Part 1: Introduction to Computer Graphics

1. What do you mean by computer graphics?

The branch of science and technology concerned with methods and techniques for
converting data to or from visual presentation using computers.
- Create an image.
- Store the image in the memory.
- Display the image on display device.
- Make a processing on the images.
- Interact with the image.

2. What are the applications of computer graphics?

1. Computer Aided Design
2. Graphical User Interface
3. Entertainment
4. Simulation and Training
5. Education and Presentation
6. Computer Generated Art
7. Scientific Visualization
8. Image Processing
9. Virtual reality

3. What can the programmer do in computer graphics?

• Develop the geometric representation for the geometric objects of the images.
• Assemble these objects into an appropriate geometric space.
• Specify how the scene is to be viewed and how it will be displayed on the graphic
device.
• Define some animation for the image.
• Design a ways for the user to interact with the scene as it is presented.

4. How can the computer graphics used in solving problems?

GC can solve a lot of problems:

• Identifying a problem.
• Building the model.
• Represent the problem geometrically and create an image.
• Use the image to understand the problem and try find a possible solution.
5. Computer Graphics API
Graphic API’s is a set of tools that allow a programmer to write applications that
include the use of interactive computer graphics without dealing with system details
for tasks such as window handling and interactions.

6. What do you mean by GUI?

GUI stands for Graphical user interface. A major component of a GUI is a window
manager that allows a user to display multiple-window areas. To make a particular
window active we simply click in that window using an interactive pointing device.
Interfaces also display menus and icons for fast selection of processing options or
parameter values.

7. What does it mean by RGB?

The RGB is a color model, in which red, green, and blue light are added together in
various ways to reproduce a different array of colors. The name of the model comes from
the initials of the three additive primary colors, red, green, and blue.

8. Define refresh buffer/Frame buffer?

Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer or frame buffer. This
memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points.

9. Define Pixel.
Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pel (Picture element).

10. Define bitmap.

On a black and white system with one bit per pixel, the frame buffer is commonly known as a
bitmap.

11. What is the role of a video controller?

It is used to control the operation of the display device by accessing the frame buffer to refresh
the screen.

12. Define Graphics controller /Display controller/Display processor.

The purpose of the display processor is to free the CPU from graphic chores. A major task of
the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an application program into a
set of pixel intensity values for storage in the frame buffer.

13. What do you mean by scan conversion?

A major task of the display processor is digitizing a picture definition given in an application
program into a set of pixel intensity values for storage in the frame buffer. This digitization
process is called scan conversion.
14. Memory mapping
The status of each pixel on the screen was stored in a memory location (memory mapped
display).

- Each pixel is numbered sequentially.

- By writing values to the correct locations in memory the appearance of the screen can be
con
- Find out if a trolled by a programmer.
- A program can pixel is turned on or off.

15. Give an example of memory mapping for 5 X 5 resolution color display device?

16. Describe the Basic Components of computer graphics system?

• A computer graphics system is a computer system; that have all the components of a
general-purpose computer system.
• There are six major elements in our system:
• Input devices
• Central Processing Unit
• Graphics Processing Unit
• Memory
• Frame buffer
• Output devices

17. Differentiate between raster and random scan displays.

raster scan displays random scan displays
The electron beam is swept across the The electron beam is directed to the parts
screen, one row at a time from top to of the screen where a picture is to be
bottom. drawn.

18. What is the difference between raster storage image and vector storage image?
Raster Image:
The images is considered as rectangular arrays of pixels, each pixel have different colors stored
as three numbers, for RGB. In a Monochrome system [black-and-white], each screen point is
either on (a bit value of 1) or off (a bit value of 0), so only one bit per pixel is needed to store
the intensity of screen positions.
Vector Image:
The image is stored as a set of instructions for displaying the.
• Are often used for text, diagrams, mechanical drawings, and other applications where
precision are important and photographic images and complex shading aren’t needed.

19. List the operating characteristics for the video display systems based on the CRT
technology?

- A beam of electrons emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing System and
deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified positions on the phosphor-coated
screen.
- The phosphor-coated screen then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by
the electron beam.
- The light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly, the picture is redrawn by quickly
directing the electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is called a
refresh CRT.

20. Define persistence in terms of CRT Phosphorous.

Persistence is the one of the major property of phosphorous used in CRT’s. It means
how long they continue to emit light after the electron beam is removed.

21. Define resolution.

The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on a CRT
monitor.

22. What do you mean by an aspect ratio?

Aspect ratio is the ratio of vertical points to horizontal points necessary to produce equal
length lines in both directions on the screen. An aspect ratio of ¾ means that a vertical
line plotted with three points has same length as a horizontal line plotted with 4 points.

23. What are the different properties of phosphorus?

1. Color
2. Persistence
24. What are the different types of Flat-Screens, and what is the difference between
them?
- light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - light-emitting diodes that can be turned on and off
- liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) - polarization of the liquid crystals in the middle panel
- plasma panels - voltages on the grids to energize gases
- Similarities:
- All use a two-dimensional grid to address individual light-emitting elements.
- The two outside plates each contain perpendicular parallel grids of wires .
- Sending electrical signals to a wire in each grid, generates electrical field at the

Intersection of two wires, can control the corresponding element in the middle plate.

25. What do you mean by retracing? Define horizontal as well as vertical retracing.
- Retracing:
At the end of each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin
displaying the next scan line.
- Horizontal retrace
The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing each scan line.
- Vertical retrace
At the end of each frame, the electron beam returns to the top left corner of the screen
to begin the next frame.

26. What do you mean by interlacing?

It is the method of incrementally displaying a visual on a CRT. On some raster scan systems,
each frame is displayed in two passes using an interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass,
the beam seeps across every other scan line from top to bottom. Then after the vertical retrace,
the beam sweeps out the remaining scan lines.

27. What is a Beam penetration method?

This technique is used in random scan display systems. Two layers of phosphor (red and green)
are coated onto the inside of the CRT screen, the displayed colors depends on how far the
electron beam penetrates into the phosphors layers. A slow electron beam excites only the
outer red layer. A very fast electron beam penetrates trough the red layer and hence excites the
green layer. An average electron beam gives the combination of red and green color. That is
yellow and orange. This technique only provides four colors.

28. Define shadow masking.

This technique is used in raster scan display devices.
It gives more colors than a beam penetration method.
A shadow Mask CRT has three phosphor color dots at each pixel location (red light, green
light and blue light.
This type of CRT also has three electron guns one for each color dot.
A shadow mask grid is installed just behind the phosphor coated screen.
When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle,
which appears as a small color spot on the screen.
More than 17 million different colors can be obtained in a full color system.
29. What are the different types of Flat-Screens, and what is the difference between
them?
- light-emitting diodes (LEDs) - light-emitting diodes that can be turned on and off
- liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) - polarization of the liquid crystals in the middle panel
- plasma panels - voltages on the grids to energize gases
- Similarities:
- All use a two-dimensional grid to address individual light-emitting elements.
- The two outside plates each contain perpendicular parallel grids of wires.
- Sending electrical signals to a wire in each grid, generates electrical field at the
Intersection of two wires, can control the corresponding element in the middle plate.

30. What are the popular image storage formats?

- Jpeg format. This Lossy format compresses image blocks based on thresholds in the
human visual system. This format works well for natural images.
- Tiff format. This format is most commonly used to hold binary images or lossless
compressed 8- or 16-bit RGB although many other options exist.
- Ppm format. A lossless, uncompressed format is most often used for 8-bit RGB images
although many options exist.
- Png format. This is a set of lossless formats with a good set of open source management
tools.

31. Consider three different raster systems with resolutions of 640 x 480, 1280 x
1024, and 2560 x 2048.
a. What size is frame buffer (in bytes) for each of these systems to store 12 bits per
pixel?
Because eight bits constitute a byte, frame-buffer sizes of the systems are as follows:
640 x 480 x 12 bits / 8 = 450KB;
1280 x 1024 x 12 bits / 8 = 1920KB;
2560 x 2048 x 12 bits / 8 = 7680KB;
b. How much storage (in bytes) is required for each system if 24 bits per pixel are to
be stored?
Similarly, each of the above results is just doubled for 24 (12×2) bits of storage per pixel.
32. Q33.Consider two raster systems with the resolutions of 640 x 480 and 1280 x
1024.
a. How many pixels could be accessed per second in each of these systems by a
display controller that refreshes the screen at a rate of 60 frames per second?
Since 60 frames are refreshed per second.
Each frame consists of 640 x 480 pixels,
- The access rate of such a system = (640 x 480) * 60 = 1.8432 x 107 pixels/second.
For the 1280 x 1024 system,
- The access rate is (1280 x 1024) * 60 = 7.86432 x 107 pixels/second.
 b. What is the access time per pixel in each system?
The access time per pixel = 1/ access rate.
The access time is around 54 nanoseconds/pixel for the 640 x 480 system,
The access time is around 12.7 nanoseconds/pixel for the 1280×1024 system.

33. Consider a raster system with the resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels and the color
palette calls for 65,536 colors. What is the minimum amount of video RAM that the
computer must have to support the above-mentioned resolution and number of colors?
No of Colors = 65,536 colors
Number of bits per pixel = log 2 (65,536) =16-bit color.
The display’s resolution is 1024X768 pixels
Total Number of pixels = 786,432 (1024 × 768) pixels.
The total number of bits required
= 786,432 × 16 = 12,582,912 Bits = 1,572,864 bytes = 1,536 KB = 1.5 MB

34. How Many k bytes does a frame buffer needs in a 600 x 400 pixel?

35. Q38. How much time is spent scanning across each row of pixels during screen
refresh on a raster system with resolution of 1280 X 1024 and a refresh rate of 60
frames per second?
Resolution = 1280 X 1024
That means system contains 1024 scan lines and each scan line contains 128 pixels
Refresh rate = 60 frame/sec.
1 frame takes = 1/60 sec = 0.01666 sec.
1 frame buffer consist of 1024 scan lines (It means then 1024 scan lines takes 0.01666 sec) 1
1 scan line takes = 0.01666 /1024 = 10.6 𝜇sec
36. Suppose RGB raster system is to be designed using on 8 inch X 10 inch screen with
a resolution of 100 pixels per inch in each direction. If we want to store 6 bits per pixel
in the frame buffer, how much storage (in bytes) do we need for frame buffer?

Resolution = 8 inch X 10 inch (100 pixels per inch)

Resolution = 8 X 100 by 10 X 100 pixel = 800 X 1000 pixel
1 pixel can be stored in 6 bits
Frame buffer size = 800 X 100 X 6 bits = 100 X 100 X 6 Byte
37. Find out the aspect ratio of the raster system using 8 x 10 inches screen and 100
pixel/inch.

38. Consider three different raster systems with resolutions of 640 by 480, 1280 by
1024, and 2560 by 2048. What size frame buffer (in bytes) is needed for each of these
systems to store 12 bits per pixel? How much storage is required for each system if 24
bits per pixel are to be stored?

Frame-buffer size for each of the systems is

640 × 480 × 12 bits ÷ 8 bits per byte = 450 KB
1280 × 1024 × 12 bits ÷ 8 bits per byte = 1920 KB
2560 × 2048 × 12 bits ÷ 8 bits per byte = 7680 KB
For 24 bits of storage per pixel, each of the above values is doubled.
900 KB & 3840 KB & 15360 KB

39. How long does it take to load a 640-by-480 frame buffer with 12 bits per pixel, if
105 bits can be transferred per second?

Let X the time that will be taken to load a 640-by-480 frame buffer with 12 bits per pixel.
Number of bits = 640 * 480 * 12 = 3686400 bits
1 sec X 105 bits
X sec(s) X 3686400 bits
Then X = 3686400/105 = 36.864 second

40. How much time is spent in scanning across each row of pixels during screen
refresh on a raster system with a resolution of 1280 by 1024 and refresh rate of 60
frames per second?

The time required for scanning one frame is 1/60 = 0.01666

One frame has 1024
The time of scanning on row = 0.01666 / 1024 = 1.627 * 10-5 sec

41. Suppose we have a video monitor with a display area with 12 inches width and 9.6
inches high. If the resolution is 1280 X 1024 and the aspect ratio is 1, what are the
width and the height of each point on the screen?
42. How long would it take to load a 640-by-480 frame buffer with 12 bits per pixel, if
105 bits can be transferred per second? How long would it take to load a 24-bit-per-
pixel frame buffer with a resolution of 1280 by 1024 using this same transfer rate?

Total number of bits for the frame = 640 x 480 x 12 bits = 3686400 bits
The time needed to load the frame buffer = 3686400 / 105 sec = 36.864 sec
Total number of bits for the frame = 1280 x 1024 x 24 bits = 31457280 bits
The time needed to load the frame buffer = 31457280 / 105 sec = 314.5728 sec

43. Suppose an RGB raster system is to be designed using an 8-inch by 10-inch screen
with a resolution of 100 pixels per inch in each direction. If we want to store 6 bits per
pixel in the frame buffer, how much storage bytes do we need for the frame buffer?

Part 2: Graphics Primitives

1. How can an application program actually draw something on screen?

2. Describe what is performed by the following functions:

• Setpixel(x, y, color) - Sets the pixel at position (x, y) to the given color.
• Getpixel(x, y): Gets the color at the pixel at position (x, y).

3. For the brute force line drawing algorithm:

 Analyze the Basic concept of drawing a line using the brute force algorithm?

y = mx + c
where m is the gradient of the line:
∆y yfrom − yto
m= =
∆x xfrom − xto
and c is its intercept of the y-axis
c = yfrom − m xfrom
4. Write pseudo code for applying the algorithm.

5. Using the Brute force algorithm to digitize a line with end points (20, 10) and (26,
14).

6. Digitize a line with end points (20, 10) and (30, 18).

7. Write the algorithm of the line drawing algorithm using Digital Differential
Analyzer (DDA).
8. Using the DDA algorithm digitize a line with end points (10,15) and (15,30).
9. Digitize a line with end points (20, 10) and (30, 18) using DDA line drawing
Algorithm.

10. Implement the DDA algorithm to draw a line from (0,0) to (6,6).
M=(6-0)/(6-0)=6/6 =1 XK+1=Xk+1 YK+1=Yk+m = Yk+1 Xk=0 Yk=0

11. The process of drawing circle using Brute force method can be enhanced by
taking greater advantage of the symmetry in a circle.

Write the complete algorithm used to apply this enhancement.

 Part 3: 2D Transformation
1. Derive the homogenous matrices to represent the following transformation

Translation - Rotation about the origin – Scaling

2. Discuss the difference between the rotation about the origin and the rotation about
a local point.
 3. Rotate a triangle A(0,0), B(2,2) , C(4,2) about the origin and about P(-2,-2) by an
angle of 45 degree.

Draw the triangle ABC and the triangle A\, B\, C\

4. A unit square is transformed by 2 x 2 transformation matrix. The resulting position
vector are:-

, what is the transformation matrix?

5. Find the matrix that represents rotation of an object by 45o about the origin. a. What
are the new coordinates of the point P (2, -4) after the rotation?

6. A triangle is defined by

Find the transformed coordinates after the following transformation

a. 90o rotation about origin.
b. Reflection about line y = -x.
7. Translate the square ABCD whose co-ordinate are A(0,0), b(3,0), C(3,3), D(0,3) by 2
units in both direction and then scale it by 1.5 units in x direction and 0.5 units in y
direction.

8. Perform a 45o rotation of a triangle A(0,0, B(1,1), C(5,2)

a. About the origin.
b. About the point p(-1,-1)

9. Find the transformation matrix that transforms the square ABCD whose center is at
(2, 2) is reduced to half of its size, with center still remaining at (2, 2). The coordinate
of square ABCD are A (0, 0), B (0, 4), C (4, 4) and D (4, 0). Find the co-ordinate of new
square.
Ans. (HINT: - After scaling the square to half of its size, the new translated square will have
center at (1, 1) so, translate again the new square by (1, 1), so that center again reach to (2,
2).)

10. Consider the square A (1, 0), B (0, 0), C (0, 1), D (1, 1). Rotate the square ABCD
by 45 degree clockwise about A (1, 0).
HINT:-
- First, translate the square by Tx= -1 and Ty=0.
- Then rotate the square by 45 degree.
- Again translate the square by TX=1 and Ty=0.

11. Magnify the triangle with vertices A (0, 0), B (1, 1) and C (5, 2) to twice its size
while keeping C (5, 2) fixed.
Ans. HINT:-
1) First, translate the triangle by Tx= -5 and Ty=-2
2) Then magnify the triangle by twice its size
3) Again translate the triangle by Tx= 5 and Ty= 2.