
Name Email
Title Instructor Phone 253-6173 local 207 

Mode of
Learning Materials and Resources Assessment
Intended Instruction
Week Task/Graded
No. of Hours Module Topic Learning / Delivery
No. Output
Outcomes Tools
Required Suggested

25 total PART 1:  Implement Lesson 1-2. BOOKS:  Course  Assignment

hours the proposed Course Module on • Naik, Sagar and Packet  Quizzes and
Lesson 1 IT Solution Capstone Project 2 Tripathy, Piyu (2008). o Printed Summative
20 hours self-  Testing and College of Computer Software testing and o Digital Exams
directed Quality Studies, University quality assurance:  Projects/
learning Assurance of the Visayas. theory and  Microsoft Exercises/
practice: John Wiley & Teams Reports/
& Lesson 2 Sons, Hoboken, New  Zoom Research
 The Jersey  (Implement
5 hours of Organizational • Galbraith, Jay R. 40% of the
assessment Context: (2014). Designing proposed IT
tasks Strategy, organizations: solution)
1-5
Structure, and strategy, structure,
Culture and process at the
business unit and
enterprise levels 3rd
Edition, Jossey-Bass

INTERNET
RESOURCES:
• http://csis.pace.
edu/~ctappert/
srd2015/2015PDF/
a2.pdf
• https://www.
projectmanager.com/
blog/quality-
assurance-and-testing
10 total Lesson 2  Evaluate and Lesson 3. BOOKS:  Course  Assignment
hours  Professional interpret the Course Module on • Deepak, Benjamin;  Packet  Quizzes and
6-7 Communications performance Capstone Project 2 and Tintu, Joseph P., o Printed Summative
6 hours self- results of the College of Computer (2020). Professional o Digital Exams

4
 directed IT solution Studies, University Communication  Microsoft  Projects/
learning based on of the Visayas Teams Exercises/
identified • Quintanilla, Kelly M.  Zoom Reports/
& evaluation and Wahl, Shawn T. Research
metrics (2018). Business and  Thesis
4 hours of Professional coordinator
assessment tasks Communication: and adviser
KEYS for Workplace evaluate and
Excellence, FOURTH interpret the
EDITION, Missouri performance
State University, USA results of the
  IT solution
INTERNET based on
RESOURCES: identified
• https:// evaluation
collegeinfogeek.com/ metrics.
professional- Students are
communication-guide/ required 80%
• https:// of the
ecampusontario.press proposed IT
books.pub/ solution.
profcommsontario/
chapter/module-
overview-2/
• https://
ecampusontario.press
books.pub/llscomm/
10 total PART 3:  Evaluate and Lesson 4. BOOKS:  Course  Thesis
hours  Teamwork interpret the Course Module on Packet coordinator and
Concepts and performance Capstone Project 1 •. Brosseau, Jim   o Printed adviser evaluate
6 hours self- Issues; results of the College of Computer (2007). Software o Digital and interpret
directed IT solution Studies, University teamwork: taking  Microsoft the performance
learning based on of the Visayas ownership for Teams results of the IT
identified success 1st edition;  Zoom solution based
& evaluation Addison-Wesley on identified
metrics Professional evaluation
4 hours of •. Maxwell, John C. metrics.
assessment (2009). Teamwork Students are
tasks 101: what every required 80% of
leader needs to know. the proposed IT
HarperCollins solution.
Leadership; 1 edition
•. Coryell, Eric
(2019). Revolutionize
8-9 teamwork: how to
create and lead
accountable teams.
Simple Truths;
Illustrated edition

INTERNET
RESOURCES:

•. https://
smallbusiness.chron.c
om/advantages-
teamwork-concept-
organizations-
56220.html
https://
en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Teamwork
20 total PART 4:  Collect and Lesson 5. BOOKS:  Course  Final Paper
hours Writing of Project interpret Course Module on • Calmorin, et al, Packet (35%)
15 hours self-
Paper (Final Project relevant Capstone Project 2 (2007). Research o Printed For this
Documentation) literature on College of Computer methods and thesis o Digital Capstone
directed
the research Studies, University writing: Second course, you will
learning
topic of your of the Visayas Edition conduct a real-
 Microsoft
& capstone • Evans, David , world project,
10-13 Teams
project Gruba, Paul  , and and write a 15+
5 hours of  Zoom
 Include a Zobel, Justin , page final paper
assessment description based on your
tasks (2012). How to
of your Write a Better practical
capstone Thesis. Melbourne investigation
project. University and literature
Include the research. The
5
 following, Publishing; 3 paper should
and any edition. include the
additional as • Almack, John following
necessary Conrad, (2008). sections:
a. Research and thesis A. Research:
Background writing: a textbook on Collect and
of the the principles and interpret
project techniques of thesis relevant
(sponsor’s or construction for the literature on the
self-selected use of graduate research topic of
research students in your capstone
site, project universities and project.
goals) colleges, University of a. Incorporate
b. ICT Michigan. synthesized
problems literature
identified INTERNET b. Compare and
c. Research RESOURCES: contrast on the
methods • http:// findings and
employed www.cws.illinois.edu/ arguments
d. Technical workshop/writers/ provided by
and tips/thesis/#:~: other
managemen text=A%20thesis researchers
t issues %20statement c. Discuss social,
encountered %20focuses legal, and
e. Findings %20your,and ethical
and analysis %20keep%20your implications of
%20argument the research
%20focused. B. Project
• https:// report:
writingcenter.fas.harv Include a
ard.edu/pages/ description of
developing-thesis your capstone
• https:// project. Include
www.jou.ufl.edu/ the following,
grad/forms/ and any
Guidelines-for- additional as
writing-thesis-or- necessary
dissertation.pdf a. Background of
• https:// the project
www.skillsyouneed.co (sponsor’s or
m/learn/dissertation- self-selected
writing.html research site,
project goals) b.
ICT problems
identified
c. Research
methods
employed
d. Technical and
management
issues
encountered
e. Findings and
analysis
C. ICT design
and solutions:
Include
proposed and
developed new
ICT solutions
(e.g., interactive
design
prototype, a
detailed
recommendation
proposal for ICT
improvement,
etc.) based on
the findings
14-18 25 total PART 4:  Recommend Lesson 6. BOOKS:  Course  Final defense is
hours  Project possible Course Module on  Berndtsson, Packet conducted and
Presentation improvement Capstone Project 2 M., Hansson, o Printed the thesis
10 hours (Final Project s in the IT College of Computer J., Olsson, B., and o Digital committee
self-directed Defense) Solution due Studies, University Lundell, B. (2002). recommend
learning to of the Visayas Planning and possible
 Microsoft
implementati Implementing your improvements in

6
& on issues Final Year Project — Teams the IT Solution
with Success!: A  Zoom due to
15 hours of Guide for Students implementation
assessment in Computer issues.
tasks Science and
Information
Systems
 Berndtsson,
M., Hansson,
J., Olsson, B., and
Lundell, B. (2008).
Thesis Projects: A
Guide for Students
in Computer
Science and
Information
Systems

INTERNET
RESOURCES:
 https://
nairaproject.com/
blog/making-
awesome-
presentations.html
 https://
www.premiumresea
rchers.com/
common-questions-
during-research-
defense/
 https://
medium.com/
@ggomtas/useful-
tips-for-project-
defense-for-final-
year-students-
75ed25cc470b
 https://
nairaproject.com/
blog/25-common-
project-defense-
questions.html
 https://
www.projecttopics.
org/how-to-deliver-
a-successful-
project-defense-
presentation-
tips.html

7
IV-A. Points for Graded Output IV-B. Grade Equivalent Based on Points Earned
Module Topic
Course Week Points Points Earned Grade
Output
97%-100% 1.00
1-5 Minor Task 100
94%-96% 1.25
90%-93% 1.50
6-10 Minor Task 100
86%-89% 1.75
82%-85% 2.00
11-16 Minor Task 100
78%-81% 2.25
74%-77% 2.50
17-18 Minor Task 100
71%-73% 2.75
70% 3.00
Total 400
69% below 5.00
INC is given if the final grade is 2.5 or better but missing any two of the course requirements listed above. INC should be complied within 365
days immediately after the close of the Semester.

V. Approval

Prepared by Reviewed by Approved by

MECHELLE D. DIMALOAN, RL

EMILY L. ONG SUSANETTE A. DAKAY DR. AILEEN B. CATACUTAN ALAN A. FELICANO

Instructor Program Chair Librarian OIC

8
LLess
Lesson 1
An Overview of the Research
Process

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Recognize the definition of the Research Process;

2. Identify the seven stages of the research process; and

3. Identify where you are in the process and what steps you will

take next.

9
 College College of Computer Studies

Program Bachelor of Science in Information Technology

Course Code CAPRO 2

Course Title Capstone Project 2
University of the Visayas Credit Unit 3 Units

Lesson 1of 2 WEEK NO.1-5

Module Topic Lesson 1: AN OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

Intended Learning 1. Recognize the definition of the Research Process;
Outcomes 2. Identify the seven stages of the research process; and
3. Identify where you are in the process and what steps you will take next.
No. of Hours 25 Hours (20 hours Self-directed learning and 5 hours Assessment Tasks)

1. What is research process in research?

Study Questions 2. What are the steps in the research process?
3. Why do we do research?

Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
Lesson 1. Course Module on  Oliver, Paul (2010). Understanding the Research
Capstone Project 2. College
Print
of Computer Studies.
Process, SAGE
University of the Visayas
Lesson 1. Course Module
PDF Format on Capstone
 https://olinuris.library.cornell.edu/content/seven-
Digital Project 2. College of
Computer Studies. University steps-research-process
of the Visayas
1. Student shall study and learn Lesson 1 on an overview of the research process.
Student may refer to the suggested and other recommended learning materials
indicated in this Course Study Guide as additional reading resources.
Learning Activity
2. The student shall accomplish the guided learning throughout the module.
3. After studying and learning the topics in Lesson 1, the student shall accomplish
Assessment Task 1.
Required Output Practice Test: Familiarizations of the Research Process.

Assessment Task Assessment Task 1 (Overview Of The Research Process )

MS-Teams form
Assessment Tool
Scoring Guide Rubric (for Assessment Tasks 1 & 2)
Critical and analytical thinking, Self-directed lifelong learning, Demonstration and
Target
application of methods of technological and innovation inquiry, Demonstration of
Competency professional and ethical behavior in the conduct of research

10
An Overview of the Research
Process

Introduction

Information Technology nowadays plays a vital role in our daily lives especially in the
area of research. Ideally, in the area of Information Technology, there are lots of
subtopics you will meet such as Information Systems, Robotics, Cloud Computing,
Networking, Web Development, e-Commerce and Computer Graphs.

There are also some new technology tools that can make our work more convenient
and easier. When writing a research, it can be used as an online tool for citing articles
in a magazine, journals, books, and websites. You can also use those online tools for
generating APA reference format. These tools are being used in a more collaborative
write-up especially for an experienced researcher which helped me a lot.

Information Technology research led many changes that brought researchers in a new
course, especially in terms of the scientific approaches. Apart from this change is they
can easily adopt the changes and challenges in other field like medicine. Wherein you
can use and combine Information Technology Research to quickly perform operations
which have never been done before. Using Software Applications in solving
quantitative problems is also part of new innovations in the field of Information
Technology Research, by using applications like using Mathlab, SPSS, Microsoft Excel,
MaxStat, and Simplot, are just some of the tools used in the modern-day research.

Information Technology has drastically changed the route in which our whole society
lives, works, learns, conveys, and works together. Moreover, the use of information
technology in research has been significantly changed. With the goal that made
conceivable today, it is accessibly to take a shot at issues in these zones at exceptional
levels of speed, accuracy, and detail. Information technology is obtainable in the
remotest corners of the earth with higher amounts of learning, data, and examination.
The beneficial outcomes of these changes should be drawn-out extensively. This is why
information technology research turns out to be progressively more astute and
connected due to the fast and innovative advancements. Some of these include system
innovation, distributed computing, future web, hardware technology, framework
designing, programming building, data innovation and graphics design research topics.
Interconnected research, allow the pooling of the assets and abilities to make another,

11
more unpredictable work that offer more usefulness and execution basically in the
whole area of the research.

The interconnection of technology including a vast size of wireless communication and

the expanded keenness of software and hardware produce unending floods of
information so extensive and complex that customary information preparing
application miss the mark in catching, putting away, imagining, investigating and
handling this information in research.

Using the state-of-the-art technology, the researchers can easily conduct and study
different areas of concern. Essential instrument to produce riches and better states of
life, constituting one of the key fronts of advance research. These advancements are
inconsistent, with which the exploration and the advancement in them are crucial to
keep the intensity and to comprehend changes with technology in the area or to take a
gander at particular advancements in the field of information technology research.

What is Research?
Research is defined as the creation of new knowledge and/or the use of existing
knowledge in a new and creative way so as to generate new concepts, methodologies
and understandings. This definition of research encompasses pure and strategic
basic research, applied research and experimental development.

What is a Research Paper?

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation,

and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays, but they are usually longer and more
detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills
in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong
knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original
contribution to the debate.

This makes quality control so important in every field, where an end-user product is
created. Yet, a sour pear won’t cause as much damage as a self-driving car with poor
quality autopilot software. A single error in an EHR system might put a patient’s life at
risk; while an e-Commerce website that has performance issues might cost the owner
millions of dollars in revenue.

A project isn’t successful just because it has been completed on time and within
budget. There is one other factor that is critical to success: quality.

No matter how quickly and cheaply a project is completed, stakeholders are not going
to be happy if the quality of the product or service doesn’t meet their expectations.

12
So, how can a manager track the quality of their project and make sure it meets the
requirements of stakeholders? Quality assurance, that’s how.

What is the aim of research?

A research aim expresses the intention or an aspiration of the research study; it
summarizes in a single sentence what you hope to achieve at the end of
a research project. Your aim should be specific and phrased in such a way that it is
possible to identify when it has been achieved.

What are the benefits of research or research studies?

Research improves services and treatments not just for you but also for future
generations. It helps develop new tests for diagnosis, treatments and processes that
could eventually help your children, or even your grandchildren. You may gain access
to treatments that are not yet readily available to the general public.

What are the disadvantages of research?

Because it is often based on a hypothesis, the research can be quite dependent on the
results you get, and it can be disappointing when you look for a phenomenon that is
just not there. Because you are using human participants, the ethics procedure can be
longer and more complicated.
Who will benefit from the research?
Benefit can be defined as the positive impact from the research to the parties directly
involved (eg research participants and those associated with
them, researchers and research organizations), as well as the demonstrable
contribution of research to knowledge, our economy, individuals and society.

Characteristics of Research:

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer

questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it
must, as far as possible, be systematic, controlled, rigorous, valid and verifiable,
empirical and critical.

Why Do We Conduct Research?

Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our complex world.
Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on intuition, other people’s authority, and
blind luck. While many of us feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with
the world around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be when

13
we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At various times in
history, we would have been certain that the sun revolved around a flat earth, that the
earth’s continents did not move, and that mental illness was caused by possession.

By doing systematic scientific research, we get rid of our preconceived assumptions

and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and our world.

The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around them. Scientists from
the natural sciences (such as biology, physics, chemistry) focus on studying natural
phenomena—things that we can see, hear, touch, smell, or taste. However, for social
scientists (such as psychologists, political analysts, and journalists), they focus their
attention on understanding the behavior of people, as well as the mental processes
and social systems that underlie this behavior. For example, instead of asking what
chemicals cause an explosion, we ask what factors contribute to social inequality.

This makes it a bit more complicated for us to conduct research, because we study
phenomena that cannot be seen with the naked eye. You cannot “see” or “touch” a
belief, an opinion, or a system. However, we have developed methods and research
designs that have given us a way to study these phenomena even though they remain
invisible to the naked eye.

Research Process

Overview

The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing the
information you need to support your research question, and then developing and
expressing your ideas. These are the same skills you need any time you write a
report, proposal, or put together a presentation. 

Library research involves the step-by-step process used to gather information in order

to write your paper, create a presentation, or complete a project. As you progress from
one step to the next, it is often necessary to rethink, revise, add additional material or
even adjust your topic. Much will depend on what you discover during your research. 

The research process can be broken down into seven steps, making it more
manageable and easier to understand. This module will give you an idea of what's
involved at each step in order to give you a better overall picture of where you are in
your research, where you will be going, and what to expect at each step.

The Seven Steps of the Research Process

The following seven steps outline a simple and effective strategy for finding
information for a research paper and documenting the sources you find.
Depending on your topic and your familiarity with the library, you may need to
rearrange or recycle these steps. Adapt this outline to your needs. We are
ready to help you at every step in your research.

14
 
STEP 1: IDENTIFY AND DEVELOP YOUR TOPIC
State your topic as a question. For example, if you are interested in finding out about
use of alcoholic beverages by college students, you might pose the question, "What
effect does use of alcoholic beverages have on the health of college students?" Identify
the main concepts or keywords in your question.

Identify Your Topic

1. Begin by Identifying a Preliminary Topic
2. State your topic idea as a question. For example, if you are interested in
finding out about use of alcoholic beverages by college students, you
might pose the question, "What effect does use of alcoholic beverages
have on the health of college students?"
3. Identify the main concepts or keywords in your question. In this
case they are alcoholic beverages, health, and college students.

Suggestions for Finding a Topic

1. Discuss your topic ideas with your class instructor.
2. Discuss your topic ideas with a reference librarian. It may be wise to set up
a research consultation. You can request a personal research consultation
using this online form.
3. Browse likely topics using our Online Encyclopedias guide.
4. Explore current topics using News Collections Online and CQ Researcher.
See also Keesing's Record of World Events for political and historical
topics.
5. Browse for subject research guides.

Develop Your Topic

1. Test the main concepts or keywords in your topic by looking them up in
the appropriate background sources or by using them as search terms in
the Cornell Library Catalog and in periodical databases.
2. If you are finding too much information and too many sources, narrow
your topic by using the and operator. e.g, beer and health and college
students, for example.
3. Finding too little information may indicate that you need to broaden your
topic. For example, look for information on students, rather than college
students. Link synonymous search terms with the or operator, e.g.,
alcoholic beverages or beer or wine or liquor. Use as asterisk to truncate
(i.e., alcohol*) search terms to broaden the search and increase the
number of items you find.
STEP 2: FIND BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Look up your keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias. Read articles in these
encyclopedias to set the context for your research. Note any relevant items in the
bibliographies at the end of the encyclopedia articles. Additional background
information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks, and reserve readings.

15
 Using Encyclopedia Articles and Dictionaries to Understand a Topic

Find the Context and Background Information

After you identify your research topic and some keywords that describe it, find
and read articles in subject encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks. These
articles will help you understand the context (historical, cultural, and
disciplinary) of your topic. They are the foundation supporting further
research. The most common background sources are subject encyclopedias
and dictionaries from our print and online reference collection. Class
textbooks also provide definitions of terms and background information.

Finding Encyclopedias and Dictionaries

Use the Advanced search in our Catalog. Enter encyclopedia in Title AND type
in your topic in All Fields
Use our Online Encyclopedias guide to locate reliable articles on your topic.
Browse the Dictionaries and Encyclopedias section of Databases
Ask a reference librarian to suggest appropriate titles.
Browse for Subject Guides.

Tip: Exploit Bibliographies

 Read the background information and note any useful sources
(books, journals, magazines, etc.) listed in the bibliography at
the end of the encyclopedia article or dictionary entry. The
sources cited in the bibliography are good starting points for
further research.
 Look up these sources in our catalogs and periodical databases.
Check the subject headings listed in the subject field of the
online record for these books and articles. Then do subject
searches using those subject headings to locate additional titles.
 Remember that many of the books and articles you find will
themselves have bibliographies. Check these bibliographies for
additional useful resources for your research.
By using this technique of routinely following up on sources
cited in bibliographies, you can generate a surprisingly large
number of books and articles on your topic in a relatively short
time.
STEP 3: USE CATALOGS TO FIND BOOKS AND MEDIA
Use guided keyword searching to find materials by topic or subject. Print or write down
the citation (author, title, etc.) and the location information (call number and library).
Note the circulation status. When you pull the book from the shelf, scan the
bibliography for additional sources. Watch for book-length bibliographies and annual
reviews on your subject; they list citations to hundreds of books and articles in one

16
subject area. Check the standard subject subheading "--BIBLIOGRAPHIES," or titles
beginning with Annual Review of... in the Cornell Library Classic Catalog.

Watch on YouTube: How to read citations

Resources for Finding Books and More

Search the Cornell Library Catalog

Find the locations and call numbers of millions of Cornell books (as well as lots
of video, audio, microforms, maps, serials, and manuscripts).

To find books outside Cornell, use BorrowDirect or OCLC WorldCat.

BorrowDirect is the combined online catalogs of the eight Ivy libraries

plus MIT, Chicago, Stanford, and Johns Hopkins. Bonus: you can order
the book you want directly from BorrowDirect (provided it is not
available to borrow at Cornell). Your book will be delivered to the
library you choose at Cornell in four business days or less. Check at a
reference desk for further information and assistance.

OCLC WorldCat is the combined online catalogs of tens of thousands of

libraries around the world. You can request books in WorldCat that are
not available through either Cornell or BorrowDirect by using
our free interlibrary loan service.
 
STEP 4: USE INDEXES TO FIND PERIODICAL ARTICLES
Use periodical indexes and abstracts to find citations to articles. The indexes and
abstracts may be in print or computer-based formats or both. Choose the indexes and
format best suited to your particular topic; ask at the reference desk if you need help
figuring out which index and format will be best. You can find periodical articles by the
article author, title, or keyword by using the periodical indexes in the Library home
page. If the full text is not linked in the index you are using, write down the citation
from the index and search for the title of the periodical in the Cornell Library Classic
Catalog. The catalog lists the print, microform, and electronic versions of periodicals at
Cornell.

See: How to find and use periodical indexes at Cornell.

Watch on YouTube: How to read citations

 STEP 5: FIND ADDITIONAL INTERNET RESOURCES

 Nearly everyone is aware of and uses Google and its branches, Google Scholar, Google
Books, Google News, YouTube, etc., to search and find information on the open
Internet (as opposed to the subscription-only resources you will encounter in steps 2
through 4 above). Here are links to other search engines.

You can also check to see if there is a research guide (a subject guide or a course guide)
created by librarians specifically for your topic or your class that links to recommended
resources.

17
STEP 6: EVALUATE WHAT YOU FIND
See How to Critically Analyze Information Sources and Distinguishing Scholarly from
Non-Scholarly Periodicals: A Checklist of Criteria for suggestions on evaluating the
authority and quality of the books and articles you located.

Watch on YouTube: Identifying scholarly journals    Identifying substantive news

sources

If you have found too many or too few sources, you may need to narrow or broaden
your topic. Check with a reference librarian or your instructor.
When you're ready to write, here is an annotated list of books to help you organize,
format, and write your paper.

 STEP 7: CITE WHAT YOU FIND USING A STANDARD FORMAT

 Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.
 Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes,
it gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those
who are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources
that you have listed as references.
 Knowingly representing the work of others as your own is plagiarism. (See
Cornell's Code of Academic Integrity). Use one of the styles listed below or
another style approved by your instructor. Hand-outs summarizing the APA
and MLA styles are available at Uris and Olin Reference.

Available online:

RefWorks is a web-based program that allows you to easily collect, manage, and
organize bibliographic references by interfacing with databases. RefWorks also
interfaces directly with Word, making it easy to import references and incorporate
them into your writing, properly formatted according to the style of your choice.

Format the citations in your bibliography using examples from the following
Library help pages: Modern Language Association (MLA)
examples and American Psychological Association (APA) examples.

Style guides in print (book) format:

 MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 7th ed. New York: MLA,
2009.
(Olin Reference LB 2369 .G53 2009 [shelved at the reference desk]; also
Uris Reference, others)
This handbook is based on the MLA Style Manual (Olin and Uris Ref
PN 147 .G444x 1998) and is intended as an aid for college students
writing research papers. Included here is information on selecting a
topic, researching the topic, note taking, the writing of footnotes

18
 and bibliographies, as well as sample pages of a research paper.
Useful for the beginning researcher.
 Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. 6th ed.
Washington: APA, 2010. 
(Olin Reference BF 76.7 .P83 2010 [shelved at the reference desk]; also
Uris Reference, Mann Reference, others)
The authoritative style manual for anyone writing in the field of psychology. Useful for
the social sciences generally. Chapters discuss the content and organization of a
manuscript, writing style, the American Psychological Association citation style, and
typing, mailing and proofreading.

If you are writing an annotated bibliography, see How to Prepare an Annotated

Bibliography.

RESEARCH TIPS:
 WORK FROM THE GENERAL TO THE SPECIFIC.
Find background information first, and then use more specific and recent sources.
 RECORD WHAT YOU FIND AND WHERE YOU FOUND IT.
Record the complete citation for each source you find; you may need it again later.
 TRANSLATE YOUR TOPIC INTO THE SUBJECT LANGUAGE OF THE INDEXES AND
CATALOGS YOU USE.
Check your topic words against a thesaurus or subject heading list.

Assessment Task 1

Enumeration.

Direction: List down or enumerate what are asked for each of the following.

1. Enumerate the seven steps of the research process.

2. What are the benefits of research?

3. What are the characteristics of research?

4. Give at least three research tips.

19
LLess
Lesson 2
Ethics in Research

© Google Images

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able

to:

1. Understand why ethics is important to research;

20
 2. Identify codes of ethics that address research;

3. Understand the roles of research ethics committees;

4. Identify some issues surrounding research ethics

committees; and

5. Identify other elements critical to responsible

conduct of research.

College COLLEGE OF COMPUTER STUDIES

Program BS INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Course Code CAPRO 2
Course Title Capstone Project 2
Credit Unit 3
Lesson 2 of 2 Week 1-5
Module Topic Ethics in Research
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Understand why ethics is important to research;
Intended Learning 2. Identify codes of ethics that address research;
Outcomes 3. Understand the roles of research ethics committees;
4. Identify some issues surrounding research ethics committees; and
5. Identify other elements critical to responsible conduct of research.
Number of Hours 25 Hours (20 hours Self-directed learning and 5 hours Assessment Tasks)
1. What do ethics mean?
2. Why do we need ethics?
3. What are research ethics and why are they important?
4. Is ethics the same as morals?
5. What are examples of ethics?
Study Questions 6. What is the aim of ethics?
7. How can we apply ethics in our life?
8. What do we learn from ethics?
9. What is the goal of ethics in research?
10. What are the 7 principles of ethics in research?
11. What are the current issues involving ethics in research?
Required Suggested
 Creswell, J. W. (2014). Quantitative Methods. In
Lesson 2. Course Module on Capstone Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
Project 2. College of Computer Studies. methods approaches (4th ed.) (pp. 199-230).
University of the Visayas Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Learning Resources
 Creswell, J. W. (2014). Qualitative Methods. In
Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed
methods approaches (4th ed.) (pp. 231-262).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

21
 1. Student shall study and learn Lesson 2 on types of research. The student may refer to
the suggested and other recommended learning materials indicated in this Course
Learning Activity Study Guide as additional reading resources.
2. The student shall accomplish the Let’s Get Started Activities and Diagnostic
Checkpoints throughout the module.
3. After studying and learning the topics in Lesson 2, the student shall accomplish
Assessment Task 3 (Double-Barrel: Design and Method Matching [Quantitative]), and
Assessment Task 4 (Double-Barrel: Design and Method Matching [Qualitative])
Assessment Task 3 (Quiz 3)
Required Output Assessment Task 4 (Quiz 4)
Assessment Task 3 (Quiz 3)
Assessment Tasks Assessment Task 4 (Quiz 4)
MS Teams Forms
Kahoot
Assessment Tool Answer Key (for Assessment Tasks 3 and 4)
Critical and analytical thinking, Self-directed lifelong learning, Demonstration and
application of methods of psychological inquiry, Demonstration of professional and ethical
Target Competency behavior in the conduct of research.
Ethics in Research
Introduction

What do ethics have to do with research?

Ethical codes or principles are an expression of how we should behave as

individuals and as a society. They are moral judgments that can be applied to
particular situations to help us make decisions and guide our behavior.
Inevitably, they are linked to cultural values at a particular time in our history
and are subject to change as attitudes and values evolve. What was normative
just a half century ago may be considered insensitive today.

In research there may be a conflict between the expeditious conduct of a study

and the burdens of doing what is respectful to animals or humans. On the one
hand, researchers are focused on expanding knowledge and on the
methodology of their projects such as subject selection, sample size, research
protocols, statistical analysis, equipment, and personnel. At the same time, as
inherently responsible persons, they try to respect the research environment,
which requires attention to the appropriate use not only of physical resources
including funds, but also to human and animal subjects.

Aside from direct treatment of human and non-human subjects,

how research is conducted is an important aspect of whether or
not it is ethical. For example, strict adherence to the research
design, protocol and analytic plan is critical to data integrity.
Avoidance or disclosure of financial and/or personal conflicts of
interest may affect subject recruitment as well real or perceived
objectivity or bias in recruitment and in analysis and reporting
results. These aspects of research behavior, along with
adherence to accepted scientific practice, such as honesty in
authorship, data collection, analyses and reporting, avoiding

22
 conflicts of interest of reviewers, avoiding misconduct and
misbehavior and reporting it if present, all contribute to
whether research is ethical.

Only when the research is of sufficient quality to potentially contribute to

knowledge can we justify involving humans or animals and utilizing other
resources. Ethical considerations may help us decide whether the research
should even be done, and if so, how it should be pursued.

How we conduct our scientific endeavors not only affects those directly
involved, but also the public’s perception of science and scientists. Results from
research provide a basis for further studies, and in addition may influence public
policy and legislation. Challenges to scientific integrity can erode public
confidence and belief in findings. Therefore, it is important to be transparent,
competent, honest, and follow ethical guidelines in regard to research subjects.

Principles, Codes, and Standards Today

Welfare of Human Subjects

The first modern code governing ethics of research was developed during the
Nuremburg trials of Nazi war crimes in response to abuses during medical
experimentation on humans. Subsequently, there was concern with protection of human
subjects of research in the US in the 1950s and 1960s.  Media reports about abuses
during research stimulated legislation that led to the development of ethical principles
and regulations.

Animal Welfare
Similarly, concerns about animal welfare led to the development of standards for use of
animals in research and for the environment in which they are maintained The Animal
Welfare Act, the accreditation of animal facilities, the Guide for the Care and Use of
Laboratory Animals, and the US Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of
Animals all address animal welfare, use and care. The NIH page on animal
welfare includes guidelines and policies on that topic.

Environmental Safety and Protection

Environmental exposure that imposed risk of harm stimulated workplace welfare
provisions in such areas as radiation safety, chemicals, biologic pathogens, and
ergonomics (OSHA Hazard Communication Standard, 29 CFR 1910.1200; Occupational
Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories, 29 CFR 1910.1450; OSHA Bloodborne

23
Pathogen standard, 29 CFR 1910.1030). Many institutions provide on-line training
in laboratory and workplace safety.

Ethical principles, codes of ethics and oversight of research provide guidance.  However,
continuing attention to research conduct is needed in view of the fact that a meta-
analysis of survey studies found that 30-74% of respondents report that they have been
involved in or observed inappropriate behavior in the conduct of research (Fanelli, 2009).

The Nuremburg Code

The Nuremburg Code, developed as a result of Nazi war crimes, was the first modern
publication of ethical guidelines for experimentation with humans. It states an explicit
requirement for voluntary consent of research subjects and spells out the elements of
that consent. The code stipulates that the use of human participants is permissible
(justified) so long as:
 human subjects are necessary;
 the results hold promise of benefit to society;
 scientific basis and design are sound;
 harms to humans are minimized or avoided;
 risks are minimized;
 experimenters are qualified;
 voluntary withdrawal of subjects is allowed; and
 the research will be terminated if research subjects are likely to be injured or
harmed.

The Declaration of Helsinki

The Declaration of Helsinki, Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human
Subjects, was developed by the World Medical Association in 1964 and has been
revised repeatedly, most recently in 2008.  It declares the necessity of research with
humans, physicians’ duty to safeguard health and privacy, puts human well-being
before scientific advances, and requires consent free of coercion. 
It includes principles for research including:
 sound science
 protection of human dignity
 ethics committee review and oversight
 risk benefit assessment and potential benefits outweigh risks of harm
and risk can be managed
 the research is important and likely to benefit the subject population
 participation is voluntary and  subjects are fully informed

The Declaration of Helsinki addresses situations, in which consent is not possible, the
need to share research outcomes by publishing them, and the handling of situations
in which research is combined with medical care.

24
The Belmont Report and the US Code of Federal Regulations: The
Common Rule
The Belmont Report, published in 1974, is a statement of ethical principles governing
research with humans developed by the US Congressionally appointed Commission
for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.  It
identifies three ethical principles: respect for persons, beneficence, and distributive
justice.  The Belmont principles have been codified into Regulations and the Common
Rule and have been adopted in whole or part by nineteen US federal agencies to
regulate research with humans conducted or supported by the US government. 
Revisions to the Common Rule were proposed in July 2011. The proposed changes,
responses to public comments, and the final revision will be available on the website
of the Office Human Research Protections.

The Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences

The Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) was founded
by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1949. In the 1970s CIOMS and WHO
worked on guidelines to indicate how the ethical principles articulated in the
Declaration of Helsinki could be applied to research with humans, especially in
developing countries. As new research methods and practices emerged, particularly
the expansion of clinical trials in developing countries, conferences were held to
address issues that were not covered in the original guidelines. In 2002, CIOMS
published ethical principles (they adopted the principles in The Belmont Report) and
21 guidelines that are broadly applicable, including in low resource countries. They
cover
 ethical justification of the research;
 scientific validity;
 ethics committee review;
 informed consent and situations when consent is not attainable;
 inducements to participate in research;
 risks and benefits;
 research with low resource populations;
 choice of control groups in clinical trials;
 research with vulnerable groups;
 confidentiality;
 compensation for injury in research;
 strengthening infrastructure in developing countries; and
 Ethical obligation to provide health services.

Each guideline is accompanied by commentary. In 2009, updated guidelines for
epidemiological research were published. For updates see http://www.cioms.ch.

Current and Unresolved Issues

25
The Belmont Principles were intended as ethical guidelines. Application of each
principle by the research investigators and by the ethics review committee
requires judgment, interpretation and ethical analysis in the context of a given
situation, e.g. a specific research proposal and cultural context. Ethical dilemmas
arise in situations in which ethical principles conflict. Both science and social
attitudes have changed in the 40 years since the Belmont Report was published.
Interpretation of the principles and accepted opinion about what constitutes
ethical behavior has evolved. Research is conducted on a global scale, and has
become increasingly complex and integrative. There is now greater diversity
within research environments, and more attention to community engagement
and the potential value of the research to the community.

These issues have stimulated debate about whether the Belmont Principles are
sufficient and appropriate guidelines to protect human subjects and about
whether ethics review committees —the main system for approval and oversight
of human welfare in research — have become too burdensome. The proposed
changes to the Common Rule are designed to address these concerns and
changes in the scientific landscape. As society and research practices change,
ethical issues persist. Some of the major current issues will follow.

Research Ethics Committees

Research ethics committees review and oversee research involving humans.

Known as Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) in the US and as Ethics Review Boards
(ERBs) or Research Ethics Committees (RECs) in other countries, they are the
mechanism for enforcing research ethics standards and overseeing ongoing
research.  Breaches in accepted ethical practices resulted in the establishment of
oversight mechanisms.

Research ethics committees exist is almost every country and operate under
legal/regulatory authority.  In the US, they are mandated by federal regulations
that have the force of law but are appointed by and report to a research
institution, such as a university, hospital, or research institute. There also are free
standing for profit and not-for-profit IRBs. The Regulations mandate structure,
composition/membership, meeting requirements, standard operating procedures
and record keeping requirements.

Composition of IRBs/RECs is diverse. Generally, appointments include men and

women from various scientific and nonscientific fields, members who are
independent of institution(s) conducting the research or the organization(s)
sponsoring it, and people who understand the research subjects and their
environments.  Consultants may be called upon as needed, particularly if the
research involves an area in which few or no regular members have expertise.
Anyone with conflicts of interest must disclose those interest(s) and not participate
in decision-making. Although scientists, advocates, institutional officials and
ethicists all have views and interests, it is assumed that the group process,
transparency and disclosure will result in balanced decisions.

26
Level of Review
The US Regulations offer considerable latitude about whether a research proposal
requires full review, expedited review or fits one of the exemption categories
specified the Regulations.  Nonetheless, some institutions are hesitant to use the
full range of review options and insist on full committee review of all proposals.
Review of research that the ethics committee considers to be minimal risk may be
expedited.  Some categories of research (46.110), as stipulated in the Regulations,
may be exempt. The proposed rule changes will most likely update exempt and
expedited categories as well as change the initial review requirements for types of
research that may fit them.

In addition to adopting ethical guidelines, IRBs/RECs develop standard operating

procedures (SOPS) that that specify how activities are accomplished.  For example,
they may specify how and when protocols are submitted to the IRB, information
they must contain, assess their completeness, describe staff responsibilities and
their delegated authorities, specify how and when materials are distributed to
reviewers, how and when investigators are informed of review outcome, and other
administrative matters. Many research institutions post information about
RECs/IRBs on the web along with procedures and requirements for ethics review
and approval before research can begin. The IRB Forum provides access to IRB
handbooks, guidelines and resources from several institutions.  It includes
academic IRBs, private non-profit IRBs, and industry IRBs.

The Association of Accreditation of Human Research Protection

Programs (AAHRPP) accredits research ethics committees and human protection
programs nationally and internationally in an effort to achieve high quality and
continuing education.

The Global Norm of Ethics Committees

Ideas about what is ethical and how science should be conducted develop and
evolve in a social context. Writings about ethical behavior can be traced to
Hippocrates but norms developed over the last 60 years were stimulated by the
revelations of Nazi medical experiments. Since then, despite the existence of codes
of ethics to govern research, several examples of disregard for human welfare
have come to public attention. Although many scientists are cognizant of their
ethical responsibilities, there have been frank abuses of human participants and
many instances of other questionable ethical behavior in research. The revelations
of disregard for human welfare in US conducted and supported research resulted
in the development of guidance and regulations to prevent abuses and
inappropriate research with humans from recurring. Rules were put into place
when public opinion prevailed that self-regulation and monitoring by the scientific
community is insufficient to protect human research participants. 

Government authorized ethics committees, because of their diverse membership

from and outside the institution, are seen as being freer of bias and conflicts of
interest than an internal institutional group, the investigators themselves or a

27
committee composed entirely of scientists. Although under the aegis of an
institution or government that is not devoid of interests, the ethics committee
model has been adopted worldwide as the best choice that is available and
practical.

The ethical principles that are part of the US Regulations are

applied by investigators in design and conduct of research. They
also are applied by the IRB and scientific review group in their
assessment of the scientific importance, soundness and
suitability of the research.
Ethical guidelines/codes stipulate that research involving
humans should be subject to prior ethical review to ensure that:
 Ethical guidelines are followed;
 Research is scientifically valid;
 Risks of harm are minimized to extent possible;
 Potential benefits outweigh risks of harms;
 Selection and recruitment are fair;
 Research participants (or their representatives) provide
voluntary informed consent; and
 Research fosters health, human rights, care of participants
and/or their communities.

Current Issues Concerning Ethics Committees

Alternate IRB Models

US IRBs were designed as institutional committees that would be familiar with
local socio-cultural values.  In many countries, such committees are based in
health ministries and are national in scope. Today it is common for research to
span many communities and even countries.  Ethics committees from different
institutions and/or geographic regions may not agree.  Negotiating acceptable
human protections becomes a cumbersome, lengthy and costly process.  To
facilitate research and resolve conflicts among local IRBs, central IRBs have
been proposed for collaborative multi-site studies. Central IRBs may be
ongoing or study specific, composed of members from a sample of the sites
involved in research or may be totally independent and free-standing.  The US
experience is that many institutions are reluctant to relinquish their autonomy
and responsibilities to a central IRB.  Institutions also are concerned about
compliance with regulations, local rules and policies and about liability.  In the
US, although models such as free-standing for-profit and not-for-profit
committees for human research protection in research exist, to date, the
institutional ethics review committee is the most prevalent (Association of
American Medical Colleges, 2011).

Breadth and competence of ethics committees:

IRB or ethics committee review may vary as a function of the type of research
to be reviewed.  Some committees review studies in one or two disciplines

28
while others may review the entire range of human studies carried out in their
institution. Ethics Committees should be familiar with the different types of
research methods and the ethical issues related to methods and projects they
review.  Some types of research commonly have method-specific ethical
issues.  For example, when the research demands that full information cannot
be disclosed without compromising the research, the informed consent
process must be modified if the research is to proceed as designed and plans
for debriefing at the conclusion of the study must be assessed.

Some behavioral and social scientists maintain that the Belmont Principles
were developed in the context of biomedical research and that they are not
readily applicable to behavioral/social research. More specifically, the
objection voiced is that many IRBs lack adequate competence to review
behavioral/social research. Although behavioral/social research often is
minimal risk, the probability and level of risk needs to be assessed.

Community Representation and Engagement

Some think that we need new human protections models that incorporate
deliberate community engagement.  Community representatives on scientific
and ethics review committees may feel intimidated by the other members.
Use of research materials may change over time.  Would robust community
advisory boards that oversee data repositories and biobanks add protections
and improve human welfare?

Scope/Applicability of the Regulations

The US Regulations for protection of human subjects apply only to federally
supported or conducted research.  Most research in this country is not
federally supported.  Therefore, there is a large amount of research activity
that is not required to comply with the Federal Regulations.  Many
organizations have elected to comply and even to become accredited by the
AAHRP, but not all.  Several Congresses have introduced legislation to extend
the scope of human protections to all research but to date the legislation has
not passed.

Mission Creep
IRBs were established to protect human subjects in research. Some
committees review the quality of the science as part of their mission. There is
debate about whether this is appropriate.
Research that is not sound scientifically is unlikely to result in trustworthy
findings. Therefore, such research may be a disservice to public health, policy
and general knowledge, and to future studies that are based on its outcomes.

Research that is scientifically unsound also reflects a lack of

respect for participants whose time is wasted, for animals and
for other research resources, including research staff. However,
there is disagreement within the scientific community about
whether IRBs should engage in scientific review. Some argue

29
 that institutional scientific review and/or study section review
are sufficient. Others argue that if scientific flaws are noted, they
should be addressed as a condition of IRB approval. Moreover, in
some settings and in the developing world, there may be no
scientific review other than that provided by the research ethics
committee.

The Illinois White Paper (2007), identified many concerns about IRBs and the
extent to which they fulfill their mission. They argue that some types of
research should not require IRB review, that The Belmont Report definitions of
research, minimal risk and benefit are vague and limited, that the IRB system
has become bogged down in procedural matters, that empirical research on
IRBs is lacking, and that changes are in order.

Conflict of Interest
Some claim that institutional committees have an inherent conflict of interest
because external research funds that benefit the institution are contingent on
IRB approval of the research.  Review by free-standing committees to avoid
this conflict is an alternative but is much less commonly used in the US,
especially if the free-standing committee is a for-profit organization.  Aside
from institutional conflicts of interest, investigators may have individual
financial conflicts of interest, personal conflicts of interest, and professional
conflicts of interest that may affect their behavior as reviewers of manuscripts
and funding applications.  IRBs may be assigned the task of identifying and
managing conflicts, especially financial conflicts of interest, in addition to their
other responsibilities.

Cost and Burden

There is general agreement that the US ethics review system is expensive,
weighed down by procedural requirements, and time-consuming for all
involved.  Yet, we do not know how well human participants are protected or
how consistent that protection is across institutions and research projects. 
Some good research on this issue would be a major contribution.

The proposed changes to the Common Rule address many of these issues.  A
table summarizing the proposed changes and the rationale underlying them
has been prepared by OHRP (US Department of Health & Human Services,
2011).

Scientific Integrity
No matter how good the system to protect human, animal and environmental
welfare and encourage ethical behavior, the actual conduct of research cannot
be monitored all of the time. Investigators and their research teams need to be
trusted to behave appropriately. There are bound to be breaches, some
intentional and frank misconduct and others the outcome of sloppy practices,
poor supervision and/or error. Unethical practices led to the establishment of
research ethics commissions and the regulations that have the force of law to

30
govern research. Concerns about scientific misconduct resulted in the
establishment of a federal Office of Research Integrity (ORI) as well as policies
to encourage ethical research and other responsible conduct. The Office of
Research Integrity engages in education, research, and investigations as well as
imposes sanctions for scientific misconduct. The definition of scientific
misconduct and the US federal policy governing it is available at the Office of
Research Integrity and at the Federal Register.

Of the allegations made to the Office of Research Integrity, about 2% result in

findings of scientific misconduct, i.e. fabrication, falsification or plagiarism.
Misbehavior that does not fit the definition of scientific misconduct is more
frequent. In a meta-analysis, Fanelli, 2009 reported that up to 72% of
respondents report that they have direct knowledge of questionable research
practices.

Scientific Integrity
Responsible science requires integrity with respect to:
 Ethical principles and behavior;
 Intellectual input;
 Data collection, management, retention, analyses, reporting, sharing
and ownership;
 Use of resources (equipment, time, training and supervision);
 Respecting human/animal subjects, colleagues and collaborators;
 Publication and authorship practices;
 Reviewing and editing;
 Disclosing interests, avoiding or managing conflicts of interest; and
 Teaching, mentoring and supervising.

Scientific Integrity, Honesty, and Respect for Persons

Research design and methods need to be appropriate to the topics
studied and to the hypotheses being tested.  If not, the research is a
waste of time and resources, disrespectful to subjects, staff and the
scientific enterprise.  Careful preparation of the research plan and peer
review help assure that the results will be scientifically valid and
reliable.  Data acquisition needs to be methodologically appropriate,
transparent, be carried out by well-trained and supervised data
collectors and only after all required approvals have been obtained. 
Plans for data retention must be detailed, and for research involving
humans, the consent process must make clear whether the data will be
retained, how and for how long, whether it will be kept with identifiers
or not, and how confidentiality will be protected. Who will have access
during and after the research and who owns the data needs to be made
clear during the consent process.  Analyses must be scientifically valid
and appropriate to what participants consented to. 

31
Example:

A junior scientist works with his group to prepare a grant application on which
his boss is the Principal Investigator (PI). The application is funded. The junior
scientist is shocked when his boss informs him that there is no role for him in
the research and that he will not be supported by the grant. He alleges that
the application showcased his ideas, methodological innovations and prior
discoveries in the preliminary research section. He maintains that the
application would not have been funded without his substantive contributions
and alleges plagiarism on the part of the Principal Investigator. Is there
substance to this allegation of scientific misconduct?

This junior scientist does not know that contributing to the preparation of a
grant application does not obligate the Principal Investigator to support any or
all the contributors. Whether or not there is plagiarism depends on whether
the PI is found to present the work of others as his own or gives appropriate
attribution and citations. There does seem to be a communications failure
between the PI and junior scientists.

Authorship
The most frequent allegations of unethical behavior received by federal
officials involve authorship.  In some disciplines it is customary for senior
investigators who run labs or departments but who have had little to do with
the conduct of the research, to be listed as first or last author.  In other
disciplines, such as psychology, that is considered unethical. Honorary
authorship is not appropriate. Criteria for authorship are defined by
disciplinary codes of ethics and by journals and require a substantive
intellectual input to the research. Some journals, e.g. Science, require that
authors specify their contribution and verify that they have read the paper and
reviewed the data, that the report is accurate and that any and all interests are
disclosed (Science, 2011;  International Committee of Medical Journal Editors,
2009; American Psychological Association, 2011).

Example:

A doctoral student has completed her research and has written four
manuscripts that she plans to submit to a top journal. She has acknowledged
help from her advisor and research staff. She shares the manuscript with her
mentor and department chair. Her mentor applauds the work, considers it
important, and informs her that the department chair and he will co-author
the papers. The student is appalled because the department chair has made no
contribution to research. Her mentor provided guidance but did not contribute
to the main ideas or methods. He did make facilities and equipment available
and read earlier drafts of the papers. The student is concerned that if she does
not acquiesce, her degree may be in jeopardy. If she does agree to co-
authorship, she feels that she being unethical.

32
What should she do?

Issues surrounding authorship, acknowledgments, publication policies,

disclosure of bias and interests and handling misconduct allegations are
common to all kinds of research, regardless of methodology or content. When
research involves large teams, publication committees with clear policies
about these topics are the norm. Whatever the arrangements, they should be
spelled out in advance and procedures to resolve conflicts need to be in place.
Best practices can be identified by consulting institutional policies, professional
societies’ ethical codes, and the uniform guidelines of the International
Committee of Medical Journal Editors Investigators should agree early in their
research planning who does what and who will be authors.

Peer Review
Contributing to the scientific enterprise by serving on advisory committees
when invited and, as a peer reviewer for research applications and publications
is a civic obligation of scientists. In such roles it is critical to be intellectually
honest, allocate adequate time and energy to the task, maintain confidentiality
and avoid real or apparent conflicts of interest. The quality of science is
dependent on good quality peer review. Participating in that process is an
important professional activity.

Example:

A scientific review group is discussing a grant application. One of the reviewers

mentions that since the application is not in his area, he sought advice from a
colleague, and then read his review. The chair of the review group points out
that confidentiality has been violated and proposes that the committee defer
the application for re-review.

Do you agree with the chair’s suggestion?

Mentoring and Supervising

Mentoring and supervising colleagues and students in science and ethics are
important to creating a culture of ethical conduct and scientific integrity. 
Policies and rules governing research are not intuitive and must be taught.
Standard operating procedures need to be explained so that staff knows what
to do and why it is important to adhere to the study protocol.  The scientific
community is diverse and we cannot assume common culture, values and
experiences.  Different cultures have different behavioral expectations.  To
ensure that research meets our ethical and technical standards, we must be
explicit about what those standards are.  When problems come up or when
questionable practices occur, we must teach research staff and participants to
discuss them rather than hide them.  A good mentor and research leader will
be familiar with research procedures, will review the raw data and analyses,
and address deviations that impact the research at regular team meetings,
before there are major ethical breaches and before they affect the body of

33
scientific literature.  This requires trust and the expectation that there will not
be reprisal for acknowledging errors, misbehavior and other problems.

Example:

A laboratory doing cutting edge research in a competitive area is alleged to

have published falsified data. During an inquiry several lab members are
interviewed. A scientist trained in another country tells the interviewer that
part of her responsibilities as a researcher is to confirm the hypotheses of the
senior scientist, even If doing so means manipulating some images. The junior
scientist explains her career and future employment are dependent on the
senior scientist.

Reporting Misbehavior and Suspected Misconduct

Reporting observed or suspected misbehavior is a sensitive issue. Although
there is an ethical obligation to report questionable behavior and scientific
misconduct, there is rarely a good outcome for the accused or accuser. The
person who reports a problem may be considered a troublemaker, may suffer
reprisal, and may become ostracized in the work environment. Yet, failing to
report can result in dissemination of false results on which therapies, future
research, and/or policies may be based. It also undermines trust in science and
science itself.

Example:

A postdoctoral fellow comes into the office during the weekend to pick up
something she forgot. She is surprised to see another postdoctoral fellow busy
at work, apparently doing data analyses. They chat briefly and the postdoc
explains he is there when things are quiet because he wants to finish a couple
of papers and submit them to journals. She thinks nothing of the interaction
but then realizes that she can’t recall what papers the postdoc was talking
about. She cannot identify studies that are close to ready for publication. That
week, at lab meeting, she asks the postdoc to discuss the papers he is finishing
up. Others in the group look surprised and say they did not know he was ready
to submit manuscripts. When the postdoc began talking about the papers,
others said that they had not seen the data analyses and asked to see them.
The results looked terrific – more supportive of the hypotheses than earlier
analyses. The postdoc begins to wonder whether something fishy is going on.
She discusses her concerns with her colleague later that afternoon. He
vigorously denies any wrongdoing. She reviews the data and becomes more
concerned.

What should she do?

Research Management
Few scientists are trained in management, yet good stewardship is critical to
sound outcomes, particularly when engaged in collaborative and/or multi-

34
institutional cross-disciplinary investigations. It is important for all investigators
and their teams to understand what is expected of them in all stages of the
research.

Collaborative research is well served by written agreements that

specify who has lead responsibility for:
 study structure
 each research aim or area
 ethical and safety requirements
 allocation
 training and supervision of personnel
 disclosure and management of conflicting interests
 resolution of intellectual property and inter-personal disputes
 who owns, has access to and maintains equipment
 ways in which data will be shared and managed including
depositing data to a central point for cleaning and analysis
 ways in which publications will be prioritized and how authorship
will be determined

Plans for submitting research reports and for orderly termination of research
also need to be negotiated. These all are skills that benefit from training,
supervision and experience. Conducting research ethically and with the highest
integrity requires forethought, ongoing monitoring and supervision.

Summary

Ethical principles or norms are guides to help us behave in ways that are
morally right. They may be useful in helping us to balance competing values
and to analyze ethical dilemmas. Ethical principles outlined in this chapter may
be interpreted and applied in different ways as a function of individual and
societal experiences and values. At times, even after careful consideration and
ethical analysis, the best course of action is not clear. In such situations, you
may seek consultation and then rely on your best judgment.

Education about ethics of research and scientific integrity, by reading case

analyses and by setting an example, may foster valid and reliable research.
Ethical behavior of scientists is important to public trust and to our body of
knowledge.

Scientists share the responsibility to:

 communicate that their own and other institutions value responsible
conduct of research;
 act on their own values, sense of responsibility, and moral integrity;
 teach research ethics and responsible conduct;
 uphold the policies and procedures for responsible science spelled out
by government, professional/scientific societies, journals and
institutions; and

35
  encourage the report of inappropriate behavior and schedule
continuing discussions of ethical issues and responsible conduct of
research.

What Is Research Ethics & Why Is It Important?

DEFINITION: Research ethics are the moral principles that govern
how researchers should carry out their work. These principles are used to
shape research regulations agreed by groups such as university governing
bodies, communities or governments. All researchers should follow any
regulations that apply to their work.

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for
distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto
others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct
like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the
Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the
sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms
for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other

social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong
during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human
beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms
are so ubiquitous that one might be tempted to regard them as simple
commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than
commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our
society?

One plausible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize

some common ethical norms but interpret, apply, and balance them in
different ways in light of their own values and life experiences. For example,
two people could agree that murder is wrong but disagree about the morality
of abortion because they have different understandings of what it means to be
a human being.

Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms
tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use
laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules
use similar concepts, ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal
but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and
principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last
century, many social reformers have urged citizens to disobey laws they
regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical
way of protesting laws or expressing political viewpoints.

36
Another way of defining 'ethics' focuses on the disciplines that
study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or
sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical
standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or
perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and
issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one
may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the
problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various
policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine
the ethical values and principles at stake.

Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have standards for

behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These standards also help
members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to
establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical standards
govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also
serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific
research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized
discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms.

Why Ethics in Research Is Important?

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in
research.

First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and

avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error.

Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and

coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to
collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.
For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for
authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and
confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual
property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to
receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas
stolen or disclosed prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be
held accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research
misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects’ protections, and animal
care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are
funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.

37
Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for
research. People are more likely to fund a research project if they can trust the
quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other

important moral and social values, such as social responsibility, human rights,
animal welfare, compliance with the law, and public health and safety. Ethical
lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students,
and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial
may harm or even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by
regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological safety may
jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.

Ethical Principles
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that
various codes address:

Honesty
Strive for honesty in all scientific
communications. Honestly report data,
results, methods and procedures, and
publication status. Do not fabricate,
falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not
deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.

Objectivity

38
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected
or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal
or financial interests that may affect research.

Integrity
Keep your promises and agreements;
act with sincerity; strive for consistency
of thought and action.

Carefulness
Avoid careless errors and negligence;
carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers.
Keep good records of research
activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence
with agencies or journals.

Openness
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to
criticism and new ideas.

Intellectual Property
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give proper
acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to
research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality
Protect confidential communications,
such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records,
trade or military secrets, and patient
records.

39
Responsible Publication
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance
just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring
Help to educate, mentor, and advise
students. Promote their welfare and
allow them to make their own
decisions.

Respect for Colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility
Strive to promote social good and
prevent or mitigate social harms
through research, public education,
and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination
Avoid discrimination against colleagues
or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity, or other factors not related
to scientific competence and integrity.

Competence
Maintain and improve your own
professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and
learning; take steps to promote
competence in science as a whole.

Legality

40
 Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care
Show proper respect and care for
animals when using them in research.
Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly
designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects protection

When conducting research on human
subjects minimize harms and risks and
maximize benefits; respect human
dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take
special precautions with vulnerable
populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of
research fairly.

Research Misconducts
What are research misconducts?
(a) Fabrication - making up data or results and recording or reporting them.
(b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting
data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the
research record.
(c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results,
or words without giving appropriate credit.
(d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of
opinion.

Key Ethical Considerations When Doing Research

1.) Informed Consent

Whenever possible investigators should obtain the consent of participants. In
practice, this means it is not sufficient to simply get potential participants to say
“Yes”. They also need to know what it is that they are agreeing to. In other
words, the psychologist should, so far as is practicable explain what is involved
in advance and obtain the informed consent of participants.

41
Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the participants what
the research is about, and then ask their consent (i.e. permission) to take part.
An adult (18 years +) capable of giving permission to participate in a study can
provide consent. Parents/legal guardians of minors can also provide consent to
allow their children to participate in a study.

However, it is not always possible to gain informed consent. Where it is

impossible for the researcher to ask the actual participants, a similar group of
people can be asked how they would feel about taking part. If they think it
would be OK then it can be assumed that the real participants will also find it
acceptable. This is known as presumptive consent. However, a problem with
this method is that there might there be a mismatch between how people think
they would feel/behave and how they actually feel and behave during a study?

In order that consent be ‘informed’, consent forms may need to be

accompanied by an information sheet for participants setting out information
about the proposed study (in lay terms) along with details about the
investigators and how they can be contacted.

Sample Informed Consent Form for a Psychological Study © Wagner College, https://wagner.edu

2.) Debriefing
After the research is over the participant
should be able to discuss the procedure and

42
the findings with the psychologist. They must be given a general idea of what
the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should
be explained.

Participants must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why. They
must be asked if they have any questions and those questions should be answered
honestly and as fully as possible.

Debriefing should take place as soon as possible and be as full as possible;

researchers should take reasonable steps to ensure that participants understand
debriefing.

3.) Protection of Participants

Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will not be caused
distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means you
must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants.

Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life, i.e. participants
should not be exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in
their normal lifestyles.

The researcher must also ensure that if vulnerable groups are to be used (elderly,
disabled, children, etc.), they must receive special care. For example, if studying
children, make sure their participation is brief as they get tired easily and have a
limited attention span.

Researchers are not always accurately able to predict the risks of taking part in a
study and in some cases, a therapeutic debriefing may be necessary if participants
have become disturbed during the research (as happened to some participants in
Zimbardo’s prisoners/guards study).

4.) Deception
This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about the aims of the
research. Types of deception include (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. using
confederates, staged manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions; (ii)
deception by omission, e.g., failure to disclose full information about the study, or
creating ambiguity.

The researcher should avoid deceiving participants about the nature of the research
unless there is no alternative – and even then this would need to be judged
acceptable by an independent expert. However, there are some types of research
that cannot be carried out without at least some element of deception.

For example, in Milgram’s study of obedience, the participants thought they there
giving electric shocks to a learner when they answered a question wrong. In reality,
no shocks were given and the learners were confederates of Milgram.

43
This is sometimes necessary in order to avoid demand characteristics (i.e. the clues
in an experiment which lead participants to think they know what the researcher is
looking for). Another common example is when a stooge or confederate of the
experimenter is used (this was the case in both the experiments carried out
by Solomon Asch).

However, participants must be deceived as little as possible, and any deception must
not cause distress.  Researchers can determine whether participants are likely to be
distressed when deception is disclosed, by consulting culturally relevant groups.  If
the participant is likely to object or be distressed once they discover the true nature
of the research at debriefing, then the study is unacceptable.

If you have gained participants’ informed consent by deception, then they will have
agreed to take part without actually knowing what they were consenting to.  The true
nature of the research should be revealed at the earliest possible opportunity, or at
least during debriefing.
Some researchers argue that deception can never be justified and object to this
practice as it (i) violates an individual’s right to choose to
participate; (ii) is a questionable basis on which to build a
discipline; and (iii) leads to distrust of psychology in the
community.

5.) Confidentiality
Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept
anonymous unless they give their full consent.  No names
must be used in a lab report.

What do we do if we find out that one of our participants did

something which should be disclosed (e.g. criminal act)?
Researchers have no legal obligation to disclose criminal acts
and have to determine which the most important consideration is: their duty to the
participant vs. duty to the wider community.

Ultimately, decisions to disclose information will have to be set in the context of the
aims of the research.

6.) Withdrawal from a Study

Participants should be given the freedom to leave a study at any time if they feel
uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data. They should be
told at the start of the study that they have the right to withdraw. They should not
have pressure placed upon them to continue if they do not want to (a guideline that
was violated in Milgram’s research).

Participants may feel they shouldn’t withdraw as this may ‘spoil’ the study. Many
participants are paid or receive course credits, they may worry they won’t get this if

44
they withdraw Even at the end of the study the participant has a final opportunity to
withdraw the data they have provided for the research.

Wrapping it Up
For a long time, researchers did not care about what happened to their study
participants as long as they were able to make discoveries. However, we have changed
this attitude today. Researchers and organizations all around the world have made a
pact to uphold the rights, safety, and dignity of participants FIRST before anything else.

In the University of the Visayas, we have our very own Level II Accredited UV
Institutional Review Board (UV-IRB) which aims to protect the welfare of research
participants. All research papers that are written with the goal of getting published
should go through the UV-IRB before data collection. IRB gives us researchers the go-
signal through the Notice to Proceed (NTP), which means that the submitted research
proposal has undergone through ethical review and has been deemed to not cause
harm, danger, risk, or injury to the participants.

As you can see on the UV-IRB Logo, there are three main ethical principles:

1. JUSTICE – Simply put, justice means that the researchers must observe their ethical
obligation to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly. The methods we
use to select research participants must also be fair. If a professor requires her
students to participate in an actual research study and threatens them with a failing
grade if they don’t agree, this would be a huge violation of the ethical principle of
justice.

2. RESPECT – The principle of respect is the reason why it is VERY important for
researchers to obtain informed consent first. We do not want participants who were
only forced to join the study.

We respect people’s free will. If they say that they do not want to participate, then we
as researchers should not force them to do so. Additionally, if our study involves
vulnerable populations (such as sick people, the elderly, young children, prisoners,
survivors of war, people with trauma, or people with mental health issues), then it is
our duty to make sure that they are protected before, during, and right after the study
ends.

3. BENEFICENCE - This principle tells researchers that we should NEVER inflict or bring
about unnecessary harm to our research participants, and that we should promote
their own wellbeing as much as possible. If you are doing an experiment to test the
effectiveness of a new drug for example, you must first make sure that there are no
toxic or deadly side effects that could affect those participants negatively.

Research Ethics & Misconduct: What Researchers Need to

Know
45
Ethics are the moral principles that a person must follow, irrespective of the place or
time. Behaving ethically involves doing the right thing at the right time. Research
ethics focus on the moral principles that researchers must follow in their respective
fields of research.

Why Do Ethics Matter?

Ethical decision making in academic research focuses on providing maximum benefits
to the participants. Following ethical principles is indeed crucial for maintaining
research integrity.

Research misconduct can have dire consequences. For instance, surgeon Paolo

Macchiarini conducted experiments on patients without sound preclinical data. He
worked on artificial transplantation of trachea within several patients, which turned
out to be path breaking in medical history. However, it was all based on lies
and fabricated data. Most of the patients who took part in his trial (seven of nine) died.
He altered his published results to make it look as if his trachea transplant work was
more successful than it really was. This was a severe consequence of the breach of
research ethics.

The Nuremberg Code

One of the more famous ethical guidelines followed in medical research is the
Nuremberg Code. Using the Nuremberg Code shows a commitment to respect
research participants. The terrible experiments conducted by the Nazis during the
Second World War inspired the formulation of the Nuremberg Code. These
experiments often resulted in severe injury or death. In addition, none of the
participants were allowed to decide upon whether or not they would like to
participate. Many experiments were not done with any therapeutic aim in mind. The
Nuremberg Code addresses all of these things.

Making Ethical Decisions

There are some core principles that guide ethical decision making. Firstly, you must
be committed to ethical principles. This means choosing an ethical behavior even if it
delays your work or means not getting published quickly in a prestigious journal.

Next, you must determine the authenticity of the facts. It is important to evaluate the
credibility of the information before taking any decisions regarding the research.
Create a list of actions you could take and evaluate the consequences of each one.
Make a final choice that seeks to minimize harm and build trust. Ethical decision
making also affects how you report research data and who can be considered an
author.
Ethics governs not just the treatment provided to the research participants but also to
the researchers. Any researcher who contributes substantially to a research project or
paper needs to get credit. This holds true even if the researcher is a student. This is
usually done by naming him/her as an author on the final paper. It is best to have this

46
discussion before writing the research paper. That way, everyone involved can have
their say. A person should not be included as an author because of his/her position in
the institute. For example, the head of a department should only be included as one of
the authors of the paper, if he/she did substantial work for the paper.

Researchers need to ensure that they do not wield undue influence over others. A
professor may want to recruit his or her students for a study. In this case, he or she
must make it clear that participation is voluntary, not compulsory. Moreover, no
student must feel pressured to participate.

Research Participants Must Be Aware

Informed consent is a key principle of research ethics. It is important that the person
who is invited to be part of the research understands both the benefits and the risks
involved. They must have all the information that could affect their decision to
participate. Each potential research participant should know:
 Why the study is being done, how long it will last, and what methods will be
used
 Whether they have the right to not participate or to leave the study at any
time
 What are the possible risks or benefits involved, if any
 What are the limits of confidentiality (circumstances under which their identity
might be revealed)
 Whom they can contact for their queries.

Different Research Ethics for Different Disciplines

There are general codes of ethics for different disciplines. You can use the  Declaration
of Helsinki for biomedical research. There are even ethics guidelines for internet
researchers and psychologists.

Regardless of the discipline, all ethical guidelines seek to maximize good and minimize
ill effects. Research ethics, therefore, require that all participants provide voluntary

47
informed consent. All research must seek to answer questions that will benefit
humanity. The risks must be minimized as far as humanly possible.

Principles of Research Ethics

There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when
performing undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these
ethical principles stress the need to (a) do good (known as beneficence) and (b) do no
harm (known as non-malfeasance). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a
researcher, you need to: (a) obtain informed consent from potential research
participants; (b) minimize the risk of harm to participants; (c) protect
their anonymity and confidentiality; (d) avoid using deceptive practices; and (e) give
participants the right to withdraw from your research. This article discusses these five
ethical principles and their practical implications when carrying out dissertation
research.

When you look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your
dissertation should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not
possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants.
Similarly, there may be instances where you seek permission from
participants not to protect their anonymity. More often than not, such choices
should reflect the research strategy that you adopt to guide your dissertation.

Broadly speaking, your dissertation research should not only aim to do
good (i.e., beneficence), but also avoid doing any harm (i.e., non-malfeasance).
Whilst ethical requirements in research can vary across countries, these are the basic
principles of research ethics. This is important not only for ethical reasons, but
also practical ones, since a failure to meet such basic principles may lead to your
research being (a) criticized, potentially leading to a lower mark, and/or (b) rejected
by your supervisor or Ethics Committee, costing you valuable time. In the sections
that follow, we discuss the five of the main practical ethical principles that stem from
these basic principles. Each of these basic principles of research ethics is discussed in
turn:

 PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimizing the risk of harm

 PRINCIPLE TWO: Obtaining informed consent
 PRINCIPLE THREE: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
 PRINCIPLE FOUR: Avoiding deceptive practices
 PRINCIPLE FIVE: Providing the right to withdraw

PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimizing the risk of harm

Dissertation research should not harm participants. Where there is the
possibility that participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort,
there must be strong justifications for this. Such scenarios will also
require (a) additional planning to illustrate how participant harm (or
discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed consent, and (c) detailed debriefing.

48
There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These
include:
 Physical harm to participants.
 Psychological distress and discomfort.
 Social disadvantage.
 Harm to participants? Financial status.
 An invasion of participants? Privacy and anonymity.
Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not
intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should try to
minimize. In order to minimizing the risk of harm you should think about:
 Obtaining informed consent from participants.
 Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.
 Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
 Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any
time.

We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow,

explaining (a) what they mean and (b) instances where they should (and should not)
be followed.

PRINCIPLE TWO: Obtaining informed consent

One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent. Simply
put, informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are
taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them. Such information
may include the purpose of the research, the methods being used, the possible
outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands, discomforts,
inconveniences and risks that the participants may face. Whilst is it not possible to
know exactly what information a potential participant would (or would not) want to
know, you should aim not to leave out any material information; that is,
information that you feel would influence whether consent would (or would not) be
granted.

Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants should

be volunteers, taking part without having been coerced and deceived. Where
informed consent cannot be obtained from participants, you must explain why this is
the case. You should also be aware that there are instances informed consent is not
necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed. These include
certain educational, organizational and 
naturalistic research settings. We discuss these in more detail under the
section: Avoiding deceptive practices.

PRINCIPLE THREE: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality

Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another
practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will typically only be
willing to volunteer information, especially information of a private or sensitive
nature, if the researcher agrees to hold such information in confidence. Whilst it is
possible that research participants may be hurt in some way if the data collection

49
methods used are somehow insensitive, there is perhaps a greater danger that harm
can be caused once data has been collected. This occurs when data is not treated
confidentially, whether in terms of the storage of data, its analysis, or during the
publication process (i.e., when submitting your dissertation to be marked). However,
this does not mean that all data collected from research participants needs to be kept
confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the identity and views of
individuals at various stages of the research process (from data collection through to
publication of your dissertation). Nonetheless, permissions should be sought before
such confidential information is disclosed.
An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names, geographical
cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However, such a stripping
of identifiable information may not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of
your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is not only a
consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design, but also
a quantitative research design [for more information, see the article: Research
strategy and research ethics].

For example:

Imagine that your dissertation used a quantitative research design and

a survey as your main research method. In the process of analyzing your data, it is
possible that when examining relationships between variables (i.e., questions in your
survey), a person's identity and responses could be inferred. For instance, imagine
that you were comparing responses amongst employees within an organization based
on specific age groups. There may only be a small group (or just one employee) within
a particular age group (e.g., over 70 years old), which could enable others to identify
the responses of this individual (or small group of employees).

Therefore, you need to consider ways of overcoming such problems, such

as: (a) aggregating data in tables and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number
of units are present before data/information can be presented.

A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to be

restricted to the published material, perhaps only allowing it to be viewed by those
individuals marking your work. If the work is later published, adjustments would then
need to be made to protect the confidentiality of participants.

There are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what
research you can and cannot perform, how you must treated the data of research
participants, and so forth. In other words, you don’t simply have a duty to protect the
data you collect from participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal
responsibility to do so. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask your
dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice (or a legal professional).

PRINCIPLE FOUR: Avoiding deceptive practices

At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent. After all, how
can participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the

50
research requires of them if they are being deceived? This is part of what makes the
use of deceptive practices controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances,
dissertation research should avoid any kinds of deceptive practices. However, this is
not always the case.

Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research, which can be

justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of the
observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants. Cases
where you may choose to engage in covert research may include instances where:
It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing.

Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the

particular phenomenon that is being studied.

Let's take each of these in turn:

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are
doing

By feasibility, we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean
that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting know
what you are doing. This is most likely to be the case where research
involves observation, rather than direct contact with participants, especially in
a public or online setting. There are a number of obvious instances where this may be
the case:
 Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.
 Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to work,
etc.).

Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply be
impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You
may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices, but clearly participants
are not giving you their informed consent.

Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the

particular phenomenon that is being studied
Where observations or a participants? Knowledge of the true purpose of the research
have the potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are interested in, this is
a major concern in terms of the quality of your findings.

Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and

possibly deceptive practices, you should think about the extent to which this could be
beneficial in your dissertation, not research in general; that is, everything from
the research paradigm that guides your dissertation through to the data analysis
techniques you choose affect issues of research ethics in your dissertation [see the
article: Research strategy and research ethics].

51
Imagine some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered
justifiable:

Scenario A
You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice. Whilst participants are
given a questionnaire to complete that measures their prejudice, it is not obvious from
the questions that this is the case. Furthermore, participants are not told that the
research is about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. After
all, few people would be happy if other people thought they were prejudice. As a result,
if participants knew that this is the purpose of the study, they may well provide
responses that they think will make them appear less prejudice.

Scenario B
You are interested in understanding the organizational culture in a single firm. You feel
that observation would be an appropriate research method in such a naturalistic
setting. However, you feel that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they
may behave in a different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to  go
undercover or provide a story to explain why you are there, which is not the truth.

Whilst such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where

used intentionally, can be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they have a
place in research.

PRINCIPLE FIVE: Providing the right to withdraw

With the exception of those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let
everyone that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should
always have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore,
participants should have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process.
When a participant chooses to withdraw from the research process, they should not
be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop them from withdrawing.

If your supervisor and/or Ethics Committee expect you to complete an Ethics

Consent Form, it is likely that you will have to let participants know that they have the
right to withdraw at any time [see the article: Ethics consent form].

Dos and Don'ts of Writing an Engaging Study Background

While presenting your research findings, it is important for you to introduce your topic
and set the context for your research. Your readers should know why your research
topic is important and how it will contribute to the development of knowledge in your
field. You need to establish the background of your study in the Introduction section of
your research paper such that it prompts the readers to read the rest of your paper.
There are some mistakes researchers commonly make when writing their study
background. This infographic will help you avoid these mistakes and also equip you with
tips for writing an engaging study background.

52
While the findings of your study form the foreground of your research, it is equally
important to establish the background of your study. A well-written background will
provide your study with a context and prompt the readers to read the rest of your
paper.

However, most authors struggle with writing the background of the study. Another
common problem authors encounter is distinguishing between the background and
the literature review, which are critical aspects of any research paper. The two terms
are often used interchangeably; however, they have clearly defined roles. So in this
article, I will cover the basics of writing the background and explain how it is different
from the literature review.

53
The background of the study
The background of the study establishes the context of the research. This section
explains why this particular research topic is important and essential to understanding
the main aspects of the study. Usually, the background forms the first section of a
research article/thesis and justifies the need for conducting the study and summarizes
what the study aims to achieve.

How to structure the background

In this section, the author usually outlines the historical developments in the literature
that led to the current topic of research concisely. If the study is interdisciplinary, it
should describe how different disciplines are connected and what aspects of each
discipline will be studied.

Additionally, authors should briefly highlight the main developments of their research
topic and identify the main gaps that need to be addressed. In other words, this section
should give an overview of your study. The section should be organized as:
 What is known about the broad topic?
 What are the gaps or missing links that need to be addressed? 
 What is the significance of addressing those gaps?
 What are the rationale and hypothesis of your study?

The background section, therefore, should provide general information about the topic
of your research and emphasize the main aims of the study. Please ensure that you only
discuss the main and relevant aspects of the studies that have led to your aims. Do not
elaborate on them as this should be done in the literature review section. The
background section should discuss your findings in a chronological manner to
accentuate the progress in the field and the missing points that need to be addressed.
The background should be written as a summary of your interpretation of previous
research and what your study proposes to accomplish.

How to make the background engaging

As the background includes a lot of information, it can become a long drag, causing the
readers to lose interest. To ensure that your background is engaging, you should try to
build a story around the central theme of your research.

Ensure that the story adheres to the core idea and does not digress into a broad
literature review. Each idea should lead to the next so that readers are able to grasp the
story and themselves identify the gaps that your study is going to address.

How to avoid common mistakes in writing the background

While writing an effective background, you ought to steer clear of some mistakes. The
most common mistakes in writing the background include the following:
 Don’t write a background that is too long or too short. Focus on including all the
important details but write concisely.  

54
  Don’t be ambiguous. Writing in a way that does not convey the message to the
readers defeats the purpose of the background, so express yourself keeping in
mind that the reader does not know your research intimately.  
 Don’t discuss unrelated themes. Try and center your discussion around the
pivotal aspects of your research topic i.e. highlight the gaps in the literature,
state the novelty of the study, and the need to conduct the study.
 Don’t be disorganized. Not discussing the themes in a chronological manner
can confuse the reader about the progress in the field, so try and organize your
writing carefully.

How is the background different from the literature review?  

 
Many authors find it difficult to discern the difference between the literature review
and the study background. The literature review section should follow the background
section, as the second section of your manuscript/thesis. This section basically
supports the background section by providing evidence for the proposed hypothesis.
This section should be more comprehensive and thoroughly describe all the studies
that you have mentioned in the background section. It should also elaborate on all
studies that form evidence for the present study and discuss the current trends.

To write this section, you will need to do a thorough literature search on different
studies that relate to the broad topic of your research. This will introduce the readers
to the area of your research. Following this, you should present a more focused survey
of the specific studies that are associated with the precise objective of your study. It
would be ideal to organize them thematically and discuss them chronologically so that
readers are aware of the evolution and progress in the field. In other words, separate
themes should be discussed chronologically to highlight how research in those fields
has progressed over time. This will highlight what has been done and what are the
future directions that need to be worked upon.

Do’s and Don’ts in an Undergraduate Research

Project

55
 Here are some tips of the do’s and don’ts in a final year university research project
under some important subtopics. This is to get a rough idea on your very first
research project.

1. Your Goal in Doing a Research If the goal is just to complete the degree then your risk
level would be low. Take a commonly done research
topic and justify the minimum level of requirements
that will be expected by the supervisors and a panel of
judges.

If the goal is to get good results then your risk level

is medium. You can either take a commonly done
research topic and do it in a different way by using
different methodologies and technologies. Else you
can pick a new topic from a well-known domain and
do research with some decent amount of work.

If the goal is to get some learning experience and do

some actual contribution to the chosen domain, then
your risk level is high. You can pick a domain which is
very rare in terms of research and start everything from
[Source: https://s3.amazonaws.com/lowres.cartoonstock.com/history- scratch. It takes quite a bit of time and effort to
cave-cavemen-evolve-paleontology-invented-rman7563_low.jpg]
complete it. Another risk factor in this criteria is that
you cannot predict the final outcome of the research
What is your goal in doing a research project? Is it whether it’d be a success or a failure. Nevertheless, it
only to get good results? Or for a learning will be a great experience for you especially if you are
experience? Or just for the sake of doing it in order planning to do higher studies in some well-known
to complete your degree? universities with scholarships. If you are ready to invest

56
It’s up for you to decide this. Whatever the reason the majority of your time and effort into your research
is, you have to face this challenge. Based on your and do a genuine work then you can get good learning
goal, your effort will vary to person to person and experiences with good grades and honestly contribute
based on the effort the results would also vary. to the research society.
Simple as that!
So set your goal now itself; start planning and align
your work accordingly.

2. Choosing Your Team

If your research is a group work then choosing your
team members is a very important task you should
concern about. You guys are going to work as a team
for another at least an year of time (the time may
vary depending on the university). So it is important
to form a team with players of the same mindset
and interests.

The knowledge level, capabilities and work
quality may differ from player to player but
everyone should have the same goal in doing the
project.

[Source: https://s3.amazonaws.com/lowres.cartoonstock.com/business- Most of the times it will be the case where 1 or 2

commerce-cooperative_working-sharing-work-workers-employee-
forn1003_low.jpg] members will be working the most and others will
be showing their presence only on days of
presentation and viva. That’s not a fair deal.
work. So everyone should contribute in order to claim Obviously, not everyone can do all the work but the
the success and results of the research. workload should be shared in a reasonable manner.
Because at the end of the research, it will go as an
Distributing the workload based on the individual’s effort of the group and not as an individual’s
capabilities will reduce the conflicts and result in Because a strong leadership wouldn’t allow
quality work. Always update your teammates on the unwanted problems to occur within the team and
things you do, what you are planning to do and things solves the problems in a team if there are any. A
that are blocking you from finishing tasks. leader should be unbiased and know how to make
Communicating on right time saves a lot of time and everyone work on time. The team members also
reduces the amount of work to be re-done. If should corporate with the leader to do the things as
someone is struggling, do help them out and if you planned.
need any help ask your teammates to help you. That’s
how you build the team spirit. Some tasks don’t directly connect with your marks.
Such as updating the project progress to your
Don’t give excuses for the work you are liable for. supervisor, report documents’ formatting,
Assign a responsible person to be your leader who can conducting interviews, preparing questionnaires for
communicate well within the team as well as with your primary research, etc. So, most of the time
your supervisors. teammates try not to get involved in such tasks since
there aren’t any marks to be rewarded for such
tasks. But remember these tasks are the ones that
help you to climb up to the next level in your ladder.

57
 So don’t put all the burdens onto one person’s
shoulder. Be genuine to yourself and help your team
members to accomplish those tasks without any
struggles.

3. Choosing Your Supervisor

Most of the times you get the opportunity to choose
your supervisor. Even before you were given the
opportunity to select your supervisor do some
personal research about the professors and
lecturers in your university. Know their subject
domain, if they are available whenever you want to
meet them or whether they respond to their
students promptly through emails, messages and
phone calls. It is also important to know how they
have treated their previous groups in past years. Get
[Source: https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/sites.psu.edu/
dist/4/28732/files/2015/08/phd090310s-funnyone.gif] those contacts and ask about those supervisors for
further details. Doing such background work will
help you to pick the right person as your supervisor.

Majority of students face difficulties in getting scenarios, get the help from your seniors on the
connected with their supervisors and in worse cases things you have to do. Don’t depend on anyone but
they even get into some conflicts with them. The main just be aware of what to do next.
reason is the lack of communication between the
team and the supervisor. Either the supervisor doesn’t The supervisor you choose should have good
show any interest in the research or the students domain knowledge of your research and should be
don’t take it in a serious manner and do the things aware of the trending technologies. If not at least
that were said by their supervisor. This is your they should have the contacts from whom they can
research, not your supervisor’s. So it’s your get ideas and share with you duly. Because as your
responsibility to update things to your supervisor and very first research project you would definitely seek
get the maximum support from them. some good guidance and your supervisor should be
a good guide for you. They also need to be updated
Sometimes, the students might be very interested in with the conferences and competitions that are
doing their research but supervisors don’t pay much relevant to your research.
attention due to their other commitments. In such

4. Do Your Work On Time Don’t postpone things that you have to do. Have your
own schedule and do your work on time and allocate
some amount of time for you to recheck your work.
Spend a lot of time searching for things in your domain
and if you think you need to learn several technologies
don’t hesitate to learn them. Just keep in mind that in
research you can’t only depend on the things you’ve
already know. Research is all about finding and learning
things that you might have not even heard about. So be

58
 open to learning things even in a short time of period,
prepare yourself for that.

[Source: http://mrpearce.weebly.com/uploads/5/7/4/9/57491703/858
5582_orig.png]

Sometimes you might have to build a solution from Another bitter truth in research is that you can’t always
scratch but sometimes you don’t have to re-invent expect everything to happen according to your plan. In
the wheel. Find the existing solutions and make use research you should prepare yourself to expect the
of them. Try to be more innovative and come up unexpected things. Sometimes you might have planned
with some improvements that you think you might to do a component using image processing technologies
add on to those existing solutions. Read as much as but after doing several readings and search you will figure
you can and don’t hesitate to practically implement out that doing that component using machine learning
the findings and analyze them. That helps you to technologies is better than the decision you made at the
face your presentations and viva with loads of very beginning. So the research journey is not a straight
confidence. line all the time. You have to switch paths to accomplish
the journey in a successful manner.

5. Tackling the panel This is something very important and interesting too.
Sometimes it’s only your supervisor who will be marking
all your research work. But in some cases, you might have
to face a panel of judges who will be assessing your work.
In such cases, you have to explain your entire research
from the beginning to the panel. Sometimes they might
not get your idea at the first point, or they might have
their own ideas which they might expect you to include in
your research. So you have to prepare your presentations
in a way that they’ll understand it without any difficulties
and be open for their ideas and suggestions.

[Source: https://static.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pub/images/
phineasandferb13_7088.png]

Keep in mind that not all the panels will have judges A tip to handle viva questions is to make each of your
from your research domain. So you may have to face members to explain their research component to your
some difficulties in handling the panel as they are team and let the others ask possible questions from those
the ones who will be deciding on your grades and components. By doing this everyone will get to know
the results of your research. Therefore, be smart each other’s’ components as well as you can prepare for
enough to tackle them and prove what you have viva questions that might be asked by the panel. You can
planned to do so. even prepare separate slides to answer those questions.
This will show that you are well prepared for the
Provide as much evidence to accompany your evaluation and you have already thought about those

59
statements and be prepared for your viva questions. aspects of your research. This creates a good image of
your team in the view of the panel which will make things
less complicated.

6. Preparing your thesis and research papers When submitting your research paper for a
conference they will instruct you on the page
limitations. Mostly its 6 pages but depending on
the conference the page limitation might differ.
When sending your research paper for a
conference check for the conference’s h-index.
Higher the h-index of a conference, higher the
reputation. Also, check for the organizing
committee of that particular conference.
Because in some case, those who conduct the
[Source: https://i.chzbgr.com/full/8082013696/hC4FFEFD2/] conference don’t really organize the conference
in a professional manner. So read on those
The ultimate goal of doing your undergraduate research conference’s past events and decide. (In order
should be to publish a good research paper in a reputed to publish your research paper in IEEE Xplore,
conference or a journal and also to produce a quality the conference must be an IEEE conference and
thesis. Go through similar research papers and theses of at least one of the authors should present the
your topic and understand the structure. research paper in the respective conference).

Let it be a research paper or a thesis, always

structure your article and write to the point.
Unnecessary elaborations and narrations make
your article look less professional and they
might reduce the quality of your work. So try to
be more professional when writing such
technical documents and always find a
professional who can do proofreading for your
documents.

Remember to follow the citation rules based on

the type of citation required by the conference
or the university. Never use Wikipedia and/or
blogs as your main source for your documents.
Remember, this is your research, so write the
research papers for your recognition not for
your supervisor’s recognition. Because this is a

60
 common problem that happens in most of the
universities. Sometimes the supervisor just put
only their names for the papers that were
written by their students. So stand for your
hard-work and identity.

[Source: http://lowres.cartoonstock.com/education-teaching-school-cite-citing-
references-scholar-pjun1481_low.jpg]

FINALLY…

It’s your effort, time and hard work. At

the end of the day, you should feel
satisfied with the work you have done so
far. Not everyone gets the opportunity to
do such research. So make use of it and
get the experience which will help you in
your workplace and in your higher
studies. It’s a great opportunity to
[Source: https://i.ytimg.com/vi/yqLdCj-5FSI/hqdefault.jpg] improve your analyzing, logical and
critical thinking skills along with technical
Getting your paper being accepted at a conference is not an specialties. It also helps you to improve
easy task. You have to work on several iterations of correcting your soft skills. Don’t miss it… you’ll
your work, formatting the documents and so on. So complete definitely feel great for doing such
the research paper as soon as possible prior to the given research… Do it in a way that you don’t
deadline and do proofreading by some qualified individuals. regret in future for not doing it right. All
the best folks…

Assessment Task No. 1 (QUIZ)

Test your understanding by answering the following review questions.
To be given via Kahoot or MS Teams Form

61
1. Why are ethical issues important in research?
A. They will help me pass the assignment
B. They indicate what the researcher ought to do and how they
should treat people
C. They help the researcher write up their research
D. They indicate that all people are very sensitive

2. What is an ethics committee?

A. People who like to talk a lot
B. A group of people who think about hypothetical research
C. A group of experienced people who will consider a research
proposal and the degree to which ethical issues have been
considered appropriately
D. A group of experienced people who are useful to draw on
when writing a proposal as an optional extra

3. What (amongst other things) is now considered unethical in

Milgram’s experiments looking at obedience and authority?
A. The research participants (given role of ‘teachers’) did not know
the ‘learners’ were actors
B. The participants responded to an advert
C. The participants were all male
D. The ‘learners’ were given high voltage shocks

4. What is meant by ‘informed consent’? Please indicate the best answer

A. Telling people who you are and what you are studying
B. The ethics committee is informed about the research
C. Participants are given a clear indication what the research is
about and what their involvement would entail
D. Participants are informed about the findings of the research
at the end of the project

5. Which of the following best relates to ethical issues when researching with
babies?
A. Asking for adults’ permission to research because babies
are incapable of showing a degree of consent
B.  Getting babies to make a hand print to stand for a
signature on a consent form
C. Seeing consent and withdrawal of consent as an ongoing
issue and responding to the cues of the baby
D. Babies don’t remember so if they are upset you don’t need
to worry about it

62
6. If you are a student involved in a research project in a nursery how
would you deal with a child disclosing that her parent has hit her the
previous night?
A. Keep the information secret as to do otherwise is a breach
of confidentiality
B. Talk to the setting’s manager (or person with responsibility
for safeguarding) soon afterwards
C. Be annoyed that you will probably have to exclude the child
from the research
D. Joke with the parents, saying ‘You’ll never believe what
your child has told me…’

7. At which stages of the research process should you think about ethics?
A. When designing the questions and planning the research
B. When collecting data
C. When analyzing data
D. When writing up
E. When disseminating the research
F. All of the above

8. In research, what is a ‘gatekeeper’?

A. A nursery manager
B. A parent
C. The person who opens the gate to a nursery each morning
D. Anyone whose permission must be sought before
undertaking research

9. Anonymity, privacy, and confidentiality are only recommended for

researchers to follow.
A. True; these are only recommendations.
B. True; it is the requirement of the participants to follow and
only a recommendation for the researcher.
C.  False; these are not recommendations but requirements of
the law.
D. False; a researcher only needs to follow one of these, not all
three.

10. Responses must be kept confidential. This requires the researcher to keep
participant responses _____.
A. locked up or password protected
B. only for a short time then they must be destroyed
C. encoded in a digital format that is only accessible under the
direct supervision of the researcher
D. in a secure location at least 100 feet from the researcher's
office

63
11. What is the practice of protecting participants' personal identities and
answers by ensuring their responses cannot be linked back to them?
A. Anonymity
B. Confidentiality
C. Privacy
D. HIPAA

12. The principle of respect recognizes the capacity and rights of all
individuals to make their own decisions.
A. True
B. False

13. Consideration of any potential benefits to the communities where

the research will be conducted is not part of the beneficence principle.
A. True
B. False

14. The need to provide special protections to vulnerable persons is an

essential element of the principle of respect.
A. True
B. False

15. Protection of the research participant is more important than the

pursuit of new knowledge.
A. True
B. False
16. The principle of respect recognizes that not all persons are entitled
to the same degree of autonomy.
A. True
B. False

17. The ideal of non-maleficence requires that risks associated with

research participation must be reduced to a minimum.
A. True
B. False

18. Social and economic conditions that make persons vulnerable do

not have to be considered by researchers or sponsors.
A. True
B. False

19. Limited access to health services makes research participants

vulnerable.
A. True
B. False

64
20. Using research participants for the exclusive benefit of more
privileged groups is not ethically correct.
A. True
B. False

21. The principle of respect recognizes the dignity of all persons.

A. True
B. False

22. The progress of science justifies any research study.

A. True
B. False

23. It is acceptable to conduct research studies in low-resource

communities for the benefit of more privileged communities that pay
for the research.
A. True
B. False

24. Respect for the communities where the research will be conducted
is not currently considered an element of the principle of respect.
A. True
B. False

25. Beneficence includes physical and mental well-being, but not social
well-being.
A. True
B. False

Assessment Task No. 2 (ASSIGNMENT)

Test your understanding by doing the given group assignment.

Ethics Case Lab Reports (50 points)

TASK. Group the student into five (3). Give an ethics case as a group lab
assignment. Ask the students to discuss, and prepare a “lab report” of
their discussion.

Assessment Task No. 2 (QUIZ)

Test your understanding by doing the given task.
ESSAY: (25 points)

65
TASK: Ask each student to write a few sentences at the end of a discussion
summarizing its content and what they picked up on. 

Assessment Task No. 3 (QUIZ)

Test your understanding by doing the given task.
ESSAY: (25 points)
TASK: Ask each student to write a few sentences at the end of a discussion
summarizing its content and what they picked up on. 

Assessment Task No. 4 (Role-

playing)
Test your understanding by doing the given task.

ROLE-PLAYING: (25 points)

TASK: Each student can either be assigned a role in a situation a few
days before and try to act as they think one should in that situation.

Assessment Task No. 5

(ASSIGNMENT)
Test your understanding by doing the given task.

TASK: Have students do an ethical analysis of their class projects using

something similar to the following checklist.
 Identify stakeholders and their interests
 Identify the standards or norms they are using to make decisions
about
 Technological developments
 Economic impact
 Safety
 Public health
 Environmental impacts
 Assess whether they are adhering to the professional guidelines
 Review their project from at least three ethical perspectives.

66
 Lesson 3
CHAPTER 4. Research Results
and Analysis

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Understand the purpose of Chapter 4?

2. Learning how to improve research

writing.

3. Become familiar of what a Chapter 4

research paper should include?

67
 4. Learn to conduct a study, performed

experiments, gather and interpret

results.

5. Familiarize the content of Chapter 4 in

research?

College of Computer Studies

Bachelor of Science in Information Technology

CAPRO 2
Capstone Project 2
University of the
3 Units
Visayas
Lesson 3 WEEK NO.6-7
Module Topic CHAPTER 4. Research Results and Analysis

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Understand the purpose of Chapter 4?
Intended 2. Learning how to improve research writing.
Learning 3. Become familiar of what a Chapter 4 research paper should include?
Outcomes 4. Learn to conduct a study, performed experiments, gather and interpret results.
5. Familiarize the content of Chapter 4 in research?

No. of Hours 10 hours (8 hours self-directed learning & 2 hours of assessment tasks)
1. What is result and discussion?
2. What should a Chapter 4 research paper include?
3. How do you write a thesis results and discussion?
Study Questions 4. What is a discussion?
5. What is the purpose of Chapter 4?
6. How do you write a chapter 4 in qualitative research?
7. How do you start a discussion?
Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
 Pajo, Bora  (2017). Introduction to research methods: a hands-on
Capstone Project approach, Mercyhurst University, USA
Print
2 Module  Kothari, C.R.  & Garg, Gaurav  (2019). Research methodology:
methods and techniques (Multi Color Edition) 
Capstone Project  https://up-za.libguides.com/c.php?g=485435&p=3917773
Digital 2 Module PDF  https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/research-methods.html
Format 

68
 1. Student shall study and learn Lesson 2 on CHAPTER 4. Research Results and
Analysis. Student may refer to the suggested and other recommended learning
materials indicated in this Course Study Guide as additional reading resources.
2. While studying and learning the topics in Lesson 2, the student can now start
Learning Activity
practicing their skills by familiarizing the basics of the CHAPTER 4. Research Results
and Analysis.
3. After studying and learning the topics in Lesson 2, the student shall answer each
Assessment Task given.

Required Output Practice Test: Familiarizations of the CHAPTER 4. Research Results and Analysis

1. Quiz
Assessment Task
2. Research Assignment

Assessment Tool MS-Teams form

Target Knowledge, skills and attitudes that students develop and apply for successful learning,
Competency living and working. 

LESSON 3. Chapter 4: Results and Discussion

Introduction.

Ultimate goal of any research is to find out solution for the existing problems. Outcome
can be measured by the systematic analysis of collected information. Information can
be collect in the form of qualitative or quantitative data. Data is raw information which
can be analyzed by applying correct statistical technique. Data analysis is very crucial
stage because researchers analyze collected data and meaningfully interpret analyzed
data to infer conclusion. It is important also because we can generalize derived
conclusion to large population. In this way, findings of the study need to discuss in
relation to theory and prior researches in the area of Information and Communication
Technology. Thus, we can correlate our study with the other studies. The present
chapter deals with analysis and interpretation of the collected data during
experimentation that is followed by the fruitful discussion. Selection of appropriate
data analysis technique is very essential. Researcher has to select appropriate data
analysis technique based on the nature of data and data analysis technique. For that
researcher should have in-depth knowledge and understanding about statistical
techniques in Education. Researcher has to summarize the complete information
collected with the help of research tools and techniques and yield answer to the
research problems and the purpose of the data interpretation is to search for broader
meaning of these answers. It helps further to build proper understating and linking
solution of the problem by the readers. The main purpose of the analysis and
interpretation is to assess and determine the extent of attainment of objectives of the
research. Analysis of the research also helps the researcher to test the hypothesis of
the research study and to draw conclusion.

What is Chapter four in a Research/Thesis Project?

Chapter four of the Thesis  is given different titles “Analysis of Data”; “Results of

Study”; “Analysis and Results” and others. The two key words

69
is ‘analysis’ and ‘results’ where the researcher analyses the data collected and
presents the results in Chapter 4. ‘Analysis’ here implies the use of relevant statistical
tools usually to determine differences and relationships. 

Purpose:
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the collected data and the statistical
treatment, and/or mechanics, of analysis. The first paragraph should briefly restate the
problem, taken from Chapter 1. Explain the object of each experiment, question, or
objective, point out salient results, and present those results by table, figure, or other
form of summarized data. Select tables and figures carefully. Some studies are easier
to defend if all the raw data is in this chapter; some are better if the bulk of the raw
data is in an appendix.

In a quantitative study, the results usually begin with a description of the sample (e.g.,
sample size, description of participants who were excluded and why, handling of
missing data). Next, descriptive statistics (e.g., frequencies/percentages for categorical
variables, means, standard deviations, and ranges for continuously measured
variables) are presented.

Normality of continuously measured variables is usually presented. Address each

hypothesis in turn, presenting a description of the analysis that was computed to
address each hypothesis and the results of that analysis. State whether the null
hypothesis was rejected.
Do not repeat in tedious prose what it is obvious for a knowledgeable peer to see at a
glance.  The dissertation advisor usually has an opinion about the level of detail
needed in this chapter.  Table titles and figure captions should be understandable
without reading the chapter text. Note all relevant results, even those that were
contrary to the alternative hypotheses, or those that tend to distract from clear
determinations.

Make statements of the results without any implication, speculation, assessment,

evaluation, or interpretation. Sometimes the results and discussion are combined into
one chapter; but in general, keep the results, and the conclusions and discussion
separate.

In a qualitative study, the results often include many quotes from participants who
were interviewed.

Sometimes students spend so much time collecting and analyzing the data but when it
comes to reporting they do not do a good job. Some students ‘sell short’ by under-
reporting the data they have collected and analyzed. They fail to tease out valuable
and relevant information and present it in Chapter 4. In some instances, the
presentation of the data is not clear even though Chapter 1, Chapter 2 and Chapter 3
are well written.

Chapter 4 is perhaps the most important chapter because it is the culmination of all
your efforts. People would like to know what you have found out after spending so

70
many years. What’s the big deal? It is a big deal because the findings are the essence
of the whole project. You should be most excited in what you have found and to be
able to convey that excitement in Chapter 4.

 Elements of Chapter 4
What needs to be included in the chapter?
The topics below are typically included in this chapter, and often in this order (check
with your Chair):

 Introduction
You begin this Chapter with a ‘Preamble’ or ‘Introduction’ in which you remind the
reader on the purpose of the study and the research questions or hypotheses. Briefly
tell the reader about the research design – i.e. whether it was an experimental, quasi-
experimental, survey, correlational design and so forth.
 Remind the reader what your research questions were
 In a qualitative study you will restate the research questions
 In a quantitative study you will present the hypotheses

 Findings (term used in qualitative research), Results and Discussion (term used
quantitative research)

 In a qualitative study the information to be reported is called findings.

Findings are those themes that have emerged from or have been found in
the data you collected. They are the product of your analysis.

 In a quantitative study the results of the quantitative analyses conducted

may be presented on their own, without any accompanying connections to
the larger literature.

When quantitative data are presented without any accompanying

explanation a discussion section is presented separately in order to explain
the meaning of the results.
Also, briefly describe the data collection techniques – such as questionnaire,
observation, interviews, aptitude tests, attitude tests, scales, inventories and so
forth [Note that the process of how you collected the data must be aligned with what
was employed in Chapter 3 – a common error is that what you reported in Chapter 3
does not match with what was mentioned in Chapter 4] 

Finally, in this section you briefly describe the characteristics of the sample (such as

age, gender or other relevant information) that has emerged from your data collection
to provide context for your findings. You could include tables describing the
demographics of the sample.

If this chapter is generally brief, presenting the results, and explaining and interpreting
them can be combined in one chapter. Otherwise, the Results and Discussion section

71
should be in separate or defined sections or chapters. Start with a brief introduction of
this chapter.

Results: Answers to the research questions which are generated from the collected
data. In this section, evidence is presented through graphical and/or textual form
organized in sub-sections. Your opinion should not be included when presenting the
results.

Descriptive or frequency statistical results of all variables must be reported first before
specific statistical tests (e.g., regression analysis). For instance, the profile of
participants or respondents, or characteristics of the sample is presented first if
available. Results from a regression and/or correlation analysis are presented after all
the descriptive and frequencies for all variables, or summaries of the data set have
been presented.

Specific quotes from interviews must be presented under a specific theme or sub-
theme in the same way results from focus group discussions are reported. When
reporting results from observations, present the conversation, behavior or condition
you have noticed first. Then, write your comments.

Discussion: Explains the meaning of the results presented in specific sections and links
them to previous research studies. It explains why the findings are weak, strong or
significant, and their limitations. A further review of the literature might be required to
enhance the discussion of results.
End each chapter with a summary.

The next stage of any research paper: writing the results section, announcing your
findings to the world.

In theory, this is the easiest part to write, because it is a straightforward commentary

of exactly what you observed and found. In reality, it can be a little tricky, because it is
very easy to include too much information and bury the important findings.

 Writing a Results Section

The results section is not for interpreting the results in any way; that belongs strictly in
the discussion section. You should aim to narrate your findings without trying to
interpret or evaluate them, other than to provide a link to the discussion section.

For example, you may have noticed an unusual correlation between two variables
during the analysis of your results. It is correct to point this out in the results section.

Speculating why this correlation is happening, and postulating about what may be
happening, belongs in the discussion section.

It is very easy to put too much information into the results section and obscure your
findings underneath reams of irrelevance.

72
If you make a table of your findings, you do not need to insert a graph highlighting the
same data. If you have a table of results, refer to it in the text, but do not repeat
the figures - duplicate information will be penalized.

One common way of getting around this is to be less specific in the text. For example, if
the result in table one shows 23.9%, you could write….

Table One shows that almost a quarter of…..

Tips for Writing a Results Section:

 Perhaps the best way to use the results section is to show the most relevant
information in the graphs, figures and tables.
 The text, conversely, is used to direct the reader to those, also clarifying any
unclear points. The text should also act as a link to the discussion section,
highlighting any correlations and findings and leaving plenty of open questions.
 For most research paper formats, there are two ways of presenting and
organizing the results. The first method is to present the results and add a
short discussion explaining them at the end, before leading into the discussion
proper.
 This is very common where the research paper is straightforward, and provides
continuity. The other way is to present a section and then discuss it, before
presenting the next section with a short discussion. This is common in longer
papers, and your discussion part of the paper will generally follow the same
structure.
 Be sure to include negative results - writing a results section without them not
only invalidate the paper, but it is extremely bad science. The negative results,
and how you handle them, often gives you the makings of a great discussion
section, so do not be afraid to highlight them.

Using an Appendix to Streamline Writing the Results Section

If you condense your raw data down, there is no need to include the initial findings in
the results, because this will simply confuse the reader.

If you are in doubt about how much to include, you can always insert your raw data
into the appendix section, allowing others to follow your calculations from the start.
This is especially useful if you have used many statistical manipulations, so that people
can check your calculations and ensure that you have not made any mistakes.

In the age of spreadsheets, where the computer program prepares all of the
calculations for you, this is becoming less common, although you should specify the
program that you used and the version.
Once you have a streamlined and informative results section, you can move onto the
discussion section, where you begin to elaborate your findings.

73
 Writing a Discussion Section

Writing a discussion section is where you really begin to add your interpretations to
the work. In this critical part of the research paper, you start the process of explaining
any links and correlations  apparent in your data. If you left few interesting leads and
open questions in the results section, the discussion is simply a matter of building upon
those and expanding them.

The Difficulties of Writing a Discussion Section

In an ideal world, you could simply reject your null or alternative hypotheses according
to the significance levels found by the statistics.
That is the main point of your discussion section, but the process is usually a lot more
complex than that. It is rarely clear-cut, and you will need to interpret your findings.

For example, one of your graphs may show a distinct trend, but not enough to reach
an acceptable significance level.

Remember that no significance is not the same as no difference, and you can begin to
explain this in your discussion section.

Whilst your results may not be enough to reject the null hypothesis, they may show a
trend that later researchers may wish to explore, perhaps by refining the experiment.

Self-Criticism at the Heart of Writing a Discussion Section

For this purpose, you should criticize the experiment, and be honest about whether
your design was good enough. If not, suggest any modifications and improvements
that could be made to the design.
Maybe the reason that you did not find a significant correlation is because
your sampling was not random, or you did not use sensitive enough equipment.

The discussion section is not always about what you found, but what you did not find,
and how you deal with that. Stating that the results are inconclusive is the easy way
out, and you must always try to pick out something of value.

Using the Discussion Section to Expand Knowledge

You should always put your findings into the context of the previous research that you
found during your literature review. Do your results agree or disagree with previous
research?

Do the results of the previous research help you to interpret your own findings? If your
results are very different, why? Either you have uncovered something new, or you may
have made a major flaw with the design of the experiment.

Finally, after saying all of this, you can make a statement about whether the
experiment has contributed to knowledge in the field, or not.

74
Unless you made so many errors that the results are completely unreliable, you will;
certainly have learned something. Try not to be too broad in your generalizations to
the wider world - it is a small experiment and is unlikely to change the world.

Once writing the discussion section is complete, you can move onto the next stage,
wrapping up the paper with a focused conclusion.

Guidelines for the Presentation of Statistical Information

 Support your presentation with tables, graphs, charts and figures where
applicable
 Follow APA format. 
 Tables, charts, graphs and figures should be interpreted – it is your
responsibility to tell your reader what you think is the most important
information in the graphics. 
 Make sure that each graphic is clearly labeled with a title so that readers can
easily identify and understand them. 
 Never present a table, chart, or figure that you are not planning to explain 
 It should be written in the past tense because the data has been collected. 
 Do not judge, editorialize, evaluate or give you opinion on the results
obtained. Just report the facts, OK!
 Presentation should be consistent with the underlying theoretical framework
[Not left isolated in Chapter 2]
 Remember to write for the reader and it should be logical and easy to follow
– ‘make it simple but not simpler’
 Avoid citations – it is not necessary to cite sources – you will do that in Chapter
5.

When do you use a table, chart, or figure?

o In qualitative research, when providing quantitative data that
compares different cases or different populations, or different
members of a given population. When you have information that is
hard to grasp only in text and the reader will have greater insight by
seeing it displayed in more than one format.
 Descriptive statistics
o In quantitative research, when presenting important results.
o Consult APA to ensure that you use the appropriate format for tables,
charts, and figures.

You will want to consider what information goes in an appendix as opposed to in the
body of the chapter. For example, if you have extra tables representing results that you
think are worth sharing with your reader but are not the main substance of your
dissertation, you should consider creating an appendix. Similarly, if you have other
relevant but not essential information, you should consider adding an appendix. And
finally, you may decide to locate the instruments you used for data collection in an
appendix.

75
You may be wondering about any of the following things as you are writing your
Chapter 4. Some students worry about the following things:

 What if you don’t have any significant findings?

o In qualitative research there is never a risk of finishing without something
worth reporting. Qualitative research is about understanding an experience
and gaining insight. It is always the case that the data will provide insight into
an experience.

 What if you find something for which you do not have a research question?
o If the finding is substantial enough to warrant reporting, you develop a
research question that aligns to the finding.

 Under what circumstances do you revise your research questions?

o Qualitative research questions can and often should be revised up until the
dissertation is completed. The research questions match the findings, not the
other way around.

Presenting Results (Quantitative) 

How do you present your results (quantitative)? 

In a quantitative dissertation or capstone you will be presenting your results. You

may present your results with or without a discussion explaining what those results
mean. You will want to consult your chair to make sure you are following the
approach preferred by your chair. Thus, your chapter 4 may include the following: 
 Introduction 
 Results 
 Discussion 

First you should remind your reader what your research question(s) is/are. Your
results should then be presented in response to your research question(s). Your results
are the “solution(s)” or “answer(s)” to that/those questions. 

Example: Nollner Dissertation, p. 58 

Your results should focus only on data that enables you to answer your
research questions, not simply raw data. 

If you are also providing a discussion of the results in this section, your discussion
should be related back to your conceptual framework. 

 Presenting Findings (Qualitative) 

76
How do you present your findings (qualitative)? 

When crafting your findings, the first thing you want to think about is how you
will organize your findings. Your findings represent the story you are going to tell
in response to the research questions you have answered. Thus, you will want to
organize that story in a way that makes sense to you and will make sense to your
reader. You want to think about how you will present the findings so that they are
compelling and responsive to the research question(s) you answered. These questions
may not be the questions you set out to answer but they will definitely be the
questions you answered. You may discover that the best way to organize the findings is
first by research question and second by theme. There may be other formats that are
better for telling your story. Once you have decided how you want to organize the
findings, you will start the chapter by reminding your reader of the research questions.
You will need to differentiate between is presenting raw data and using data as
evidence or examples to support the findings you have identified. Here are some
points to consider: 

 Your findings should provide sufficient evidence from your data to support
the conclusions you have made. Evidence takes the form of quotations from
interviews and excerpts from observations and documents. 
 Ethically you have to make sure you have confidence in your findings and
account for counter-evidence (evidence that contradicts your primary finding) and
not report something that does not have sufficient evidence to back it up. 
 Your findings should be related back to your conceptual framework. 
 Your findings should be in response to the problem presented (as defined by
the research questions) and should be the “solution” or “answer” to those
questions. 
 You should focus on data that enables you to answer your research questions,
not simply on offering raw data. 
 Qualitative research presents “best examples” of raw data to demonstrate
an analytic point, not simply to display data. 
 Numbers (descriptive statistics) help your reader understand how prevalent
or typical a finding is. Numbers are helpful and should not be avoided simply
because this is a qualitative dissertation. 

Example Martinez-Kellar Dissertation, p. 140-144 (Individual Leader Element: Leader

Creativity) 

Report the Findings

The ‘Report of Findings’ is not a sub-section heading. Instead the sub-section headings
should be each

‘Research Question’ or ‘Hypothesis’. Organize your presentation as follows: 

1. Research Question / Hypothesis 1 followed by the results
2. Research Question / Hypothesis 2 followed by the results

77
 3. Research Question / Hypothesis 3 followed by the results
4. and so forth

You restate the research question / hypothesis as follows: 

 In the form of a Question – Is there a significant difference in leadership styles
between male and female leaders in the banking sector?
 In form of a statement – Gender and Leadership Style in the Banking Sector.
 In the form of a null hypothesis – There is no significant difference between
male and female managers ……….. 

Research Question 1 / Hypothesis 1

In attempting to answer each Research Question or Hypothesis, you would surely have
used various statistical tools and procedures. You have to demonstrate how theses
statistical tests help answer Research Question 1 or the rejection or acceptance of
Hypotheses 1.

You have to show how the statistical analysis employed allows you to draw
conclusions. Note that you have to assume that the readers of your thesis have
knowledge of statistics. Don’t try to explain how or why you used a particular test
unless it is unusual. 

APA Guidelines for Reporting Statistical Analysis

Reporting Descriptive Statistics
In reporting the results of descriptive statistical tests, focus is on the means (M),
standard deviations (SD), frequencies (N) and percentages presented in tables or
graphs (bar charts, line graphs, pie charts).

For example,
‘Females (M = 45, SD = 2.1) are more satisfied with their jobs compared to their male
(M = 38, SD = 2.2) colleagues’.  

If you present descriptive statistics in a table or figure, you do not need to repeat in
text form all that is in the table. However, you should explain the key features in the
table in the narrative which will help interpretation. A common error is telling nothing
about the table or graph in the text or to tell in writing everything in the table or graph.
You have to decide on what are the key findings or features that should be written
about. You cannot say, “Just look at the table and interpret for yourself what was
found”.                                             

Reporting the p value
Most quantitative research in the behavioral and social sciences involve comparing two
or more groups of individuals. The statistical tools (such as t-test, ANOVA) are used to
report a significant difference between two or more conditions where one condition

78
may be more, less, higher or lower than another condition. For this purpose, the ‘p
value’ is used ranging from .001, .01 and .05. Before you report, make sure that you
mention at the onset that you are using a particular alpha level such as .05 for all
statistical tests.

This is how it should be reported:

      “A p value of .03 was reported indicating a significant difference between
…………………”

Reporting Correlations
Correlations provide a measure of statistical relationship between two variables. Note
that correlations can be tested for statistical significance and reported as follows: 

“For the thirty students, the scores on the mathematics test (M = 7.00, SD = 1.23) and
the attitude towards mathematics (M = 80.89, SD = 6.90) were strongly and
significantly correlated, r(29) = .70, p = .038”

Reporting the Independent Samples t Test

For this analysis, the emphasis is on comparing the means from two groups. Here again
the summary and the inferential statistics focus on the difference.

“An independent sample t test showed that the difference in quiz scores between
the control group (n = 4, M = 6.00, SD = 0.82) and the experimental group (n = 4, M =
8.00, SD = .82) were statistically significant, t(6) = -3.46, p = .013, 95% CI [-3.41, -0.59],
d = -2.45”

Some common mistakes in reporting statistical data

 Forgetting to italicise symbols such as p, t, F, r.
o t(34) = 2.39, p = .011 is wrong
o t(34) = 2.39, p = .011 is right

 Forgetting to put spaces around = and <

o t(34)=2.39,p<.001 is wrong
o t(34) = 2.39, p < .001 is better

 Putting leading zeros on p-values and correlation coefficients:

o t(34) = 2.39, p<.0001, r = 0.23 is wrong
o t(34) = 2.39, p < .001, r = .23 is right

 Forgetting degrees of freedom:

o t = 2.39, p<.001 is bad
o t(34) = 2.39, p < .001 is good

79
SUMMARY:

This sub-section should summarize the answers to the main Research Questions or
Hypotheses that the analysis answered. This section serves as the transition to Chapter
5, where these results will be discussed in detail. This sub-section section should orient
the reader to Chapter 5 as well as summarise Chapter 4’s findings.

Summarize the results of the tests for the reader in their order of significance. No new
information or analysis should be included; the goal of the summary is to summarize
the findings for the reader in one to two paragraphs. Add a transition to the topics in
chapter five

Assessment Task No. 1

(RESEARCH PAPER OUTPUT)
(100 points)
TASK: Ask each group to submit a draft of their CHAPTER 4 paper.

Assessment Task No. 2

(SYSTEM OUTPUT)
(100 points)
TASK: Ask each group to present and discuss their system partial functionalities. CRUD
functions must be present at their system this time. (50% of the systems functionalities
must be already available)

80
Lesson 4
Lesson 4: CHAPTER 5. Conclusion, Interpretation
and Discussion

Upon successful completion of this course, student will be able to at

the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

81
 1. To gain a better understanding of the contents of a
well-developed Chapter 5;
2. To introduce students to the subsections of the
chapter;
3. To discuss ideas related to the presentation,
interpretation, and implications of dissertation
findings;
4. To present an outline of Chapter 5;
5. Write the introduction to include the problem,
purpose, research questions and brief description
of the methodology; 
6. Review and verify findings for the study;
7. Write the Summary of Findings;
8. Compose Implications for Practice;
9. Compose Recommendations for Research; and
10. Integrate the components into a coherent
chapter.

College of Computer Studies

Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
CAPRO 2
Capstone Project 2
University of the Visayas 3 Units
Lesson 4 WEEK NO.8-9
Module Topic CHAPTER 5. Conclusion, Interpretation and Discussion
Intended At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
Learning 1. To gain a better understanding of the contents of a well-developed Chapter 5
Outcomes 2. To introduce students to the subsections of the chapter
3. To discuss ideas related to the presentation, interpretation, and implications of
dissertation findings
4. To present an outline of Chapter 5
5. Write the introduction to include the problem, purpose, research questions and
brief description of the methodology; 
6. Review and verify findings for the study;
7. Write the Summary of Findings;
8. Compose Implications for Practice;
9. Compose Recommendations for Research; and

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 10. Integrate the components into a coherent chapter.
No. of Hours 10 hours (8 hours self-directed learning & 2 hours of assessment tasks)
1. What is the Chapter 5 of a research paper?
2. How do you create a Chapter 5?
Study Questions
3. What are the contents of Chapter 5 in research?
4. How long should Chapter 5 of a thesis or research paper be?
Learning
Required Suggested
Resources
 Creswell, J.W. (2009). Chapter 8: Quantitative Methods, pp. 151-167.
Chapter 9: Qualitative Methods, pp. 193-200. In Research Design:
Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand
Capstone 2
Print Module
Oaks: Sage. 
 Cone, J. D., & Foster, S. F. (2006). Dissertations and theses from start
to finish: Psychology and related fields. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Capstone 2
Digital Module PDF  http://dissertationedd.usc.edu/draft-your-conclusions.html
Format
1. The student shall study and learn CHAPTER 5. Conclusion, Interpretation and
Discussion;
Learning Activity 2. The student can now start exploring on the web CHAPTER 5. Conclusion,
Interpretation and Discussion tutorials; and
3. The student shall answer each Assessment Task given.

Required Output Practice Test results, Assignment and Research outputs

Assessment Task Written Quiz, Project Reports, Assignment

Assessment Tool MS Teams Forms, Kahoot

Target Knowledge, skills and attitudes that students develop and apply for successful learning,
Competency living and working. 

Writing Chapter 5 – Summary, Discussion and

Recommendations

Overview of Chapter 5

A well-written Chapter 5 should include information about the following:

 Summary of findings
 Interpretation of findings
 Context of findings
 Implications of findings
 Discussion on limitations of study
 Discussion on future directions of research/field

Summary of Findings
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  Begin with a summary of your results using little or no statistical jargon.
 Use “the layperson test”: How would you explain your findings to a relative?
 One way to organize this section is around whether findings did or did not
support the study’s hypotheses or research questions.
 Make sure to include unusual findings as well (e.g., results that you did not
expect to be significant but were, and vice versa).

Interpretation of Findings
 This section addresses the meaning of your findings.
 In some cases, when your results are in the direction you predicted, this
meaning was anticipated when the study was designed.
 In cases where the results are not all in the desired direction, researchers must
explain why this was not the case.
– Address sampling, measurement, and procedural issues as well as
confounding variables
 Keep in mind that the absence of significant findings does not necessarily
mean the confirmation of the null hypothesis; explore alternative
explanations.

Context of Findings

Remember that your study, as important as it is, was not the only one in the area, and,
as such, it must fit the existing literature.
– Consider how the findings fit the Literature Review in terms of population
characteristics, assessment instruments, independent variables, research
design, and procedures.
– Are your findings in agreement with existing literature? Do they contradict
it? Do the findings extend previous research? Do they solve or clarify
contradictions in the literature?

Implications of Findings
 This section addresses the issue of whether research findings improve (or
change) the field’s understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.
 Consider the implication of findings in at least three areas: theory, research,
and practice. – Are findings consistent with current theories in the field? Are
they consistent with selected theoretical framework?
– Does the study help advance research methodology? (e.g.,
understanding of new confounding variables, issues of
measurement, issues of design)
– Who may be interested in using these findings in a professional field?
Why should they pay attention Implications of Findings.

• This section addresses the issue of whether research findings improve (or
change) the field’s understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.

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  Consider the implication of findings in at least three areas: theory, research,
and practice.
– Are findings consistent with current theories in the field? Are they
consistent with selected theoretical framework?
– Does the study help advance research methodology? (e.g.,
understanding of new confounding variables, issues of
measurement, issues of design)
– Who may be interested in using these findings in a professional field?
Why should they pay attention to the findings? Could the findings
lead to changes in the way professionals “do” things?

Limitations
 Think of it as a “humility subsection.”
 In your proposal, you would have addressed potential limitations of the
study as the final subsection of Chapter 3.
 Look at potential limitations as you initially proposed and then discuss
those that may have affected—one way or another—your findings.
 Limitations typically originate in one of two sources: the study’s design and the
study’s problems during implementation.
 Issues of design involve decisions about sampling, assessment, procedures,
and choice of research design (poor match).
 Issues of implementation must be addressed (e.g., low sample, measurement
issues, heterogeneous groups).
• Think of limitations in four major areas (but all four need to be present): –
Internal Validity: unless the study is a “true experiment” one cannot claim that
the IV “caused” changes in the DV
– External Validity: issues of the extent to which findings can be generalized must
be discussed
– Measurement: discuss issues of reliability and validity of assessment
instruments – Statistical analysis: discuss issues of power, effect size,
conservative or liberal statistics and statistical test chosen.

Future Directions
 Discuss findings in light of questions or issues that suggest future research
directions.
 Extend the study to other populations.
 Think of other IVs and DVs that ought to be explored in the field, also, think of
how to assess those additional variables.
 This is the section of the paper where most researchers are allowed to dream;
think of extending your study to other questions that may add to the
understanding of the issues.

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Tips to Write Chapter 5
• Be a critical thinker; as you write your concluding remarks, play the devil’s advocate
and put yourself in the shoes of your future readers.
• Avoid common mistakes:
– If the numbers seem to suggest a direction but are not statistically
significant, then don’t treat them as if they were significant
– Do not use cause-effect language to refer to correlations – Do not think of
statistical significance as effect size
– Do not present new analyses in the discussion section – Do not make
Chapter 5 a repetition of Chapter 4

Chapter 5 Outline
• Summary of Findings
– Avoid technical detail
– Use clear language
• Interpretation of Findings
• Context of Findings
– Consider if there is convergent or divergent findings as compared to existing
literature
• Implications of Findings
– Theoretical implications
– Methodological implications
– Applied implications
• Limitations of Study
– Internal and external validity issues
– Measurement and statistical issues
• Future Directions
• Remember:
– Be a critical thinker
– Avoid common problems
– Use an outline to write the chapter

Chapter 5 contains the following:

A. Summary of Findings
B. Conclusion
C. Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data
D. Recommendation
E. Evaluation of a Thesis or Dissertation
Draft the Introduction for Chapter 5

In this activity, you will draft the introduction for Chapter 5. Provide an overview of
your study, keeping in mind throughout this chapter your understanding of the
audience and writing in a voice for the audience without distortion. Write from a
retrospective vision and the wisdom of hindsight. Present an overview of your study
that is comprehensive and concise. This discussion will include a reminder of the

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underlying problems and purpose of your study, the research questions and a brief
description of the methods used in your study. Qualitative research questions can and
sometimes should be revised up until the dissertation is completed. 

Consider your expertise in the study having completed the study. Keep in mind clarity,
language, cohesion of its organization, inclusion of necessary components to provide a
comprehensive overview of the study. 

Draft the Summary of Findings

In this activity, you will clearly assert the findings for your study, differentiating
between ones' version of truth versus literal truth.  The finding should clearly reflect
the significant results of the study.  A component of summary of the findings is to
provide a discussion for each of the findings, using anchor verbiage that justifies rather
than distorts the intent of the findings. Tell us how the findings are important or
relevant based on the aim and scope of your study.  Another component of the
summary of the findings is to compare or link your findings to the studies outlined in
the literature review of your study.  Are they the same different or new? 

Draft Introduction for Summary of Findings

In the introduction for the Summary of Findings, assert that you have answered your
research questions. At a minimum you would tell the reader how many findings
emerged and describe them in a sentence each. Most important is the findings you
present in chapter 5 reflect and match what is significant from the results in Chapter 4.

Draft Summary of Findings

Draft a paragraph or two of discussion for each finding in your study.  Assert the
finding. Tell the reader how the finding is important or relevant to your studies aim
and focus.  Compare your finding to the literature.  Be specific in the use of the
literature. The link or connection should be clear to the reader. 

Draft Implications for Practice

In this activity, you will draft Implications for Practice that you have identified and
emerged from your study. A component is to assert the implications for practice which
emerged from the study and link to a finding from your study. Another component is
to provide a discussion which demonstrates how practice could be implemented or
how a specific audience will benefit from the recommendation. Provide links to the
literature when appropriate. 

In the introduction assert how many Implications for Practice will be presented and
relevance. Draft a paragraph or two of discussion for each implication.  In each
paragraph, assert the Implication for Practice and link to the finding in your study.

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Then provide a discussion which demonstrates how practice could be implemented or
how a specific audience will benefit.

Draft your Recommendations for Research

In this activity, you will draft Recommendations for Research which extend or enhance
your study. A component of the discussion demonstrates how the recommendation for
research is linked to your study or would improve and extend the research. Another
component of the research would identify specific gains in research based on your
recommendations. Provide links to the literature when appropriate. 

In the introduction assert how many Recommendations for Research will be presented
and relevance. Draft a paragraph or two of discussion for each recommendation.  In
each discussion, assert the Recommendation for Research and provide insights for how
the recommendation would improve or extend the research.  Identify specific gains in
research based on your recommendations.

Draft your Conclusions

Conclusions illustrate your personal reflections or insights into the continued research
of your topic.  This discussion provides an overview on the importance of the area of
research. A component of the discussion could demonstrate the consequences should
this research be ignored or how a specific audience will benefit from the research.
Another component of the discussion will encourage others to continue to contribute
to a specific body of knowledge.

In this discussion, illustrate your personal reflections or insights into the continued
research of your topic.   Identify specific gains from future research.

Things to remember:

1. There should be a brief statement about:

• the main purpose of the study
• the population or respondents
• the period of the study
• method of research used
• the research instrument
• the sampling design 1

2. There should be no explanation made.

3. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity demands that each specific
question under the statement of the problem must be written first to be followed
by the findings.
4. The findings should be textual generalization that is a summary of the important
data consisting of text and numbers.

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5. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the
summary.
6. Findings are not explained nor elaborated upon anymore.
7. No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.
8. Conclusions Inferences, deductions, abstractions, implications, interpretations,
general statements, and/or generalizations based upon the findings.
9. They should not contain any numerals
10. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific questions raised at the
beginning of the investigation in order they are given under the statement of the
problem.
11. Conclusions should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry. No
conclusion should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
12. The conclusion should be based upon the responses to the question.
 Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is, brief and short.
 Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions should be stated
categorically.
 Conclusions should refer only to the population, area, or subject of the
study.
 Conclusions should not be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the
thesis.
 Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on Quantitative
Data

Avoid as much as possible making conclusions not sufficiently and adequately

supported by facts.
 Recommendations should aim to solve or help solve problems discovered in
the investigation.
o Inadequate facilities = Acquire more facility Problem Recommendation
 No recommendations should be made for a problem, or anything for that
matter, that has not been discovered or discussed in the study.
 There may also be recommendations for the continuance of a good practice or
system, or even recommendation for its improvement.
 Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible,
practical, and attainable. It is useless to recommend the impossible.
 Recommendations should be logical and valid. If the problem is the lack of
facilities, it is only logical to recommend the acquisition of the lacking facilities.
o Inadequate facilities = Acquire more facility Problem Recommendation
 Recommendations should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies, or
offices who or which are in a position to implement them.
o Inadequate facilities = ex. School Principal
 There should be a recommendation for further research on the same topic in
other places to verify, amplify, or negate the findings of the study.

The Components of Chapter 5

Writing Chapter 5 has been titled in different ways.

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Here, it is suggested that the chapter be titled as follows: Summary, Discussion and
Recommendation.  

Note: Check with your institution on their preferred title for Chapter 5.

It is suggested that this chapter consist of the following sub-sections:

 Preamble
 Summary
 Discussion

 Preamble
 You do not need to give a title to this this section, such as ‘Preamble’ or
‘Introduction’
 Like stipulated in all the earlier chapters (except for Chapter 1), begin with
a preamble stating briefly the objectives of the study, the problem
statement, the research questions (or hypothesis), the sample and data
collection techniques.
 This is followed by telling the reader the:
 purpose of the chapter,
 the main sections of the chapter

 Summary
 The objective of this section is to refresh the reader’s understanding of
the ‘findings’ or ‘results’.
 Highlight the main or major findings that you had stated  in Chapter
4. There is no need to explain in detail the findings or results and avoid the
temptation to copy and paste from Chapter 4.
 Keep it simple and do not include too much research jargon so
that someone who is not be in the field can understand.
 In the case of quantitative research, use simple non-statistical language to
summarize.
 Remember to write in the past tense. For example, “Job satisfaction as
expressed by staff did not vary according to leadership styles of the senior
manager”.  
 For quantitative research, to ensure flow, it is suggested that you use the
research questions or hypotheses as a guide. 
 For qualitative research you could use the research questions, themes or
categories. 
 Synthesize the findings and show how they converge to answer the
research questions.
 Alvior (2014) suggests the use of semantic markers such as the following
to avoid repeating the same words or
phrases: additionally, also, further, in addition to, moreover, contrary
to, with regard to, as regards, however, finally, during the past ___
years, from 1996 to 2006, after 10 years, as shown in, as presented

90
 in, consequently, nevertheless, in fact, on the other
hand, subsequently, nonetheless.
 “If you are excited about your findings in Chapter 4, you should not have
much of a problem with the ‘Summary’ section”
 [source: Alvior, Mary G. (July 29, 2014). Thesis Writing: What to Write in
Chapter 5. In SimplyEducate.Me. Retrieved
from http://simplyeducate.me/2014/07/29/thesis-writing-what-to-
write-in-chapter-5]

 Discussion
 The ‘Summary’ of the findings you had stated earlier is not sufficient as
you have to go beyond the findings and share “your” beliefs and
explanation on what you got and did not get. 
 The key word is ‘discussion’.
 This is the part where you ‘sell’ your research.
 You use the present tense because you are making statements that are
derived from the study.
 Take a few steps back and try to see the big picture focusing on the
significant findings. Decide on which of the findings or results that
you want to highlight. Be careful not to sell yourself short!
 State the possible reasons, causes and factors for the findings or
results stated in the ‘Summary’ section. For example, a significant finding
from your study was that ‘More women leaders exhibited a democratic
leadership style compared to men leaders in the banking sector’. What do
you think produced such a finding?
 Even you did not get the results you were expecting, you should
explain why – For example, the experiment to test the effectiveness of a
particular intervention did not show significant differences –  you should
explain why the method did not produce the results you were expecting. 
 Also, in cases where your findings differ from those of others, it is
useful to indicate possible reasons for such variation. If you findings or
results are controversial, you should explain why you think you got such
results. This is where you compare your findings against previous
findings whether they be different or similar – did the findings agree with
previous or it did not. When discussing the findings keep in mind the
limitations of your study and how they may affect the findings.
 You also show how the findings of your study has contributed to
existing understanding of concepts identified in the works of other
people – important to acknowledge the views of others who share similar
positions as those identified by your research. Compare and contrast your
findings or results with those of other researchers: How are your
findings/results similar or different from other studies? What do the
results mean for them? For example, if your study did not strongly confirm
results that had been predicted to be fairly strong in the previous research.
Assuming there are no design weaknesses to account for the finding, then
perhaps the finding challenges previously held. As such, its failure to
support a hypothesis may be very important finding indeed.

91
  If you want to show that the findings of your study has policy
implication, you must present a brief description of the policy and how the
findings from your study are relevant or relate to the policy
 If you want to show how your study contributed towards your
theoretical framework then show how your work could influence the
theoretical debate.
 If someone only reads the ‘Discussion’ section, they will get a good
understanding of what you found and why it matters. You should explain
to the reader clearly, in a narrative, without restating your results. 
 

Recommendations
In Chapter 5, you are required to evaluate your own work and provide personal
insights and interpretation of the results. However, this does not mean that you give
your opinions as you wish. Insights and interpretation should be based on the
constraints of scholarly writing in which you mention what the study means to you and
what it means to the field of practice, to previous research and people interested in
your study.

This section should be:

 First, it must be logical, specific, attainable and relevant.
 Second, it should be addressed to persons, organizations, or agencies directly
concerned with the issues or to those who can immediately implement the
recommended solutions.
 Third, present another topic which is very relevant to the present study that
can be further investigated by future researchers. But never recommend
anything that is not part of your study or not being mentioned in your findings.

After organizing your thoughts as to what would be the contents of your

recommendations, you should write it in simple present tense.

Recommendations for Future Research – Ask yourself:

 What area of interest would you have liked to explore but which was outside
the scope of your study?
 What other perspectives could be explored to illuminate aspects of the
subjects which were only merely uncovered?
 What follow-up studies would you like to conduct given your results/findings?
 How could your study be extended?

Recommendations for Future Practice

 How can the professionals in your field be impacted by the findings of this
study?
 What recommendations can you make to professionals, policymakers,
stakeholders, government leaders etc.?

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APA Format
What is the APA Format or Style?
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (called APA) was
first published in 1929 as a seven-page procedure for referencing. Since then, it has
grown to be an authoritative source on all aspects of scholarly writing. The APA Style
has been accepted as the writing styles for academic documents such as journal
articles, books, dissertation, theses, research reports and others. It includes reporting
standards and guidance on ethics, reporting statistics, and reference formats (print &
digital), construction of tables, figures and others.

You will hear time and again various individuals telling you “Follow the APA Format!”.
Don’t get too anxious with the APA format. Usually, it is not possible to follow exactly
the APA style. Check with your institution on the format prescribed.
  

REFERENCES

Journal Article (Print):

One Author:

Kleiber, C., Adamek, M. S. (2013). Adolescents’ perception of music therapy

following spinal fusion surgery. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 22, 414-421. 

Two-Authors:

Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional
pictures: Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 221–243.

Three-Authors:
Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for
measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and
Clinical Psychology, 56, 893–897.
Journal Article (Online):
Cohen, M. L. (2009) Choral Singing and Prison Inmates: Influences of Performing in
a Prison Choir. Journal of Correctional Education, 60, 52-65. Retrieved
from http://www.ceanational.org/Journal/
 
Book: 

Shipley, W. C. (1986). Shipley Institute of Living Scale. Los Angeles, CA: Western

Psychological Services.
 
 Chapter in Book:

93
Raz, N. (2000). Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance:
Integration of structural and functional findings. In F. I. M. Craik & T. A. Salthouse
(Eds.), Handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed., pp. 1–90). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
 
Instrument:
Wechsler, D. (1987). Wechsler Memory Scale—Revised. San Antonio, TX:
Psychological Corporation.

 
Organization as Author:
American Psychological Association (2010). Report on Aging and Strategies on
Helping the Elderly. Washington. D.C.

 
Unknown Author:
Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-
Webster.

 
Preface, Foreword and Introduction:
If you want to cite from the Preface, Foreword, or Introduction in a book, do the same
but state Preface, Foreword or Introduction – see example below:
 
Funk, R., & Kolln, M. (1998). Preface. In E. W. Ludlow (Ed.), Understanding English
grammar (pp. ii). Needham, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
 

 IN-TEXT CITATION
Short Quotations
Follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the author’s last
name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text.

If the work you are referring to a piece of work but NOT directly quoting the material,
you only have to state the surname of the author and year of publication only – see
examples below: 
Example #1 –  Steinberg (2002) found no significant differences between
……………..
Example #2 –  Males performed significantly better than female
…………………….. (Steinberg, 2002).

If you are quoting exactly from a piece of work, you should state the name of the
author, data of publication and the page number. The statement that is quoted should

94
have double quotation marks in the beginning (“) and the end (“) – see examples
below:

Example # 1 – Steinberg (2002) stated that “males tended to perform better than
females because …………………” (p.34).
Example # 2 – “It is still in conclusive whether men are better at spatial
visualisation tasks” (Steinberg, 2002, p.35).

Make sure all sources that are cited in the text must appear in the reference list at the
end of the thesis or dissertation.

Long Quotations

If your quotation is more than 40 words, you should omit the quotation marks. Start
the quotation on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same
place you would begin a new paragraph. Maintain double-spacing throughout – see
example below:

Research evidence suggests that females are better at paper folding tasks compared to
males. Steinberg (2002) suggested that this may be:

                Due to females being better at tasks that involve 3-D processing

compared to their male counterparts who are better at 2-D tasks. This phenomenon
could be attributed to females being exposed to more 3-D task in their daily life (p.
37).  

What Examiners Look For in a Thesis?

 Academics have been assessing doctoral theses for decades. Though there are agreed
upon criteria they tend to be general and sometimes vague. One statement often
made by examiner is that ‘the thesis should make a substantial and original
contribution to knowledge‘. What does ‘original’ mean? Academics often use the term
with their students but are unable to explain in detail how it is operationalized in their
piece of work. Students ending up being confused and often wonder whether their
research is ‘original’.  A synthesis of the works by Francis (1976), Phillips (1993) and
Phillips & Pugh (2005) reveals the following on WHAT IS AN “ORIGINAL” PIECE OF
WORK?
 
 Your research provides new information in writing for the first time –
obviously this is the most original because you investigated and written down
your findings which is the first of its kind
 Your research is a continuation of an earlier original piece of work
 The technique you had used or planning to use in your research is original
 Your research is original because you are testing someone else’s idea

95
  You tried or planning to try something in your country that has only been
done abroad
 You applied a particular technique to a new area
 Your research provided evidence or information to an old issue
 Your research is cross-disciplinary in which you used different methodologies
 Your research was focused in an area which others have not looked at before
 Your research adds knowledge in a way that has not been done before

How Do Examiners Examine a Thesis?

Don’t students have the ‘right’ to know how their thesis is being assessed.   They have
spent 3 to 4 years doing the thesis and only have a vague notion on what examiners
are looking for when assessing their work. They are mystified by the process of
examination which is contrary to good assessment practice. Quite often they hear
horror stories about the ‘examiner from hell’. Golding, Sharmini & Lazarovitch
(2014) concluded that “examiners seem to generally agree on whether a thesis
broadly passes or fails, but they disagree more frequently on the specifics, such as
whether a thesis should pass with minor amendments or major revisions”  

Examiners expect a thesis to pass

 They know that the students has spent a lot of time and effort and judged
worthy by supervisor(s) and so they anticipate it will pass.
 Reluctant to fail a thesis unless it is proven to have significant errors or
omissions that threaten credibility of the research
 Less than 1% of examiners recommend a fail.

Examiners judge a thesis by the end of the first and second chapter 
 they make a judgment about the quality of thesis when reading just Chapter 1
(Introduction) and Chapter 2 (Review of Literature) while they skim the
abstract
 based on this they decide whether the thesis is going to be an enjoyable read
or otherwise
 If they have a good first impression, they feel they can relax and enjoy the
thesis; if not, then they read more critically, looking for problems. 

Examiners expect a reader-friendly thesis

 Examiners spend a lot of time assessing a thesis and so they a ‘good read’
 They expect the thesis should be appealing to ‘normal readers’ while being
academically sound
 Arguments on the approach, conclusions and significance should be clear

Examiners are irritated and distracted by presentation errors

 Presentation errors lead to poor first impressions
 Examiners spend a lot of time assessing a thesis and so they a ‘good read’
 Examiners will be annoyed by presentation errors such as:
o typographical

96
 o  grammatical
o spelling
o formatting errors
o unclear writing
o incorrect or inconsistent bibliography or citations
o references that are omitted or misreported
o incorrect publication dates or misspelled names, and
o citations and quotations those are misused. 

Examiners favor a coherent thesis [What is coherence?]

 Coherent writing has focus, flow, and a logical structure
 Incoherent writing confuses the reader
 Coherent writing integrates and connects the various parts of the thesis
 Coherent writing has signposts telling what is coming and what has been
done.
 Examiners may have forgotten Chapter 1 by the time they read Chapter 5.
 Coherent thesis connect the research question with an answer
 Examiners tend to see themselves as gatekeepers
 Examiners see themselves upholding the standards for a doctorate.
 Examiners treat a thesis as a work in progress
 They offer advice how to improve a weak thesis
 Eager to offer constructive feedback rather than condemn thesis

Assessment Task No. 1

(RESEARCH PAPER OUTPUT)
(100 points)
TASK: Ask each group to submit a draft of their CHAPTER 5 paper.

Assessment Task No. 1

(SYSTEM OUTPUT)
(100 points)
TASK: Ask each group to present their system project. Require them to achieve 80% of
the systems functionalities.

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 Lesson
259
5
111111
Writing of Project Paper (Final Project
Documentation)

At the end of lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Write the definition of a thesis statement;
2. Learn the placement of a thesis statement;
3. Write and understand the purpose of a thesis
statement;
4. Develop of a thesis statement;

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 5. Write a thesis that communicates the focus of the
subject matter;
6. Write a thesis that indicates the purpose of the
subject matter; and
7. Write a thesis that sets forth the organizational
pattern of the subject matter.

College of Computer Studies

Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
CAPRO 2 
Capstone Project 2
University of the Visayas 3 Units
Lesson 5 WEEK NO. 10-13
Module Topic Writing of Thesis Paper (Final System Project Documentation)

1. Write the definition of a thesis statement;

2. Learn the placement of a thesis statement;
3. Write and understand the purpose of a thesis statement;
Intended Learning
4. Develop of a thesis statement;
Outcomes 5. Write a thesis that communicates the focus of the subject matter;
6. Write a thesis that indicates the purpose of the subject matter; and
7. Write a thesis that sets forth the organizational pattern of the subject matter.

No. of Hours 20 hours (15 hours self-directed learning & 5 hours of assessment tasks)

 What is thesis writing?

 How do you write a thesis?
 What are the 5 chapters of a thesis?
 What is the structure of a thesis?
Study Questions  How do you write a good thesis introduction?
 What are the 4 parts of an introduction?
 Can a thesis be a question?
 Can a thesis be an opinion?
 How can I prove my thesis?

Learning Resources Required Suggested

• Calmorin, et al, (2007). Research methods and thesis

writing; Second Edition.
• Evans, David , Gruba, Paul  , and Zobel, Justin , (2012).
How to Write a Better Thesis. Melbourne University
Capstone Project 2
Print Publishing; 3 edition.
Module
• Almack, John Conrad, (2008). Research and thesis
writing: a textbook on the principles and techniques of
thesis construction for the use of graduate students in
universities and colleges, University of Michigan.

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 • http://www.cws.illinois.edu/workshop/writers/tips
/thesis/#:~:text=A%20thesis%20statement%20focuses
%20your,and%20keep%20your%20argument%20focused.
• https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/developing-
Capstone Project 2 thesis
Digital
Module PDF Format • https://www.jou.ufl.edu/grad/forms/Guidelines-for-
writing-thesis-or-dissertation.pdf
• https://www.skillsyouneed.com/learn/dissertation-
writing.html
The Student shall study and learn thesis writing;
Learning Activity The student can explore on the web some tutorials on how write thesis; and
The student shall answer Assessment Tasks given.

Required Output Final Thesis/System Project Documentation

1. Quizzes
Assessment Task 2. Assignments outputs
3. Research Output (Documentation/Research Paper)
1. Microsoft Teams Quiz Forms
Assessment Tool
2. Kahoot
Creativity and Innovation, Mathematical Skills, Collaboration, Confidence and Self-
Target Competency
directed Lifelong Learning.

Guidelines for Writing a Thesis or Dissertation:

Writing of Thesis Paper (Final System Project
Documentation)

Introduction

What is a Thesis paper?

A thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or
professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some
contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used for part of
a bachelor's or master's course.

In some contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used for part of

a bachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally applied to a doctorate,
while in other contexts, the reverse is true. The term graduate thesis is sometimes
used to refer to both master's theses and doctoral dissertations. The required
complexity or quality of research of a thesis or dissertation can vary by country,
university, or program, and the required minimum study period may thus vary
significantly in duration. The word "dissertation" can at times be used to describe
a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term "thesis" is also
used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work.

Getting Started

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1. Most research begins with a question. Think about which topics and theories you are
interested in and what you would like to know more about. Think about the topics and
theories you have studied in your program. Is there some question you feel the body
of knowledge in your field does not answer adequately?

2. Once you have a question in mind, begin looking for information relevant to the
topic and its theoretical framework. Read everything you can--academic research,
trade literature, and information in the popular press and on the Internet.

3. As you become well-informed about your topic and prior research on the topic, your
knowledge should suggest a purpose for your thesis/dissertation. When you can
articulate this purpose clearly, you are ready to write your prospectus/proposal. This
document specifies the purpose of the study, significance of the study, a tentative
review of the literature on the topic and its theoretical framework (a working
bibliography should be attached), your research questions and/or hypotheses, and
how you will collect and analyze your data (your proposed instrumentation should be
attached).
4. At this point, master's students need to recruit committee members (if they haven't
done so already) and hold a preliminary meeting. The purpose of this meeting is to
refine your plans if needed and to make explicit expectations for completion of the
thesis. Doctoral students discuss their dissertation proposal as part of their qualifying
exam. At the completion of this meeting, the student should submit a memo to
committee members summarizing what was agreed upon during the meeting.

5. Once your instrumentation is developed, you need to clear it and your informed
consent protocol with the Institutional Review Board before you begin collecting data.
Leave adequate time to do so. The process can take several days or weeks.
6. Obviously, the next steps are collecting and analyzing data, writing up the findings,
and composing the final chapter. You also should make sure Chapters 1 and 2 are now
fully developed. Your chair and committee members provide guidance as needed at
this point but expect you to work as independently as possible.

7. You should be prepared to hire assistance with coding and data entry and analysis if
needed.

8. Get a copy of the graduate school's guidelines for writing theses and dissertations
and follow these guidelines exactly.

Writing

9. Each thesis or dissertation is unique but all share several common elements. The
following is not an exact guide but rather a general outline.

Chapter 1: Purpose and Significance of the Study

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In the first chapter, clearly state what the purpose of the study is and explain the
study's significance. The significance is addressed by discussing how the study adds to
the theoretical body of knowledge in the field and the study's practical significance for
communication professionals in the field being examined.

Ph.D. students also must explain how their research makes an original contribution to
the body of knowledge in their discipline. They also should address the significance of
the study for mass communication education.

It is especially critical that this chapter be well developed. Without a clearly defined
purpose and strong theoretical grounding, the thesis or dissertation is fundamentally
flawed from the outset.

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

The purpose of the study should suggest some theoretical framework to be explained
further in this chapter. The literature review thus describes and analyzes previous
research on the topic.

This chapter, however, should not merely string together what other researchers have
found. Rather, you should discuss and analyze the body of knowledge with the
ultimate goal of determining what is known and is not known about the topic. This
determination leads to your research questions and/or hypotheses. In some cases, of
course, you may determine that replicating previous research is needed.
Chapter 3: Methodology
This chapter describes and justifies the data gathering method used. This chapter also
outlines how you analyzed your data.
Begin by describing the method you chose and why this method was the most
appropriate. In doing so, you should cite reference literature about the method.

Next, detail every step of the data gathering and analysis process. Although this
section varies depending on method and analysis technique chosen, many of the
following areas typically are addressed:

--description of research design

internal validity
external validity

--description of population and description of and justification for type of sample

used or method for selecting units of observation

--development of instrument or method for making observations

(e.g., question guide, categories for content analysis) pre-test reliability and
validity of instrument or method

--administration of instrument or method for making observations

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 (e.g., interviews, observation, content analysis)

--coding of data

--description of data analysis

Statistical analysis and tests performed
identification of themes/categories (qualitative or historical research)

Chapter 4: Findings
This chapter addresses the results from your data analysis only. This chapter does not
include discussing other research literature or the implications of your findings.

Usually you begin by outlining any descriptive or exploratory/confirmatory analyses

(e.g., reliability tests, factor analysis) that were conducted. You next address the
results of the tests of hypotheses. You then discuss any ex post facto analysis. Tables
and/or figures should be used to illustrate and summarize all numeric information.

For qualitative and historical research, this chapter usually is organized by the themes
or categories uncovered in your research. If you have conducted focus groups or
interviews, it is often appropriate to provide a brief descriptive (e.g., demographic)
profile of the participants first. Direct quotation and paraphrasing of data from focus
groups, interviews, or historical artifacts then are used to support the generalizations
made. In some cases, this analysis also includes information from field notes or other
interpretative data (e.g., life history information).

Chapter 5: Discussion
The purpose of this chapter is not just to reiterate what you found but rather to
discuss what your findings mean in relation to the theoretical body of knowledge on
the topic and your profession. Typically, students skimp on this chapter even though it
may be the most important one because it answers the "So what?" question.
Begin by discussing your findings in relation to the theoretical framework introduced in
the literature review. In some cases, you may need to introduce new literature
(particularly with qualitative research).

This chapter also should address what your findings mean for communication
professionals in the field being examined. In other words, what are the study's
practical implications?

Doctoral students also should discuss the pedagogical implications of the study. What
does the study suggest for mass communication education?

This chapter next outlines the limitations of the study. Areas for future research then
are proposed.

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Obviously, the thesis or dissertation ends with a brief conclusion that provides closure.
A strong final sentence should be written.

Finishing
1. Do not expect to begin and finish your thesis in the same semester. You need to
make significant progress (which usually means you are already collecting data) the
semester before you want to graduate. The defense is scheduled when the thesis has
been completed successfully--not when it is convenient for the student to graduate.
Even if nothing goes wrong (and things often do), a quality thesis takes about six to
nine months to complete (from inception to graduate school clearance). Obviously, the
same principles apply for dissertations as well but doctoral students must allot even
more time. A quality dissertation usually takes about a year to complete (best case
scenario).

2. Do not expect your chair or committee members to copy edit your thesis or
dissertation. Before turning in any drafts, you should carefully edit and spell checks
your work. Editing occurs at two different levels at least. Micro editing involves
correcting spelling and grammatical errors. It also involves checking for proper
paragraph and sentence structure, consistent use of terms, and variety in word choice.

Macro editing assesses the overall structure of the thesis. This includes making sure
each chapter flows logically from the previous chapter, headings and subheadings are
used properly and consistently, and transitions are included between major topics.
Macro editing also determines whether any parts of the thesis need to be streamlined
or expanded.

In some cases, it may be necessary for you to hire a professional editor.

3. Leave time for the chair to read your completed thesis or dissertation at least twice
before giving it to your committee members. Don't expect to submit the completed
thesis or dissertation for the first time to the chair and defend in the same or following
week. Also, it is customary to give the thesis or dissertation to committee members at
least a week before the defense.

4. It is the student’s responsibility to reserve a room for the defense and to bring the
signature page and the examination form to the defense.
5. Be prepared for revisions after the defense. You can expedite clearance by the
graduate school by letting the staff examine a draft of the thesis or dissertation before
you defend.

6. It is customary to provide your chair and committee members with a bound copy of
the final version of the thesis or dissertation.

Outline for Empirical Master's Theses

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PROPOSAL. The following topics usually will be included. In addition to definitions in
II.B., define other terms where first used. Do use subheads throughout.

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.
A. Broad introduction to thesis topic and method. Page or two. Write after
remainder of proposal is completed.

B. Research problem. State broadly, in question form. Give sub-questions. Explain

carefully. In one sense, usually the problem is to expand the body of knowledge
examined in the literature review.

C. Need for the research. Who will benefit? Discuss applied and scientific
contributions.

D. Nominal definitions. Define central terms.

E. Context. Add further info to clarify the research problem.

Chapter II. THEORY. Literature review.

Organize by idea; avoid stringing together abstracts of articles.
A. Overview. Theoretical foundations.

B. Literature. Group articles by ideas. For a given idea, first discuss common
strands in the literature, then departures.

C. Model. Of a process, usually. Based on the lit reviewed.

D. Hypotheses (in broad sense of the term; also called Propositions). For each, give
brief restatement of justification tied to earlier sections; explain derivation and
implications. Include assumptions. Explicitly state plausible rival hypotheses
(explanations of process) of a substantive nature.

E. Scope of the study. Theoretical assumptions; discuss limitations they impose.

Chapter III. METHODOLOGY. Outline in a few pages.

A. Introduction. General description of method and design.

B. Design. Experiment, quasi-experiment, survey, and so forth. Detailed description.

C. Sample. Universe, population, element, sample design, tolerance, probability.

D. Measurement. Operational definitions. Include, as applicable, detailed discussion of
indexes/ scales. Specify methods used to assess validity and reliability.

E. Analysis. Techniques to be used; justification. Nature of relationships expected (e.g.,

asymmetrical, symmetrical, reciprocal; linear, monotonic, other curvilinear; necessary,
sufficient, necessary and sufficient). Include dummy tables and worked examples of
statistics.

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F. Validity. Design: Internal and external, with relevant subtypes.

G. Methodological assumptions. Discuss limitations they impose.

APPENDICES.
A. Schedule. In Gantt Chart form.

B. Facilities. Faculty and staff expertise, library and computer resources, other
special facilities contributing to a successful study.

C. Budget.

D. Bibliographic essay. Sources searched (indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, etc.).

Strengths and weaknesses of literature.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Works cited in proposal, plus other relevant documents.

THESIS.

Chapters I-III. As in proposal, re-written and most likely expanded.

Chapter IV. FINDINGS.

A. Brief overview.

B. Results of application of method; any unusual situations encountered. Nature

of sample.

C. Descriptive analysis. One-way frequency distributions on central variables.

D. Validity/reliability analysis.

E. Tests of hypotheses. ANOVAs, cross tabulations, correlations, and such,

depending on techniques used; give in same order as hypotheses.

Chapter V. DISCUSSION.
When discussing implications, deal with both the theoretical and the practical. Present
only interpretations of the findings, not opinion.
A. Brief overview.

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 B. Discussion of results of application of method. Implications.

C. Discussion of descriptive analysis. Implications.

D. Discussion of tests of hypothesis. Implications.

E. Post-hoc analysis. Implications.

Chapter VI. CONCLUSION.

May include writer's opinion.
A. Summary of entire thesis in a few pages.

B. Conclusions. Refer to lit review.

C. Implications. Speculate about broadest possible consequences, both theoretical

and practical. Label speculation clearly.

D. Limitations. Theory, method.

E. Suggestions for future research.

APPENDICES. Bibliographic essay. Questionnaire and coding manual, if any. Raw data.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Include all relevant sources examined, whether cited or not.

How to Actually Complete a Thesis: Segmenting, Scheduling, and

Rewarding

First, pick something that interests you deeply. Your interest is what carries you
through the long days and nights of concentrated effort.

So you've picked an interesting topic. What can you do now to improve your chances
of finishing the thesis in a timely fashion?

Find a special place to write. Make it a place where you can spread out papers and get
messy. Get everybody to agree that you don't have to clean it up until the thesis is
done.

Then, use three techniques that have helped generations of students: segmenting,
scheduling, and rewarding.

Segment the whole thesis into small chunks. Tackle just one at a time. Avoid fixating on
doing the entire thesis all at once. Instead, focus clearly on just one small piece at a
time.

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One way to begin to segment is to write a detailed subject outline of the thesis. Get
right down to the subsection level – the part that takes only a page or two. First make
a topic outline for the entire work. Then make a thesis outline; tell what your thesis
(argument) will be for each subsection. Don't worry now about being totally and
perfectly accurate in the outline. Certainly the structure will change a bit as you move
along through the thesis. But having the detailed outline will prove a great help to
finishing the thesis – especially when combined with scheduling and rewarding.

Schedule your thesis writing for three days a week. (The days don't have to be
consecutive.) Plan on completing one small subsection each day. After finishing the
writing each day, research those nagging minor points that cropped up while you were
writing – find the exact spelling of a name, for example, when it's been cited differently
by your sources, or check out the correct pages numbers for an article.

On the fourth day of the week, rewrite the three sections you finished most recently.
Make sure that you have polished each chapter to a shimmering brilliance before
copying it for supervisory committee members.

On the fifth day, deliver thesis chapters to committee members, make appointments
for consultation with experts whose help you need, and take care of all those other
time-consuming chores.

Now comes the crucial technique. To many thesis writers, the actual writing looms as
the hardest part. Such students may be able to breeze through a newspaper article or
TV script with no problem, but a hundred-page manuscript blocks them like a ten-foot
granite wall across the path. You can make that wall crumble in front of your eyes – by
rewarding yourself.

Find something that gives you pleasure. Make it small, easy, inexpensive. Then, at the
end of each day's writing, treat yourself! Tell yourself that you've done well!
Acknowledge your progress to yourself! Feel good about it all!

Some treats: M&M candies. Soaking in the tub. A phone chat with a friend. A donut. A
five-mile run.

Find something you enjoy. It'll help.

How to Make a Thesis Less Painful and More Satisfying

First, a thesis is supposed to demonstrate that you can take a project and bring it to a
genuine conclusion – very different from the usual undergraduate term paper that is
not revised after the teacher sees it and that is usually done during the last week
before it is due. A thesis provides, then, a new kind of work and frequently a new kind
of skill.

Pick a topic that will help you professionally. Employers will sometimes ask about your
thesis or even want to see it – especially if you go into some branch of education. Your

108
choice of thesis can help you get a job or hold one.

Pick a topic that you are happy to talk about at a cocktail party. People will often ask
you, in making conversation, “What is your thesis about?” A good test of your wisdom
in picking a topic is the amount of pleasure you get in answering. Here's why: A thesis
project involves some frustrating times; your personal interest in your topic is your
best help in getting through that frustration.
A thesis should be useful. You'll be happier about doing a thesis if you feel that
somebody will use it. And you'll want to do a better job if you feel that somebody will
read and use your thesis. It is even better if the thesis is useful not just at the moment
of completion, but also later. It should not be a snapshot of information that
immediately becomes dated; the thesis should ideally be something with information
you can talk about and that people can use for years.

If you are going into any branch of education, try to make your thesis something that
can become a journal article; such articles look very good on resumes.

A FEW TIPS

You can find out what is expected of you by reading theses – especially those chaired
by the person who will chair your thesis. And you get ideas for procedures to follow
both from theses and from other research projects.

In checking abstracts (Journalism Abstracts and Dissertation Abstracts) go back at least

to 1965, and look under several key terms – and not just in the “Mass Communication”
section. You'll find lots of television references, for instance, under “Education” and
“Psychology.”

Do your thesis carefully; you never know when a prospective employer will see it. And
certainly, you are finding out how critical future graduate students can be of theses
that have been done before. You are also finding out how much these future students
will depend on your thesis.

These are the “big six” journals that should not be omitted from your literature
research: Journal of Broadcasting, Journal of Communication, Journalism Quarterly,
Human Communication Research, Public Opinion Quarterly, Communication Research.
There are many others, of course, that may – for an individual thesis – be even more
important.

You will find many opportunities to help your fellow graduate students. I hope you will
do so. You will need help at some point.

Writing Thesis Statements

109
Academic essays usually have a thesis statement, a one- or two-sentence summary of
a paper’s main point, usually found at the end of the introduction. This
page includes thesis statement dos and don'ts and a strategy for creating strong thesis
statements. It also discusses how to write thesis statements for personal
essays and essays about literature.

Thesis Statement Dos and Don'ts

 DON'T be vague or mysterious. Vague language talks about something

without directly saying what it is. Some students believe that their thesis
statement should be vague so it doesn't give the argument away. In fact, your
thesis statement is supposed to give the argument away--that's its job!
Without a clear idea where your paper is going, it is difficult for readers to
follow your points as you make them in the paper.

 DO be as specific as possible about what your paper will argue.

 DON'T list the topic of each body paragraph (unless the assignment instructs

you to do so). One strategy commonly taught to beginning writers is to list the
topic of each body paragraph in the thesis statement. While this is a good way
to learn the principles of organization, it has a few problems. One is that it
doesn't lead to a complex main point for your paper. Also, it only works for a
short paper--imagine writing this type of thesis statement for a ten or twenty-
page paper! For this reason, you should avoid listing the body paragraphs in
your thesis statement unless the assignment or your teacher has told you to
do so. For example, in the following thesis statement, the listing structure
makes the essay's main point difficult to identify. Can you tell what this essay
will argue?

 DO explain the larger topic of the entire essay in your thesis statement. 

Exception: a listing thesis statement can work well if your main point truly is a
list. 

110
  DON'T squish too many ideas into a single sentence. Students are often
taught that a thesis statement should only be one sentence in length. While
one sentence is often ideal, it is undesirable to have an incredibly long,
complicated sentence that will confuse your reader. 

 DO split up your sentence if it gets too long. It is fine to have a two-sentence

thesis statement in such cases. In fact, once you split up your long sentence,
you may find that the new second sentence can stand along as a thesis
statement, as in the following example.

Strategy for Creating Strong Thesis Statements

 
The formula below is one useful way to create a thesis statement. It also works
strongly for topic sentences (opening sentences of a body paragraph). 
Thesis = Observation + Analysis
o Observation: evidence, factual information, or a judgment your audience
will agree with easily
o Analysis: your argument, position or opinion about the observation,
something your audience might not agree with
Combining these two elements gives you the most important elements for a thesis
statement. The analysis is argumentative and debatable, while the observation gives
evidence or reasoning to support the analysis.
As you might imagine, the dividing line between what counts as an observation and
what is an analysis is not clear-cut. Often it will depend on context, such as the
assignment, the field of study, and your audience. For example, in a biology class, the
statement, "People are descended from other animals similar to apes," would be an
observation; all biology teachers would agree with you and this statement would be
considered a fact. In a religious philosophy class, the same statement might be up for
debate, in which case it would be an analysis, which would need a more agreed-upon
observation to support it.

In most cases, though, the distinction is fairly clear. Below are some examples.

Observations (Statements most readers would agree with)

 Reality television shows are popular among young viewers.
 Hamlet is an indecisive character.
 Hemingway's writing does not contain many adjectives.
 Approximately 500,000 deaths are attributed to smoking-related diseases each
year in America. 

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Analyses (Statements that many readers would disagree with)
 Reality shows are leading young Americans to have unrealistic expectations
about their own lives.
 Hamlet's indecisiveness stems from his fear of death.
 Hemingway's lack of description actually makes his writing more vivid and
imaginative.
 The U.S. government should outlaw smoking.

Thesis statements (Combine observation and analysis)

The popularity of reality shows causes young Americans to have unrealistic
expectations that their own lives should always be exciting and dramatic.

Hamlet's indecisiveness always occurs when he is thinking about death, indicating that
this indecisiveness stems from a fear of death.

Because readers are free to make up their own descriptions in their heads,
Hemingway's avoidance of adjectives actually makes his writing more vivid and
imaginative.

The reports of 500,000 preventable deaths each year lead me to agree with the
American Lung association that the U.S. government should outlaw smoking.

Personal Essays and Essays about Literature

Many types of essays, such as personal essays and essays about literature, do not
always have a debatable main point, but they can still have an observation and
analysis. Below are some guidelines for these types of essays.

Personal Essays
Your observation will probably be the experience you wish to discuss, while your
analysis will be what you learned from it or what you would like to say about it.

Observations
 I grew up in a poor neighbourhood, and then moved to a wealthier one.
 My younger sister has autism.
 My algebra teacher was my favourite teacher. 

Analyses

112
 The government needs to help schools in poor neighborhoods gain all the
advantages of schools in rich neighborhoods.
 People should learn to be kinder to those with disabilities.
 Becoming a strong math student changed my life by showing me that I could do
anything I set my mind to.

(Notice that even though the last two are not necessarily debatable arguments, they
are still argumentative statements).

Thesis Statements
My experiences going to schools in poor and wealthy neighborhoods convinced me
that the government must do more to provide equal opportunities for all students,
both rich and poor.

People should learn to be kinder to those with disabilities, as I learned from growing
up with an autistic sister.

My algebra teacher was one of the most influential people in my life, since she taught
me that I could do anything I set my mind to. 

Essays about Literature

Your observation will probably be some event, description, or pattern that you noticed
in the text, and your analysis will be your interpretation of that event.

Observations
 Sylvia Plath's poem "Daddy" has a very repetitive rhyme scheme.
 The play Trifles, by Susan Glaspell, takes place entirely in the kitchen of Mrs.
Wright's house.
 The poem "A Dream Deferred" by Langston Hughes lists a number of negative
things that can happen to a dream that is not fulfilled.
 In the novel Slaughterhouse Five by Kurt Vonnegut, Billy Pilgrim travels
through both time and outer space. 

Analyses
 The poem "Daddy" reflects the perspective of an angry child.
 The play Trifles suggests that women's perspectives can be more valuable than
men's.
 The poem "A Dream Deferred" implies that dealing with oppression can lead to
self-destruction or violence towards others.
 Kurt Vonnegut purposely disrupts the storyline of his novel to make readers
more critical of the war experiences he describes.

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(Notice that even though these aren’t debatable issues, they are still argumentative
interpretations; someone else might interpret the same features of the text in a very
different way). 

Thesis statements
The repetitive rhyme scheme and fairy-tale imagery of Sylvia Plath's poem "Daddy"
reflect the perspective of an angry child rather than a mature adult.

The focus on female characters and female spaces in "Trifles" suggests that women's
perspectives can be more valuable than men's.

The negative outcomes listed in "A Dream Deferred" suggest that dealing with
oppression can lead to violence against oneself or others.

The disruptive elements of Slaughterhouse Five, including time travel and outer-space

travel, make readers more critical of the war experiences he describes.

APA 6th Referencing Style

A guide to using the APA 6th referencing style.

About APA 6th

The “APA style” is an author-date style for citing and referencing information in
assignments and publications. This guide is based on the "Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association" 6th edition (2010).

Always check with your lecturer or tutor about the bibliographic style
preferred by the School. There may be differences in the style recommended by
the School.

Using in-text references

 In an author-date style, in-text citations usually require the last name of the
author(s) and the year of publication.
 Place in-text reference before the full stop eg. .... this week (Johns, 2017).
 A page number is included when using a direct quote. Place a comma after the
year. Use p. for single page, pp. for multiple pages eg. (Harris, 2012, p. 164) or
(Lewis, 2016, pp. 56-58).

114
 When you paraphrase a passage, or refer to an idea contained in another work, a
page number is not required. However, it is "encouraged", especially when you are
referring to a long work and the page numbers might be useful to the reader.
 If there is no date, the abbreviation n.d. may be used eg. (Harris, n.d.)
 if work is not yet published but published online ahead of the print, use "in press"
eg. (Taylor, in press)

Works with same author(s) and same year

 Place an a, b, c etc. after the year 

 The letters are allocated in the reference list where references with the same first
author last names are organized alphabetically by title. The first reference listed
uses "a", second uses "b" etc.
 If "in press" is used, place dash between "press" and relevant letter eg. in press-c
 Use this format each time the references are used in-text. This includes for a single
reference within a parentheses or multiple works in same parentheses.

(Jordan & Kendall, 2010a)

(Jordan & Kendall, 2010b)
(Jordan & Kendall, in press-c)

Multiple works within same reference

Two or more works by different authors within same reference

 List works alphabetically (as they appear in the reference list)
 Separate references with a semicolon ;

(Noble, Rogers, & Bennett, 2015; Walker, 2011)

Two or more works by the same author within same reference

 Order references by year of publication
 Put any "in press" references last
 Only use the author last name or groups name once then list the years

(Lewis, 2012, 2015, 2016, in press)

(Education Queensland, 2011, 2013)
(Education Queensland, 2011; Lewis, 2012, 2015, 2016, in press)

115
Two or more works by the same author published in the same year, in the
same reference
 Place an a, b, c etc. after the year 
 The letters are allocated in the reference list where references with the same first
author last names are organized alphabetically by title.
 Repeat each year with each letter used ie. don't put 2014a, b, c.
 If "in press" is used, place dash between "press" and relevant letter eg. in press-c
 Use this format each time the references are used in-text. 

(Jordan & Kendall, 2010a)

(Jordan & Kendall, 2010a, 2010b, in press-c)
(Jordan & Kendall, 2010a, 2010b; Mitchell & Clarke, 2004; Tourism
Queensland, 2009)

Work with no author(s) or editor(s) - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format ("First words of article, chapter title", ("First words of article, chapter title",
Year) Year)
"First words of article, chapter title" "First words of article, chapter title"
(Year) (Year)
(Title of book, journal, Year) (Title of book, journal, Year)
Title of book, journal (Year) Title of book, journal (Year)

Example ("Social media", 2013) ("Social media", 2013)

"Social media" (2013) "Social media" (2013)
(Social media security, 2014) (Social media security, 2014)
Social Media Security (2014) Social Media Security (2014)

For title of article, chapter or web page with no author, use double quotation

marks ".....". 

For the title of a journal, book, brochure or report with no author, italicize the

title. 

116
Authors with same last name - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (First author - first name initial. last name, (First author - first name initial. last
Year) name, Year)
First author - first name initial. last name  First author - first name initial. last
(Year) name (Year)
(First author - first name initial. last name (First author - first name initial. last
& second author - last name, Year) name & second author - last
name, Year)
First author - first name initial. last name
and second author - last name (Year) First author - first name initial. last
name and second author - last
name (Year)

Example (J. P. Lewis, 2007) (J. P. Lewis, 2007)

J. P. Lewis (2007) argues that…. J. P. Lewis (2007) argues that….
(R. Lewis & Morgan, 2007) (R. Lewis & Morgan, 2007)
R. Lewis and Morgan (2007) stated R. Lewis and Morgan (2007) stated
that... that...
(S. Lewis, Johnson & Edwards, 2015) (S. Lewis et al., 2015) found that .....
found that .....
S. Lewis et al. (2015) found that .....
S. Lewis, Johnson and Edwards (2015)
found that .....

NOTE: Include each first author’s initials in all citations. Do this for the
FIRST author only when there are multiple authors in a single reference. 
Initials are included even if year of publication differs.

What is a direct quotation?

A direct quotation reproduces word-for-word material taken directly from another

author’s work, or from your own previously published work.

If the quotation is fewer than 40 words, incorporate it into your paragraph and
enclose it in double quotation marks. Place it before the full stop.

117
David Copperfield starts with "Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life,
or whether that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show" (Dickens,
1869, p. 1).

If the quotation comprises 40 or more words, display it in an indented, freestanding

block of text, without quotation marks. At the end of a block quotation, cite the
quoted source and the page number in parentheses, after the final punctuation mark.

Whether I shall turn out to be the hero of my own life, or whether

that station will be held by anybody else, these pages must show.
To begin my life with the beginning of my life, I record that I was
born (as I have been informed and believe) on a Friday, at twelve
o’clock at night. It was remarked that the clock began to strike, and
I began to cry, simultaneously. (Dickens, 1896, p. 1)

Format of a direct quotation in-text reference

 If you have directly quoted words from a source (in inverted commas, or in an
indented paragraph), provide the author, year, and specific page number for that
quotation. (For material without page numbers, give the paragraph number.)
 Include a complete reference in the reference list.

The in-text reference will look like:- 

(Smith, 2003, p. 105)

(Brown, 1999, pp. 49-50)
Smith (2003) has argued that "......" (p. 105)
As Brown (1999) found "......" (pp. 49-50) 

Placement of a direct quotation in-text reference

 If the direct quote is part of a sentence, place the in-text reference directly
after the quote and continue with the sentence. For example:-

Mindfulness has a range of meanings as it "...has become a

trend word conveying a diversity of understandings
dependent on context" (Crane, 2017, p. 586) and can
encompass....
As Crane (2017) said, "Mindfulness has become a trend word
conveying a diversity of understandings dependent on
context" (p. 586) and can encompass....

118
  If the direct quote is at the end of a sentence, include the in-text reference
directly after the quote and end with a full stop.

"Mindfulness has become a trend word conveying a diversity

of understandings dependent on context" (Crane, 2017, p.
586).

What is an indirect citation or secondary source?

An indirect citation or secondary source is when the ideas of one author are published
in another author’s text but you have not read or accessed the original author’s work.
 Include both the original author and the author of the work where quote/idea
was found in the in-text reference.
 Add "as cited in" before the author in the in-text reference. For example - (as
cited in Lewis, 2019).
 In the reference list, provide the details of the author of the work in which you
found the quotation or idea.

Citing a indirect citation or secondary source

Elements of Follow the format of the reference in which you found the indirect citation.
the reference

In-text reference (Original author last name, as cited in Author last name of work where
quote found, Year)
Miller (as cited in Agrios, 2005) found …
… it was found (Miller, as cited in Agrios, 2005).

Reference list Agrios, G.N. (2005). Plant pathology (5th ed.). Burlington, MA.:

Elsevier Academic Press.

EndNote reference Use the relevant reference type for the item you are citing.
type Add “cited in” manually in the "Prefix" box, using “Edit Citation”
option. 

Creating a reference list

 A reference list is arranged alphabetically by author last name.

 If a reference has no author, it is cited by title, and included in the
alphabetical list using the first significant word of the title.
 If you have more than one item with the same author, list the items
chronologically, starting with the earliest publication.

119
  Each reference appears on a new line.
 Each item in the reference list is required to have a hanging indent.

Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. R. (2006). Self-administered behavioral

family intervention for parents of toddlers: Part I. Efficacy. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 10-19.
doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.1.10

 References should not be numbered.

 If there is no date, the abbreviation n.d. may be used.
 Use the full journal name, not the abbreviated name.

Difference between reference list and bibliography

 A reference list only includes the books, articles, and web pages etc. that are
cited in the text of the document.
 A bibliography includes all sources consulted for background reading, even if
they are not cited in the document

Titles

 Article or chapter titles use sentence case - the first word uses a

capital letter with each subsequent word in lower case. The exceptions are
for names eg. countries and after a colon: eg. Writing prose in Australia:
Words of wisdom from the best

 Books (including for book chapters) and reports titles use sentence

case. These should also be italicized eg. Publication manual of the
American Psychological Association.
 Journal, magazine and newspaper titles should be provided in full and
use capitals where appropriate (rather than sentence case)
eg. Psychological Review. These should be italicized.
 Website titles should be italicized if the work can be considered to
stand alone eg. government report. If the work is part of the page and can't
be considered to stand alone, the title should not be italicized. 

Publisher details

 For places of publication in the USA, include the city/town and the state, using the
official USA Postal Service 2 letter abbreviations eg. Boston, MA
 For places of publication outside the USA, include the city/town and country eg.
Brisbane, Australia
 For publisher names, words like "Co.", "Publishers" or "Inc." should not be
included. For example, use Springer, not Springer Publishers.
 If there are more than two locations recorded for a place of publication, use the
location that is listed first.

120
Multiple works with same author(s) and same year

 Arrange works with the same author(s) and same year alphabetically by title in the
reference list.
 Add the relevant letter after the year (which is used for in-text references). The
first reference listed uses "a", second uses "b" etc.
 If the date is either "in press" or n.d. (for no date), include a dash then the relevant
letter at the end eg. (in press-a) or (n.d.-a)

Yang, Q., & Harris, J. G. (2010a). Dynamic range control for audio

signals using fourth-order level estimation. Paper presented at the
129th Audio Engineering Society Convention, San Francisco, CA.
Yang, Q., & Harris, J. G. (2010b). A higher-order spectro-temporal
integration model for predicting signal audibility. Paper presented
at the International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal
Processing, Dallas, TX.

Example reference list

Community. (2009). In J. Scott & G. Marshall (Eds.), A dictionary of

sociology (3rd Rev. ed.). Retrieved from
http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/97801995330
08.001.0001/acref-9780199533008-e-337?
rskey=wDCUCP&result=1&q=community

Carson-Chahhoud, K. V., Ameer, F., Sayehmiri, K., Hnin, K., van, A. J.

E., Sayehmiri, F., . . . Smith, B. J. (2017). Mass media
interventions for preventing smoking in young people. Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews, (6). Retrieved from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001006.pu
b3/abstract doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001006.pub3

Dutton, W. H. (2013). Oxford handbook of Internet studies. Oxford, England:

Oxford University Press.

Elvrum, A. K. G. (2016). Assessment of hand function in children with

bilateral cerebral palsy. (Doctor of Philosophy), Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.

Gull, F., Ceccacci, S., Menghi, R., & Germani, M. (2016). An adaptive
smart system to foster disabled and elderly people in kitchen-related
task. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 9th ACM
International Conference on Pervasive Technologies Related to
Assistive Environments, Corfu Island, Greece.

121
Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. R. (2006). Self-administered behavioral
family intervention for parents of toddlers: Part I. Efficacy. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(1), 10-19.
doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.1.10

Productivity Commission. (1999). Australia's gambling industries: inquiry

report. (10). Australia: Author.

Scheinin, P. (2009). Using student assessment to improve teaching and

educational policy. In M. O'Keefe, E. Webb & K. Hoad
(Eds.), Assessment and student learning: Collecting, interpreting and
using data to inform teaching (pp. 12-14). Melbourne, Australia:
Australian Council for Educational Research.

Seow, W. K., Clifford, H., Battistutta, D., Morawska, A., & Holcombe, T.

(2009). Case-control study of early childhood caries in
Australia. Caries Research, 43(1), 25-35. doi:10.1159/000189704

Siegel, R. D., & Yalom, V. (2016). Integrating mindfulness into counseling

and psychotherapy. San Francisco, CA: Kanopy Streaming.

The Coca-Cola Company. (2017). 2016 sustainability report. Retrieved

from The Cocoa Cola Company website: http://www.coca-
colacompany.com/content/dam/journey/us/en/private/fileassets/
pdf/2017/2016-sustainability–update/2016-Sustainability-Report-
The-Coca-ColaCompany.pdf

One work by one author - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Author last name, Year) (Author last name, Year)

Example .....finding information (Berkman, 1994) ....finding information (Berkman, 1994)

OR OR
Berkman (1994) claimed that … Berkman (1994) claimed that …

One work with two authors - in-text reference

In-text reference:

122
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Author last name & Author last name, Year) (Author last name & Author last name, Year)

Example (Kendall & Watson, 2015) (Kendall & Watson, 2015)

Kendall and Watson (2015) Kendall and Watson (2015)

One work with three to five authors - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Author last name, Author last name, Author last name, & (First Author last name et
Author last name, Year) al., Year)
Author last name, Author last name, Author last name, and
Author last name, (Year)

Example (Hoges, Jensen, Olsen, & Forgan, 2013) (Hoges et al., 2013)

Hoges, Jensen, Olsen, and Forgan  (2013) Hoges et al. (2013)

One work with six or more authors - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (First author last name et al., Year) (First author last name et al., Year)
First author last name et al. (Year) First author last name et al. (Year)

Example (Johnson et al., 2016) (Johnson et al., 2016)

Johnson et al. (2016) Johnson et al. (2016)

Authors with same last name - in-text reference

In-text reference:

123
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (First author - first name initial. last (First author - first name initial. last name,
name, Year) Year)
First author - first name initial. last First author - first name initial. last
name  (Year) name (Year)
(First author - first name initial. last (First author - first name initial. last
name & second author - last name, Year) name & second author - last name, Year)
First author - first name initial. last name First author - first name initial. last name
and second author - last name (Year) and second author - last name (Year)

NOTE:
 Include each first author’s initials in all citations. Do this for the
FIRST author only when there are multiple authors in a single
reference. 
 Initials are included even if year of publication differs.
 For more than two authors, use as format as required by APA 6th
(see above examples)

Different authors with same last name and first initial - in-text
reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Author - full first name last name, Year) (Author - full first name last name, Year)
Author - full first name last name (Year) Author - full first name last name (Year)
has argued that .... has argued that ....

Example (Jessica Lewis, 2017) (Jessica Lewis, 2017)

Jessica Lewis (2017) has argued that .... Jessica Lewis (2017) has argued that ....
(James Lewis, 2014) (James Lewis, 2014)

124
  First Use Subsequent Uses

James Lewis (2014) notes that .... James Lewis (2014) notes that ....

Reference List:
 Use author(s) full first name in square brackets if there are different
authors with the same last name and first initial
 Place the first name after the first name initial eg. Lewis, J.
[Jessica]

Work with groups as authors (with known abbreviation) - in-

text reference

ALSO KNOWN AS CORPORATE AUTHORS

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Group Name [abbreviation], Year) (Abbreviation, Year)

Group Name (abbreviation, Year) Abbreviation (Year)

Example (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare [AIHW], 2012) (AIHW, 2012)
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW, 2012) AIHW (2012)

NOTE: Groups as authors include government departments,

professional associations, company names, organizations

Work with groups as authors (no abbreviation) - in-text

reference
ALSO KNOWN AS CORPORATE AUTHORS

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Group Name, 2015) (Group Name, 2015)

125
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Group Name (2015) Group Name (2015)

Example (Tourism Queensland, 2016) (Tourism Queensland, 2016)

Tourism Queensland (2016) Tourism Queensland (2016)

Work with no author(s) or editor(s) - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format ("First words of article, chapter title", ("First words of article, chapter title",
Year) Year)
"First words of article, chapter title" "First words of article, chapter title"
(Year) (Year)
(Title of book, journal, Year) (Title of book, journal, Year)
Title of book, journal (Year) Title of book, journal (Year)

Example ("Social media", 2013) ("Social media", 2013)

"Social media" (2013) "Social media" (2013)
(Social media security, 2014) (Social media security, 2014)
Social Media Security (2014) Social Media Security (2014)

Note:
 For title of article, chapter or web page with no author, use
double quotation marks ".....". 
 For the title of a journal, book, brochure or report with
no author, italicize the title. 

Work with Anonymous designated as author - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Anonymous listed as author name, (Anonymous listed as author name,

126
  First Use Subsequent Uses

1996) 1996)
Anonymous listed as author name (1996) Anonymous listed as author name(1996)

Example (Anonymous, 1996) (Anonymous, 1996)

Anonymous (1996) Anonymous (1996)

NOTE:
 Only ever use Anonymous when it is the listed author. If no
author is listed, use the title. See "Work with no author(s) or
editor(s)".

Abbreviating corporate authors or groups as authors

“The names of groups that serve as authors (eg. corporations,

associations, government agencies…) are usually spelled out each time
they appear in a text citation. The names of some groups are spelled
out in the first citation and abbreviated thereafter. In deciding
whether to abbreviate the name of a group author, use the general rule
that you need to give enough information in the text citation for the
reader to locate the entry in the reference list without difficulty. If
the name is long… and the abbreviation is familiar…, you may
abbreviate the name in the second and subsequent citations. If the
name is short or if the abbreviation would not be readily understandable,
write out the same each time it occurs”. (American Psychological
Association, 2010, p. 176)
Corporate author - organization, association, company, government
department
Example:
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)

127
One work with multiple authors with same last name & same
year - in-text reference

In-text reference:
  First Use Subsequent Uses

Format (Author last name, Author last (Author last name, Author last name, Author
name, Author last name & Author last name et al., 2017)
last name, 2017)
Author last name, Author last name, Author
Author last name, Author last last name et al. (2017)
name, Author last name and Author
Follow usual format required for number
last name (2017)
of authors.
Follow usual format required for
number of authors.

Example (Harris, Lewis, Peterson & Kendall, (Harris, Lewis, Peterson et al., 2017
2017)
Harris, Lewis, Johnson, et al. (2017)
Harris, Lewis, Johnson and Taylor
Include author last name and as many of
(2017)
the subsequent author last names to
Include author last name and as distinguish them. For remaining authors,
many of the subsequent author replace with et al.
last names to distinguish them.

One author - reference list

Format Author(s) – last name and initials.

Example Berkman, R. I. (1994). Find it fast: How to uncover expert information. New York,
NY: Harper Perrenial.
Two authors - reference list

Format List both author names - last name, initials. Use & between the author names. 

Example Moir, A. & Jessel, D. (1991). Brain sex: The real difference between men and
women. London, England: Mandarin.

128
Three to five authors - reference list

Format List all author names - last name, initials.

Use & between last two author names.

Example O'Keefe, J. H., Bell, D. S. H., & Wyne, K.L. (2009). Diabetes essentials. Sudbury,
MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Six or seven authors - reference list

Format List all author names - last name, initials.

Use & between last two author names.

Example Churchill, R., Ferguson, P., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F., Keddie, A., Lets, W., &
Mackay, J. (2013). Teaching: Making a difference. Sydney, Australia: Wiley.
Eight or more authors - reference list

Format Cite the last names & initials of the first six authors then follow with a comma
and three spaced ellipsis points (. . .), then the last author’s name. 

Example Johnson, L., Lewis, K., Peters, M., Harris, Y., Moreton, G., Morgan, B., . . . Smith, P.
(2005). How far is far? London, England: McMillan.

Tips on using headings

 There are five levels of headings

 All headings work from the top level down, regardless of how many subheadings in
the section
 Each section begins with the top level heading, regardless of how many
subheadings are used within the section
 Do not use numbers or letters as labels in headings 
 Do not use Introduction as your first heading
 The title of the paper is not considered a heading. Place the title at the top of the
first page and use regular font that is centered. Follow with the text.

129
Five levels of headings

Heading Formatting
Level

1 Cantered, Bold, Upper Case and Lower Case Heading (Title Case)

2 Left aligned, Bold, Upper Case and Lower Case Heading (Title Case)

3 Indented, bold, Sentence case (first word uses capital letter, rest uses
lower case. Also called a lower case paragraph heading) ending with a
full stop.

4 Indented, bold, italicized, Sentence case (first word uses capital letter, rest
uses lower case. Also called a lower case paragraph heading) ending with a
full stop.

5 Indented, italicized, Sentence case (first word uses capital letter, rest uses
lower case. Also called a lower case paragraph heading) ending with a full
stop.
Example

Results
Outcome of Parenting Intervention
Group support.
Large groups.
Children aged 3-5.

One author

Elements of the Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of publication:
Publisher.

In-text Sophisticated searching techniques are important in finding information

(Berkman, 1994)
OR
Berkman (1994) claimed that …

Reference list Berkman, R. I. (1994). Find it fast: How to uncover expert information. New
York, NY: Harper Perrenial.

130
Elements of the Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of publication:
Publisher.

Endnote Book
reference type

Two authors

Elements of the Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of publication:
Publisher.

In-text Always list the authors in the order in which they appear in the
reference publication.
Cite both authors for each use of reference.
Examples:
It is futile to maintain that the sexes are interchangeable (Moir & Jessel,
1991)
OR
Moir and Jessel (1991) found students…

Reference list Moir, A., & Jessel, D. (1991). Brain sex: The real difference between men
and women. London, England: Mandarin.

EndNote Book
reference type

Three to five authors

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book – italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

In-text reference Cite all authors the first time the reference appears; for all subsequent
uses, cite last name of first author followed by “et al.”
Examples:
First instance: (O’Keefe, Bell, & Wyne, 2009)
Subsequent Uses: (O’Keefe et al., 2009)
OR
First instance: O’Keefe, Bell, and Wyne (2009) 
Subsequent Uses: O’Keefe et al. (2009) stated that ...

131
Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book – italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

Reference list O'Keefe, J. H., Bell, D. S. H., & Wyne, K.L. (2009). Diabetes essentials.
Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

EndNote Book
reference type

Six or seven authors

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book – italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

In-text reference Cite just the last name of the first author followed by “et al.” and year
for the first and all other citations
Churchill et al. (2013) argue …
OR
It was argued that…(Churchill et al., 2013)

Reference list Churchill, R., Ferguson, P., Godinho, S., Johnson, N. F., Keddie, A., Lets,
W., & Mackay, J. (2013). Teaching: Making a difference. Sydney,
Australia: Wiley.

EndNote Book
reference type

Eight or more authors

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials (for first six authors),. . .
the reference final author - family name and initial(s). (Year of publication). Title
of book – italicized. Place of publication: Publisher.

In-text reference Cite just the last name of the first author followed by “et al.” and year
for the first and all other citations
Johnson et al. (2005) argue …
OR
It was argued that…(Johnson et al., 2005)

132
Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials (for first six authors),. . .
the reference final author - family name and initial(s). (Year of publication). Title
of book – italicized. Place of publication: Publisher.

Reference list Cite the last names & initials of the first six authors then follow with a
comma and three spaced ellipsis points (. . .), then the last author’s
name.
Example:
Johnson, L., Lewis, K., Peters, M., Harris, Y., Moreton, G., Morgan, B., . . .
Smith, P. (2005). How far is far? London, England: McMillan.

EndNote Book
reference type

No author

Elements of Title of book - italicized (Year of publication).  Place of publication:

the reference Publisher.

In-text reference Cite in the text the first few words of the title and the year. Italicize
the book title.
Management is defined as (CCH Macquarie Dictionary, 1993)
OR
CCH Macquarie Dictionary (1993) defines…

Reference list The CCH Macquarie dictionary of business. (1993). North Ryde,

Australia: CCH Australia.

EndNote reference Book

type

Author identified as anonymous

Elements of Anonymous - only if author is specifically named as “Anonymous”.

the reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of publication:
Publisher.

In-text reference (Anonymous, 1996)

Use only if author is specifically named as “Anonymous”

Reference list Anonymous. (1996). Primary colors: A novel of politics. New York, NY:
Random House.

133
Elements of Anonymous - only if author is specifically named as “Anonymous”.
the reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of publication:
Publisher.

EndNote Book
reference type

Authors with same last name

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

In-text reference Include each first author’s initials in all citations. Do this for the
FIRST author only. 
If the same author last name is found as second, third etc. authors,
initials are NOT used.
(J. P. Lewis, 2007)
J. P. Lewis (2007) argues that….
(R. Lewis, 2007)
R. Lewis (2007) stated that...
(S. Lewis, Edwards & Galbraith, 2015) found that .....
S. Lewis, Edwards & Galbraith (2015) found that .....

Reference list Lewis, J. P. (2007). Fundamentals of project management. New York, NY:

American Management Association.
Lewis, R. (2007). Human genetics: concepts and applications. Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Lewis, S., Edwards, D., & Galbraith, D. (2015). Increasing human
dominance of tropical forests. Science, 349(6250), 827-832.
doi:10.1126/science.aaa9932

EndNote Book
reference type

134
Multiple works by the same author

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

In-text reference List years chronologically 

…geology of Queensland’s national parks (Willmott, 2004, 2006).
Willmott (2004, 2006) found that ...

Reference list Order chronologically from earliest in the reference list

Willmott, W.F. (2004). Rocks and landscapes of the national parks of
Southern Queensland. Brisbane, Australia: Geological Society of
Australia, Queensland Division.
Willmott, W.F. (2006). Rocks and landscapes of the national parks of
Central Queensland. Brisbane, Australia: Geological Society of
Australia, Queensland Division.

EndNote Book
reference type

Multiple works by the same author, published in the same year

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

In-text reference a, b, c etc. suffixes are assigned in reference list according to title.
(Dawkins, 1996a, 1996b)
Dawkins (1996a, 1996b) has argued ...

Reference list Order alphabetically by title in the Reference list, giving first title "a"
suffix to year and so on.
Dawkins, R. (1996a). Climbing Mount Improbable. London, England:
Viking.
Dawkins, R. (1996b). River out of Eden. London, England: Phoenix.

EndNote Book
reference type

135
Book by an organization or institution (corporate author)

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place of
publication: Publisher.

In-text reference (Queensland Health, 2002)

Queensland Health (2002) recommends that….

Reference list Queensland Health. (2002). Best practice guidelines for the management of
type 1 diabetes in children and adolescents. Brisbane, Australia:
Author.

EndNote Book
reference type
Add a comma ( , ) after each corporate author eg. Queensland Health,
in the Author field
Different editions

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple
the reference authors. (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized (Edition
number ed.). Place of publication: Publisher.

In-text reference (DeHart, Sroufe, & Cooper, 1995)

DeHart, Sroufe, and Cooper (1995) state the idea that…

Reference list The edition statement is placed after the title of the work. This is not
necessary for a first edition.
DeHart, G. B., Sroufe, L.A., & Cooper, R. G. (1995). Child development: Its
nature and course (4th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.

EndNote Book
reference type

136
Edited book

Elements of Editor(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple editors.
the reference (Ed. or Eds.). (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. Place
of publication: Publisher.

In-text reference Treat multiple editors same as multiple authors

(Friedman & Wachs, 1999)
(Everson, 1991)

Reference list Friedman, S. L., & Wachs, T. D. (Eds.). (1999). Measuring environment

across the life span: emerging methods and concepts.Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association.
Everson, S. (Ed.). (1991). Psychology. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.

EndNote Edited book

reference type

Electronic version of print book

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
the reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. [Provider of
electronic version]. Retrieved from http: www.xxxxxx
Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
(Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. [Provider of
electronic version]. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx

In-text (De Lara & Doyen, 2008)

reference
(Ardia, 2008)

Reference list Add the name of the provider of the electronic version in square brackets.
De Lara, M., & Doyen, L. (2008). Sustainable management of natural
resources: Mathematical models and methods. [SpringerLink version].
Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?
genre=book&isbn=978-3-540-79073-0
Ardia, D. (2008). Financial risk management with Bayesian estimation of
GARCH models: Theory and applications [SpringerLink version].
doi:10.1007/978-3-540-78657-3

EndNote Electronic book

reference type
Enter the Digital Object Identifier of the book in the DOI field.

137
Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
the reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. [Provider of
electronic version]. Retrieved from http: www.xxxxxx
Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
(Year of publication). Title of book - italicized. [Provider of
electronic version]. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxxx

If the book has no DOI, use the URL field and enter the full web address
of the e-book if it was only published electronically.
If the book was originally published in print, enter the web address of the
homepage of the website on which it is available.
Electronic-only book

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
the reference (Year of publication).Title of book - italicized. Retrieved from http:
www.xxxxxx

In-text Use n.d. when no year available

reference (Stevens, n.d.)
Stevens (n.d.) stated that ....

Reference list Stevens, K. (n.d.) The dreamer and the beast. Retrieved from
http://www.onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp?itemID=332

EndNote Electronic book

reference type

Translation of a book

Elements of Author(s) of book – family name and initials, use & for multiple authors.
the reference (Year of publication). Title of book - italicized (Translator name -
first initial. last name, Trans.). Place of publication: Publisher.

In-text reference (Ylinen, 2008)

Reference list Ylinen, J. (2008). Stretching therapy: For sport and manual therapies (J.
Nurmenniemi, Trans.). Edinburgh, Scotland: Churchill Livingstone.

EndNote Book
reference type
Enter translator’s name in Translator field

138
Dissertation / Thesis

 Author: Samah Ahmad Sabbagh

 Publication date: 2009

 Doctoral dissertation / master's thesis title: Investigating oral presentation skills and non-verbal
communication
  techniques in UAE classrooms: A thesis in teaching English to speakers of other languages

 Form of work: master's thesis

 Name of institutions: American University of Sharjah

 Location: Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

Document Example:

139
 

Proper Bibliographic Reference Format:

 Bibliographic references are double-spaced and indented half an inch after
the first line.
 Use italics and "sentence-style" capitalization for dissertation / thesis titles.
 Identify the work as a doctoral dissertation / master’s thesis in parentheses
after the title.

Sabbagh, S. A. (2009). Investigating oral presentation skills and non-verbal

communication techniques in UAE classrooms: A thesis in teaching English to
speakers of other languages (master’s thesis). American University of Sharjah,
Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
 

In-Text Citations:
Citations are placed in the context of discussion using the author’s last name and
date of publication.
(Sabbagh, 2009)
 
Alternatively, you can integrate the citation into the sentence by means of
narrative.
Sabbagh (2009) compares a variety of oral presentation techniques.

140
 Assessment Task 1
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. What type of referencing style is APA 6th?

a. Footnote style
b. Numbered style
c. Author-date style
d. Endnote style

2. If you use two chapters, written by different authors from the same edited book,
what is the correct way to list them in the reference list? 
a. Reference the book in which the chapters appeared.
b. Include the chapter title in the reference as well as the book details.
c. Reference all individual chapters you use, including the chapter authors
and chapter titles, as well as the book’s details.

3. When you reference a PDF, you should

a. Use the webpage reference type.
b. Use the reference type the PDF most closely resembles eg. book chapter,
report etc, unless it doesn’t fit a specific reference. In this case, reference
as a webpage.
c. Reference as a PDF.

4. Which of these is the correct placement in a sentence for an in-text reference?

Select the two correct answers.
a. Wilson (2015) found that reading is easier, too, in the new Reading view.
b. Reading is easier, too, in the new Reading view. (Wilson, 2015)
c. Reading is easier, too, in the new Reading view (Wilson, 2015).
d. (Wilson, 2015) found that reading is easier, too, in the new Reading view.

5. When your article does not have an author, which is the correct way to include it in
the reference list?
a. Use "Anonymous" instead of an author name.
b. Put the title in the place of the author in double quotations marks,
followed by the year.
c. Start with the title, italicized.
d. Use the title in place of the author name, followed by the year.

6. When there is no year of publication, how should the year be included in both the
reference list and in-text reference, regardless of the type of reference?

141
 a. Use n.d. in place of the year
b. Leave out the year
c. Use N.D. in place of the year
d. Include "no date" in place of the year

7. If there are multiple authors with the same last name, which of these is the correct
in-text reference? 
a. Video provides a powerful way to help you prove your point (Harris,
2018a). When you click Online Video, you can paste in the embed code for
the video you want to add (Harris, 2019b).
b. Video provides a powerful way to help you prove your point (Harris, 2018).
When you click Online Video, you can paste in the embed code for the
video you want to add (Harris, 2019).
c. Video provides a powerful way to help you prove your point (S. Harris,
2018). When you click Online Video, you can paste in the embed code for
the video you want to add (K. Harris, 2019).
d. Video provides a powerful way to help you prove your point (Simon Harris,
2018). When you click Online Video, you can paste in the embed code for
the video you want to add (Kate Harris, 2019).

8. If you are quoting something that someone, other than the author of the work you
are using said or wrote, how do you reference it in the in-text reference? In this
example: 
 Dunbar is the original author but you have not read or accessed this
work.  
 McMahon is the author of the work where you read Dunbar’s quote. 
a. (McMahon, 2019)
b. Dunbar (as cited in McMahon, 2019)
c. Dunbar (as found in McMahon, 2019)
d. Dunbar (see McMahon, 2019)

9. What is the in-text reference for a group author with an abbreviation? 

a. First use: (World Health Organization, 2019) Subsequent uses:
(WHO, 2019)
b. First use: (World Health Organization [WHO], 2019) Subsequent
uses: (WHO, 2019)
c. (WHO, 2019)
d. (World Health Organization, 2019)

10. Which of the following needs to be included in the reference list? Select
the two correct answers.
a. The list is organised alphabetically by author
b. Each reference has a hanging indent
c. Each reference is numbered
d. The list is sorted by the order in which each reference appears in the work

142
 Assessment Task 2
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. In which text the citation is correct according to APA style?

a. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be
willing to obey an authority figure. The percentage of subjects that obeyed
in Milgram’s experiment (1963), was much greater . . .
b. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be
willing to obey an authority figure. The percentage of subjects that obeyed
in his experiment, was much greater . . .
c. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be
willing to obey an authority figure. The percentage of subjects that obeyed
in Milgram’s experiment (ibid.), was much greater . . .
d. Milgram (1963) was interested in the extend in which people would be
willing to obey an authority figure. The percentage of subjects that obeyed
in Milgram’s experiment (see Milgram, 1963), was much greater 

2. In which text the citation is correct according to APA style?

a. Vroom & Yetton (1973) define leadership in a more practical way.
b. Vroom/ Yetton (1973) define leadership in a more practical way.
c. Vroom and Yetton (1973) define leadership in a more practical way.

3. In which text(s) the citation is correct according to APA style?

a. Differences in reaction times were found (Gefland, 1987, p. 15).
b. In 1998 Scarano and Walker developed a theory . . .
c. Lavin (1986, p. 57) concluded that television functions as a surrogate
parent for some young adults. His research shows that people who are
addicted to soaps spend more time watching television than they have
contact with their parents.
d. All the alternatives are correct.

4. In which text the citation is correct according to APA style?

a. Briddel, Rimm, Caddy, Krawitz, Scholis and Wunderling (1978) showed . . .
b. Briddel & Rimm & Caddy & Krawitz & Scholis & Wunderling (1978)
showed . . .
c. Briddel et al. (1978) showed . . .
d. Briddel et all (1978) showed . . .

5. In which text the citation is correct according to APA style?

a. Ecphory is "the process by which retrieval information is brought into
interaction with stored information (p. 178)" (Tulving, 1983).
b. Ecphory is "the process by which retrieval information is brought into
interaction with stored information" (Tulving, 1983) [p. 178].
c. Ecphory is "the process by which retrieval information is brought into
interaction with stored information" (Tulving, 1983, p. 178).

143
 d. Ecphory is "the process by which retrieval information is brought into
interaction with stored information" (Tulving, 1983).

6. What is wrong in this reference?

a. Eagly, A. H., and Carli, L. L. (1981). Sex of researchers and sex-typed
communications as determinants of sex differences in influenceability: A
meta-analysis of social influences. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 1-20.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.1
b. Between author names “&” should be used instead of “and”.
c. There should be quotation marks around the title: " “
d. The year should not be in parentheses.

7. What is wrong in this reference?

Deaux, Kay. (1976). The Behavior of Women and Men. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
a. Kay should be K.
b. The year should not be in parentheses
c. The words Behavior, Women en Men should not begin with capitals
d. 1 and 3
e. 1 and 2 and 3

8. You want to cite information from the chapter  “Culture and social class” of P. J.
Henry. This chapter is part of the book ”Culture re-examined: Broadening our
understanding of social and evolutionary influences” from 2014, of which A. B.
Cohen is the editor. How do you cite this source?

a. In text:
. . . culture is defined in many different ways in different disciplines (Henry,
in Cohen, 2014).

b. In the reference list:

Cohen A. B. (Ed.). Culture re-examined: Broadening our understanding of
social and evolutionary influences. Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
 
c. In text:
. . . culture is defined in many different ways in different disciplines (Henry,
2014).

d. In the reference list:

Henry, P. J. (2014). Culture and social class. In A. B. Cohen (Ed.), Culture
reexamined: Broadening our understanding of social and
evolutionary influences (pp. 49-75). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

9. In APA style the list of references should be in order by:

a. Chronological by date of publication

144
 b. Alphabetical by first author’s last name
c. Alphabetical by title
d. No particular order

10. Where does the running head appear in an essay?

a. In the bottom left footer
b. In the top right header
c. In the top left header
d. In the bottom right footer

Assessment Task 2
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. Where do page numbers appear in an essay?

a. In the bottom left footer
b. In the bottom right footer
c. In the top right header
d. In the top left header

2. Academic title pages may not display a page number, depending on instructor
preference, though the APA Style rules start page numbers at "1" on the title page.
a. True
b. False

3. Choose the correct formatting for a level 1 section heading:

a. Flush left, uppercase and lowercase text
b. Centred, boldface, uppercase and lowercase text
c. Flush left, boldface, lowercase text
d. Centred, uppercase and lowercase text

4. Choose the correct in-text citation format for a direct quotation:

a. (Johnson, 2013, p. 4)
b. (2013, p. 4)

145
 c. (Johnson, 2013)

5. In-text citations to paraphrased text must provide page/paragraph numbers.

a. True
b. False, though the APA rules encourage authors to provide them if doing so
would make it easier for readers to locate the information.

6. Choose the correct format for citing personal communication:

a. (J. Johnson, email, September 3, 2013)
b. (J. Johnson, personal communication, September 3, 2013)
c. (Johnson, personal communication, September 3, 2013)

7. A digital object identifier (DOI) is:

a. A number used by the Library of Congress to catalogue resources
b. An alpha-numeric identifier, typically assigned to electronic resources
c. An unique number used by book sellers to identify books

8. Please choose the correct reference for this resource:

"Adapting Historical Citations to APA Style" is a journal article by Donald

Godfrey that was published in 2005 in the Journal of Broadcasting &
Electronic Media. The journal's volume number is 49, the issue number is 4,
and the article appears on pages 544-547. The DOI for the article is
01.1207/s15506878jobem4904_15.

a. Godfrey, D. (2005). Adapting historical citations to APA Style. Journal of Broadcasting &

Electronic Media, 49(4), 544-547. https://doi.org/ 01.1207/s15506878jobem4904_15

b. Godfrey, D. (2005). Adapting historical citations to APA Style. Journal of broadcasting &

electronic media, 49(4), 544-547. DOI: 01.1207/s15506878jobem4904_15.

c. Godfrey, D. (2005). Adapting Historical Citations to APA Style. Journal of broadcasting &

electronic media, 49(4), 544-547. DOI: 01.1207/s15506878jobem4904_15.

9. Please choose the correct reference for this resource:

"Leadership giftedness: Is it innate or can it be developed?" is a chapter written

by Karen Rogers. The chapter was published in 2009 in International Handbook
on Giftedness, which is an edited book. The chapter appeared on pages 633-645,
the editor of the book was Larisa Shavinina, and the DOI for the chapter is
10.1007/978-1-4020-6162-2_31. The book's publisher was Springer
Netherlands, and the publisher's location is Houten, Netherlands. 

146
a. Rogers, K. (2009). "Leadership giftedness: Is it innate or can it be developed?". In
Shavinina, L. (Ed.), International Handbook on Giftedness (pp. 633-645). Houten,
NL: Springer Netherlands. 

b. Rogers, Karen. (2009). Leadership Giftedness: Is It Innate or Can It Be Developed?. In L.

Shavinina (Editor), International handbook on giftedness (pp. 633-645).
DOI:10.1007/978-1-4020-6162-2_31

c. Rogers, K. (2009). Leadership giftedness: Is it innate or can it be developed?. In L.

Shavinina (Ed.), International handbook on giftedness (pp. 633-645). https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-1-4020-6162-2_31

10. Page margins should be:

a. 1 in (2.54 cm) on all sides.
b. At least 0.5 in (1.27 cm) top and bottom and at least 0.75 in (1.9 cm) right
and left.
c. At least 1 in (2.54 cm) on all sides, unless more space is needed for a table
or figure, in which case the margins may be reduced.

Assessment Task 3
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. How wide should the header and footer be?

a. 1 in (2.5 cm).
b. 1.5 in (3.81 cm).
c. Authors may use Microsoft Word's default settings, which are usually 0.49
in (1.24 cm).

2. Where is the title of a document located in APA Style?

a. On the title page
b. At the top of the first full page of text
c. In the running head of each page
d. All of the above

3. Where are page numbers located?

a. In the bottom left footer
b. In the bottom right footer
c. In the top left header

147
 d. In the top right header

4. True or false: The introduction should be labelled with a level 1 heading (e.g.,

"Introduction" centred, boldface, and capitalized).
a. True
b. False

5. The typeface and font size should be a:

a. Serif typeface (e.g., Times New Roman) in a legible size (e.g., 12 pt.)
b. Small, compressed serif typeface (e.g., Rockwell Condensed, 8 pt.)
c. Large sans serif typeface (e.g., Arial, 14 pt.)
d. Small sans serif font (e.g., Arial, 8 pt.)

6. Choose the correct formatting for a level 2 section heading:

a. Centred, boldface, uppercase and lowercase text
b. Centred, uppercase and lowercase text
c. Flush left, boldface, uppercase and lowercase text
d. Flush left, uppercase and lowercase text

7. What is the correct line-spacing?

a. Single-spaced throughout, including block quotations and references
b. Single spaced throughout, but double-spaced between paragraphs
c. Double-spaced throughout, but block quotations and references can be
single-spaced
d. Double-spaced throughout, including block quotations and references

8. The alignment of text should be:

a. Whatever the author prefers
b. Justified (the words are spread equally across the line so that every line of
text ends at the right margin)
c. Left-aligned with a ragged right edge (the text begins at the left margin and
the spacing at the right margin is uneven)
d. Right-aligned (the text begins at the right margin and the spacing at the
left margin is uneven)

9. The first line of every new paragraph should be:

a. Left-aligned and indented one tab space (usually 0.5 inch or 1.27 cm).
b. Left-aligned without any indentation.
c. Right-aligned.

10. Why should an author use a table in an academic essay or thesis?

a. To provide, contrast, or compare data that is more easily understood in
table form than via expression in the text
b. To add an illustration to the document
c. To provide supplemental information to the discussion i.e., information
that isn't critical to the discussion but that may be of interest to the reader

148
 d. To repeat and therefore emphasize information explained within the
discussion

Assessment Task 4
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. What information should appear directly above the table?

a. No information is required
b. Table number and title
c. Table caption
d. Table reference

2. The table number: 

a. Can include suffix letters to show relationships between tables e.g., Table
1a, Table 1b
b. Should not include suffix letters. Instead, number all tables with Arabic
numerals in the order they are first mentioned in the text e.g., : Table 1,
Table 2
c. Should be in the same font as the rest of the text but should be italicized 
d. Should be in a larger font e.g., Times New Roman, 14 pt. but not italicized

3. The table title, which appears above the table, should be:

a. In sentence case and italicized
b. In sentence case but no italics
c. In title case but no italics
d. In title case and italicized
4. Within a table, the line-spacing should be:
a. Either single- or double-spaced, depending on what makes the text most
readable
b. Single-spaced
c. Double-spaced

5. Every cell in the table should have a full border so that every vertical and
horizontal line appears in the table.
a. True. Lines help readers understand relationships between data.
b. False. Lines should be restricted to those needed for clarity. Spacing
between columns and rows, and/or alignment of data demonstrates
relationships, not lines

6. What information can appear in the table note, which appears beneath the table?
Choose all that apply.
a. A general note, which explains the table and any abbreviations or symbols.

149
 b. A specific note, which explains a particular section of the table.
c. A probability note, which explains how abbreviations and symbols have
been used to "indicate p values and thus the results of tests of statistical
hypothesis testing" (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 139).
d. If the table was first published elsewhere (i.e., the table isn't the author's
original work), the reference for the table appears in the general note. In a
thesis or major project, authors must obtain written copyright permission
from the original author to use previously-published illustrations, and
copyright permission statements should also appear in the note.

7. If the document uses portrait page orientation, but an author wants to change the
orientation for a table:
a. Tables must follow the same page orientation as the rest of the document
and may appear on a larger page (e.g., 8.5"x14").
b. Tables may have a landscape page orientation, but the page should be the
same size as the rest of the document (e.g., 8.5"x11").

8. To fit a table on one page, it is acceptable to shrink the page margins.

a. True
b. False

9. When referring to a table in-text, direct the reader to the table by referring to:
a. The table number: "As shown in Table 2".
b. The table title: "As shown in the table titled Word Table Example"
c. The appropriate page number: "As shown in the table on page 10".

10. Why should an author use a figure in an academic essay or thesis?

a. To repeat and therefore emphasize information explained within the
discussion
b. To add an illustration to the document
c. To provide supplemental information to the discussion i.e., information
that isn't critical to the discussion but that may be of interest to the reader
d. To present information that is more easily understood in a diagram or
illustrative drawing than via expression in the text

Assessment Task 5
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. What image types are considered to be figures? Check all that apply.

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 a. Bar graphs f. Line graphs j. Pie graphs
b. Charts g. Histograms k. Dendrograms
c. Maps h. Plots l. Stem-and-leaf
d. Drawings i. Combination plots
e. Photographs graphs

2. What typeface should be used in a figure?

a. The same font and size as in the rest of the document (e.g., Times New
Roman, 12 pt.)
b. Simple sans serif in a legible size (e.g., Arial, 8-14 pt.)
c. A condensed font in a small size to get as much information as possible
in the figure (e.g., TW Cen MT Condensed, 4 pt.)

3. True or false: Figures should be presented with a figure number and title above
the figure.
a. True
b. False

4. The figure legend should:

a. Indicate the source of the figure and be presented above the figure
b. Explain symbols and be placed within the figure
c. Explain the meaning of the figure and be included in the caption
5. What information may be included in a figure caption? Check all that apply.
a. Figure title
b. A concise and descriptive phrase that describes the figure.
c. An explanation of all units of measurement, abbreviations, or symbols
that are not included in the legend.
d. An explanations of error bars
e. An explanation of probability if statistically significant values are
marked in the figure
f. The source of the figure (i.e., where the figure was first published)
g. If the figure was previously published, a phrase to indicate that the
figure is being re-used with permission from the copyright holder e.g.,
Reprinted with permission.

6. True or false: It's acceptable to have elements of a figure that aren't legible,
such as a minor item in a topographical map, when the focus of the figure is on
an identifiable item.
a. True
b. False

7. Cropping a photograph (check all that apply):

a. Distracts the reader because important context is eliminated

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 b. Helps to focus attention on the key elements
c. Isn't necessary. Authors should present the photograph exactly as it
was taken to preserve the integrity of the image.
d. Protects the anonymity of photographed subjects

8. If an author took the photograph used in the figure (check all that apply):
a. The figure caption should provide the date and time when the
photograph was taken.
b. No sourcing information is required in the caption because the
photograph is part of the author's primary research.
c. If the author previously published the photograph elsewhere, the
author should check if s/he needs to obtain copyright permission from
the publisher to re-use the image.

9. If you want to use a photograph taken and/or published by someone else

(choose all that apply):
a. If the image was taken by a professional photographer, you may need
to obtain permission to use it from both the copyright holder and the
photographer because professional photographs often remain the
property of the photographer.
b. All photographs in figures must be taken by the author of the text.
c. Take a photograph of the original image and use your photograph. In
the figure caption, acknowledge the original source of the photograph
and that you've used a photograph of the image.
d. Try to acquire the original photograph from the copyright holder or
photographer so that you have a high-quality image in your text.
e. Obtain written permission to use the image and acknowledge both the
original author and that permission have been granted in the figure
caption.

10. In APA style, a separate title page is required for a document.

a. True
b. False

Assessment Task 6
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best
describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. What is a running head in APA style?

a. a header included at the top of the page containing the author's name
and the page number
b. an abbreviated form of the title, up to 50 characters long, in all
uppercase letters at the top of each page

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2. What would an in-text citation include when the author of a source is
unknown?
a. the word anonymous and the year of publication
b. the first few words of the Reference list entry (i.e. part of the title) and
the publication year
c. A or B depending on if the author is unknown or identified as
anonymous
3. When should et al. be used in APA style?
a. when the source has more than 3 authors
b. when the source has 6 or more authors
c. if the source has more than 2 authors and has already been mentioned
once in the document
d. Both B and C

4. Multiple parenthetical references are

a. ... separated by a semicolon
b. ... are allowed in APA
c. ... separated by a comma

5. What does an APA in-text citation include in parentheses when the source is
quoted directly and the author's name is not mentioned in the text?
a. Author, publication year, and page number (preceded by p.) all
separated by commas: (Doe, 2017, p. 25)
b. Author, publication year, and page number (preceded by p.) without
intervening punctuation: (Doe 2017 p. 25)
c. Author and page number separated by a comma: (Doe, 25)
d. Author and page number without intervening punctuation: (Doe 25)

6. Which of the following is cited correctly in APA style?

a. Dietel and Dietel define pointers as "variables that contain as their
values addresses of other variables." (1999, p. 294)
b. Dietel and Dietel (1999) define pointers as "variables that contain as
their values addresses of other variables" (p. 294).
c. Dietel and Dietel (C How to Program) define pointers as "variables that
contain as their values addresses of other variables" (p. 294).

7. In APA style, a long quotation more than 40 words long should be

a. ... single-spaced and indented half an inch
b. ... double-spaced, indented half an inch, and have no quotation marks
c. ... single-spaced, indented half an inch, and enclosed in single
quotation marks
d. ... enclosed in double quotation marks

8. In APA style, personal communications (e-mail, memos, letters) are

a. ... not included in in-text citations
b. ... not included in the Reference list

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 c. ... need to include the author's initials and the exact date of
communication
d. Both A and C
e. Both B and C

9. Each source listed in the Reference list must be cited in text

a. True
b. False

10. According to APA format, the list of references which appear at the end of your
paper is called
a. Bibliography c. References e. List of
b. Works Cited d. Sources used references

Lesson
259
6
111111
Project Presentation (Final System Project
Defense)

1.

Learn more in-depth knowledge of the major subject/field

At the end of lesson,
of study,the students
including should
deeper be able
insight to:
into current research
and development work;
2. Obtain deeper knowledge of methods in the major
subject/field of study;
3. Obtain a capability to contribute to research and
development work;
4. Obtain capability to use a holistic view to critically,
independently and creatively identify, formulate and
deal with complex issues;

154
 5. Obtain capability to plan and use adequate methods to
conduct qualified tasks in given frameworks and to
evaluate this work;
6. Obtain capability to create, analyses and critically
evaluate different technical/architectural solutions;
7. Obtain capability to critically and systematically
integrate knowledge;
8. Obtain capability to clearly present and discuss the
conclusions as well as the knowledge and arguments
that form the basis for these findings in written and
spoken English;
9. Obtain capability to identify the issues that must be
addressed within the framework of the specific thesis
in order to take into consideration all relevant
dimensions of sustainable development; and
10. Learn consciousness of the ethical aspects of research
and development work.

College of Computer Studies

Bachelor of Science in Information Technology
CAPRO 2 
Capstone Project 2
University of the Visayas 3 Units
Lesson 6 WEEK NO. 14-18
Module Topic Project Presentation (Final System Project Defense)
1. Learn more in-depth knowledge of the major subject/field of study, including
deeper insight into current research and development work;
2. Obtain deeper knowledge of methods in the major subject/field of study;
3. Obtain a capability to contribute to research and development work;
4. Obtain capability to use a holistic view to critically, independently and creatively
identify, formulate and deal with complex issues;
5. Obtain capability to plan and use adequate methods to conduct qualified tasks
in given frameworks and to evaluate this work;
Intended Learning 6. Obtain capability to create, analyses and critically evaluate different
Outcomes technical/architectural solutions;
7. Obtain capability to critically and systematically integrate knowledge;
8. Obtain capability to clearly present and discuss the conclusions as well as the
knowledge and arguments that form the basis for these findings in written and
spoken English;
9. Obtain capability to identify the issues that must be addressed within the
framework of the specific thesis in order to take into consideration all relevant
dimensions of sustainable development; and
10. Learn consciousness of the ethical aspects of research and development work.
No. of Hours 25 hours (10 hours self-directed learning & 15 hours of assessment tasks)

Study Questions  What is final project defense?

 How do you defend a project topic?
 How do you start a defense?

155
  How do you introduce yourself in oral defense?
 How do you give a good self-introduction?
 How do you greet a panelist in defense?
 What is difference between defense and Defense?
 How do you defend a research topic?
 What are title defense questions?
 What is oral defense?
 How do you pass thesis defense?
 Can you fail a thesis defense?

Learning Resources Required Suggested

 Berndtsson, M., Hansson, J., Olsson, B., and

Lundell, B. (2002). Planning and Implementing
your Final Year Project — with Success!: A Guide
for Students in Computer Science and
Capstone Project 2 Information Systems
Print
Module  Berndtsson, M., Hansson, J., Olsson, B., and
Lundell, B. (2008). Thesis Projects: A Guide for
Students in Computer Science and Information
Systems
 https://nairaproject.com/blog/making-awesome-
presentations.html
 https://www.premiumresearchers.com/common-
questions-during-research-defense/
 https://medium.com/@ggomtas/useful-tips-for-
Capstone Project 2
Digital
Module PDF Format
project-defense-for-final-year-students-
75ed25cc470b
 https://nairaproject.com/blog/25-common-
project-defense-questions.html
 https://www.projecttopics.org/how-to-deliver-a-
successful-project-defense-presentation-tips.html
The Student shall study and learn thesis writing;
Learning Activity The student can explore on the web some tutorials on how write thesis; and
The student shall answer Assessment Tasks given.

1. PowerPoint Presentation
Required Output
2. Oral Defense
1. Quizzes
2. Assignments outputs
Assessment Task
3. Research Output
4. Oral Questioning
1. Microsoft Teams Quiz Forms
2. Kahoot
Assessment Tool
3. Zoom
4. MS Teams Video Conferencing App
Creativity and Innovation, Mathematical Skills, Collaboration, Confidence and Self-
Target Competency
directed Lifelong Learning.

Project Presentation (Final System Project

Defense)
156
Introduction

Project defense can be very easy once you completely understand your research
work and are prepared for the questions. During the defense, the panel of
assessors will ask you questions to test your knowledge of the research subject
matter, depth of your work, the results and conclusions you arrived at. The
questions that would be asked will fall within these four categories:

-What is your research project about?

-What did you do?
-What did you find?
-Why does that matter?

Below are some of the likely questions you will be asked in a project defense room.
Study these questions and suggested answers. You can also ask previous students
in your department and your supervisor to guide you.

Common project defense questions and answers

What is Project Defense?

Project defense can be very easy once you completely understand your research
work and are prepared for the questions. During the defense, the panel of
assessors will ask you questions to test your knowledge of the research subject
matter, depth of your work, the results and conclusions you arrived at.

What is difference between defense and defence?

Defence and defense are both correct ways to spell the same word. The difference

between them, the fact that one's spelled with a “c” and the other with an “s”,
comes down to the part of the world in which they are used. ... In parts of the
world where British English is used, they use the spelling with a “c”—defence.

How do you create a good defense presentation?

How to create a thesis defense presentation that shows your work at its best

1. Define your signature idea.
2. Know your audience.
3. Keep each slide focused on one point.
4. Less is more.
5. Carefully consider your typography.
6. Dial down your data.

157
 7. Consistency is key.
8. Best Templates for a Thesis Defense.

COMMON QUESTIONS ASK DURING FINAL DEFENSE

1. Why did you choose this topic?

This might be the first question you will be asked, and you need to have a good
response. You should talk about the motivations for the study. Talk about the
research problem you wanted to address which made you embark on the study.

2. Briefly, explain what your research project is all about?

To respond to this question, you need to fully understand your research project.
Basically, be able to repeat your abstract.

3. What is the scope of the study?

Here you briefly state the specific aspects of your project topic that was
covered.

4. What is the significance of the study?

To answer this question, you will need to state how your research work will help
other researchers, educators, organizations (like the case study used), practitioners
and policymakers.

5. Did you bridge any gap from your study?

Here you should talk about how your study addressed the existing
problems/concerns that made you carry out the research.

6. What are your research variables?

This question is asked in order to find out if you really know what your research
project is all about. Explain your independent and dependent variable(s) to show
them you really grasp the concept of your research topic. Identify the variables in
your project topic, define and explain them.

7. What research methodology did you use?

This is usually the chapter three of your project report. To respond to this
question, you should briefly state the research design procedure you adopted for
the research. Talk about the data collection methods and sampling techniques
employed in the research.

158
8. Why did you use that research methodology?

This is where you state the reason(s) for the choice of research methodology used.
For example, if you used the survey research method, you can state reasons such
as: no interviewer bias, cost-effective, it enabled you (the researcher) to collect
information from the sample without influencing the population of the study etc.

9. Why do you think your research is reliable?

To answer this question, simply tell your audience/panel of assessors that the
threats to research reliability (which are participants’ error, participant bias,
research error, and researcher bias) did not occur during the research. Or you can
simply say that you made sure the threats were reduced to the barest minimum.

10. Why do you think your research is valid?

To answer this question, simply tell your audience/panel of assessors that the
findings from your study can be generalized to other relevant settings, group or
case study.

11. In what way(s) does your research project contribute to knowledge?

This question is similar to your significance of the study. You should talk about how
your research is aimed at addressing a problem that was not addressed by
previous researchers in your field of study. You should also briefly state how your
project will advance understanding in your research field.

12. What are the limitations encountered

No research project is perfect. It is common for at least one limitation to be

identified. To answer this question, talk about the weaknesses that were out of
your control. You can talk about how weaknesses such as the short time frame for
the research, lack of research studies/materials on the topic, lack of available data,
the combination of lectures, exam and project research, limited sample size and
selection, etc. impacted the analysis of your research data.

13. Which programming language did you use to write your program? (for
computer science students)

State the programming language and database used in the development of your
software/program. If you did not design the program yourself or you were assisted
by a friend or colleague, find out from the person which programming language
was used. You might also ask the person to give you a crash course on the
programming language.

14. Show us how your software works (for computer science students)

159
Make sure you are familiar with how the software works. Also, be sure that there
are no errors in the software. Go ahead and show the panel of assessors how the
software functions. You can also show them some records which you entered
previously.

15. What source of data was employed for the research?

Here, you simply state the data collection methods that were used in the study.
You should state if primary sources such as questionnaires, interview, observation
OR secondary sources such as textbooks, journals, articles, etc. were used. If you
combined primary and secondary sources, briefly talk about it.

16. What are your findings?

Show the descriptive results from the study in a convincing and clear style. Make
sure your findings refer to your research objectives/questions.

17. Based on your findings what are your recommendations/suggestions?

This is where you talk about the importance and implications of your findings from
three levels namely:
1. Research (various ways other researchers can improve or refine the study)
2. Theory (the new contributions that you are adding to the body of
knowledge) and
3. Practice (how the information gotten from your study can make practice
better, improve the operational procedures, solve problems, improve policy
making etc.).

Note: Avoid the temptation to make recommendations that are not supported by

your findings. Do not recommend based on your beliefs.

18. What is the strongest point in your project?

The duration of the defense might just be 10 - 15 minutes; as such the questioners
will not have the time to ask you about every detail. They will want to focus on the
major ideas and ask you the most important aspects of your research. Be ready to
answer.

19. If you could change something regarding your study, what would it be?

The answer to this question can be gotten from the limitations of your study. You
can give answers such as:
1. Given the constraints (like the short time frame for the research or lack of
sufficient funds) I was working with, this was what I was able to do but if I
could do more, this is what I would have done.
2. In doing this I learned a problem with this kind of data collection. Next
time, I will do it this way.

160
20. What questions do you have for us?

You can ask them if there any revisions they want you to make in your report. Ask
them to summarize the major revisions, so you can take some notes.
 
21. Do you have any closing comments?

Thank the panel of assessors and let them know that the revisions/corrections that
were given (such as rewriting the conclusion, tables/graphs that are not in the
right format, something you said during the defense and they want you to include
it in the report or some other issues they noticed you did not capture) would be
implemented and shown to your supervisor.

In a project defense you are expected to:

- Present yourself as a scholar in the discipline and an authority on your subject.
- Cogently and clearly explain your work.
- Have a conversation with the panel of assessors.
- Defend any idea that might be disagreed upon. (That is why it is called a project
defense).

 Project Defense tips:

1. Be academically, mentally and physically prepared for your presentation.

2. Practice, practice, practice. Rehearse several times with the equipment you
will use for your presentation.
3. Have a thorough understanding of the nature of your research problem.
4. Make eye contact with more than one member of the panel of assessors
during the course of your presentation.
5. Don't speak too fast. Talk calmly with confidence.
6. Bring a copy of your project report with you for reference.

Useful Tips For Project Defense for Final Year Students

For students in the tertiary institutions across the globe, project defense is an

academic endeavor most students consider as a great feat that sends chills down
their spine whenever they think about it.

161
But it doesn’t really have to be that way, project defense can also be considered as
a normal oral test where students can have fun interacting with their lecturers yet
still focused and making far more sense.

The thought of defending their project seem to be the beginning of woe and
troubles for some students and this doesn’t in any way help them during the
defense day as they get to be all fidgety and panicky while entering the hall.

To avoid the stress of the panic moment during your project defense, it is
pertinent to observe some crucial tips before and on the said defense day.

1. Be familiar and interested in your project work

So many potential defense students make the mistake of writing on a topic they
have no particular interest in, either they are forced by their supervisors or
colleagues to write on such project topic or they craft their topic based on pre-
written topics on the net but not withstanding where the work is crafted from,
familiarization with the work should be inevitable.
You have to study and get well acquainted with the research work.

2. Know your audience

Well getting a heads up about who will be amongst the defense team is actually a
credit to you as it will help prepare your mindset on what to expect and reactions
to expect while you’re addressing the panel.

3. Checkup possible questions

In as much as you don’t expect the lecturers to follow a trend of questions it is still
pertinent that you check up possible questions that may be asked during your
defense and try to answer them I the best possible ways.

It will be a gross disappointment that a question will be asked and you are so
unprepared to tackle it in your capacity.

4. Practice and practice more

Many students make the mistake of leaving the bulk of their work until the
eleventh hour before rushing over it to meet up the standard preparation level.

Practice as it is usually said makes one perfect but I will say practice and practicing
more will boost your confidence level and help you get more comfortable doing
what you’re meant to do.

162
5. Work with time

As you prepare for your project defense it is of sole importance that you work with
time so you don’t get caught unawares.

During your practice hours, keep a stopwatch or an alarm clock handy to keep
yourself in check with the actual minutes you will be given during the project
defense and be sure to use the limited time to answer most of the relevant
questions as much as possible and be straight to the point with the answers you
give.

6. Work on your nerves

You are definitely expected to be bold as much as you can be but being nervous
before the big even is quite inevitable and should be expected.

At this point it is up to you to work on yourself and tune your mindset to face the
challenge head on. Looking bold and confident during the defense is a credit to you
so you need to keep the nerves in check

7. What are you planning to wear?

First impression I everything in life and it matters what impression you give out
first before you start speaking your look says more to your audience. Make sure
you wear clothes appropriate for the event, well washed and ironed it doesn’t
have to be expensive but it has to be presentable and appealing, good personal
hygiene is inexcusable here.

8. Pray

Not to be biased about some people that are not overly religious but for the
religious folks who believe in the wonders of prayer it is pertinent to commit your
efforts through prayers to God before stepping into the hall to face the defense
panel, for some prayer acts as a confidence booster to them so it is really advisable
to say a word or two of prayer before your project or research defense.

How do you start a defense?

Most defenses begin with a public presentation by the student, followed by a

question and answer period alone with your committee. Know what to expect!
Know your research forwards and backwards. Rather than writing out your
opening statement verbatim, use an outline to plan your main and supporting
points.

163
Advice for the Defense

For doctoral candidates and many Master's degree students, one of the final steps
after the dissertation or thesis is written includes an oral defense. If you're
preparing for a defense, you may be worried. But while the word evokes war and
keeping the attackers at bay, a defense can actually be enjoyable. You've spent
months or years researching, writing, and revising, and now you have the chance
to show what you've learned.

Here are a few tips to help prepare you for the defense:
 Learn about the structure
Ask your advisor about how the defense will be organized. Most defenses
begin with a public presentation by the student, followed by a question
and answer period alone with your committee. Know what to expect!
 Outline the parts you'll present
Know your research forwards and backwards. Rather than writing out your
opening statement verbatim, use an outline to plan your main and
supporting points. In the opening statement you'll want to introduce your
project, the questions that drove your research, your methods, and your
results (and how your results are significant).
 Attend another defense
Chances are good that you've attended colleagues' defenses for the last
few years. If you haven't, attend a few so you can see what they're like—
from the format to the types of questions that are asked.
 Talk to colleagues who've successfully defended
Learn more about the dynamics in the defense and how defenses have
gone in the past. Their experiences (and living proof that students survive
this experience!) can help you feel more comfortable with your own.
 Anticipate possible questions
Spend time thinking about what your committee might ask (keep their own
areas of interest in mind!), and outline how you can address concerns they
might raise. As with outlining the introduction, think about the main points
you want to address when you answer the question.
 Practice, Practice, Practice
As you prepare, don't just write down what you plan to say during your
presentation, or answers to potential questions. Speak aloud to get
comfortable with the flow of ideas. This practice may make it easier for
you to anticipate how others will respond to your thoughts, and that in
turn will help you be better prepared.
 Dress the part
How you present yourself affects how your committee members see you

164
 and also how you see yourself. Whether you invest in a whole new outfit
or simply a pair of shoes that are your "defense shoes," make an effort to
present "the best you."
 Have an answer ready (for questions you don't know the answer to)
Your committee will be trying to identify the edge of what you know, and
gauging your response when you're confronted with it. It's best to
recognize and admit it when your research didn't address this topic, or if
you just don't know the answer. If you're not sure you understood the
question, rephrase it. If appropriate, you might explain why your
dissertation research didn't address the specific point, that the posed
question could lead to further research, and you might improvise what a
project designed to answer the question might look like. By showing that
you could synthesize an answer, even while acknowledging that you do not
know the answer show that you can effectively think on your feet and
know the ways your field can be expanded.
 Don't interrupt
If the members of your committee are hashing things out over a smaller
detail of your work or they're discussing tangential topics, use the time to
sit back, take a sip of water, and regroup.

After all of your preparation, try not to be nervous. Remember, you know the work
best. Each of your readers was chosen for his/her area of specialty, but when it
comes to your work, you are the expert.

How to Deliver a Successful Project Defense

(Presentation): Tips

How to Defend (Present) a Project

On the last year of every academic tenure, each graduating student is expected
to defend a project because it is a prerequisite for the award of whatever degree is
being pursued. While this may be necessary, it is no news that 50% of students
always wish that they could skip this part. Just thinking about it sends chills down
spines.

What if someone told you it doesn’t have to be that way?

Do you know a project defense is supposed to be a regular oral test where

students are supposed to have fun interacting with their lecturers and project
supervisors while making a lot of sense? It might sound like wishful thinking, but it
is how it should be. Your project defense should not be filled with dread and
trepidation; rather it should be a period of creating ideas you can be proud of ten
years down the line.

Okay, welcome back to the real world.

165
Project defense is a highly personalized exercise. You should know your stuff and
be ready to defend what you have written as a student/researcher. This means
that students cannot simply copy and paste data what they have received from the
library, the internet, or project samples and present as their project. You must
actively participate in the study method to protect the validity and originality of
your project.

You should note that external examiners and a lecturer at your department will
make up the defense panel. At this level, external examiners want to test the
depth of your project work and may ask questions about apparent weaknesses in
the research work. This is apparently to test the knowledge of the student on the
subject of research.

To successfully defend your project, here are a few tips that would prove
extremely useful to you:

1. Be conversant and passionate about your project work

The role that passion plays in any endeavor cannot be overemphasized. So many
prospective defense students make the mistake of writing on a topic that they
have no particular interest in. It is either a case of being pushed by supervisors or
colleagues to research and write about a vague or incomprehensible project topic,
or they create their topics from pre-written topics they have seen on the internet.
No matter where the project topic is obtained from, a total comprehension of the
topic is essential. This would require a lot of reading and research, yes. But the
benefit would be that you would have nothing to fear during the defense.

2. Rehearse likely questions that you may be asked on defense day

Since you do not expect lecturers to follow a pattern during questioning, it is
essential to rehearse possible questions that could come up during your defense.
Prepare your answers and get acquainted with them. Try not to cram your
answers. Just understand them and ensure that no matter the combination of
words you use at any point in time, the answer will be comprehended. It will be
great disaster if a question is asked, and you are unable to give concise answers.

3. Have a mock project defense

A great defense strategy is often adopted during long hours of mock defense or in
some cases, mock trials. Ask any lawyer you know who understands the art of
defense. Many students make the wrong decision and end up leaving the bulk of
their preparation until the 11th hour. With great haste and with half-baked
preparations, they venture into project defense, only to be floored by their
supervisors and lecturers. Practice is good but practice and extra practice will
increase your confidence, enabling you to make the best impression.

4. Be time conscious
During practice, keep your alarm clock or a stopwatch handy so that you keep an
eye on the actual time you spend on each point or section. This will enable you to
tackle the most significant aspects in time and also ensure you cover enough

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ground before you get cut off. However, it is of the utmost significance when you
prepare your project defense that you function with time so that you do not get
too tiresome and make the examiners uninterested in what you have to say.

5. Prepare your slides

A lot of project defenses would require every participant to prepare a slide with
the significant points of his/her presentation displayed in lists. A lot of students are
usually tempted by the idea of brevity and end up crowding the slides with a lot of
points. It doesn’t work that way. The number one rule when preparing a slide is to
pick the key points and put them on different slides. Also, you could add diagrams
where needed. Present numerical facts using tables or charts; use bold and clear
fonts during your slide preparation.

6. Ensure that you get your facts right

One thing you wouldn’t find funny on defense day has to explain facts you are not
sure of. Most defense panels are comprised of people who would go to great
lengths to ensure that whatever data you present is correct. If you are not sure
about an idea, fact, or figure, desist from using it because it could embarrass you.

7. Body language and confidence

With confidence, you can sell any idea. However, confidence comes from
preparation. One important way to display confidence is your body language. Body
language involves making eye contact, watching the way you gesticulate, and
controlling your facial expressions too. Here are some tips to help your body
language when presenting your project defense.

8. Make brief eye contact with one or more members of the audience/panel
members.
If you feel fidgety, lightly grip the pulpit stand; that is if there is any available. If
there is none, grip your handkerchief. It will reduce the tendency of shaking while
you speak.

If you enjoy gesticulating when you talk, do not overdo it because it can be
distracting. A lot of students may be tempted to pace the floor when they speak.
That might not be such a great idea, because it can distract your audience and
panel members. The right thing to do will be to stand on either side of the stage or
projector, switch positions once in a while then stand and deliver your project.

9. Be careful when answering questions

If you are asked a question you do not have an instant answer to, repeat
or rephrase the question before responding. This will give you enough time to
think of the right answer. Whenever possible, avoid an argument with an external
examiner, but wherever you have solid ideas that you can support, express them.
Make sure your answers help the earlier points you made from the onset of your
defense. If you are asked a question that sounds opinionated or aggressive, try
to rephrase the question before answering it. You can rephrase the question with a

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phrase like “If I comprehend your query…” You can also suggest an alternative
question with phrases such as: “I believe the question should be…”, ‘If I get you
correctly…,’ “In my opinion, a suitable solution which would be appropriate is…”
etc.

10. Score high points with your dressing

The first impression you would make once you walk into the room is with your
dressing. As a lady, your hair should be neat, makeup mild, outfit color
conservative, and decent. Go for shoes that would enable you to walk confidently
and smartly, avoid heels at all cost, except if they are the low comfy ones. Also,
desist from using colorful hair extensions; black or brown should do. Overall, your
appearance should be formal. As a gentleman, your hair cut should be neat and
low, beards trimmed or shaved entirely. Ensure that whatever shirt or suit you
choose to wear will be snugly fit and well ironed. Invest in wearing matching
accessories, and combine your colors well (ask any female friend if you need to).

Project defense will be a real walkover for you if you carry out all these tips. Enjoy
your project defense.

COMMON QUESTIONS DURING RESEARCH DEFENSE

Defending the research project may be the most important step in the research

project. While this may seem intimidating, the defense gives you the opportunity
to share your research with colleagues, colleagues, and community members in
general. It shows you your efforts and presents your findings in a supportive
environment.

Of course, the detailed preparation of your presentation and speech is very

important. You also need to make sure all your appointments are made correctly.
However, we have some common questions that are asked during the defense of
the research to prepare if you want to get the highest qualification for the defense
of the research project. This article will explain everything you need to know to
address common questions while defending the investigation.

Preparing for your Research defense

Before entering the questions, defending the explanation of the research project is
not easy to do, especially if you have no experience. The same goes for writing
research projects. During the defense of the research project, talk about the
essence of the chosen topic and keep in mind that it is not a good idea to use
general phrases when presenting a scientific paper.

It would be a good idea to plan your speech and think about the questions that the
faculty board can ask as supervisors. Therefore, you will have enough time and
resources to explore the topic more deeply and you will be 100% ready for any
questions.

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Some crucial tips on how Ace is your project defense presentation;
 Always keep time (remember that when the time is up, the chair is likely to
cut)
 Welcome to more discussion / questions
 Remember, you only provide a brief description of your research, you do
not read your entire research project
 Remember, the defense panel is on your side: they want to see it well
 Bring all necessary documents to the defense: have additional copies as
needed

Common Research Defense setting

The chair of the committee for investigation / research project is usually the
moderator of your defense, and he / she will explain the rules on the procedure
and protocol. During the defense, the committee was able to ask for more details
about the research methods used in the study; questions about their findings,
conclusions and contributions; and / or ask you to explain the relevance of your
study to your profession and society in general. Specific to your study, you should
be prepared to discuss: why and how you select the problem to explore; the data
collection tool you have chosen; the basic assumptions of his study; the theoretical
and conceptual framework; the methodology you have chosen; the way your data
was analyzed; and how he solved his problem, reached his conclusions, answered
his research questions, and achieved his goal. This way, you and your examiners
can get more detailed information about the area that you have researched.

What Are the Common Research project Defense Questions?

The problem with any list you find online is that it will never be complete. Every
audience is different, as is their research. It is likely that not all panelists have read
your document, even if they were intended to do so; while others may have it
scanned with a magnifying glass in search of problems to pose. Therefore, the
range of questions that will be asked can vary greatly, as well as the success
criteria for answering a question.

It is always better to try to attend a public presentation of defense research

projects in your institution to see exactly what is happening and how the
defenders are handling the questions. If possible, help those in your field to get an
idea of what the people you will be hearing will be talking on their defense day.

The following are some of the most common questions that can be asked; the
answers are of course personal to you and your research:

Some general questions for research project include:

If I had to do it all over again, what changes would I make?

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  What surprises did you find in your studio?
 What was the most challenging aspect of your research?
 What specific aspects of your findings can be put into practice?
 How generalizable is your study?
 What is the most important contribution that your study can make to your
profession or society?
 Is there an alternative interpretation of your findings?
 How could a policymaker use his findings?
 Will your research change current thinking in the field? If so, how?
 How will you communicate your work with other academics in your field?
 What will you personally do with the results to make a difference?
 What advice would you give to a student starting the research project and
monitoring the methodology you used?
 How did your work at the university prepare you for your research
project?
 What is your next research project?
 
Most of the time, these questions are paraphrased or broken down into the
following;
 Can you summarize your research project in a few sentences? (or even in
one sentence)
 What motivated you to undertake this research?
 Who are the most important researchers in this area?
 What are the main debates or ongoing issues?
 Why is your research important in this area?
 Who will be interested in your research?
 What advice do you recommend based on your findings?
 What are the implications of what you have found for society in general?
 What are the most important documents related to your own research and
how is yours different?
 What other developments have been made in your field recently?
 Why did you select the research methodology you used?
 In retrospect, should I have used a different methodology? (Note that they
may be looking for you to dig a hole to invalidate your conclusions and
analysis).
 Would you have discovered something else if you had used a different
approach?
 What are the ethical implications of your work and how should they be
addressed?
 How do you know that what you have found is correct?
 What is the weakest part of your job?
 What would you suggest as future research and why?
 If you could start over, what would you have done differently? (Again,
don’t dig a hole to fall).
 What advice would you give if you could go back to the beginning of your
research?
 Do you intend to publish any of your research? If so, where?

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You should always fully understand your personal research and know the paper
you have written backwards. Not answering questions about your justification and
direct research project from your work will not help you in defense. Always be very
careful when answering questions so as not to invalidate anything in your
research. You do not want the public to doubt the validity of their conclusions or
to believe that their data has a defect. If you are going to do a lot of presentations,
it is always helpful to ask your audience to submit a comment form. The questions
in your presentation survey can be written to help you deliver your presentation
better when the time comes for your actual oral exam.

How to answer research project defense questions?

 Try to be physically, academically and, above all, mentally well prepared
for your presentation. It is important that you rest a little for oral defense
so that you can concentrate well on the questions.
 It is not advisable to memorize all the research indicated in your work.
However, it is necessary to master the valuable details of some important
studies, as this will serve as the basis of your research.
 Never rush to give an answer. Don’t talk too hard allow yourself to breathe
deeply and think deeply. You may also consider asking if you are on the
right track. If the question is not clear, you can request some clarification.
 Be sure you respond to the point and with a concise approach. It is also
necessary to demonstrate that you have a deeper understanding of the
complex issues involved in your research. Avoid giving superficial answers
and remember that you do not have to go all over the map.
 It is necessary to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of the major
issues related to your research problem.

How to create a perfect research presentation to

answer general research questions during defense

Developing your research project presentation is your first opportunity to answer

common research questions in defense of your project. Your presentation should
take about half an hour and should focus on your findings and recommendations.
A sample of your presentation may look like this:
 Research objective / objectives (2 min)
 literature review / theoretical framework (5 min)
 methodology (5 min)
 findings (10 min)
 recommendations (5 min)

Suggestion: Practice your presentation at home. This will help increase your
comfort level with the slides and notes of the speakers, the timing of each piece of
your presentation and will allow you to stay within the recommended time for the

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presentation. The practice will provide you with the means to talk about your work
without relying on the notes of your speakers word for word. Some of the best
presentations I have seen are made by those who do not have to rely on the notes
of their speakers, but can expand their statements in their own words.

The findings and recommendations are the crux of his research project
presentation. The review of the literature, the theoretical framework, and the
methodological / ethical issues should form the background and context for these
findings.

Suggestion: Develop your presentation starting with your findings and

recommendations and working backwards. By understanding what parts of your
literature review and theoretical framework are needed to support your findings,
you will ensure that all appropriate information is included. This also helps you
make decisions about recording foreign information, which may be interesting, but
does not support your findings and recommendations.

As mentioned before, defending the research project is the time to show the time
and effort you put into your research project. However, keep in mind that your
audience is not always familiar with your topic. As you develop your presentation,
try to make sure that there are no inherent assumptions in your statements; Spell
out your reasons for your findings and recommendations. Not only will this help
your audience better understand your research, but it may prevent some
questions at the end of your presentation!
 
The information included in your slides helps to formulate the presentation
stream. Your slides are meant to provide a summary of what you want to say and
should include word for word, your presentation. Short, concise and summarized
statements will have the greatest impact on your audience.

Tip: include only keywords as phrases in the slides for presentation. This will help
your audience focus on you, not on your slides.

Recommendation: charts, images, graphics, charts, etc. They are always useful. In
the case of your research project defense, it can help you to share important
information in a visually stimulating way. For example, including graphs instead of
tables or using flow charts will make your findings easier to use.

How to dress for a project defense?

Writing a project is a vital and inspiring task one will encounter as a  graduating
student, and thereafter, face the part called “Project Defense”. Project defense
may not really sound much of a tall order, owing to the fact that before one finally
gets to final year, there must have been several seminars and presentations. But
they may not be likened to that very exclusive day of your project defense. Yes,
this is true because much attention is given at this time and remember we are

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discussing about the final stage of the entire period of your academic year in
school. Sensitive, isn’t it? Well, that leads us to the relevance of this article. Now
let’s look at some very important necessities to making an awesome presentation
and gaining good grades.

During that project defense, you will be required to present and defend your
project in front of your supervisor, faculty project committee (comprising most of
the lecturers in your department), and a very big number of audience (that
includes strangers, members of your department and few friends). You can expect
to be asked a number of questions after your presentation, and you need to be
well prepared with the knowledge and skill necessary to answer the questions
confidently, which also has a higher percent of marks awardable to you.

Acceptable Dress Code

When defending your project, you will need to prove to your audience and
supervisor that you are capable of producing more broad-ranging, in-depth pieces
of scholarly writing. With this in mind, you should look the like. You will need to
wear professional attire, this has to be comfortable on you also because the last
thing you want is to distract your audience from the masterpiece which is your
thesis by tugging, stretching and dancing at cloth-discomfort while you are
presenting your defense or fielding questions. Nor do you want to disrupt your
own ability to concentrate by squeezing into those “cute” shoes.

It can therefore be believed that a generally accepted outfit for a more corporate
outfit is a complete black suit (meaning the materials of the jacket and pant/skirt
must be uniform in colour and stuff) with same colour of belt and shoes
(preferably black). Then a clean plain shirt with an official colour (preferably white,
skyblue or light-pink) with a plain or striped black or navy blue tie for the gents,
then the ladies may choose to have simple neck chain or button up to the neck
depending on the shirt design. Then a lady will need to wear a simple hair-do, with
simple accessories to avoid unnecessary side attractions.

Defense Rehearsal

When preparing for your defense, get yourself familiar with the guidelines and
requirements put into place by your department. Speak with your supervisor to be
sure that you know exactly what is expected of you. Each member of the
committee should have a copy of your project at least a couple of weeks before
your defense, this includes your abstract. Talking with people who have already
defended their projects can be extremely helpful, as it can help you with

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confidence as well as a stronger sense of the expectations you are facing.
Furthermore, attending the defenses of others will afford you the opportunity to
observe interactions between students and members of the committee, hear the
types of questions you may face, and identify the characteristics of strong and
weak project defenses; it will provide insight on what to do and what not to do.

When it comes to defending your project paper orally in front of your supervisor
and committee members, practice can really make perfect. Take any chance you
can get to discuss your project with some friends. If you can find someone to sit
through a practice defense, take advantage of it. Your audience may ask some of
the questions the committee is liable to ask, this can help you identify the portions
of your defense that need to be honed.

Try to create a good time with your supervisor before you defend your project, you
should sit down for a strategy session. Use this time to organize and plan your
defense. Pay good close attention to your supervisor’s reactions to your project
and heed any advice he or she will give you. Because he or she has heard many
defenses and knows what the committees look for. Having your thesis defense
structured well ahead of time will make you feel more comfortable and focused
during your presentation.

Know your project paper lines

The project defense is your opportunity to take the stage and to demonstrate the
growth and progress you have experienced in your years as a graduating student.
This is your chance to showcase your research abilities, as well as to finish your
degree requirements. Defending your thesis statement can help you obtain helpful
feedback and recommendations that you can incorporate into your final draft.
Make sure to get across the fundamentals while defending your project. First, state
your thesis/research question. You need to describe the importance of your topic
and detail how your research was conducted, including any methods of
measurement you have used. The major findings of your project should be made
clear, as well as how your thesis contributes to the body of knowledge in your
field. Finally, you must state the conclusions and recommendations you have made
based on your research.
You should expect, in some way, to be required to answer the rude question like
“So what?” “What has your research and writing accomplished, that may be of
importance in your field?” Professors will say that graduate students tend not to
be bold enough, in making claims for what they have discovered or compiled,
during the process of working on their project. If you don't express confidence
about your findings in the project, your committee may develop their own doubts
about the value of your work.
Get aware of the fact that you probably know your topic better than most or all of
the professors who comprise the committee. You've likely been researching and

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envisaging your topic for well over a year, and the material will be fresher and
more immediate for you than for them. If you pause to think about this, it should
give you extra confidence going into the project defense. At the same time, the
committee members will likely know your field in a much broader sense than you.
They may ask you to specify where in the larger scheme of things, where in your
field, your project will fit. That's where the big "So what?" question will arise
during your defense. You have been warned, prepare for it.

Furthermore, one question one should anticipate from your project defense
committee is, "What do you plan to do with the project, beyond the four walls of
the school?" Do you anticipate to revise it for publication as a book? Do you intend
to do further research on your topic once you've gotten a job coming out of
school? Do you intend to seek grants to help you further develop your project? Do
you intend to cooperate with another scholar before you offer your work to a
broader audience?

The Presentation

Stage fright at this stage is very inevitable, but no matter how nervous you may be,
be sure to focus and to listen with care to the questions posed to you. Ensure to
take a moment to pause before you give your answer if you need to. It is not about
quick responses, but they are looking for meaningful ones. You should expect to be
asked to address the more controversial aspects of your project. Keep in mind that
you don't have to defend everything about your project. If you don't have an
answer to a question, don't fake it or make any promises, reply that the question is
interesting and that you will consider it in the future. Remember that defending
your project requires you to be political to a certain extent.

If you are having trouble with managing your fears while defending your project,
you may find it helpful to use visual aids during your presentation. They can help
you stay focused and confident, as well as help you pace yourself. Visual aids, if
you use them, should clearly state the research problem, objectives, approaches,
and the contributions of your project work.

One of the most crucial things to remember when defending your project is to
maintain a level of passion about your research. If you are passionate about your
work, your supervisor and committee will take note of this, and it will highlight the
importance of your project. After all, who isn't passionate about the concluding
event of a long and difficult journey?

Bows
After you have presented your defense, you will either be told that you have
passed, that your project needs minor revisions, that your project needs to be
resubmitted, or that it has not been approved. The last two possibilities are rare,
especially if you have followed the project writing process properly, and if you

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have stayed in meaningful contact with your supervisor. If you have been diligent,
there really should be few surprises.

How do you pass thesis defense?

1. Know the format of your thesis defense

The format of a thesis defense varies from country to country. Having studied in
the UK, my viva-voce defense was essentially an interview with one internal and
one external examiner. In other countries, it's common to have public
examinations with a whole panel of examiners and an audience of colleagues,
family and friends. The first and most obvious tip, then, is to make sure you know
what the format of your exam will be; whether you will have to prepare a
presentation and so on.

2. Prepare and practice your presentation

If you have to give a presentation, check any time restrictions so you can prepare
accordingly. You don't want to show up with 100 slides for a 15-minute
presentation, nor do you want to show up with 10 slides for a 1-hour presentation.
The most important thing to do for any presentation is to practice so that;
 You know the material inside out
 You know how long it takes
 You can refine the presentation

You can practice on your own or with an audience, and you should do both if
possible. Practicing on your own and speaking out loud to an empty room may feel
silly, but overcoming that discomfort is good preparation for the discomfort of
facing an actual audience. Practicing with an audience of peers is then a good way
of getting feedback and finding out what questions people ask.

3. The dreaded "awkward question"

Whether you have to give a presentation or not, one of the scariest aspects of the
defense is the possibility of being asked a question you can't answer. It's tempting
to try to read a ton of literature to prepare for this, but since it's very difficult to
predict what the examiners will ask and it's impossible to read everything, this
approach isn't always effective or reassuring (it might just make you realize how
much you don't know). There will always be gaps in your knowledge, but, actually,
it doesn't matter if you don't know the answer to an awkward question; you can
still respond in a way that will make the examiners happy.

4. When you don't know the answer...

You aren't expected to know everything. Sometimes, an examiner will ask a
question they don't know the answer to, either out of interest (since you are the
expert in your research) or because they want to see how you think. While it is OK,
sometimes, to just say "I don't know", you could also say something like,

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 "‍ I don't know, but I would think that [...] because of x and y, but
you would need to do [...] in order to find out".

This shows that you have the ability to think as an academic.

5. Core content
Of course, there is some core content which you will be expected to know well, but
this is set by you, not the examiner. To a large extent, the content of the
examination is determined by the content in your thesis. When you choose what
to cover in your thesis you are choosing your battleground for the thesis defense,
so the best strategy is to stick to the material you know best in your writing! Make
sure you have read through your complete thesis at least once before your
defense, so you know what you have written about.

6. Dealing with nerves

You will be nervous before your examination. You will almost certainly get an
adrenaline rush, which can set your heart racing, give you sweaty palms, make
your stomach churn and make you want to go to the toilet 10 times in 20 minutes.
This is normal! The worst part is the waiting before you start because there isn't
much you can do to use up all that nervous energy. But once the defense starts,
you can do some things to keep it under control.

7. Slow down
One symptom of nerves is to talk really fast and to try to show how much you
know and speak in this kind of long stream of consciousness that diverges away
from the question until you forget what the actual question was but then you don't
know how to get back to the point and so you just keep talking and that makes you
more nervous and how are you going to get off this train of thought...

Try to slow down and give yourself time to breathe. Try to remember the
question* and come back to the point. Once you have answered, stop talking!

*If you forget the question, it's OK to say, "Sorry, I got lost in my
train of though there, what was the question, again?"

8. The examiners expect you to be nervous

Remember that the examiners expect you to be a bit nervous in your thesis
defense, and they will help you through if necessary. It is OK to ask them to repeat
or clarify a question. It is OK to pause to think. It is OK to take a sip of water if you
need to!

9. Ultimately...
Success or failure is determined mainly by the content of your thesis. If your
research is good, and you actually did the work, it is highly unlikely that a nervous
performance in your defense will lead to failure. Generally speaking, once your
thesis is submitted, there isn't much you can do to affect the outcome (positively

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or negatively). Read through your thesis, read up on one or two key points if
necessary, practice your presentation, and trust that whatever happens you will be
OK.

Can you fail a thesis defense?

Very few actually fail because they are not allowed to submit. An academic whose
student failed a defense would be in serious trouble because they have to sign off
on it before the defense. Generally the students are told to redo/revise and are
told to re-submit it.

What happens after you defend your thesis?

You pass with revisions. Your committee, supervisor, external or all three have
revisions for you to incorporate into your thesis. You make the changes, and
depending on the severity, either go back to the committee, or usually just
get your supervisor to sign off. This is the most common outcome.

How long does it take to defend a thesis?

In general, a thesis defense may take only 20 minutes, but it may also take two
hours or more. This also depends on how much time is allocated to the
presentation and questioning part. We will talk more about the different parts of
a thesis defense below.

Thesis Defense Myths: Your Committee is NOT Out to

Get You
If you’re worried about your thesis defense, take a deep breath. The reality is that
for most students, the thesis defense is a formality. By this point in your studies,
you’re on track to graduate. If you’ve been approved to defend your thesis, your
success is almost 100% assured. Still not sure? Here are five myths about the thesis
defense that might be causing you undue anxiety.

Myth 1: If you can’t answer every question, your thesis won’t be

approved.
It’s always a good idea to prepare and practice for some questions before your
thesis defense. But don’t get stuck thinking you’ll be expected to know everything
in order to pass your defense. If you’ve conducted your research and written your
thesis, you’re already, by definition, an expert in your field.

Being an expert doesn’t mean you have to have all the answers.

As you know, research is a never-ending journey, and there’s always more to learn
no matter your level of expertise. Your thesis committee knows this, too. Your
thesis defense is a chance for you to show that you’ve learned how to research
independently.

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If you’re asked a question you’re not sure about, it’s okay to admit you don’t
know. In fact, it’s good! Don’t try to make up an answer…your committee will
see through it. Instead, explain how you would find out the answer

Remember, if you’ve made it to your thesis defense, the hard part is over. You’ve
already had your topic approved, done your research, and survived writing your
thesis.

Myth 2: Your committee wants to catch you in a mistake

No one is out to get you. In fact, your committee is on your side. They want you to
graduate.

You’re in control; it’s your job to lead your thesis defense.

This is your research, your education, and your future that’s on the line. It’s normal
for your thesis committee to challenge you, and hold you to a rigorous standard.
While you’re settling on a thesis topic and conducting your research, it can even be
preferable to have a “tough” thesis committee. But in the end, your committee
wants you to finish your thesis and get your degree.

They wouldn’t have approved your thesis for defense if they didn’t think you were
ready. Your success reflects positively on them as instructors, and on their
department. Your committee doesn’t want to see you trapped in your program any
more than you do. It’s in your committee’s best interest that your thesis defense
goes well. Don’t worry that they’ll try to pick apart your mistakes or trap you with
trick questions.

That’s not why they’re there!

In many cases, a thesis defense is a great way to bring the department together
and showcase interesting research. You can even view yourself as a role model for
more junior students to give them “hope” that one day they can be in your shoes.
Your committee has already approved your thesis topic, and overseen your
extensive research. They know how much work you’ve devoted to your degree,
and they’re not trying to trip you up at the last minute.

Try to relax, and have confidence that you probably know more than you realize.

Myth 3: You’ll have to start all over if your thesis defense doesn’t go well.
Take a moment to contemplate your fears. What if your thesis defense really does
bomb? Or what if your committee wants you to make changes to your thesis
before you can graduate?

In the unlikely event that this were to happen, you wouldn’t be back at square
one.

Usually, in cases like these, the changes that are requested are extremely minor
modifications that can be done fairly quickly.

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Your thesis committee isn’t going to ask you to start researching all over again, or
to drastically revise your thesis.

In a typical thesis defense, there aren’t many surprises. Your committee will
already be familiar with your work. You’ve presumably already addressed any
problems with your research. If you’ve been given approval to defend your thesis
that means your committee is already confident in you and your research. At this
stage in your grad school career, there’s almost no chance your thesis defense
won’t be approved.

But even if that were to happen, it would likely be a minor issue that you could
quickly fix.

Even if the worst happens and you have to make revisions to your thesis, your
graduation probably still won’t be delayed.

Myth 4: Your thesis committee members are the “real” experts in your
field, not you.
A few weeks before I gave one of my first talks about my thesis, my thesis
supervisor gave me a much-needed piece of advice. I had been emailing him with
questions all week.

What points did he think I should emphasize in my talk? What should I be sure
not to leave out?

My thesis supervisor was patient with my questions, but he finally had to remind
me to rely on my own judgments.

“Your thesis is your own original research. You know the subject matter better
than I do,” he said.

Of course, he was right.

He was familiar with my topic, but she hadn’t been there for the hours of lab work,
I had.
I realized that I was already an expert, even if I didn’t have my diploma yet.

A thesis defense is a bit like an exam where the person being tested usually
knows more than the people who are testing them.

When you present your thesis, you are the one with the first-hand experience and
the knowledge. Your thesis committee may have more overall experience, but they

180
have their own projects and areas of expertise. They’re relying on you to present
them with your research.

By writing a thesis, you have become an authority. In fact, you might be the most
informed person at your institution on your particular topic.

So approach your thesis defense with confidence. For almost everyone present,
you’ll be teaching them something new.

Myth 5: If you’ve had a rocky path to your PhD, it will definitely show in
your thesis defense.
The truth is, no two graduate degrees are alike. Everyone takes a unique path to
finishing their thesis and getting their degree, and it’s almost never easy.

If you struggled to make it to this stage, take comfort in knowing that most of
your peers probably thought the same thing at some point.

But a bumpy road to finishing your thesis doesn’t mean your defense won’t go
smoothly.

Even if your committee meetings were tough, or your research didn’t always go
as planned, think of your thesis defense as a fresh start. Your audience wasn’t
with you every step of the way.

For the most part, they have no idea what your challenges were while you were
working on your thesis.

Believe it or not, some of the best talks I’ve attended have been led by
colleagues who struggled to finish their degrees.

Assessment Task 1
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best
describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. What is a thesis statement? Choose all that apply:

a. It is the first sentence at the beginning of each paragraph.
b. It makes a claim that other people may dispute, challenge, or oppose.
c. It is a question in response to the writing assignment.

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 d. It is a road map for a paper; it tells the reader what the paper will
focus on.
e. It is a simple statement of fact.

2. What three parts make up a thesis statement?

a. identification of topic/focus, the purpose/claim, and at least 3
subtopics/supporting points
b. topic sentence, introduction, and conclusion
c. introduction, a quote or paraphrase, and conclusion
d. why I chose the topic, why it is a great topic, my personal connection
to the topic

3. True or False: The thesis statement should express a main idea that links to
supporting points in the body paragraphs.
a. True
b. False

4. Where should a thesis statement appear?

a. first paragraph
b. anywhere in the essay
c. last paragraph
d. the first sentence of every paragraph

5. When giving a presentation in front of an audience you should do all of the

following except for:
a. Speak loud and clear
b. Provide handouts if needed
c. Dress professionally
d. Look at your screen and not the audience

6. To whom should a presentation be aimed?

a. The highest authority in the room, regardless of where they are
b. The entire audience
c. The people in the closest rows
d. Your best friend in the room

7. Where should you look while presenting?

a. At the board -- that's where the audience is looking
b. At your notes so you get the info correct
c. In the eyes of random people in your audience
d. At the chins of individuals in your audience
8. Why should you keep text to a minimum on slides?
a. So the focus is on you as the speaker
b. To help make your presentation longer
c. So the pictures are easier to see
d. To make sure the audience can read everything you have to tell them

9. Information in your presentation should be organized.

182
 a. True
b. False

10. Your presentation should consist of title slide, ______, body, and _______.
objects and summary
a. opinions and paragraphs
b. objectives and summary
c. options and pages
Assessment Task 2
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best
describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. When presenting, you should show enthusiasm for your topic or creation
a. True
b. False

2. When presenting, your poise should be:

a. nervous and angry
b. confident and relaxed
c. annoyed 
d. shy

3. When presenting, it is important to articulate and use a loud, clear voice.  

a. True
b. False

4. You can be loud without shouting.  

a. True
b. False

5.  It is Okay to mumble... this encourages your audience to really listen and pay
attention
a. True
b. False

6. When you are reading from your paper you should

a. Look at the back wall
b. Look at the floor 
c. Look at your paper 
d. Look up and make eye contact every few seconds 
 
7. When giving a presentation you should.....
a. Chew gum
b. Speak only to your friends 

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 c. Talk very fast 
d. Slow down and pause between each sentence 
 
8. When your teacher is asking you to "project" your voice what does he/she
mean?
a. Talk quietly
b. Mumble your words 
c. Scream loudly
d. Speak louder so everyone can hear 
 
9. What is stage fright? 
a. Someone who is afraid of sweating 
b. Someone who is afraid of talking 
c. Someone who is afraid of being embarrassed
d. Someone who is afraid of speaking in front of others 
 
10. Choose the correct answer for an example of GOOD posture 
a. Avoiding eye contact 
b. Talking excessively with hands 
c. Shoulders are slouched over 
d. Shoulders are relaxed and square with lower body 
 

Assessment Task 3
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best
describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

1. Where should you look when giving a speech if you have fear?
a. Look up at the ceiling 
b. Look at the floor 
c. Look at the top of the audience head 
d. Look at the door 
 
2. Before you start your presentation you should....
a. Tell the audience about your life story
b. Tell the audience your age 
c. Introduce yourself and your partner 
d. Introduce yourself and state the purpose of your presentation
 
3. What does it mean to talk from your heart and not your mouth? 
a. State your purpose before you start speaking 
b. Be passionate about your subject 
c. Hold back your emotions 
d. Don't talk about things you have not experienced 
 

184
4. Should your facial expressions match the type of subject you’re speaking
about? True or false?
a. True
b. False
 
5. Before someone starts their presentation what should they do?
a. Shake the audience hand
b. Tell a joke or a story
c. Yawn 
d. Eat food 

6. When you don't have confidence you will likely....

a. Project your voice 
b. Give a great presentation 
c. Enjoy speaking in front of others 
d. Stutter, fumble over your words 
 
7. Reasons why we should make eye contact when giving a speech or
presentation 
a. It shows the individual can give great presentations 
b. It shows the individual is very strong
c. It shows the individual is confident 
d. It show the individual has a lot of money

8. Essay: What is the importance of your study or how will it contribute or add up
to the existing body of knowledge? (1-10 sentences)

9. Essay: Summarize your key findings of the research. (1-10 sentences)

10. Essay: What type of background research have you done for the study? (1-5
sentences)

Assessment Task 4
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best
describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

ESSAY TYPE: (1-10 sentences)

1. What are the limitations you have faced while writing?

2. Why did you choose this particular method or sample for the study?

3. What will you include if you are told to add something extra to the study?

185
4. What are the recommendations of your study?

5. Who formed your sample and why you selected this particular age group?

6. What was your hypothesis and how you framed it?

7. If given a chance, would like to do something different with your work?

8. What are the limitations you faced while dealing with your samples?

9. How did you relate your study to the existing theories?

10. What is the future scope of this study?

Assessment Task 5
Check your mastery of this concept by taking a short quiz.
Instructions: For each statement, click the button in the column that best
describes. 
Note: To be given thru MS Teams Quiz Form/Kahoot

ESSAY TYPE: (1-10 sentences)

1. What do you plan to do with your work after you have completed your
degree?

2. What are the research variables you used?

3. Do you have any questions to be asked?

4. Did you evaluate your work?

5. How would you improve your work?

6. What is your motivation for this project study? 

7. In few sentences, can you tell us what your study is all about? 

8. What system limitations did you encounter?

9. What is the scope of the study?

10. What is the significance of the study?

186
Rubric for Essay Quiz/Exam
Questions

"Exam Rubric" is a five-criteria, four-standard model with detailed

descriptors that assesses essay responses in an exam environment/context
by the following criteria (listed descriptors are the "A" category of
responses, earning 9-10/10; "B" category of responses, earning 7-8/10);
"C" category of responses, earning 5-6/10, "D" category of responses,
earning 3-4/10; "F" category of responses, earning 1-2/10:

1. Content

 "Addresses each question and all its parts thoroughly; incorporates

relevant course content into responses; uses specific information
from case in response"

2. Understanding/Application

 "Demonstrates deep understanding of course theories and ideas

applied to analysis of case situations"

3. Original Thinking

 "Demonstrates original thinking that adds insight to analysis of case;

meaningful elaboration beyond text, notes, class discussion in
strategy development"

4. Structure

 "Response to each question is well organized and clearly written;

there is evidence of planning before writing"

187
 5. Grammar and mechanics

 "Response is virtually free of mechanical, grammatical writing

errors"

Rubric for PowerPoint Presentation

CATEGORY Exemplary (5) Accomplished (4) Developing (3) Beginning (2)
Background Background does Background does not Background does Background makes
not detract from detract from text or not detract from it difficult to see
text or other other graphics. text or other text or competes
graphics. Choice of Choice of graphics. Choice of with other graphics
background is background could background foes on the page.
appropriate for this have been better not fit project.
project. suited for the
project.
Text - Font Font formats (e.g., Font formats have Font formatting has Font formatting
Choice & color, bold, italic) been carefully been carefully makes it very
Formatting have been carefully planned to enhance planned to difficult to read the
planned to readability complement the material.
enhance content. It may be a
readability and little hard to read.
content.
Content - All content Most of the content The content is Content is typically
Accuracy throughout the is accurate but there generally accurate, confusing or
presentation is is one piece of but one piece of contains more than
accurate. There are information that information is one factual error. It
no factual errors. might be inaccurate. clearly flawed or is difficult to
inaccurate. understand the
time period that
was chosen
Spelling and Presentation has Presentation has 1-2 Presentation has 1- Presentation has
Grammar no misspellings or misspellings, but no 2 grammatical more than 2
grammatical errors grammatical errors. errors but no grammatical and/or
misspellings. spelling errors.
Use of All graphics are A few graphics are All graphics are Several graphics are
Graphics attractive (size and not attractive but all attractive but a few unattractive AND
colors) and support support the do not seem to detract from the
the theme/content theme/content of support the content of the
of the the presentation. theme/content of presentation.
presentation. the presentation.
Effectiveness Project includes all Project includes Project is missing Project is lacking

188
 material needed to most material more than two key several key
gain a comfortable needed to gain a elements. elements and has
understanding of comfortable inaccuracies
the time period understanding of the
chosen. time period chosen.
Presentation Student presented Student presented Student had many Student was unable
the material with material but could difficulties to complete
confidence. have been more presenting presentation before
confident. materials. the class.
Rubric for Written Reports/Assignments/Project Paper
Task Description: (Teacher may explain specific assignment in this space.)

Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning

Criteria 5 4 3 2
weight

Yes Yes, but No, but No

Topic 10%  Directly  Somewhat  Remotely  Totally

relevant relevant related unrelated
 Good  Organized;  Some  Poorly
organization; points are organization; organized; no
points are somewhat points jump logical
Organization 10% logically jumpy; sense of around; progression;
ordered; sharp beginning and beginning and beginning and
sense of ending ending are ending are
beginning and unclear vague
end
 Supporting  Some details are  Details are  Unable to find
Quality of details specific non-supporting somewhat specific details
25%
Information to subject to the subject sketchy. Do not
support topic
Grammar,  No errors  Only one or two  More than two  Numerous
Usage, errors errors errors distract
25% from
Mechanics,
understanding
Spelling

 Vocabulary is  Vocabulary is  Vocabulary is  Basic

varied; varied; unimaginative; vocabulary;
supporting supporting details lack needs
Interest Level 10% details vivid details useful “color” descriptive
words

Neatness 10%  Typed; clean;  Legible writing,  Legible writing,  Illegible

neatly bound in well-formed some ill-formed writing; loose

189
 a report cover; characters; clean letters, print too pages
illustrations and neatly bound small or too
provided in a report cover large; papers
stapled together
Report on time Report one class Report two class Report more than
Timeliness 10% period late periods late one week late

Assignment Score ______________ + Bonus ______________ = Final

Score ________________

Oral Exam Rubric                                 
Criteria SUPERIOR (5) ADEQUATE (4) MINIMAL (3) INADEQUATE (2)

The speaker The speaker The speaker The speaker says

provides a variety focuses primarily includes some practically
of types of on relevant irrelevant nothing. The
content content. The content. The speaker focuses
appropriate for speaker sticks to speaker wanders primarily on
the task, such as the topic. The off the topic. The irrelevant
generalizations, speaker adapts speaker uses content. The
details, examples the content in a words and speaker appears
Content
and various forms general way to concepts which to ignore the
of evidence. The the listener and are inappropriate listener and the
speaker adapts the situation. for the knowledge situation.
the content in a and experiences
specific way to of the listener
the listener and (e.g., slang,
situation. jargon, technical
language).

The speaker The volume is not The volume is too The volume is so
delivers the too low or too low or too loud low and the rate
message in a loud and the rate and the rate is is so fast that you
confident, poised, is not too fast or too fast or too cannot
enthusiastic too slow. The slow. The understand most
fashion. The pronunciation pronunciation of the message.
volume and rate and enunciation and enunciation The pronunciation
varies to add are clear. The are unclear. The and enunciation
emphasis and speaker exhibits speaker exhibits are very unclear.
interest. few disfluencies, many The speaker
Pronunciation such as "ahs," disfluencies, such appears
Delivery
and enunciation "uhms," or "you as "ahs," "uhms," uninterested.
are very clear. knows. or "you knows."
The speaker The listener is
exhibits very few distracted by
disfluencies, such problems in the
as "ahs," "uhms," delivery of the
or "you knows." message and has
difficulty
understanding
the words in the
message.

190
 The message is The message is The organization The message is so
overtly organized. organized. The of the message is disorganized you
The speaker helps listener has no mixed up and cannot
the listener difficulty random. The understand most
understand the understanding listener must of the message.
sequence and the sequence and make some
relationships of relationships assumptions
Organiza
ideas by using among the ideas about the
tion
organizational in the message. sequence and
aids such as The ideas in the relationship of
announcing the message can ideas.
topic, previewing outline easily.
the organization,
using transitions,
and summarizing.

Very original Some originality Little or no Repetitive with

presentation of apparent; good variation; little or no variety;
material; captures variety and material insufficient use of
Creativity
the audience’s blending of presented with materials / media.
attention. materials / media. little originality or
interpretation.

Within two Within four Within six Too long or too

Length of minutes of minutes of minutes of short; ten or more
Presenta allotted time. allotted time. allotted time. minutes above or
tion below the allotted
time.

UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT THESIS DEFENSE

EVALUATION

The attached evaluation tool (rubric) is designed to assist in the evaluation of students’
ability to successfully prepare and defend their graduate research. The rubric includes seven
evaluation criteria, and allows for the addition of criteria important to individual
departments/programs. Evaluation of a thesis/dissertation and its defense can be an integral
part of graduate student learning outcomes assessment conducted by graduate programs. It
is applicable to all programs that have a thesis or dissertation requirement.

This evaluation tool will:

 provide students, prior to their defense, with a clear understanding of the elements
of their written thesis/dissertation and its defense deemed most important to the
defense committee
 provide multiple perspectives on students’ ability to successfully prepare and
defend their research and engage in cogent discourse about their chosen field of
study
 encourage conversations among departmental colleagues about improving graduate
student learning outcomes and assessment
 serve as a potential source of program-level data on the accomplishment of the
program’s learning outcome objectives, for submission as part of an assessment
report

Suggested Instructions (may be modified to suit program needs):

191
Defense committee members and students should review and become familiar with the
criteria in the evaluation tool prior to the defense. The rubric should be scored at the
conclusion of the defense, or shortly thereafter, by every member of the defense committee.
This cover page can then be completed (providing a summary of the scored ratings below
for each of the criteria in the rubric), returned to the appropriate department/program office,
and maintained in a confidential departmental file following the defense (one cover page per
evaluator) for use as a valuable tool in graduate student learning outcomes assessment. The
remaining rubric pages can be shared with the student or destroyed.

Student ID:________________________ Student name:

________________________________
Program:
___________________________________________________________________
_
Degree: ___________________________________________
Date of Defense:
______________________________________________________________
Evaluator role:
___ Major Advisor ___ Internal Core
Committee member
___ External Core Committee member ___ Internal Defense
Committee member
___ External Defense Committee member and Defense Chair
Other (explain) _____________________________________________________
DEFENSE SCORE SUMMARY BY CRITERION
Assessment Criteria:
1: __________ 3: __________ 5: ________
2: __________ 4: __________
TOTAL: ________
Panelist: ______________________________________ Signature:
_______________________

Oral Thesis Defense Evaluation Rubric

Exemplary Proficient Needs Practice COMMENTS
CRITERIA
5 pts 4 pts 3 pts (N/A)

192
 - The information is in - Student presents - Sequence of
logical, interesting information in logical information is
sequence which sequence which difficult to follow.
audience can follow. audience can follow.
- Lacks beginning,
(1)
- Uses an engaging - Uses an appropriate middle, and end.
Organization
beginning and/or beginning or ending.
thoughtful ending. - Does not move
- Moves smoothly smoothly from one
- Moves smoothly from from one idea to the point to another
one idea to the next all next some of the time.
of the time.

- Effectively uses eye - Maintains eye - Some eye contact,

contact. contact. but not maintained.

- Speaks clearly, - Speaks clearly and - Speaks clearly and

effectively and uses suitable volume unclearly in
confidently using and pace. different portions.
suitable volume and
pace. - Takes steps to - Occasionally
engage the audience. engages audience.
- Fully engages the
(2) audience. - Dresses - Dresses
Language use appropriately. inappropriately.
and Delivery - Dresses appropriately,
- Selects words - Selects words
- Selects rich and varied appropriate for inappropriate for
words for context and context and uses context; uses
uses correct grammar. correct grammar. incorrect grammar

Exemplary Proficient Needs Practice COMMENTS

CRITERIA
5 pts 4 pts 3 pts (N/A)

193
 - Clearly defines the - Defines the topic or - Does not clearly
topic or thesis and its thesis. define the topic or
significance. thesis.
- Supports the thesis
- Supports the thesis and with evidence. - Does not support
key findings with an the thesis with
analysis of relevant and - Presents evidence of evidence.
accurate evidence research with sources.
- Presents little or
- Provides evidence of - Provides some no evidence of valid
(3) extensive and valid evidence of problem research.
Content research with multiple solving and learning
and varied sources stretch. - Shows little
evidence of
- Provides evidence of - Combines existing problem solving
complex problem solving ideas. and learning
and learning stretch. stretch.

- Combines and - Shows little

evaluates existing ideas evidence of the
to form new insights. combination of
ideas

- Demonstrates - Demonstrates some - Demonstrates

extensive knowledge of knowledge of the topic incomplete
the topic by responding by responding knowledge of the
(4)
confidently, precisely accurately and topic by
Question and
and appropriately to all appropriately to responding
Answer
audience questions and questions and inaccurately and
feedback. feedback. inappropriately to
questions and
feedback.

- Entire presentation was - Entire presentation - Entire

(5) within 15 minutes of exceeded 5 minutes of presentation was
Timeliness allotted time. allotted time. exceeded 10
minutes of allotted
time.

References
194
Books

Deepak, Benjamin, and Tintu, Joseph P., (2020). Professional

Communication

Quintanilla, Kelly M. and Wahl, Shawn T. (2018). Business and

Professional Communication:
KEYS for Workplace Excellence. 4th edition. Missouri State University,
USA

Naik, Sagar, and Tripathy, Piyu (2008). Software testing and quality
assurance: theory and practice. 1st edition. Hoboken, New Jersey: John
Wiley & Sons.

Galbraith, Jay R. (2014). Designing organizations: strategy, structure,

and process at the business unit and enterprise levels. 3rd Edition.
Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Brosseau, Jim (2007). Software teamwork: taking ownership for

success. 1st edition. Boston, USA: Addison-Wesley Professional.

Maxwell, John C. (2009). Teamwork 101: what every leader needs to

know. 1st edition. New York City, USA: HarperCollins Leadership.

Coryell, Eric (2019). Revolutionize teamwork: how to create and lead

accountable teams. Illustrated edition. Illinois, USA: Simple Truths.

Calmorin, et al, (2007). Research methods and thesis writing: Second

Edition

Evans, David, Gruba, Paul, and Zobel, Justin. (2012). How to Write a
Better Thesis. 3rd edition. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University
Publishing.

Almack, John Conrad. (2008). Research and thesis writing: a textbook on

the principles and techniques of thesis construction for the use of
graduate students in universities and colleges. Michigan, USA: University
of Michigan.

Websites

https://nairaproject.com/blog/making-awesome-presentations.html

https://www.premiumresearchers.com/common-questions-during-
research-defense/

https://medium.com/@ggomtas/useful-tips-for-project-defense-for-final-
year-students-75ed25cc470b

https://nairaproject.com/blog/25-common-project-defense-
questions.html

195
https://www.projecttopics.org/how-to-deliver-a-successful-project-
defense-presentation-tips.html

196