STUDY GUIDE:

HL
www.ib.academy
 IB Academy Physics Study Guide
Available on learn.ib.academy

Author: Eva Rouwmaat, Max Kraan

Contributing Authors: Daniel Rutte, Victor Onink, Nikita Smolnikov

Design Typesetting

Special thanks: Vilijam Strovanovski and Tijana Randjelovic

This work may be shared digitally and in printed form,

but it may not be changed and then redistributed in any form.

Copyright © 2018, IB Academy

Version: PhyHL.3.2.180514

This work is published under the Creative Commons

BY-NC-ND 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this
license, visit creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0

This work may not used for commercial purposes other than by IB Academy, or
parties directly licenced by IB Academy. If you acquired this guide by paying for
it, or if you have received this guide as part of a paid service or product, directly
or indirectly, we kindly ask that you contact us immediately.

Laan van Puntenburg 2a ib.academy

3511ER, Utrecht [email protected]
The Netherlands +31 (0) 30 4300 430
INTRODUCTION

Welcome to the IB.Academy Study Guide for Physics.

We are proud to present our study guides and hope that you will find them helpful. They
are the result of a collaborative undertaking between our tutors, students and teachers
from schools across the globe. Our mission is to create the most simple yet
comprehensive guides accessible to IB students and teachers worldwide. We are firm
believers in the open education movement, which advocates for transparency and
accessibility of academic material. As a result, we embarked on this journey to create
these study guides that will be continuously reviewed and improved. Should you have
any comments, feel free to contact us.

For more information and details on our revision courses, be sure to visit our website at
ib.academy. We hope that you will enjoy our guides and best of luck with your studies.

IB.Academy Team

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Measurements and 7
mathematical foundations
– Notation – Measurements – Vectors

2. Mechanics 15
– Motion – Forces – Work, energy and power – Momentum
and impulse – Circular motion – Gravitation

3. Thermal physics 31
– Thermal concepts – Phase transitions – Kinetic model of an
ideal gas

4. Oscillations and waves 39

– Oscillations – Travelling waves – Wave characteristics
– Interference – Standing waves

5. Electricity and magnetism 53

– Electric fields – Equipotential surfaces – Resistance – Cells
– Magnetic effects of electric currents – Electromagnetic
induction – Capacitors – Power generation and transmission

6. Atomic and nuclear physics 69

– Atomic structure – Nuclear structure – Radioactivity
– Nuclear reactions – Fission and fusion – Elementary
particles – Interaction of matter with radiation – Rutherford
scattering

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

7. Energy production 87
– Energy sources – Thermal energy transfer

6
MEASUREMENTS AND 1

MATHEMATICAL
FOUNDATIONS

1.1 Notation

When writing down the final value of a measurement or calculation, three things are
important to remember: use the right unit (1.1.1), use scientific notation or metric
multipliers when the number is very large or very small (1.1.2), and use the right amount
of significant figures (1.1.3).

1.1.1 Fundamental and derived SI units

Fundamental units

There are six fundamental SI units from which many other units can be derived.

Time seconds s
Displacement meters m
Mass kilograms kg
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Current ampere A

7
 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Notation

Derived units

All other units can be expressed as a combination of these fundamental units.

.

displacement s
Example

We know that speed = or v = .

time t

unit of displacement [m]

The unit for v therefore is = = m s−1 .
unit of time [s]

In a similar manner, we can derive other units:

Quantity Calculation Units Derived unit Name Symbol

  ” −2 —
Force F = m ×a kg × m s kg m s−2 newton N
Charge q =I ×t [A]
” × [s] — As coulomb C
FE kg m s−2
Electric field E= kg m s−3 A−1 –
q [A s]

1.1.2 Order of magnitude

Order of magnitude measure of the size of a number, with each order of magnitude being
equivalent to a multiple of 10.

The order of magnitude can be indicated in two ways:

• Using scientific notation: writing numbers in the form N × 10 m , where m is the

order of magnitude and 1 ≤ N < 10.
• Using metric multipliers: prefixes that precede units to indicate its order of
magnitude. These are shown in Table 1.1.
DB page 6
Table 1.1: Metric (SI) multipliers

Prefix Symbol Power Prefix Symbol Power

yocto y 10−24 deca da 101
zepto z 10−21 hecto h 102
atto a 10−18 kilo k 103
femto f 10−15 mega M 106
pico p 10−12 giga G 109
nano n 10−9 tera T 1012
micro µ 10−6 peta P 1015
milli m 10−3 exa E 1018
centi c 10−2 zetta Z 1021
deci d 10−1 yotta Y 1024

8
 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Notation 1
.

1500 m has an order of magnitude 3. In scientific notation this is written as

Example

1.5 × 103 m. Using metric multipliers this is 1.5 km.

Because 15 m is 100 times smaller than 1500 m, it is two orders of magnitude smaller.

1.1.3 Significant figures

Significant figures of a number show the accuracy of a measurement.

To determine the amount of significant figures of a number, use the following rules:

1. Non-zero digits are always significant.

2. Zero digits between non-zero digits are significant.
3. Zero digits after non-zero digits are significant.
4. But zero digits before non-zero digits are not significant, even if they are placed
after the decimal point.
.
Example

1 2 3 4
• 809.0 has 4 significant figures 809.0 rules 1, 2 and 3
1
• 0.002 has 1 significant figure 0.002 rules 1 and 4
1 2 3 4
• 04.400 has 4 significant figures 04.400 rules 1, 3 and 4

How many significant figures does your answer need?

Adding or subtracting
Take the least number of decimal places used in your calculation:
7.34 + 4.8 = 12.14, but 4.8 has only 1 decimal place so the answer should be
expressed as 12.1.

Multiplying or dividing
Take the least number of significant figures used in your calculation:
1.34 × 4.8 = 6.432, but 4.8 has 2 significant figures so the answer should be
expressed as 6.4.

Read from a graph

Take the number of significant figures corresponding to the smallest grid on the
graph: eg., for grid units of 0.1, a read value of 3.65 should be expressed as 3.7.

9
 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Measurements

1.2 Measurements

1.2.1 Calculating uncertainties

Due to the limited precision in measuring devices, all measurements contain an
uncertainty. On the exam, you are therefore often asked to determine this uncertainty.

Absolute uncertainty the uncertainty in a measurement as an absolute

value, eg., ±0.5.

Fractional uncertainty the uncertainty in a measurement as a fraction of the

absolute uncertainty
measurement:
measurement

Percentage uncertainty the fractional uncertainty expressed as a percentage:

absolute uncertainty
× 100%
measurement

How can you calculate the uncertainty?

Adding or subtracting
Sum of absolute uncertainties: ∆y = ∆a + ∆b

Multiplying or dividing
∆y ∆a ∆b
Sum of fractional uncertainties: = +
y a b

Exponent y = a n
∆y  ∆a 
 
Multiply fractional uncertainty by n: = n
y a 
.

In an experiment, a student measures the average period T of a swinging pendulum

Example

as T = 2.50 ± 0.02 s. The length of the pendulum is L = 1.60 ± 0.01 m. Determine the
4π2 L
percentage uncertainty of the acceleration g using g = .
T2
 
∆T 2  ∆T  0.02
Uncertainty for exponent: = 2 =2 = 0.016
T 2  T  2.50

∆g ∆L ∆T 2 0.01
Uncertainty for dividing: = + = + 0.016 = 0.02225
g L T2 1.60

∆g
Percentage uncertainty: × 100% = 2.225%, so about 2%.
g

10
MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Measurements 1

1.2.2 Working with graphs

Graphs are used to show the relation between two variables. As you can see below, they
can contain a lot of information. There are therefore various types of questions on
graphs you can expect on your exam.

y Non-linear: curved line

Measurement point
Linear: straight line
including error bars
Equation type: y = ax+b
to represent the
uncertainty

The gradient tells how steep the line is

x
The intercept tells where the line crosses the x- or y-axes

Determine the uncertainty (for a specific point):

1. Measure the length of the corresponding error bar.

2. Divide by 2 for the absolute error, e.g. an error bar of length 0.2 gives an absolute
uncertainty of ±0.1. Pay close attention to the type of uncertainty you are asked
to calculate.

Draw the line of best fit:

1. Identify the type of progression the
points follow: linear or non-linear.
2. Draw a smooth line or curve through
all the error bars.

11
 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Measurements

y2
Find the gradient:
1. Find two points on the line as far
apart as possible.
2. Measure the x- and y-value at each
point.
3. Calculate the gradient a using
y − y1
a= 2 . y1
x2 − x1

x1 x2

1.2.3 Random and systematic errors

Every scientist needs to deal with errors in their experiments. In this case, an error is not
the same as a mistake: we’re assuming you’re a perfectly good scientist who does not
make calculation or reading mistakes. We distinguish between two types of errors:

Random errors Systematic error or zero error

Affect each measurement in a random Affects each measurement in the same

manner. manner.

Caused by fluctuations in instrument Reduced by ensuring instruments are

readings or effects due to changes in the properly calibrated, or mathematically
surroundings. removing known offsets. The size of the
Reduced by repeated readings. error can be determined by checking the
intercept.
Because the gradient stays the same, not
all calculations are affected by this error.

12
 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Vectors 1

1.3 Vectors

1.3.1 Vectors and scalars

A vector is a quantity with a magnitude and a direction.

A scalar is a quantity which has only a magnitude.

.

Speed only has a magnitude, so it is a scalar. Velocity however has a magnitude and a
Example

direction, which makes it a vector.

Energy has no direction, so it is a scalar. Force has a magnitude and a direction and
therefore is a vector.

1.3.2 Vector calculations

Just like scalars, you can add and subtract vectors, but the procedure is somewhat
different since you need to take the vector’s direction into account.

Addition Subtraction

b~ = (3, −1) − b~ = (−3, 1)

a~ = (1, 2) a~ = (1, 2)

c~ = (4, 1) c~ = (4, 1)
To add to vectors, connect the tail of the To subtract vectors, connect the two
one to the point of the other. points.
           
~ 1 3 4 1 4 −3
a~ + b = + = a~ − c~ = − = = − b~
2 −1 1 2 1 1

As you can see for b~ , going along the

opposite direction of a vector reverses the
signs of its values.

13
 MEASUREMENTS AND MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS Vectors

Multiplication and division by scalars

Multiplying and dividing a vector a~ by a scalar c is straightforward: the result is c · a~ and

1
a~, respectively.
c

Multiplication for c = 2 looks like this:

2 2

c × a~
1 1
a~

2 4 2 4

Resolution of vectors

Especially in mechanics, there will be

cases where you’ll need to split a vector Av A
into a vertical and a horizontal part. This
is done as follows:

Ah = Acos ϑ
Av = Asin ϑ ϑ
Ah
The total length of a vector is equal to
q   
|A| = Ah 2 + Av 2

14
MECHANICS 2

2.1 Motion

2.1.1 Equations of motion

Displacement is a vector quantity stating an object’s change in position

(whereas distance is a scalar quantity).

Velocity is a vector quantity stating the rate of change of displacement

(whereas speed is a scalar quantity).

Acceleration is a vector quantity stating the rate of change of velocity.

rate of change rate of change

displacement velocity acceleration
s v a

a0

s0 vr

t t t

As you can see in the right graph, the acceleration does not change. This type of motion
is called uniformly accelerated motion: motion of a body under constant (possibly zero)
acceleration. All calculations involving acceleration will be on uniformly accelerated
motion.

The other two graphs show velocity is linear and displacement is quadratic. This is
reflected by the equations of motion: DB 2.1

v = u + at
1
s = ut + at2
2

where u is the initial velocity.

15
 MECHANICS Motion

For linking displacement to velocity, we have

(u + v)t
s=
2
2 2
v = u + 2a s

• when a = 0: the instantaneous displacement

• when a 6= 0: the average displacement
.

You bungee jump off a cliff. What distance do you cover during the fourth second?
Example

Air resistance is negligible.

Since we need to deal with time t , acceleration a, and distance s, we can use
1
s = ut + at2
2
The fourth second starts at t = 3 s and ends at t = 4 s. Since you let yourself fall, the
initial velocity u = 0 m/s. The acceleration is equal to gravitational acceleration,
g = 9.81 m/s2 .
1
s1 = 0 + · 9.81 · 32 ≈ 44
2
1
s2 = 0 + · 9.81 · 42 ≈ 78
2
s2 − s1 = 34 m
so the distance covered during the fourth second is 34 meters.

Relative velocity between two bodies is the velocity of one body in the rest
frame of the other. The total velocity v is equal to the velocity of the
observer, vo , plus the velocity of the object relative to the observer, v r :

v = vo + v r
.

A train is driving with 25.5 m/s. A train passenger rolls a ball towards the rear of the
Example

train with 3.4 m/s. What is the velocity of the ball?

v = vo + v r = 25.5 − 3.4 = 22.1 m/s

16
MECHANICS Motion 2

2.1.2 Graphs describing motion

When given a graph with time on the x-axis and a, v or s on the y-axis, you need to
know how to calculate other quantities using that graph.

gradient gradient
s v a
(m) (m/s) (m/s2 )
area area

v (m/s) v (m/s)

t t (s) t0 t1 t (s)
What is the acceleration? What is the distance covered?
To get from a graph with velocity v to To get from a graph with velocity v to
acceleration a, calculate the gradient for distance s, calculate the area under the line
the right time point t . up until the right time point t .

2.1.3 Projectile motion

A special type of motion is projectile motion, which deals with objects as they fly
through the air (a ball, for example). The trick with projectile motion is that you can
break this motion up in a x- and y-component and solve them independently. (When
doing so, you can always neglect air resistance.)

Velocity

When given the initial velocity with magnitude v0 and direction ϑ, based on resolving
vectors in Section 1.3.2:

v x = v0 cos ϑ
vy = v0 sin ϑ

17
 MECHANICS Motion

Displacement

x-component
There are no forces on the projectile
in the x-direction, so a = 0. To
calculate the displacement, we can sy
therefore use:

s x = s x,0 + v x t

where s x,0 is the initial displacement

and v x is the velocity of the y-component
x-component.

y-component
Now we have to take into account sx
x-component
gravitational acceleration g :

1
sy = sy,0 + vy t + g t 2
2

Since the y-component determines the object’s position above the ground, it should be
used to determine at what time t , it does that. So to find out anything about time you’ll
have to use this formula.
.

A centaur shoots an arrow at a 30° angle with an initial velocity of v0 = 50 m/s and
Example

initial displacement of 0.

1. How long does it take for the arrow to hit the ground?
This question is about time t , so we’ll have to look at the displacement of the
y-component:
1
sy = sy,0 + vy t + g t 2
2
At t = tmax the arrow returns to its original position, sy = 0, so:
1 2
sy,0 = sy,0 + vy,0 tmax + g tmax
2
1 2
0 = vy,0 tmax + g tmax
2
1 2
−vy,0 tmax = g tmax
2
1
vy,0 = v0 sin ϑ = 50 · sin 30° = 50 · = 25
2
1
25 = · 9.81 · tmax
2
tmax ≈ 5.1 s

18
 MECHANICS Motion 2

2. How far does the arrow fly?

.
Example

s x = s x,0 + v x,0 tmax

p
3 p
v x,0 = v0 cos ϑ = 50 · cos 30° = 50 · = 25 3
p 2
s x = 0 + 25 3 · 5.1 ≈ 2.2 × 102 m

2.1.4 Fluid motion

When a parachutist jumps out of a plane, his speed will increase due to gravitational
acceleration. Does this mean the parachutist will just go faster and faster? It turns out
there is a limit to the speed he can reach. This maximum is called terminal velocity.

Terminal velocity the constant speed that a freely falling object eventually
reaches because of the resistance of the surrounding medium.

As the parachutist starts falling faster, the air resistance will increase because it depends
on velocity. Eventually the air resistance becomes so large that the parachutist stops
accelerating.

The next graph shows the change in velocity over time:

t1 : Ball accelerates t2 : Ball reaches

due to gravity terminal velocity
when air resistance
equals gravity

v (m/s)
Air resistance

Air resistance

Gravity Gravity
t1 t2 t (s)

19
 MECHANICS Forces

2.2 Forces

A physics exam would not be complete without a question about forces acting on an
object.

To simplify such questions, we can approach objects as point particles, especially when
drawing free body diagrams.

A force is a push or a pull that causes change in magnitude and/or direction

of velocity.

A point particle is an object represented as a point, even though it is a rigid

body.

A free body diagram shows the different forces acting on a body using
arrows.

2.2.1 Newton’s laws of motion

The most important work on forces has been done by Isaac Newton, who developed
three laws describing how forces act:

st
Newton’s 1 law

If the net force F on an object is zero then its velocity v is constant:

Fnet = 0 ⇒ a=0 ⇒ ∆v = 0

nd
Newton’s 2 law
DB 2.2 The net force F of an object is equal to its mass m times its acceleration a:

Fnet = ma

rd
Newton’s 3 law

Every action has an equal but opposite reaction:

F~a = −F~b

20
 MECHANICS Forces 2

How do you solve a problem involving forces?

1. Draw a free body diagram and label the forces appropriately

• Drag forces act opposite to the direction of motion
• Reaction force/normal force acts perpendicular to the surface
2. Resolve forces if necessary
3. Check Newton’s first law: is the net force or resulting force Fnet zero?

v = constant or a = 0

yes no
Since Fnet = 0, Since Fnet 6= 0,
all forces should Newton’s second law
cancel each other out applies: Fnet = ma
.

A crate with a mass of 50 kg stands on a 20° slope. A rope is tied to the crate to keep
Example

it in place. Find the tension in the rope.

1. Draw a free body diagram

R

T There are three forces acting

on the crate: its weight F z ,
the resultant force R, and the
tension T in the rope.

Fz
2. Resolve vectors
FN

T
We can resolve F z so that its
F z,x components align with the
other vectors.

F z,y
Fz

21
 MECHANICS Forces

3. Is the net force zero?

.
Example
Because the crate does not move, its velocity is 0, which is constant. The net
force must be 0. All forces should cancel each other out. This means force T is
equal to F z,x .
F z = m g = 50 · 9.81 = 490.5 N
F z,x
sin 20° =
Fz
F z,x = F z sin 20° = 490.5 sin 20° = 168 N
T = F z,x ≈ 1.7 × 102 N

2.2.2 Solid friction

Try pushing a crate: it can be difficult to get going, but once the crate starts moving it
becomes easier. This is because you have to overcome static friction, which is bigger than
dynamic friction. Once you’re pushing the crate forward, you experience dynamic
friction. The heavier the crate, the more friction there is. For the exam, you should be
able to calculate both types of friction.

Static friction: F f ≤ µ s R R = normal reaction force

µ s = coefficient of static friction
Dynamic friction: F f = µd R
µd = coefficient of dynamic friction
.

An ice skater going 8.0 m/s stops skating. After 34 m she comes to a complete stop.
Example

What is the coefficient of dynamic friction?

Since the friction force is the only force acting on the skater, F f = Fnet , which means
µd R = ma
and because the skater is on a flat surface, R is equal to the weight of the skater, m g :
µd m g = ma
a
µd =
g
To determine the acceleration, we can use the initial speed, final speed, and distance
given:
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
0 = 8.02 + 2 · a · 34
a = −0.94 m/s2
0.94
µd = ≈ 0.10
9.81

22
 MECHANICS Work, energy and power 2

2.3 Work, energy and power

Energy comes in many different forms, but is always conserved. This is one of the most
fundamental laws of physics. In this section we’ll take a closer look at conservation,
transformation, and various types of energy.

2.3.1 Conservation of energy

The principle of conservation of energy states that in any closed system,

the total amount of energy will always stay the same: E1 = E2 .

The total energy at a certain point can consist of different types of energy: DB 2.3

1
Kinetic energy Ek = mv 2
2
E = energy [J]
Gravitational potential energy E g = m g ∆h
∆h = difference in height [m]
1 k = spring constant
Elastic potential energy Ee = k∆x 2 ∆x = difference in displacement [m]
2

Energy due to friction

.

Bryan dives off a 10 m high cliff. With what velocity does he hit the water?
Example

E1 = E g = m g h
1
E2 = Ek = mv 2 E1
2

E1 = E2
1
m g h = mv 2
2
Æ
v= 2g h E2
p
v = 2 · 9.81 · 10 ≈ 14 m/s

23
 MECHANICS Work, energy and power

2.3.2 Work

Work is used to transfer energy from one point to another or from one form to another.

Work is equal to:

DB 2.3 1. the amount of force exerted in the direction of motion:

W = work [J]
W = F s cos ϑ F = force [N]
s = distance [m]
where ϑ is the angle between the force and the direction of motion;
2. the change in (potential, kinetic, and friction) energy between two
points, ∆E. An example of this is given below.
.

I move a 5 kg box onto a shelf, 2 m from the floor. What is the work done?
Example

The work done is equal to the change in energy:

W = m g h2 − m g h1 = 5 · 9.81 · 2 − 5 · 9.81 · 0 ≈ 98 J

But if work is the change in potential energy, what about the conservation principle?
Work is just a specific type of energy, done by muscles (like in the example above) or an
engine, for example. That’s why its unit is also joule. So in the previous above, W = E g ,
and the total amount of energy is still conserved.

Force-distance graphs

In the IB, you’re quite likely to get a force-distance graph from which you have to
determine the work done. When this is the case, remember that work is the area under
the curve, because work is equal to force times distance.

24
MECHANICS Momentum and impulse 2

2.3.3 Power

Suppose you want to buy a car: you’d be interested in how well the engine works. But a
car that drives 100 km in an hour and a car that drives 100 km in 5 hours both have
delivered the same amount of energy. You want to know how much energy the engine
can deliver within a specific time — you want to know the power.

Power is the rate of energy transfer: the energy change over a certain period of time. It is
also equal to the force times the velocity: DB 2.3

∆E P = power [J/s]
P= =Fv
∆t ∆E = difference in energy [J]

Back to your new car: if the engine has a lot of power, but half of the power is used to
produce heat, it’s not a very efficient engine. DB 2.3

usefull work useful power

Efficiency = · 100% = · 100%
total work total power

2.4 Momentum and impulse

Momentum is what gives objects their force. Does a book landing on your toes hurt? It
depends on whether someone drops it, or smashes it on the ground - velocity plays an
important role. Also, the heavier the book, the more pain you’ll be in. This is reflected
in the formula for momentum.

Momentum is the mass of an object times its velocity: ~p = m v~

DB 2.4

As was stated above, momentum has a close relation with force. Rewriting Newton’s
second law gives:
∆v ∆ p
F = ma = m =
∆t ∆t
meaning force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. Note: this is only true if the
mass is constant.

Impulse is the change in momentum of an object: ∆ p = F ∆t

DB 2.4

25
 MECHANICS Momentum and impulse

Force-time graphs

When given a force-time graph, you can calculate the maximum force, or the impulse.
Use the formula for impulse, ∆ p = F ∆t , and data from the graph to get to the answer.

The law of conservation of momentum says that when the external force
on a system is zero, Fext = 0, momentum is conserved.

The concept of conservation of momentum is especially useful when it comes to

collisions. There are two types of collisions:

Elastic collisions where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved

Inelastic collisions where momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not

Two objects colliding and then sticking together is an example of an inelastic collision. In
that case,
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2 )v3

For your exam, it’s important that you understand the concepts and definitions given
above, especially how force is related to momentum and impulse. Make sure you’re
comfortable using these definitions in an argument, as is necessary in the question below.
.

Explain why a flexible safety net is less harmful for an incoming skier than a rigid
Example

barrier.

∆p
A force F is proportional to the rate of change of momentum, F = . Using a
∆t
safety net, the change in momentum is less sudden compared to using a rigid barrier,
meaning the skier experiences less force.

26
MECHANICS Circular motion 2

2.5 Circular motion

So far, we have dealt with motion in a straight line, but circular motion is also very
common in everyday life. To accurately describe such type of motion, we’ll need to
redefine velocity and acceleration, as well as study the force that makes objects move this
way.

Angular velocity tells how fast an object has covered a part of a circle and is
given by
DB 6.1
ω = angular velocity rad/s
 
v
ω= v = linear velocity [m/s]
r
r = radius [m]

Difference between angular velocity and linear velocity

Consider two flies flying a circle, one bigger than

the other.

They have the same angular velocity ω when

they complete their circle in the same amount
of time. But the outer fly would need a higher
linear velocity v, because it needs to cover a larger
distance.

Centripetal acceleration is the acceleration a body experiences when

moving along a circle.
DB 6.1
It is directed towards the centre and causes the body to constantly change
direction:
v 2 4π2 r
a= =
r T2
where T is the period, the time needed for one circulation.

27
 MECHANICS Circular motion

.
A skateboarder skates up a hill of 6 m radius.
Example
At the top of the hill, he has a speed of 5.2 m/s.
Will he lose contact with the ground?
For this to happen, the centripetal acceleration
should be larger than g , 9.81 m/s2 .
v 2 5.22
a= = ≈ 4.5 m/s2
r 6
so the skater will stay on the ground.

Centripetal force is also directed towards the centre and keeps a body in
orbit:
DB 6.1

mv 2
F= = mω 2 r
r

It is important to remember that a centripetal force consists of another force: this can be
tension, friction, an electric or magnetic force (which will be covered in the electricity
and magnetism chapter), or a gravitational force (which will be covered in the next
section).
.

An 800 kg car takes a circular turn with a

Example

diameter of 100 m with a constant speed of

15 m/s. How large is the frictional force on the
wheels to make this possible?
As shown in the drawing, friction points to the
centre of the circle, making it possible for the
car to turn (if you find this hard to understand,
think about a car trying to make a turn on ice). Ff
So it is friction that provides the centripetal
force:
mv 2
F f = Fc =
r
800 · 152
Ff = = 3.6 kN
50

28
MECHANICS Gravitation 2

For the exam, you should be aware of the difference between horizontal rotation and
vertical rotation. The latter is a bit trickier because gravitation comes into play.

Think about a pendulum rotating vertically: in this case, the

tension in the rope provides the centripetal force.

1. Gravity will give an extra pull resulting in more tension.

This is where the centripetal force is at its strongest.

2. Here, gravity works against the tension, resulting in a

weaker centripetal force.

2.6 Gravitation

With Newton’s laws we were able to calculate many things — on Earth. But when we
put the pendulum described above on the moon, things would look very different.

Newton realized this and developed a law that can be applied anywhere in the universe,
and is therefore rightly called the universal law of gravitation. DB 6.2

FG = gravitational force
G = gravitational constant 6.67 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
Mm
FG = G M = mass of celestial body
r2 m = mass of object
r = radius from one centre of mass to the other

If you were to fill in the mass of the Earth as M , your own mass as m, and for r the
radius of the Earth, you’d get the amount of gravity acting on you, which is equal to m g .
But with this law, you can calculate the gravitational field strength, g , for any celestial
body. The gravitational field is defined as the force due to gravity per unit mass: DB 6.2

FG M
g= =G
m r2
For the Earth this is 9.81 m/s2 , but for the moon or other planets it is something
different, and this formula allows you to calculate it.

29
 MECHANICS Gravitation

.
1
Example
On Mars (M), the gravitational field strength is approximately that of Earth (E).
4
r
The mass of the Earth is approximately ten times that of Mars. What is E ?
rM

1
We know g = gM and mE = 10mM . Using the formula for the gravitational field
4 E
strength we get
1 mE m 1 10mM m
G 2 = G 2M G 2
= G 2M
4 rE rM 4 rE rM
We can cancel G and mM since they appear on both sides:
1 10 1
· 2= 2
4 rE rM
2.5 1
2
= 2
rE rM
Multiply both sides by rE2 :
r2
2.5 = E2
rM
rE p
= 2.5 ≈ 1.6
rM

To put a satellite in an orbit around the earth or to shoot a rocket away from the earth
you need to overcome the gravitational pull. The satellite or rocket therefore needs to be
shot away with the right velocity:

s vescape = velocity needed to completely escape

2GM
vescape = vorbit = velocity needed to stay in orbit
r
s M = mass of body to escape from/orbit
GM r = distance to center of body
vorbit =
r
.

If we want the orbit of a satellite to be no higher than 5000 km above Earth what is
Example

the maximum velocity it should have? The following data are available:

• Mass of Earth mE : 6.0 × 1024 kg

• Radius of Earth rE : 6.4 × 106 m

The radius r is equal to thevradius of the earth rE plus the height of the satellite h,
v
mE 6.0 × 1024
u u
v = tG = 6.67 × 10−11 · ≈ 5.9 × 103 m/s
t
rE + h 6.4 × 106 + 5 × 106
which is approximately 21 000 km/h. Quite fast!

30
THERMAL PHYSICS 3

3.1 Thermal concepts

3.1.1 Temperature, heat and internal energy

Temperature measure of how hot something is, or a measure of the average

kinetic energy of molecules. It is given in celsius or kelvin:
K = ◦C + 273

That is, melting ice is 0 ◦C or 273 K. When using an equation that contains the
temperature T , always fill in the temperature in kelvin.

Heat is the amount of energy transferred from a warmer to a cooler object

and is measured in joule (J).

Internal energy of an object is the sum of all kinetic energy of its molecules
plus the intermolecular potential energy. It is measured in joule (J).

Mind that internal energy is about the molecules, and not about the energy of the body
as a whole (the types of energy discussed in the mechanics chapter).

Heating or cooling a system changes the internal energy, so that one of two things may
happen:

• A change in kinetic energy will change the temperature of the system

• A change in potential energy will change the phase of the system

We’ll take a closer look at phase transitions further on in the chapter.

31
 THERMAL PHYSICS Phase transitions

3.1.2 The mole

The mole is used to quantify large amounts of molecules. Just as we use a dozen to say
we have 12 of something, we can use a mole to say we have 6.02 × 1023 of something.
This specific number is called the Avogadro constant, NA .

Mole when there are 6.02 × 1023 molecules of something, it is equal to one
mole. The mole is the SI unit for measuring the amount of a substance.

Molar mass the mass of one mole of a substance.

To figure out the number of moles, use

n = number of moles
N
n= N = number of molecules
NA
NA = Avogadro constant 6.02 × 1023
.

A room is filled with exactly 8.00 × 1023 oxygen molecules. This is

Example

N 8.00 × 1023
n= = ' 1.33 mol
NA 6.02 × 1023

3.2 Phase transitions

3.2.1 Molecular theory

Gas Liquid Solid

Molecules are far apart. Molecules are closer Molecules are packed
together. together very closely,
sometimes in a crystal as
in the picture.

Potential energy: low (and Potential energy: bigger Potential energy: large
for ideal gasses: negligible)

32
THERMAL PHYSICS Phase transitions 3

Intermolecular bonds are bonds that hold molecules together. According to

the molecular theory, a phase transition means the bonds get stronger
or weaker.

3.2.2 Specific heat capacity and specific latent

heat

A phase transition means a substance changes from one phase to the other, e.g. ice
melting to water. There are two important concepts you need to remember when
working with phase transitions:

Specific heat capacity c the energy needed to warm up 1 kg of matter by

1 ◦C.

Q = total heat [J] 

Q = mc∆T m = mass kg
∆T = change in temperature [K]

Specific latent heat L energy needed for 1 kg of matter to go through a phase

transition. During this process, the temperature stays constant.

Q = mL

Apart from using these concepts in a formula, you should be able to tell something about
them using a graph.

33
 THERMAL PHYSICS Phase transitions

3.2.3 Temperature graphs

There are two types of graphs you can expect on your exam: temperature-energy graphs
and temperature-time graphs. You’re expected to understand and extract information
from them. Most of the graphs on the IB will look like the one below, showing a phase
transition.

Specific heat capacity Specific latent heat

Check the slope. Check the horizontal line.

The specific heat capacity differs per This is where the phase transition takes
phase. The steeper the slope, the bigger place, because the temperature stays
the specific heat capacity. In this case, constant. The latent heat differs per phase
the specific heat capacity for gas (cg ) is transition. The broader the line, the
smaller than for liquid (cg < cl ): cl . more latent heat is needed for a phase
transition.

s
ga
specific heat capacity
uid

specific latent heat

liq

34
THERMAL PHYSICS Kinetic model of an ideal gas 3

3.3 Kinetic model of an ideal gas

Physicists have developed a model to represent ideal gases. This model makes a couple of
assumptions and it is only an accurate representation under specific circumstances, but it
gives scientists a good understanding of how gases work.

3.3.1 Assumptions

The following assumptions are made when dealing with ideal gases. You can remember
them by using the acronym NITES.

N Newton’s law of mechanics apply

I Intermolecular forces are negligible

T Time of collisions is negligible

E Elastic collisions (no energy lost)

S Small spherical/point particles

Under which circumstances is the ideal gas model an accurate representation of a real gas?
When the real gas is spread out as much as possible. The air in a living room is a good
example, as it has

low pressure – moderate temperature – low density – large volume

When one of these conditions differ, for example when all the air is put in a very small
container, the ideal gas model is no longer accurate.

35
 THERMAL PHYSICS Kinetic model of an ideal gas

3.3.2 Pressure

Pressure is an important concept when it comes to gases, so here we’ll look at it in two
different ways: macroscopic and microscopic.

Macroscopic

On a regular scale, pressure is equal to the force applied per area:

” —
p = pressure N m−2 or [Pa]
F
p= F = force [N]
A ” —
A = area m2

This is why somebody in high heels may do damage to a floor, but someone on flip-flops
may not: in the first case, the same amount of force is divided over a very small area,
resulting in a much higher pressure.

Microscopic

On the molecular scale, the pressure of a gas indicates how often molecules are bumping
into the sides of a container (in which case the molecules are also applying a force to an
area). The more they bump, the higher the pressure. Putting in more molecules or
making the molecules go faster results in more bumping.

3.3.3 The ideal gas law

The equation that describes the ideal gas model is

” —
p = pressure N m−2 or [Pa]
” —
V = volume m3
pV = nRT n = amount of substance mol
 

R = ideal gas constant: 8.314 J K−1 mol−1

T = temperature [K]

This equation shows how an ideal gas behaves. For example, when the temperature of a
gas in a container becomes twice as large, the pressure will become twice as large too
(since the volume can’t change). Make sure you understand the relation between all the
variables, as the example given above is a very common question on the IB.

36
THERMAL PHYSICS Kinetic model of an ideal gas 3

From this ideal gas law, there are a few other laws we can derive:

• pressure-volume law, or Boyle’s law

• volume-temperature law, or Charles’ law
• pressure-temperature law, or Gay-Lussac’s law

Pressure-volume law

When the temperature T is constant, the right side of the ideal gas law is constant.

This means the left side of the equation has to be constant, too:

pV = constant

Volume-temperature law

When the pressure p is constant, we can change the volume V , but that means we have
to change the temperature T in the same way to make sure both sides remain equal:

V
= constant
T

Pressure-temperature law

Similarly, when the volume is held constant,

p
= constant
T

3.3.4 Kinetic energy

It is important to know that the average kinetic energy of a gas is proportional to the
temperature: when the kinetic energy doubles, so does the temperature, although this
does not happen instantly – you might have to wait a few minutes. This is reflected by
the equation
3 3 R
E k = kB T = T
2 2 NA
where kB is the Boltzmann constant. Don’t worry too much about how to use this
formula, the most important thing to notice here is that the average kinetic energy Ek
and temperature T are proportional.

37
 THERMAL PHYSICS Kinetic model of an ideal gas

38
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 4

4.1 Oscillations

4.1.1 Wave properties

Equilibrium The position where the

object is in rest.
Displacement (x) The distance from the x (m)
equilibrium.
Amplitude (A) The maximum value the
A
oscillation can have. x
ϕ
Period (T ) The amount of time it takes t (s)
to complete a full oscillation.
Frequency ( f ) The amount of periods
per second.
The period T and frequency f of a wave T
1
are linked by T = .
f

When comparing two oscillations, the

phase (ϕ) difference becomes
important. When the oscillations start
at the same point, they are in phase.
However, when one has already
completed half an oscillation before the
other starts, they differ half a phase.
You can see this on the images on the
right.

39
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Travelling waves

4.1.2 Simple harmonic motion

On the IB, two types of harmonic motion may appear: a pendulum (a ball on a string),
or a block attached to a spring.

For simple harmonic motion, the acceleration is opposite to the displacement: a ∝ −x.

We can see this when looking at pendulum. When the pendulum moves to the right,
gravity tries to pull it back to its equilibrium and therefore works the opposite way. If
you look at the graphs, you can see that this is equal to a and x differing half a phase.

x a

x
t t

Additionally, velocity v and acceleration a differ a quarter of a phase. This is because

when v is maximum, it does no longer accelerate and therefore a is zero.

4.2 Travelling waves

Whereas oscillating things only move from one side to the other, waves can propagate.
We call these travelling waves (as opposed to standing waves, which will be discussed at
the end of this chapter). A standing wave has all the properties listed for oscillations, but
it also has a wavelength (λ): the distance before a wave starts repeating itself.

4.2.1 Transversal and longitudinal waves

Within the category of travelling waves, we distinguish two types of waves.

For transverse waves, the displacement of particles is perpendicular to the wave

movement.

A wave in the water is a good example of

this: each particle just goes up and down
(oscillates), but this results in a wave that
moves to the right.

For longitudinal waves, the displacement of the particles is parallel to the wave
movement. Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

40
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Travelling waves 4

It’s what you get when putting a spring on the table and moving it back and forth, as
depicted below. Again, the particles just move back and forth, but the wave can
propagate along the spring. As you can see, there are places with a high density: these are
compressions. Areas with a low density are rarefactions.

compression rarefaction

4.2.2 Graphs of longitudinal waves

direction of wave
On the IB, you should be able to locate
displacement

points of compression or rarefaction in a

to the right

displacement-distance grape. Such a grape

shows the distance a wave has covered on
the x-axis and the displacement of each
particle on the y-axis.
distance Points above the x-axis move to the right,
while points below the x-axis move to the
displacement
to the left

left. At the black dot, particles left of the

dot move to the right, and particles right of
the dot move to the left, which means it is a
point of compression.

4.2.3 Electromagnetic waves

Light is also a wave: an electromagnetic wave. Unlike the wave in the water or in the
spring, electromagnetic waves don’t need a medium to propagate.

There are many more types of electromagnetic waves. Below you can find them in order
of magnitude, with the shortest waves on the left side.

γ -ray
X-ray
Ultra violet
Visible light
10−5 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 Infrared
Wavelength λ (µm) Micro wave
Radio wave

41
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Travelling waves

All of these waves travel with the same speed. But as their wavelengths can vary, so can
their frequency. To calculate this, you can use

c = speed of light [m/s]

c=fλ f = frequency [Hz]
λ = wavelength [m]

4.2.4 Doppler effect

When an ambulance drives by, the Doppler effect is what makes the sirens change in
tone. When an object making sound is moving, or when the observer listening to the
sound is moving, the frequency changes:

f 0 = observed frequency
‚ Œ
v
• moving source: f 0 = f
v ± us f = emitted frequency

v ± uo
‹ v = speed of wave
0
• moving observer: f = f u = speed of source/observer
v

When source and observer move towards each other, the waves are squeezed in the
increasingly smaller space between them. The wavelength becomes smaller, and so the
frequency becomes higher. The opposite happens for when they move away from each
other: the waves are stretched because the space in between becomes larger and larger.
The wavelength increases, and the frequency goes down.

42
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Wave characteristics 4

4.3 Wave characteristics

Travelling waves have certain characteristics you should be aware of. These include
polarization, reflection, refraction, and diffraction, all treated in this section, and
interference, which is treated in the next section. All of these characteristics apply to
electromagnetic waves. The same goes for sound waves, with the exception of
polarization.

4.3.1 Intensity

Every wave has a certain intensity I . Think of music: you hear it best when you are close
to the speaker, or when you turn up the volume. Intensity is therefore related to the
distance travelled as well as its amplitude (which determines volume):

” —
I = intensity W/m2
I ∝ x −2
x = distance travelled [m]
I ∝ A2
A= amplitude [m]
.

You are listening to your favourite artist two meters away from the speaker. You
Example

walk to the kitchen, another 2 meters away, to grab a snack. What is the intensity of
the sound waves in the kitchen with respect to your former position?

You double your distance to the speaker. Since I ∝ x −2 , doubling the distance means
1
a decrease in intensity of 2−2 = , only a quarter of the former intensity.
4

43
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Wave characteristics

4.3.2 Polarization

Polarization is a property of transverse waves (so it does not occur with sound waves!). It
specifies the orientation of the oscillations. For example, we can pluck a guitar string by
pulling it upwards and then letting go, and it will oscillate vertically. But we can also
pluck it sideways, and it will start oscillating horizontally. Unpolarized light oscillates in
all directions, but we can filter certain directions using polarizing filters.

transmitted light

unpolarized light

On the IB, you are likely to get a question involving two polarizing filters. When these
filters are parallel, e.g. both only let through horizontally polarized light, the second
filter doesn’t have any effect. But when the first only lets through horizontally polarized
light and the second only vertically polarized light, the result is that all light is blocked.
The position of these filters relative to each other therefore determines how much light is
transmitted. You can calculate this using Malus’s law:
” —
I0 = intensity after the first filter W/m2
” —
I = I0 cos2 (ϑ) I = intensity after the second filter W/m2
ϑ = difference in angle between two filters

When the filters are parallel, ϑ = 0°, and the cosine reduces to 1: the intensity stays the
same, just as we expected. When ϑ = 90°, the cosine becomes 0, and all light is blocked.

44
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Wave characteristics 4

4.3.3 Refraction, reflection, diffraction

Refraction

Have you ever looked through a

θ1 glass of water and noticed
medium (1) speed of wave=v1 everything gets a totally different
shape? This is because waves bend
medium (2) speed of wave=v2 when going from one medium to
another (from air to water, for
θ2
example).

This is called refraction, and it is described by Snell’s law:

n = refractive index
n1 sin ϑ2 v2
= = ϑ = angle of refraction
n2 sin ϑ1 v1 v = velocity of light in the medium [m/s]

Reflection

normal

incident ray reflected ray

When a wave goes from one
θi θr medium to another, part of the
wave can reflect, for example off a
medium (1) window or the surface of a lake.
medium (2) The angle at which the light is
reflected is equal to the incident
angle: ϑi = ϑ r .
transmitted ray

Diffraction
d When waves in water meet a rock,
they will have to move around it,
which results in the pattern below.
This is called diffraction. It only
occurs when the disturbance is of
the same order of magnitude as the
wavelength, and does not alter any
λ properties of the wave.

45
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Interference

4.4 Interference

It is possible to add up or subtract two waves. To do this, the waves must be coherent:
they should have the same frequency and a constant phase difference. On your exam,
waves will always be coherent.

The possibility of adding or subtracting waves is called the superposition principle: the
total displacement is the sum of the displacement of each wave. This can result in
constructive and destructive interference.

Destructive interference Constructive interference

1
 ‹
n+ λ = path difference nλ = path difference
2

time time

+ +

time time

= =

zero result

time time

46
OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Interference 4

4.4.1 Double slit interference

If we would send a wavefront through two slits, the waves from each slit will start to
interfere. When we put a screen some distance from the slits, we could see an
interference pattern: light fringes at points where waves add up (maxima), dark fringes at
points where they subtract (minima).

light waves barrier interference pattern

The spacing of these fringes depend on multiple things, as shown in the formula below.
Make sure you understand how these variables relate.

s = spacing between maxima (or minima) [m]

λD D = distance from barrier to screen [m]
s= λ = wavelength [m]
d
d = distance between slits [m]

47
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Interference

4.4.2 Single slit interference

It is also possible to get interference with just one slit. Light waves going through the
same slit will interfere with each other, which results in an intensity pattern shown on
the right.
Wave intensity

0° ϑ
first minimum
It’s possible to calculate the position of the first minimum using the following formula:

λ = wavelength [m]
λ
ϑ= b = width of the slit [m]
b ϑ = angle away from the centre of the slit

As you can see from the formula, the larger the wavelength, the larger the angle. This
means that red light (which has a long wavelength) will appear further from the centre
than blue light (which has a short wavelength).

For multiple slits, the intensity pattern

changes. But because these are just a bunch
of single slits together, the effect of single slit
diffraction is still there. Therefore, the
general shape of a multiple slit intensity
pattern is often still that of a single slit
pattern, and the position of the first
minimum stays the same.

48
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Interference 4

4.4.3 Other types of interference

Diffraction grating

A diffraction grating has a lot of slits. This makes the maxima of the pattern narrower
and brighter. The position of a certain maximum can be calculated using

nλ = d sin ϑ n = order of maximum (0, 1, 2, etc.)

Maxima are labelled using n. The middle maximum is labelled n = 0, the maxima next to
the middle one n = 1, etc.
.

A diffraction grating has a slit separation of 2.5 wavelengths. Is it possible to see the 2nd
Example

order maximum?

We can use nλ = d sin ϑ, with n = 2 and d = 2.5λ.

2λ = 2.5λ sin ϑ
2λ 2
sin ϑ = = = 0.8
2.5λ 2.5
sin−1 0.8 = 53°
This is more than 45°, which means the maximum would appear behind the grating.
This is not possible, so we cannot see the 2nd order maximum.

Thin film

B C

Light going through a thin film can

A
also cause interference, as is shown
in the picture below. You can use
the formulas to find out whether
constructive or destructive
interference will take place.

1 d = thickness of film [m]

 ‹
Constructive interference: 2d n = m + λ n = refraction index of film
2
λ = wavelength outside of film [m]
Destructive interference: 2d n = mλ m = 1, 2, 3, etc.

49
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Standing waves

4.4.4 Resolution

Diffraction grating

When maxima of an intensity pattern are too close together, it becomes impossible to
distinguish them. Whether two maxima can be distinguished depends on the resolvance
R of the grating:

m = order of maximum (0, 1, 2, etc.)

λ
R= = mN N = number of slits in grating
∆λ ∆λ = smallest resolvable wavelength difference

Circular apertures

For light travelling through the circular opening of a camera, or sound waves detected by
a circular radar, the resolving power depends on

b = diameter of aperture
x λ
ϑ = = 1.22 x = minimum distance between two objects to be observed
D b D = distance from objects to aperture

4.5 Standing waves

Unlike travelling waves, standing waves don’t move. On your exam, you’ll encounter
standing waves in ropes or tubes. These can have different boundaries:

• For ropes: a combination between fixed and free ends,

• For tubes: a combination between closed and open ends.

The types of ends determine the properties of the standing wave.

• On a fixed or closed end, there should always be a node.

• On a free or open end, there should always be an anti-node.

fixed fixed fixed free

node anti-node node node anti-node

50
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Standing waves 4

The standing waves depicted are first harmonics: they contain the least possible amount
of nodes and anti-nodes.

We can put some more nodes and anti-nodes in there. These are also perfect standing
waves; they’re just not first harmonics.

fixed fixed fixed free

.

The standing wave in the left picture above has a frequency of 150 Hz. What is the
Example

frequency of the wave in the right picture?

1
The right wave has 1/6th extra: 1 × 150 = 175 Hz.
6

51
 OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES Standing waves

52
ELECTRICITY AND 5

MAGNETISM

5.1 Electric fields

5.1.1 Charge

Charge is a property of matter that causes it to experience a force to other charged matter.

There are two types of charge: positive and negative. Like charges repel each other,
while opposite charges attract.

The SI derived unit of charge is coulomb (C). Coulomb’s law quantifies the force
between two particles.

F = force [N]
q1 q2 k = Coulomb’s constant
F =k q1 = charge 1 [C]
r2 q2 = charge 2 [C]
r = distance between charges [m]

1
Coulomb’s constant is defined as k = , where " is called the permittivity. "0 stands
4π"0
for the permittivity in vacuum, for which Coulomb’s constant becomes
8.9875 × 109 N m2 C−2 .

F~A
qA

As you can see from Coulomb’s law, the

force between two particles strongly
depends on the distance between them.
When the distance decreases, so will the
force, as is shown in this figure.
F~B
q
qB

53
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Electric fields

5.1.2 Nature of electric fields

Electric field is the electrostatic force on a stationary particle of unit charge

1 C.

E = electric field [N/C]

F
F= F = force [N]
q
q = charge [C]

Electric fields are caused by electric charges, and the strength of the field diminishes
further away from its source. An electric field can be visualized by drawing field lines.
This is shown below. The direction of the electric field is always from the positive to the
negative charge.

+ − + +

5.1.3 Voltage

When you throw a ball in the air, it works against the gravitational force and therefore
gains potential (gravitational) energy. The same thing happens when, for example, a
positive charge moves closer to another positive charge. It works against the electric
force and therefore gains potential energy.

Voltage is the difference in electric potential energy of a charge that moves in

an electric field per unit charge

54
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Electric fields 5

V = voltage [V] or [J/C]

W
V= W = work [J]
q
q = charge [C]

Just like the ball in the air will fall and gain kinetic energy, a particle can transfer the
work into kinetic energy and gain speed.

Electronvolt (eV) is the amount of work needed to change the electric

potential of an electron by 1 V.
It’s a unit of energy: 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J.
You can therefore calculate the work in joule or in electronvolt.

5.1.4 Current

Current is the amount of charge that flows per unit time. Its unit is ampere
(A).

I = current [A]
∆q
I= ∆q = amount of charge [C]
∆t ∆t = change in time [s]

The charge of one electron is labeled e. So, when electrons move through a wire, the
amount of charge ∆q is equal to e times the number of electrons. By convention, when
electrons are flowing to the right, the current is flowing to the left (which is a bit
confusing).

It is also possible to calculate the current using the drift velocity, which is the average
velocity an electron has in a wire.

I = current [A]
” —
n = number of charge carriers per unit volume m−3
” —
I = nAv q A= cross section of a wire m2
v = drift velocity [m/s]
q = charge [C]

Current constantly flowing through a wire in one direction is called direct current
(DC).

55
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Equipotential surfaces

5.2 Equipotential surfaces

As has been said before, a charge moving through an electric field can gain potential
energy. In order to gain this energy, work needs to be done on the charge. Equipotential
surfaces are surfaces on which the potential energy of a charge does not change.

10 V
20 V
30 V

The green lines represent an equipotential surface. As you can see, potential surfaces are
perpendicular to the electric field lines (in red). A particle that has a voltage of 10 V can
freely move around along the 10 V circle. If it wants to move to the 20 V circle, work
needs to be done on the particle equal to

W = work [J]
W = q∆Ve q = charge [C]
∆Ve = change in voltage [V]

This also means that moving from the 10 V circle to the 20 V circle and back requires zero
total work.

Equipotential surfaces can also be applied to gravitational fields. In the figure above, you
can just replace the charge in the middle with a planet: the field lines then stand for the
gravitational field. In that case, the work can be calculated using

W = work [J] 
W = m∆V g m = mass kg 
∆V g = change in gravitational potential J/kg

Close to the surface of a planet, star, or other celestial body you can assume the
gravitational field is constant.

56
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Resistance 5

There are close parallels between the gravitational fields and electric fields, because the
relationship between potential, energy, and force is the same:

Gravitational force Electric force

m m q q
F =G 1 2 F =k 1 2
r2 r2

Gravitational energy Electric energy

Mm q q
E p = mV g = −G E p = qVe = k 1 2
r r

Gravitational field Electric field

−∆V g −∆Ve
g= E=
∆r ∆r

5.3 Resistance

5.3.1 Circuits

An electric circuit consists of

• A cell that provides voltage, labeled with E or V .

• Resistors, which have a certain resistance. This tells how difficult it is for current
to pass. The higher the resistance, the more difficult it is for current to flow.
Resistors are labeled with R.
• Wires that connect all elements in the circuit. For wires in circuits, you can assume
resistance is zero.
• Anything else you can find under ‘electrical circuit symbols’ in your data booklet.

We will now look at how circuits work, and how you can calculate the voltage, current
and resistance for each element in the circuit.

Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law enables you to calculate the resistance, which tells how difficult it is for
current to pass. The higher the resistance, the more difficult it is for current to flow. The
unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)

R = resistance [Ω]
V
R= V = voltage [V]
I I = current [A]

57
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Resistance

Kirchhoffs’ laws

To find out how voltage and current divide themselves over a circuit, use Kirchhoff’s
laws:
X
• Loop: V =0
In a loop, the sum of all voltages is equal to zero. The voltage of the cell and the
voltages across the circuit have opposite signs.
X
• Junction: I =0
On a junction, the sum of all currents is equal to zero. Currents flowing in and
currents flowing out have opposite signs.
.
Example

E For
X the outer loop:
V = E + I1 R1 + I3 R3 = 0.

So that
R2 I1 −E = I1 R1 + I3 R3 .
I2

R1
For
X the first junction:
I = I1 − I2 − I3 = 0.

R3 I3 So that I1 = I2 + I3 .

As you can see in the circuit in the example above, there are two possible ways to arrange
resistors. The total resistance (Rtot ) of the resistors combined depends on their
arrangement.

R1 R2
Series Rtot = R1 + R2 + . . .

R1

Parallel 1 1 1
= + + ...
Rtot R1 R2

R2

58
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Resistance 5

Ammeters and voltmeters

Ammeter Voltmeter
Measures the amount of current at a Measures the amount of voltage over a
certain point in the circuit. certain point in the circuit.

R V
A

They are placed at the point where you They are placed over the point where you
want to measure the current. want to measure the voltage.
An ideal ammeter has zero resistance, so The ideal voltmeter has an infinite
that it doesn’t slow the current. resistance so that no current passes
In practice, however, ammeters are non- through the meter.
ideal and have a constant but nonzero In practice, voltmeters are non-ideal and
resitance. have a constant but finite resistance.

Power dissipation

If current is flowing through an element with resistance, this causes the element to heat
up.

This means some energy is lost to heat. The rate at which energy is dissipated is the
power dissipation:

P = power [W]
V2 R = resistance [Ω]
P = V I = I 2R = V = voltage [V]
R
I = current [A]

59
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Cells

5.3.2 Resistance of a wire

As has been said before, you can neglect the resistance of wires in a circuit. But if the
exam question specifically requires you to calculate the resistance of a wire, you can use

ρ = resistivity [Ω m]
RA R = resistance [Ω]
ρ= ” —
L A = cross section of a wire m2
L = length of wire [m]

The resistance depends on the material the wire is made of. Therefore, the formula
includes resistivity ρ, which differs per material. The right value for resistivity will be
included in the exam question.

5.4 Cells

A cell provides voltage for the circuit. A battery is an example of a cell. In this section,
we’ll go over the general properties of cells, as well as how they work in circuits.

There are two types of cells:

1. Primary cells that are discarded after their use, such as batteries
2. Secondary cells that can be recharged.

V (V)
Terminal voltage

Every cell has a terminal voltage (or 12

terminal potential difference) that tells how
much energy the cell still has. When a cell is
fully charged, it has a maximum terminal
voltage, for example 12 V.

When the cell discharges, it loses its initial

value quickly, but has a stable value for most
of the time. At the end, the terminal voltage
drops rapidly to zero.
t (s)

60
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Cells 5

Internal resistance and emf

A cell has a small internal resistance, which means not all the terminal voltage can be
transferred to the circuit. Some of it is used by the internal resistance. The actual output
voltage of the cell is called the electromotive force (emf), denoted by ", and given by

" = electromotive force [V]

I = current [A]
" = I (R + r ) R = resistance [Ω]
r = internal resistance [Ω]

V/I-diagrams

The internal resistance of a cell might be

useful to know. In order to find this out, we A
can use this circuit, with a cell and a variable
resistor. We can measure the current V
through and voltage over the variable
resistor and plot it. This will result in a
V/I-diagram.

When we take the formula for electromotive

force and rewrite it using V = I R, we get
V
"=V +Ir
intercept = "
V ="−Ir

And there we have our formula for the line gra

die
you see in the graph. Does it remind you of nt
=
y = ax + b ? r
This means " is the intercept with the y-axis,
and r is the gradient. So whenever you’re
asked to calculate the internal resistance of a
cell based on a V/I-diagram, go for the I
gradient.

When you see a V/I-diagram with a curved V

line, it means the resistance you measured
over is non-ohmic. As opposed to ohmic
resistances, these do not follow Ohm’s law.
An example of an ohmic resistance is a wire,
an example of a non-ohmic resistance is a
filament lamp.

Be careful: sometimes the IB will switch the

axes and give you an I/V-diagram. Don’t let
this confuse you! I

61
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Magnetic effects of electric currents

5.5 Magnetic effects of electric currents

Moving charges create a magnetic field. This means that a current-carrying wire is
surrounded by its own magnetic field. To find out the direction of the magnetic field, use
the right-hand rule: put your thumb in the direction of the current, and your fingers will
curl in the direction of the magnetic field. Be aware that when the current flows up,
electrons go down.

A charge or wire can be subject to a magnetic field because

1. It is close to another wire and therefore in the magnetic field of that wire.
2. A magnetic field is applied, in which case ⊗ means the field is going into the paper
and  means the field is coming out of the paper.

A wire or a charge in a magnetic field will experience a magnetic force. This force is
perpendicular to both the direction of current and the magnetic field. To find out the
direction of the magnetic force, use the left-hand or FBI rule.

F~
• Your thumb indicates the direction of the
magnetic force, F~
• Your index finger points in the direction of the
B~
magnetic field, B~
• Your middle finger points in the direction of
the current, I~
I~

To find the magnitude of the magnetic force, use

B = magnetic field [T]

For a wire: F = B I L sin ϑ
L = length of wire [m]
v = velocity of charge [m/s]
For a charge: F = q vB sin ϑ
ϑ = angle between magnetic field and current

When a charge moves parallel to a magnetic field, the angle ϑ is zero and therefore the
magnetic force is zero. The force is thus at its maximum when the wire or charge is
perpendicular to the magnetic field.

62
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Electromagnetic induction 5

5.6 Electromagnetic induction

Flux is the amount of field lines going through a coil or wire loop:

Φ = magnetic flux
 
Wb
” —
A = surface area of coil or loop m2
Φ = BAcos ϑ
B = magnetic field [T]
ϑ = angle between magnetic field and surface area

Mind the angle: when the magnetic field and the loop are parallel, there is no flux
because the field lines are not pointing through the loop.

When the magnetic field changes in strength, for example by moving a magnet towards
or away from a coil, the flux changes. When the flux changes, the coil will react and
create a current. To find the direction of this induced current we have to consider Lenz’s
law: the induced current will oppose the change in magnetic flux.
.

This figure shows a bar magnet near an aluminium ring. Suppose the ring is
Example

supported so that it is free to move.

bar magnet

aluminium ring

What will happen when the magnet moves 1. towards the ring, and 2. away from the
ring?

1. The flux increases. To undo this, the ring will move to the left, away from the
magnet.
2. The flux decreases. To undo this, the ring will move to the right.

Now the ring is fixed to its place. What can you say about the induced current in the
ring?

63
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Capacitors

1. The induced current will oppose the change in flux. The flux increases, so the

.
Example
ring will create a magnetic field to the right to oppose the magnet’s field. To
create a field to the right, the current will run counterclockwise from the
magnet’s perspective (use the right hand rule).
2. Again, the induced current will oppose the change in flux. The flux decreases so
the ring will create a field to the left. The current will therefore run clockwise
from the magnet’s perspective.

To create an induced current, a certain voltage or emf is needed. The production of this
emf is called induction. The size of the induced emf can be determined using the
following formulas. The first one is Faraday’s law: the size of the induced emf is
proportional to the change in flux.

N = amount of turns of coil

∆Φ ∆Φ = change in flux
" = −N
∆t ∆t = change in time
" = Bvl loop v = velocity of coil or loop
" = BvlN coil l = length of coil or loop

5.7 Capacitors

A capacitor consists of two parallel plates. The capacitor can be charged by a battery, and
then discharged by letting charge flow between the plates. Every capacitor has a certain
capacitance, depending on the charge and the voltage over the capacitor:

C = capacitance [F]
q
C= q = charge held by capacitor
V V = voltage between plates

Just as with resistors, it’s possible to put multiple capacitors in a circuit. The total
capacitance of the circuit depends on their arrangement, but watch out: the rules are
opposite to those for resistors.

C1 C2
Series 1 1 1
= + + ...
Ctot C1 C2
C1

Parallel Ctot = C1 + C2 + . . .

C2

64
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Capacitors 5

The capacitance also depends on the features of the capacitor:

" = permittivity of medium A

A between plates
C ="
d A= area of plate d
d = distance between plates

As you can see, the capacitance depends on the medium between the plates. Special
material called dielectric material has a high permittivity. Putting dielectric material
between the plates thus gives a high capacitance.

The energy stored in a capacitor is given by

1 E = stored energy
E = CV 2
2 V = voltage between plates

When a capacitor discharges, charge

built up on the capacitor escapes and charge
decreases over time. The current
flowing through the capacitor therefore
also decreases, just as the voltage
between the plates.

A resistor is often placed after a

capacitor so that the capacitor time
discharges through the resistor.

How fast a capacitor discharges depends on its time constant, which indicates the
1
amount of time needed for the charge/current/voltage to drop to of its initial value, or
e
about 37%.

τ = time constant [s]

τ =CR R = resistance of resistor

The amount of charge, current or voltage at a certain time point can be calculated by

−t t = time [s]
I = I0 e τ

−t
I0 = initial current
V = V0 e τ V0 = initial voltage
−t q0 = initial charge
q = q0 e τ

65
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Power generation and transmission

5.8 Power generation and transmission

Alternate current (AC)

To generate electricity, AC generators convert kinetic energy to electricity. A coil in a

magnetic field turns around to create an induced emf.

B
N S

slip rings

coil

rotation
carbon brushes

This results in an alternating current (AC):

I /A
20

10

0
10 20 30 40 t /ms
−10

−20

For AC, the values for current, voltage and power are constantly changing. That’s why
we’re often interested in the average voltage, current and power, also called the root mean
square (rms) value:

66
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Power generation and transmission 5

I
Irms = p0 I0 = peak current value
2
V0 = peak voltage value
V0
Vrms = p
2

Resistance, maximum power and average power are given by:

V0 Vrms
R= =
I0 Irms Pmax = maximum power
Pmax = I0V0 Ṗ = average power
1
Ṗ = I0V0
2

Transformers

Transformer can transform the value of a certain AC input voltage to a

different AC output voltage.

primary coil secondary coil

input output

soft iron core

A transformer has a primary and secondary coil, each with a different number of turns.
The change in emf and in current depends on the amount of turns from each coil:
" p Np I N = amount of turns
= = s p = primary
"s Ns Ip s = secondary

Transformers are often used to step up the voltage. A higher voltage means a lower
current, and since the dissipated power is given by P = I 2 R, stepping up the voltage
means less energy wasted to thermal effects (“joule heating”).

There are other reasons why transformers are not ideal:

• Eddy current heating: tiny currents in the core cause a loss of energy.
• Magnetic hysteresis: loss in magnetic energy.
• Flux leakage: flux that is not transferred from the first to the second coil.

67
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM Power generation and transmission

Rectifiers

To convert AC to DC, you can use a diode bridge rectifier, which looks like this:

A B

D C

+ -

You can see the result: there is only a positive output.

Vi Vi
Vm Vm

0 0
t t
1 T 3 2T 1 T 3 2T
T T T T
2 2 2 2
−V m −V m

It’s also possible to include a capacitor in the circuit, resulting in the output shown below.

68
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR 6

PHYSICS

6.1 Atomic structure

An atom consists of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Its nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons. Around the nucleus are atomic orbitals where
electrons can reside. Each orbital corresponds with a specific amount of energy an
electron needs to have to be able to reside in that orbital. An electron can gain or lose
energy by absorbing or emitting a photon.

Electron in ground state Energized electron jumps to Electron returns

absorbs a photon a wider orbit to its ground state,
emitting a photon

+ + +

− −
−

The amount of photon energy absorbed/emitted is thus equal to the energy difference of
two electron energy levels:

E = emitted/absorbed energy [J]

h = Planck’s constant 6.626 × 10−34 J s
hc
E =hf = f = frequency [Hz]
λ c = speed of light [m/s]
λ = wavelength [m]

Emission When an electron emits a photon with the right amount of energy,
the electron will go to a lower energy state. The lowest state is called
‘ground state’, all the states above are ‘excited states’.

69
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Atomic structure

The energy of the emitted photon corresponds to a place on the (visible) spectrum.
When emitted photons are passed through a prism emission lines are observed, each line
corresponding to the energy difference between to energy levels. This is called an
emission spectrum.

Figure 6.1: Emission spectrum

Continuous spectrum

380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780

Hydrogen

380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780

Helium

380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780

Absorption When an electron absorbs a photon with the right amount of

energy, the electron can go to a higher ‘excited state’.

When shining white light (containing photons with all energy levels) on atoms, the
photons with the right amount of energy will be absorbed. When passing the remaining
light through a prism, the result is a spectrum with dark lines, corresponding to the
missing photons. This is called the absorption spectrum.

Figure 6.2: Absorption spectrum

Hydrogen

380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780

Helium

380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780

70
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Nuclear structure 6

6.2 Nuclear structure

Nucleon is either a neutron or a proton.

Nuclide is a nucleus that contains a specified number of protons and a

specified number of neutrons.

atomic mass
(nucleon number = protons + neutrons)

A chemical symbol

Z X (in other words which element)

atomic number
(number of protons)

Isotopes Isotopes are variants of the same chemical element with a different
amount of neutrons.

For example, 42He and 52He are isotopes: they are both helium, but one has two
neutrons and the other three.

Since all protons are in the nucleus, and like charges repel, there must be a force that
holds the protons together and prevents them from falling apart. This force is called the
strong nuclear force, and there are a few phenomena that we know this must adhere to:

• It must be strong, as the gravitational attraction is not nearly enough to overcome

the electrostatic force that is repelling the protons from each other.

• As the force cannot be observed anywhere other than within the nucleus, it must
act on a very short range

• It is likely to involve neutrons as well. Small nuclei tend to have equal number of
protons and neutrons. Large nuclei need proportionally more neutrons in order to
remain stable.

71
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Radioactivity

6.3 Radioactivity

Radioactive decay when an unstable nucleus emits a particle (alpha α, beta

β, gamma γ ).

• Note that radioactive decay is both a random and spontaneous process.

• Note that the rate of radioactive decay decreases exponentially with time.
• Note that radiation that originates from the atom is often the result of
electron transitions. These do not fall under the definition of
radioactivity.

Alpha decay when a chunk of the nucleus of an unstable atom is emitted in

the form of a helium nucleus 42He2+ . What is left of the atom will have
to be such that the protons and neutrons balance on each side of the
equation.

A (A−4) 4
ZX −−→ (Z−2)Y + 2α

Beta decay, −10β or −10e− occurs when a neutron in an unstable atom breaks
up into a proton and an electron, of which the electron is then emitted
along with an antineutrino. When a positron is emitted, it comes with
a neutrino.

1 1 0
0n −−→ 1p + −1β + υ

such that
A A 0
ZX −−→ Z+1A + −1β + υ

Gamma decay 00γ is somewhat different from the other types of radiation in
that they are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. After their
emission, the nucleus has less energy but its mass number and its
atomic number have not changed. It is said to have changed from an
exited state to a lower energy state.

A ∗
ZX −−→ A 0
ZX + 0γ

72
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Nuclear reactions 6

Effects of radiation

All three types of radiation are ionizing. This means that as they go through a substance,
collisions occur which causes electrons to be removed from atoms, forming ions. This
can be harmful, as it can cause cells to stop working or even become malignant, which
can develop as cancer.

Ionization Path length through material

Alpha High Short
Beta Average Average
Gamma Low Long

The Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden experiment

Alpha particles were also used in the famous Rutherford-Geiger-Marsden experiment

that led to the discovery of the nucleus. Alpha particles were directed at a thin, metal foil.
Instead of going straight through the foil as expected, some particles scattered because of:

• Electrostatic repelling force between the positive alpha particle and the positive
metal nuclei, proving that the positive charge was concentrated

• Collisions with metal nuclei, causing a deflection of the alpha particles of over 90°.
This proves that the metal nuclei were dense and confined to a small region.

6.4 Nuclear reactions

The individual masses involved in nuclear reactions are tiny (∼ 10−27 kg), so in order to
compare atomic masses, physicists often use unified mass units, u.

1
Unified Atomic Mass Unit the mass of Carbon-12, approximately equal
12
to the mass of 1 proton / 1 neutron

73
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Fission and fusion

6.5 Fission and fusion

6.5.1 Fission

Fission the nuclear reaction whereby a heavy nucleus splits into two smaller
nuclei of roughly equal mass, elements heavier than iron release of
energy

141Ba

n
235U

92Kr

It is the reaction that is used in nuclear reactors and atomic bombs. A typical single
reaction might involve bombarding a uranium nucleus with a neutron. This can cause
the uranium nucleus to break up into two smaller nuclei.

Only one neutron is needed to initiate the reaction while three are released. Each
neutron can continue causing another reaction; this is called a chain reaction.

1 235 141 92 1
0n + 92U −−→ 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0n + energy

74
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Fission and fusion 6

6.5.2 Fusion

Fusion two nuclei ‘fuse’ to form one larger nuclei, when elements up to iron
are formed energy is released in the process. This is the process that
fuels stars.

2 3 4 1
1 H + 1 H −−→ 1 He + 0n + energy

fission energeti
Average binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

16O cally possible

9 12C 235U
4He
8
56Fe
7
ssible

238U
6
y po

6Li
5
fusion energeticall

4
3 3H

2
2H
1
1H

0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240

Number of nucleons in nucleus

Whenever a nuclear reaction (fission or fusion) releases energy, the products of the
reaction are in a lower energy state than the reactants. Loss of mass must be the source of
this energy.

In order to compare the energy states of different nuclei, physicists calculate the binding
energy per nucleon.

• Binding Energy: energy released when a nuclide is assembled from its individual
components. Or, the energy required when the nucleus is separated into its
individual components.

• Binding Energy per Nucleon: energy released per nucleon when a nuclide is
assembled from its individual components. Or, the energy required per nucleon
when the nucleus is separated into its individual components.

• The nucleus with the largest binding energy per nucleon is Iron-56 (shown in the
graph above on the highest point). A reaction is energetically feasible if the
products of the reaction have a greater binding energy per nucleon than the
reactants.

75
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Elementary particles

6.6 Elementary particles

6.6.1 Quarks, leptons and exchange particles

Elementary particle is a particle that is not made out of any smaller

component particles
Note that protons and
neutrons are
subatomic, not
elementary particles
These are the three classes of elementary particles: quarks, leptons and exchange particles
(bosons).

All particles
don’t feel the strong nuclear force feel the strong nuclear force
are made up of quarks (u, d, s, c, t, b)
leptons hadrons
don’t decay into protons decay into protons
consist of a quark + an anti-quark consist of 3 quarks, or 3 antiquarks
mesons baryons

e – , νe pions proton (uud), and anti proton

µ− , ν µ kaons neutron (udd), and anti-neutron
τ − , ντ

6.6.2 Quarks – strong nuclear forces

Charge Baryon Strangeness

Quark flavour Q number B S
Up u +2/3e +1/3 0
Down d −1/3e +1/3 0
Charm c +2/3e +1/3 0
Strange s −1/3e +1/3 −1
Top t +2/3e +1/3 0
Bottom b −1/3e +1/3 0

Each quark has an associated anti-quark which has the same mass, but opposite electric
1
charge and baryon number. So while each quark has baryon number of + , and each
3

76
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Elementary particles 6

1
anti-quark a baryon number of − , the baryon number B of the combined particle is the
3
sum of the baryon numbers of the individual quarks.

3 quarks combine to form baryons 1 quarks and 1 anti-quark form mesons

(B=1) (B=0)
Proton p+ : uud - TUO-Door = two up e.g. Pion π+ : u anti-d, π0 & π – form
one down from u/anti-u and d/anti-d quarks
Neutron n0 : udd - OUT-Door = one up Kaons
two down

Isolating a single quark is impossible, it would require infinite energy.

6.6.3 Leptons – weak nuclear forces

Leptons are not made
of quarks
There are 6 types of leptons: electron and its neutrino, muon and its neutrino, tau and its
neutrino. Tau is the heaviest, then muon, the electron is the lightest. Leptons interact
with the weak nuclear interactions, and those with electric charge also interact with the
electromagnetic interaction.

Leptons are assigned a quantum number called a family lepton number: Le , Lµ , Lτ .

The table below shows the various leptons and their properties. Again, take into account
that anti leptons have opposite properties except their mass.

Lepton Charge Le Lµ Lτ
e− −1 +1 0 0
νe 0 +1 0 0
µ− −1 0 +1 0
νµ 0 0 +1 0
τ− −1 0 0 +1
ντ 0 0 0 +1

6.6.4 Bosons – exchange particles

Summarizing the elementary particles up to now in a table we have 6 quarks, 6 leptons

and apparently 4 more exchange particles that represent the interactions or forces
between those. For example, electrostatic interactions are mitigated by photons = γ , the
strong nuclear force by gluons = g , and the weak nuclear force by Z0 /W+ /W – exchange
particles and the gravitational force by gravitons. Gravity and the Higgs
boson are ignored here

77
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Elementary particles

Exchange particles Interaction

Quarks u c t γ EM
d s b g SN
Leptons e– µ− τ− Z WN
νe νµ ντ W± WN

The mass of the exchange particle and the range of the interaction are inversely
proportional, so while a photon has no mass it has infinite range. When two electrons
are repelled due to their similar charges a (virtual) photon is responsible to carry this
repelling interaction. These interactions can be shown in Feynman diagrams.

6.6.5 Feynman diagrams

Rules for Feynmann diagrams:

• y-axis: Originating particles start at the bottom, produced particles point upwards

• x-axis: Exchange particles change the nature or direction of the originating

particles (so after meeting the horizontal vertex the outgoing particles have
changed from the ingoing particles).

To determine whether the interaction (horizontal) is γ , W− or W+ we must consult the

laws of conservation of charge, baryon number and lepton number. The arriving
particles are drawn from the bottom (before), the exiting particles to the top (after).

Two electrons approach A n0 −−→ p+ + e+ + νe

e– e– p+ e–

γ W−

e– e– n νe

Left Right Change Left Right Change

Q before −1 −1 – 0 0
after −1 −1 – +1 −1 +1 − 1 = 0
B before 0 0 – 1 0
after 0 0 – 1 0 0
The change in Lµ and Le before +1 +1 – 0 +1
Lτ , which are not
after +1 +1 – 0 −1 +1 − 1 = 0
shown here, should also
be 0 (= conservation) Exchange particle γ (no change) W− (to balance charge)

78
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Interaction of matter with radiation 6

6.6.6 Higgs particle

The theory of quarks, leptons and exchange particles defines the so-called Standard
Model of particles and interactions. The centerpiece of this model is the Higgs particle,
which is responsible through its interactions for the mass of the particles of the standard
model.

6.7 Interaction of matter with radiation

6.7.1 Photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is the phenomenon in which electromagnetic

radiation incident on a metallic surface causes electrons to escape from
the surface.

photo-surface collecting plate

light

electron

evacuated tube G

variable voltage

The voltage at which the current becomes zero is called the stopping voltage V s .

Surprising observations

1. The stopping voltage is independent of the intensity of the light source.

2. The electron energy depends on the frequency of the incident light.
3. There is certain minimum frequency below which no electrons are emitted.
4. Electrons are emitted with no time delay.

79
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Interaction of matter with radiation

Current/nA
2
1.5
1.
0.5

-1 0 1 2 3 4 Voltage V

Einstein’s explanation

Einstein suggested light should be thought of as a collection of quanta. Each quantum

has energy E given by E = h f , where h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency.

The momentum of a photon is

E hf h
P= = =
C C λ

According to Einstein a single photon of frequency f is absorbed by a single electron in

the photo surface, so its energy is h f .

photon electron
hf escapes

energy

DB
The electron will need an energy Φ to free itself from the metal, additional energy will be
transferred as kinetic energy of the electron

Ek = h f − Φ

80
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Interaction of matter with radiation 6

Matter waves

The de Broglie wavelength is defined as:

h
λ=
p
All moving particles are assigned a wavelength this is called the duality of matter.

The Davisson Germer Experiment has been used to prove the wave nature of electrons.

electron gun
V

detector
electrons beam

The electron energy is low so the top layer of atoms scatters the electrons. The distance
d is known and the angle θ so using
d sin θ = nλ
We can calculate wavelength λ of the electrons.

6.7.2 Quantisation of angular momentum

The angular momentum of an arbitrary electron is DB

nh
mv r = (Bohr Condition)
2π
and its kinetic energy
mv 2 n2 h 2
Ek = =
2 8π2 m r 2

In a hydrogen atom this theory predicts quantised energy levels of the electron given by:
13.6
E =− eV
n2

The allowed electron orbits are those for which an integral number of electron
wavelength fit on the circumference of the orbit.

81
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Interaction of matter with radiation

The wave function

What kind of waves are we talking about? This question was answered by Austrian
physicist Erwin Schrödinger. Schrödinger theory assumes that there is a wave associated
with an electron called the wave function:

Ψ(x, t )

The probability that an electron is found at a particular small volume ∆v is given by:

P = |Ψ(x, t )|2 ∆v

The uncertainty principle

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle applied to position and momentum

states that it is not possible to simultaneously measure the position and
momentum of a particle with definite precision

DB This uncertainty ∆x and ∆ p are related by

h ∆x = uncertainty in position
∆x∆ p ≥ ∆ p = uncertainty in momentum
4π

82
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Interaction of matter with radiation 6

Electron in a box

Imagine an electron trapped in a box of length L so that ∆x = L/2, thus

h h
∆p = = (momentum)
4π∆x 2πL

and the kinetic energy of the electron is: DB

p2 h2
Ek = ∼
2m 8π2 mL2

Uncertainty in energy and time

h
∆E∆t ∼
4π
this could apply to decaying particles

Tunneling

Imagine a proton approaching an energy barrier as shown in the image below

A B C

Even if the energy needed to overcome this barrier is greater than the energy of the
proton, according to quantum mechanics there is a certain probability for the proton to
tunnel through the barrier. Three factors affect the probability of transmission

1. The mass m of the particle.

2. The width of the barrier.
3. The energy difference ∆E between the barrier and the particle.

83
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Rutherford scattering

6.8 Rutherford scattering

We can use simple calculations to calculate the distance of closest approach:

v
Ze
2e

v =0
d

Consider an alpha particle that is projected head-on toward a stationary nucleus Q at its
closest point at a distance d . The kinetic energy is

Z e · 2e
Ek = k
d

When the kinetic energy is large we can measure the radius of the nucleus R.
1
R = R0 A 3
R0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m

1 R0 = 1.20 × 10−15 m
R = R0 A 3 A = atomic mass number

Nuclear energy levels

The fact that energies of alpha and gamma particles released from nuclei are discrete is
evidence for the presence of nuclear energy levels.

Neutrino

Wolfgang Pauli hypothesised the existence of a third particle in the products of a beta
decay in 1933. Since the energy of the electron in beta decay has a range of possible
values, it means that a third very light particle must also be produced so that it carries the
reminder of the available energy.

84
ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Rutherford scattering 6

Radioactive decay law

DB
The law of radioactive decay states that:
dN λ = decay constant
= −λN N = number of nuclei present
dt

The decay constant λ is the probability of decay per unit time.

λ can be found by dividing ln(2) by half-time of a radioactive element.

The decay law

N = N0 e −λt N0 = initial number of nuclei

A = activity, number of decays per unit time
A = λN0 eλt

85
 ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS Rutherford scattering

86
ENERGY PRODUCTION 7

7.1 Energy sources

We’re very dependent on energy, and will probably remain dependent on it in the future.
It is therefore important that there are enough energy sources available for future use.
How this should be done is a big debate, in which two types of energy are distinguished:

Renewable energy a fuel that is created faster or equally fast as it is

consumed.

Non-renewable energy a fuel that is consumed faster than it is created.

In this section, we’ll take a look at different types of energy sources, both renewable and
non-renewable.

Primary energy all types of unprocessed energy sources (e.g., crude oil)

Secondary energy processed or exploited to mechanical work or electrical

forms (e.g., a battery)

To give an indication of how much energy a certain type of fuel can deliver, you can use

Specific energy, ES is the amount of energy that can be extracted from a unit
mass of fuel.

Energy density, ED is the amount of energy that can be extracted from a

unit volume of fuel mass.

mass
They are related by ED = E .
volume S

87
 ENERGY PRODUCTION Energy sources

Here are examples of the specific energy and energy density of some fuels.

Table 7.1: Specific energy or energy density of fossil fuels

Specific Energy Energy density

Fuel E s /J kg−1 ED /J m−3
uranium-235 7.0 × 1013 1.3 × 1018
hydrogen 1.4 × 108 1.0 × 107
natural gas 5.4 × 107 3.6 × 107
gasoline 4.6 × 107 3.4 × 1010
kerosene 4.3 × 107 3.3 × 1010
diesel 4.6 × 107 3.7 × 1010
coal 3.2 × 107 7.2 × 1010

7.1.1 Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are produced by the decomposition of buried animal and plant
material due to pressure and bacteria. Examples of fossil fuels are coal,
oil and natural gas.

Fossil fuels make up most of the total energy production. Unfortunately, they emit a lot
of carbon dioxide, which causes global warming.

Advantages Disadvantages

• Cheap • Non-renewable
• High power output • Environmental hazards
• Ease of use

To show the efficiency of a power plant, we can use a Sankey diagram:

.

Sankey diagram
Exercise

To find the efficiency, check the

input power at the left of the
Sankey diagram and the useful
35 power at the right of the Sankey
5
100 diagram. Then use
useful power
generator efficiency =
input power
turbine In this case,
40 3.5
efficiency = = 35%
10
To calculate the power, use
20 energy
condenser power =
time
boiler

88
ENERGY PRODUCTION Energy sources 7

7.1.2 Nuclear power

Nuclear power a nuclear reactor is a machine in which nuclear fission

reactions take place producing energy.

The fuel used is uranium-235. Can you remember this reaction from
the last topic?

1 235 141 92 1
0n + 92U −−→ 56Ba + 36Kr + 3 0n

Reaction Process
steam

steam generator
control rods
can be raised or lowered
water

coolant
pressurised water

fuel rod
pump

This is a self sustained reaction, because it is a chain reaction. For the reaction to get
going, we need to have minimum mass called the critical mass of uranium. To control the
reaction, neutrons are slowed using a moderator which is usually a material surrounding
the fuel rods. The moderator (usually graphite or water) will heat up and this heat may be
extracted using a heat exchanger. finally, control rods may be introduced to absorb
neutrons and thus decrease the rate of reaction.

Advantages Disdvantages

• High power output • Disposing of radioactive

• Large reserves of nuclear waste
fuels • Uranium mining
• No greenhouse gases • Risk of nuclear explosion

89
 ENERGY PRODUCTION Energy sources

7.1.3 Solar power

There are two methods to harness the energy from the sun:

Solar panels collect heat, from which water in pipes underneath is heated.

Photovoltaic cells convert light directly into electricity.

7.1.4 Hydroelectric power

Hydroelectric power power derived from moving masses of water.

In a hydroelectric system, water falls from a reservoir down to a power station, so that
potential energy is transferred to kinetic energy. The falling water passes through
turbines, transferring kinetic energy to electric energy. When energy is not in demand
(for example during the night) the water can be pumped back up.

7.1.5 Wind power

Wind power power derived from moving masses of air.

Wind power speaks for itself. Given, we have all seen wind generators at some point.
Typically about ∼ 30% of the power carried in wind is converted to energy as shown by
Sankey diagram below.

90
ENERGY PRODUCTION Energy sources 7

5 30

100

losses
to grid
25

40 friction in
turning turbine

aerodynamic limits
turbolence

Derivation

Consider the mass of air that can pass through a tube of cross sectional area A with
velocity v in time ∆t . The air density is ρ
v∆t

v ρ
A

1. m = ρAv∆t (mass of air)

1 1 1
2. Kinetic energy of air is E = mv 2 = ρAv∆t v 2 = ρA∆t v 3
2 2 2
E 1
3. Power = = ρAv 3
∆t 2

Energy source Advantages Disdvantages

Solar Cheap Low power output
Renewable Inconsistent
Clean

Hydroelectric Cheap Water storage

Clean Damage to local ecology

Wind Clean Large infrastructure

Renewable Inconsistent

91
 ENERGY PRODUCTION Thermal energy transfer

7.2 Thermal energy transfer

Heat can be transferred by three different methods.

Conduction is the transfer of energy due to high energy electrons colliding

with neighbouring molecules.

Convection is is best explained by an example.

Air over a hot radiator in a room is heated, expands and rises,

transferring warm air to the rest of the room. Cold air takes its place
through convection currents and the process repeats.

Radiation is the transfer of energy through electromagnetic radiation.

Black-body radiation The power radiated by a body is governed by

Stefan-Boltzman law

P = power [J s−1 ]
" = emissivity
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67 × 10−8 Wm−2 K−4
P = "σAT 4
A = area [m2 ]
T = thermodynamic temperature [K]

Emissivity " measures how effectively a black-body radiates.

" = 1 ⇒ black body.

Most energy is radiated at a specific wavelength λmax determined by Wien’s displacement

law:

λmax = wavelength for which maximum intensity

(so not maximum wavelength)
λmax T = 2.90 × 10−3
T = temperature in kelvin [K]

This is shown for various temperatures in figure 7.1.

Intensity is the power of radiation received per unit area:

A= total surface over which power from radiating

P P body has spread
I= =
A 4πr 2 r = distance from radiating body to receiving
body

92
ENERGY PRODUCTION Thermal energy transfer 7

Figure 7.1

I (λ, T )
λmax
2.5
350 K
2.0

1.5

300 K
1.0
273 K
0.5

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 λ

Solar constant S is the amount of solar radiation at the mean distance from
the sun to the Earth.

R = mean distance from sun to Earth’s orbit

P
S= = 1400W/m2 around sun
4πR2

To indicate how much of the total incident power is scattered, we can use albedo:

total scattered power

albedo = α =
total incident power

The fraction of absorbed power is thus 1 − α.

Using albedo we can find the average intensity incident on Earth:

r = radius of Earth
πr 2 πr 2 = area of Earth facing the sun
I= (1 − α) S
4πr 2 4πr 2 = total area of Earth

93
 ENERGY PRODUCTION Thermal energy transfer

Temperature at Earth’s surface

We are interested in average temperature at the Earth’s surface. The Earth radiates power
from the entire surface area of its spherical shape, so the power radiated is

Pout = σAT 4

We are assuming Earth to be black body so, " = 1.

Pout
Iout = = σT 4
A

Equating the incident and outgoing intensities we get

(1 − α)S
= σT 4
4

Solving the equation, we get v

u (1 − α)S
T= 4
t
4σ

This evaluates to v
245
u
4
T= = 256 K
t
5.67 × 10−8

This temperature is −17 ◦C.

I (λ, T )

5 256 K = −17 ◦C

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 λ

94
ENERGY PRODUCTION Thermal energy transfer 7

Greenhouse effect Greenhouse gases strongly absorb infrared radiation

from the atmosphere, when re-radiated in all directions, these gases
account for additional warming. These gases include water vapour,
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.

radiation missing IR photons

IR photons re-emitted
greenhouse gases
in all directions

radiation from Earth’s surface

Table 7.2: Sources of greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas Natural Sources Anthropogenic sources

H2 O evaporation of water from irrigation
oceans, rivers and lakes
CO2 forest fires, volcanic eruptions, burning fossil fuels in power
evaporation of water from plants and cars, burning forests
oceans
CH4 wetlands, oceans, lakes and flooded rice fields, farm
rivers, termites animals, procession of coal,
natural gas and oil, burning
biomass
N2 O forests, oceans, soil and burning fossil fuels,
grasslands manufacture of cement,
fertilizers, deforestation
(reduction of nitrogen fixation
in plants)

95