Distance Protection

Course No: E04-034

Credit: 4 PDH

Velimir Lackovic, Char. Eng.

Continuing Education and Development, Inc.

22 Stonewall Court
Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677

P: (877) 322-5800
[email protected]
 DISTANCE PROTECTION

Combination of fast fault clearance, with selective operation of protection elements, is

the main objective for the protection of electrical power systems. To fulfill these
demands, high-speed protection arrangements for electric transmission and distribution
networks that are used with the automatic reclosure of circuit breakers are under
constant research. Distance protection, is a non-unit protection arrangement providing
significant financial and technical benefits. Unlike phase and neutral overcurrent
protection arrangements, the key benefit of distance protection is that the short circuit
current coverage of the protected element is almost autonomous of source impedance
changes. This principle is shown in Figure 1. It can be noted that overcurrent protection
cannot be used satisfactorily.

ZS=10Ω

Z1=4Ω

ZS=10Ω F1
I>>
220 kV
R1

220X103
IF1 = = 14113 A - Relay R1 setting > 14113 A
√3X(S+4)

ZS=10Ω

Z1=4Ω

F2
I>>
220 kV
R1

3
IF2 = 220X10 = 12702 A - Relay R 1 setting > 12702 A
√3X10

Figure 1. Benefits of distance over overcurrent protection

(Relay current setting <12702 A and >14113 A. This is not practical; overcurrent
protection relay is not appropriate. Distance or unit protection is preferred).
Distance protection is relatively simple to use, and it can be quick in service for
short circuits along most of the protected elements. It can also provide primary and
remote back-up functions in a single operating arrangement. It can simply be adjusted
to make a unit protection arrangement when used with a communication link. In this
arrangement, it is eminently applicable for usage with high-speed auto-reclosing for
the protection of major transmission circuits.

DISTANCE RELAY FOUNDATIONS

Since the impedance of a transmission circuit is relative to its length, it is suitable to

use a relay capable of measuring the impedance of a circuit up to a present point
(the reach point). Such protection relays are known as “distance protection relays”
and only function in case of faults that occur between the location of the protection
relay and the chosen reach point. Therefore, they provide discrimination for short
circuits that may occur in different line portions.

The fundamental rule of distance protection includes the division of the voltage at the
relaying point by the measured current. The calculated impedance is equated with the
reach point impedance. When the measured impedance is lower than the reach
point impedance, it is presumed that a fault is on the circuits between the relay and
the reach point. The reach point of a protection relay is the point along the transmission
line impedance locus that is crossed by the boundary feature of the protection relay.
Since this depends on the ratio of voltage and current, and the phase angle
between them, it may be shown on an R/X graph. The loci of electrical power
system impedances, as detected by the protection relay during faults, power swings
and load changes, may be shown on the same graph. The service of the protection
relay in the presence of electrical system faults and disturbances may be examined
using this method.

RELAY OPERATION

Distance protection relay operation is expressed in terms of reach exactness and

operating time. Reach exactness is a comparison between the real ohmic reach of
the protection relay under real circumstances with the protection relay setting value
in ohms. Reach exactness is especially dependent on the level of voltage shown to
the protection relay during the fault period. The impedance measuring methodologies
used in special relay arrangements also have an influence.
Functioning times can change with short circuit current, short circuit position
relative to the protection relay setting, and the point on the voltage wave at which the
short circuit happens. Depending on the measuring processes used in a specific
relay arrangement, measuring signal transient errors, such as those made by
capacitor voltage transformers or saturating CTs, can adversely slow down the relay
function for short circuit currents close to the reach point. It is typical for
electromechanical and static distance protection relays to claim both maximum and
minimum functioning times. Nevertheless, for modern digital or numerical distance
protection relays, the change between them is negligible over a wide range of
electrical system operating states and fault locations.

ELECTROMECHANICAL/STATIC DISTANCE PROTECTION RELAYS

With electromechanical and static protection relay arrangements, the magnitude of

input quantities is determined by both reach exactness and functioning time. It is
common to present the data on relay operation by voltage/reach curves, as
presented in Figure 2, and the servicing time/fault location curves for different
values of electrical system impedance ratios (S.I.R.s) as presented in Figure 3,
where:

Zs
S. I. R =
ZL

And

ZS – electrical system source impedance behind the relay points

ZL – electrical line impedance equivalent to protection relay reach setting

 105
104

(% Zone 1 setting)
Impedance reach
103
102
101
100
99
98
97
0 20 40 60
% relay rated voltage - Phase-earth faults

105
104
103
(% Zone 1 setting)
Impedance reach

102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
0 20 40 60 80 100
% relay rated voltage - Phase - phase faults

105
104
103
(% Zone 1 setting)
Impedance reach

102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
0 20 40 60 80 100
% relay rated voltage - Three phase and three phase
earth faults

Figure 2. Common impedance reach exactness characteristics for Zone 1

 50
45

Operation time (ms)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fault position (% relay setting) - System impedance ratio 1/1

Min Max

50
45
Operation time (ms)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fault position (% relay setting) - System impedance ratio
30/1

Min Max

Figure 3. Common functioning time characteristics for Zone 1 line-line faults

Instead, the above data is mixed with a family of contour curves, where the short
circuit current location, given as a percentage of the protection relay setting, is
presented against the source to line impedance ratio, as shown in Figure 4.
 1.2

Fault position (p.u. relay setting

1

0.8

0.6

ZL) 0.4

0.2

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
ZS/ZL or S.I.R.

9 ms 13 ms Boundary

1.2
Fault position (p.u. relay setting

0.8

0.6
ZL)

0.4

0.2

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
ZS/ZL or S.I.R.

15 ms 20 ms Boundary

Figure 4. Common function-time contours (a) Zone 1 line-line fault: minimum

performance times (b) Zone 1 line-line fault: maximum performance times

DIGITAL/NUMERICAL DISTANCE PROTECTION RELAYS

Digital/Numerical distance protection relays usually have more coherent performance

times. The best transmission-class protection relays can reach sub-cycle functioning,
and the available digital filtering processes guarantee optimum service under adverse
waveform circumstances or boundary fault conditions.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELAY VOLTAGE AND ZS/ZL RATIO

A unique, generic, and an equivalent circuit, as presented in Figure 5, may correspond

to any
short circuit current condition in a three-phase electrical power system. The voltage V
enforced to the impedance loop is the open circuit voltage of the electrical power
system. Point R corresponds to the relay position; IR and VR are the current and voltage
sensed by the relay.

The impedances Zs and ZL are depicted as source and transmission line impedances
due to their location relative to the relay. Source impedance Zs is a quantity of the short
circuit current at the relaying location. For short circuit currents involving ground, it
depends on the technique of electrical system grounding behind the relaying location.
Line impedance ZL is a quantity of the impedance of the protected region. The voltage
VR utilized to the protection relay is IRZL. The short circuit current at the reach point,
may be conveyed in terms of source to transmission line impedance ratio ZS/ZL using
the following equation:

VR = IRZL

Where

IR = V
ZS + ZL

Hence,
ZL
VR = V
ZS + ZL

Or

VR = V/ (1 + (ZS/ZL)) (1)

Source Line

IR

ZS ZL
V VR
 100
90
80
70

Voltage VR (% rated)
60
50
voltage) 40
30
20
10
0
0.1 1 10
System impedance ratio ZS/ZL

Figure 5. Link between source to transmission line ratio and protection relay voltage
(a) Electrical power system arrangement (b) Change in protection relay voltage with
electrical system source to transmission line impedance ratio

The universal relationship between VR and ZS/ZL, presented in Figure 5, is valid for all
cases of short circuit currents provided that few elementary rules are kept. These
rules are:

- For line faults, V∆ is the line-line source voltage and ZS/ZL is the positive
sequence source to transmission line impedance ratio. VR and IR are the
line-line protection relay voltage and current respectively.

VR = V∆ /(1+ (ZS/ZL)) (2)

- For ground short circuit currents, Vl-n is the line-neutral source voltage and
ZS/ZL is a composite ratio representing the positive and zero sequence
impedances. VR is the line-neutral protection relay voltage and IR is the
protection relay current for the faulted line.

VR = Z
1
2+p V (3)
( S)( )+1 1-n
ZL 2+q

Where:
 ZS = 2ZS1 + ZS0 = ZS1(2 + p)

ZL = 2ZL1 + ZL0 = Z L1 (2+ q)

And
ZS0
p=
ZS1
ZL0
q=
ZL1

VOLTAGE LIMIT FOR PRECISE REACH POINT MEASUREMENT

The ability of a distance protection relay to precisely assess the reach point fault
depends on the minimum voltage at the protection relay position. This voltage,
which depends on the protection relay arrangement, can also be expressed in
terms of an equivalent maximum ZS/ZL or S.I.R. Distance protection relays are
made in a specific way that once the reach point voltage standard is reached, any
increase in measuring errors for short circuits closer to the protection relay has no
effect on the protection relay performance. Most protection relays are
manufactured with healthy line voltage polarization and/or memory voltage
polarization. The primary use of the protection relay voltage polarization is to ensure
a correct directional response for close-up short circuit currents, both in forward or
reverse directions, where the fault-loop voltage sensed by the protection relay may
be very low.

DISTANCE PROTECTION ZONES

The careful choice of reach settings and operation times for the different zones
allows proper coordination between distance protection relays on an electric power
system. Fundamental distance protection will contain an instantaneous directional
Zone 1 relay protection and one or more time-delayed zones. Common reach and
time settings for a 3-zone distance relay protection are presented in Figure 6. Digital
and numerical distance protection relays may have up to five or six protection zones,
some are set to sense in the reverse direction. The common settings for three
forward-looking zones of a basic distance relay protection are shown in the following
paragraphs. To find out the settings for a specific protection relay arrangement or a
specific distance tele-protection arrangement that involves end-to-end signaling, the
producer’s suggestions and manuals should be considered.
ZONE 1 PROTECTION SETTING

Electromechanical/static protection relays typically have a reach setting of up to 80%

of the protected transmission line impedance for instantaneous Zone 1 protection. For
digital/numerical distance protection relays, settings of up to 85% may be adequate.
The obtained 15-20% safety margin assures the Zone 1 protection from
overreaching the protected transmission circuit due to errors in the current and
voltage transformers, and inaccuracies in transmission line impedance information.
Otherwise, there would be improper discrimination with fast functioning relay
protection on the following transmission line section. Zone 2 of the distance relay
protection has to cover the remaining 15-20% of the transmission line.

ZONE 2 PROTECTION SETTING

To assure complete coverage of the transmission line with provision for the sources
of error already presented in the previous paragraph, the reach protection setting of
the Zone 2 protection needs to be at least 120% of the protected transmission line
impedance. In many cases it is a typical practice to set the Zone 2 reach to be
same as the protected transmission line section and +50% of the shortest adjacent
transmission line. Where feasible, this assures that the maximum effective
protection Zone 2 reach does not go beyond the minimum effective protection Zone
1 reach of the adjacent transmission line protection. This eliminates the
requirement to grade the protection Zone 2 time settings between upstream and
downstream protection relays. In electromechanical and static protection relays,
Zone 2 protection is given either by different elements or by extending the protection
reach of the Zone 1 devices after a time delay that is started by a fault detector. In
the majority of digital and numerical protection relays, the Zone 2 devices are put in
software.

Zone 2 tripping has to be time-delayed to assure grading with the primary protection
relay used in adjacent transmission circuits that fall within the Zone 2 protection
reach. Hence, full coverage of a transmission line portion is achieved, with fast
clearance of short circuits in the first 80-85% of the transmission line and reasonably
slower short circuit current clearance in the remaining portions of the transmission
circuit.
 Time
Z3JR Z3JF

Z2J

Z1J Y Z1L
X
Source Source
H J K L
0
Z1H Z1K
X
Z2K
Y
Z3K Z3KR
Time

Figure 6. Common time/distance characteristics for three zone distance relay

protection

Zone 1 =80-85% of protected transmission line impedance

Zone 2 (minimum)=120% of protected transmission line
Zone 2 (maximum)<Protected transmission line+50% of shortest second
transmission line
Zone 3F=1.2 (protected transmission line +longest second transmission line)
Zone 3R=20% of protected transmission line
X= Circuit breaker tripping time
Y= Discriminating time

ZONE 3 PROTECTION SETTING

Remote back-up relay protection, for all short circuit currents on adjacent transmission
lines, can be given by a third zone that is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 2 relay
protection and the circuit breaker operation time for the adjacent transmission line.
Protection Zone 3 reach should be adjusted to at least 1.2 times the impedance given
to the protection relay for a short circuit at the remote end of the second transmission
line portion. On interconnected electrical power systems, the impact of short circuit
current infeed at the remote bus will create a much higher impedance at the protection
relay than the actual impedance to the short circuit. This has to be considered when
setting the protection Zone 3. In some electrical systems, differences in the remote bus
infeed can prohibit the usage of remote back-up protection Zone 3. However, there
should not be any problem on radial distribution electrical systems with single end
infeed.
PROTECTION SETTINGS FOR REVERSE REACH AND OTHER ZONES

Modern digital or numerical protection relays may have extra impedance zones that
can be used to provide extra protection functions. For instance, when the first three
protection zones are set as above, Zone 4 could be used to give back-up protection
for the local bus, by using a reverse reach setting of the order of 25% of the protection
Zone 1 reach. Also, in addition to its forward reach setting, one of the forward-looking
protection zones (usually Zone 3) could be adjusted with a low reverse offset reach
from the origin of the R/X graph. An offset impedance measurement characteristic is
non-directional. One benefit of a non-directional protection zone of impedance
measurement is that it is capable to function for a close-up, zero-impedance short
circuit, where there may be no healthy line or memory voltage signals available to
permit the performance of a directional impedance zone. With the offset-zone time
delay bypassed, Switch-on-to-Fault’ (SOTF) protection can be used. This is needed
when line voltage transformers give a fast tripping during inadvertent transmission
line energization with maintenance grounding clamps left in place. Extra impedance
zones may be positioned as part of a distance relay protection arrangement used
with a tele-protection signaling medium.

DISTANCE PROTECTION RELAY FEATURES

Some numerical relays measure the absolute fault impedance, and then check if
operation is needed according to impedance boundaries predetermined on the R/X
graph. Typical distance and numerical protection relays, that emulate the impedance
elements of common protection relays, do not measure absolute impedance.
These protection relays compare the sensed short circuit voltage with a replica
voltage, deduced from the short circuit current and the zone impedance settings, to
check if the short circuit is within or out-of-zone. Distance protection relay
impedance comparators or algorithms which emulate typical comparators are
organized in line with their polar features, the number of signal inputs they contain,
and the procedure by which signal comparisons are determined. The typical types
compare either the relative amplitude or the phase of two input measures in order
to get performance features that are either straight lines or circles when printed on
an R/X graph. At each stage of distance protection relay design, the
features and shapes of the impedance performance have been regulated by the
present technology at acceptable costs. Since many typical protection relays are still
in operation, and some numerical protection relays emulate the processes of the
typical protection relays, a brief review of impedance comparators is needed.

AMPLITUDE AND PHASE COMPARISON

Protection relay measuring devices, in which practicality is determined on the basis

of comparing two independent measures, are basically either amplitude or phase
comparators. For impedance elements of a distance protection relay, the
measurements compared are the voltage and current sensed by the protection relay.
There are different methodologies for completing the comparison based on the
used technology. They differ from a balanced beam (amplitude comparison) and
induction cup (phase comparison) electromagnetic protection relays, even from
diode and operational amplifier comparators in static-type distance protection relays,
to digital sequence comparators in digital protection relays and to algorithms used in
numerical protection relays.

Any method of impedance feature obtained with one comparator is also obtained
with another. The addition and subtraction of the signals for one type of
comparator provide the necessary signals to obtain a similar characteristic using
the other type. For instance, comparing V and I in an amplitude comparator ends in
a circular impedance characteristic placed at the origin of the R/X graph. If the sum
and difference of V and I are put to the phase comparator, the end result is a similar
characteristic.

PLAIN IMPEDANCE CHARACTERISTIC

The plain impedance characteristic does not take into account the phase angle
between the current and the voltage. For this reason, the impedance characteristic
printed on an R/X graph is a circle with its center at the origin of the coordinates
and of radius similar to its setting in ohms. The operation happens for all
impedance quantities less than the setting, that is, for all points inside the circle. The
protection relay characteristic, presented in Figure 7, is hence non-directional, and in
this form it would trip for all short circuit currents along the vector AL and for all
short circuits behind the bus to an impedance AM. A is the protection relaying point,
and RAB is the angle by which the short circuit current lags the protection relay voltage
for a short circuit on the line AB, and RAC is the same leading angle for a short circuit
on line AC. Vector AB displays the impedance in front of the protection relay between
the point A and the end of line AB. Vector AC presents the impedance of line AC
behind the protection relaying point. AL presents the reach of instantaneous protection
Zone 1, and covers 80% to 85% of the protected transmission line.

Line AC Line AB

C A B
Z<
X
B

Restrai
L

Operat Line
Zon
e1 R
A

Line

Impedance

Figure 7. Plain impedance protection relay characteristic

A protection relay using this characteristic has three important drawbacks:

- It is non-directional; it will sense short circuits both in front and behind the
protection relaying point, and hence it needs a directional device to provide it
with exact discrimination.
 - It has a non-uniform short circuit resistance coverage.

- It is non-resistant to power oscillations and heavy loading of a long transmission

line because of the large area covered by the impedance circle.

Directional control is a basic discrimination measure for a distance protection relay,

which makes the protection relay non-responsive to short circuits outside the
protected transmission line. This can be received by the addition of a separate
directional control device. The impedance characteristic of a directional control
device is a straight line on the R/X graph. The mixed characteristic of the
directional and impedance protection relays is the semi-circle APLQ displayed in
Figure 8.
 X
B
Impedance
element Rz

P
L
Operates

Line AB
Zone
1
A R

Restrains

Directional
element R0

IF1
A B

IF2

Z<
C D

F
RAZ<
&
RAD
&

RAD Trip relay

Combined directional/impedance relay

RAZ< - distance device at A

RAD – directional device at A

Figure 8. Mixed directional and impedance protection relays (a) Characteristic of

mixed directional/impedance relay (b) Example of directional/Impedance
protection relay (c) Logic for directional and impedance protection devices at A
If a short circuit occurs at F near C on the parallel line CD, then the directional unit
RD at A will hold due to current IF1. At the same time, the impedance element is
retained by the inhibiting output of unit RD. If this control is not given, the under
impedance device could function prior to the tripping of circuit breaker C. The reversal of
the current through the protection relay from IF1 to IF2 while opening C, could end up
in an incorrect operation of the healthy transmission line if the directional element RD
operates before the impedance unit resets. Thus, there is a need to address the
adequate coordination of multiple protection relay elements to achieve a reliable
performance during evolving fault conditions. In older protection relay arrangements,
this type of problem is typically referred to as one of ‘contact race’.

SELF-POLARISED MHO PROTECTION RELAY

The mho impedance element is typically known as such, since its characteristic is
a straight line on an admittance graph. It mixes the discriminating measures of
both reach control and directional control, therefore cancelling the ‘contact race’
issues that may be found with separate reach and directional control devices. This
is accomplished by introduction of a polarizing signal. Mho impedance devices
were especially attractive due to financial reasons where electromechanical relay
devices were used. Finally, they have been used for many years and their benefits
and drawbacks are well-known. For this reason, they are still implemented in the
algorithms of some numerical protection relays. The characteristic of a mho
impedance device, when printed on an R/X graph, is a circle whose circumference
passes through the origin, as shown in Figure 9. This shows that the impedance
device is inherently directional and will function only for short circuits in the forward
direction along line AB.

The impedance characteristic is adapted by setting Z n, the impedance reach, the

diameter and φ, the angle of displacement of the diameter from the R-axis. Angle φ
is known as the Relay Characteristic Angle (RCA). The relay acts for quantities of
fault impedance ZF within its characteristic. The self-polarized mho characteristic
can be found using a phase comparator circuit which compares input signals S2 and
S1, and performs whenever S2 lags S1 by 90° to 270°, as presented in the voltage
graph of Figure 9.
The two input signals are:

S2 = V - IZn

S1 = V
where:

V - fault voltage from VT secondary

I - fault current from CT secondary

Zn - impedance setting of the zone

V=IZ0 Restrain
ZN

φ
Zo ne
1 Operate
R

Restrain
ZN

ZF

φZone
1 Operate
R

Restrain

K X

P
Q

θ
φ
R

K
AQ – Relay impedance setting

φ – Relay characteristic angle setting

AB – Protected transmission line

PQ – Arc resistance

θ – Line angle

Figure 9. Mho protection relay characteristics (a) Phase comparator inputs (b) Mho
impedance characteristics (c) Increased arc resistance coverage

The characteristic shown in Figure 9 (a) can be translated to the impedance plane of
Figure 9(b) by dividing each voltage by I. The impedance reach changes with short
circuit angle. As the protected transmission line is made up of resistance and
inductance, its short circuit current angle will depend upon the relative quantities of R
and X at the power system operating frequency. Under an arcing fault condition, or
ground fault involving extra resistance, such as tower footing resistance, the value of
the resistive element of short circuit impedance will increase to change the
impedance angle. Thus a protection relay, having a characteristic angle similar to
the transmission line angle, will under-reach at resistive short circuit conditions.
Some engineers set the RCA less than the transmission line angle, to accept a
small quantity of short circuit resistance without causing an under-reach.
Nevertheless, when setting the protection relay, the difference between the line
angle θ and the protection relay characteristic angle Ø has to be known. The resulting
characteristic is presented in Figure 9 where GL represents the length of the
protected transmission line. When angle Ø is smaller than θ, the actual quantity of
protected transmission line AB, would be equal to the protection relay setting quantity
AQ multiplied by cos(θ-Ø). Hence the needed protection relay setting AQ is
determined by:

AB
AQ =
cos(0 - <p)

Due to the physical nature of an electric arc, there is a non-linear relationship between
the arc voltage and arc current, which ends in a non-linear resistance. Using the
empirical equation, the estimated quantity of arc resistance can be determined by:
 28710
Ra = L (4)
/1.4

where:

Ra = arc resistance (ohms)

L = length of arc (meters)

I = arc current (A)

When long overhead transmission lines are installed on steel towers with overhead
ground wires, the impact of arc resistance can be neglected. The impact is
predominant on short overhead transmission lines and with short circuit currents below
2000A (i.e. minimum plant condition), or if the protected transmission line is a wood-
pole construction without ground wires. In the second case, the ground short circuit
resistance decreases the effective ground-fault reach of a ‘mho’ protection Zone 1
device to an extent that the majority of short circuits are sensed in Zone 2 time.

This issue can be solved by using a protection relay with a cross-polarized mho
with a polygonal characteristic. When an electrical power system is resistance-
grounded, it does not have to be treated in regards to the protection relay settings
other than the effect that a decreased short circuit current may have on the value of
arc resistance sensed. The grounding resistance is in the source behind the
protection relay, and only changes the source angle and source to transmission
line impedance ratio for ground faults. Hence, it would only be considered when
examining protection relay operations in terms of system impedance ratio.

OFFSET MHO/LENTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS

Under close up short circuit conditions, when the protection relay voltage drops to zero
or near-zero, a protection relay using a self-polarized mho characteristic or any other
shape of self-polarized directional impedance characteristic may not function as
needed. Processes of covering this situation include the use of non-directional
impedance characteristics, such as offset mho, offset lenticular, or cross-polarized
and memory polarized directional impedance characteristics. If current bias is used,
the mho characteristic is shifted to embrace the origin, so that the measuring device
can function for close-up short circuits in both the forward and the reverse
directions. The offset mho protection relay has two main uses:
 X

Zone
3

Zone
2
Zone
1 R

Busbar zone

H Zone
3
Carrier stop
Zone
2
Zone
1
R

Carrier start

Figure 10. Common usage for the offset mho protection relay (a) Bus zone back-up
using an offset mho protection relay (b) Carrier starting in distance blocking
arrangements

THIRD PROTECTION ZONE AND BUSBAR BACK-UP PROTECTION ZONE

This is applied in conjunction with mho measuring devices as a short circuit detector
and/or protection Zone 3 measuring device. So, using the reverse reach set up to
extend into the bus protection zone, as presented in Figure 10, it will give back-up
protection for bus short circuits. This can be presented with quadrilateral
characteristics. Another advantage of using the protection Zone 3 is for Switch-on-to-
Fault (SOTF) protection, where the protection Zone 3 time delay would be bypassed
for a short period, shortly after line switching, to provide a quick clearance for a short
circuit anywhere along the protected transmission line.
CARRIER STARTING DEVICE IN DISTANCE PROTECTION ARRANGEMENTS
WITH CARRIER BLOCKING

If the offset mho device is utilized for starting carrier signaling, it is arranged as in
Figure 10. The carrier is transferred if the short circuit is external to the protected
transmission line but inside the reach of the offset mho protection relay. This is to
stop the accelerated operation of the second or third zone protection relay at the
remote station. Transmission is reverted for internal short circuits by the operation
of local mho measuring devices, which provide high-speed fault clearance by the
local and remote end circuit breakers.

USAGE OF LENTICULAR CHARACTERISTIC

There is a possibility that the offset mho protection relay displayed in Figure 11 may
trip under maximum load transfer conditions if protection Zone 3 has a large reach
setting. A large protection Zone 3 reach may be needed to provide a remote back-up
protection for short circuits on the adjacent circuit. To avert this, a shaped mode of
characteristic may be utilized, where the resistive coverage is limited. With a
‘lenticular’ characteristic, the aspect ratio of the lens (a) is changeable, allowing it to
b

give maximum short circuit resistance coverage under maximum load transfer
conditions. Figure 11 presents how the lenticular characteristic can allow greater
degrees of transmission line loading than offset mho and plain impedance
characteristics. Decrease of load impedance from ZD3 to ZD1 will relate to the same
rise in load current.
 Offset Lenticular
characteristic
X

Offset Mho
b characteristic

a ZA
ZD3
ZD2
ZD1
Load R
Area
ZC
ZB

Impedance
characteristic

Figure 11. Minimum load impedance allowed with lenticular, offset mho and
impedance protection relays

It can be noted in Figure 11 that the load area is fixed according to a minimum
impedance arc, and is limited by straight lines which exhale from the origin, 0. Modem
numerical protection relays usually do not utilize lenticular characteristic shaping, but
alternatively utilize load encroachment (load blinder) sensing. This makes the full mho
characteristic to be utilized, but with a stopped tripping in the region of the impedance
plane that is frequented by load (ZA-ZB-ZC-ZD).

FULLY CROSS-POLARISED MHO CHARACTERISTIC

The previous paragraph presented how the non-directional offset mho characteristic
can inherently trip for close-up zero voltage short circuits, where there would be no
polarizing voltage to grant operation of a plain mho directional device. One way of
making sure the correct mho device response for zero-voltage short circuits is to add
a percentage of voltage from the healthy line(s) to the main polarizing voltage as a
substitute phase reference. This method is known as cross-polarizing, and it has the
benefit of keeping and increasing the directional features of the mho characteristic. By
the use of a phase voltage memory technique, that gives several cycles of pre-short
circuit voltage reference during a short circuit, the cross-polarization method is also
efficient for close-up three-phase short circuits. For this type of short circuit, no healthy
line voltage reference is usable.

Early memory system techniques were established on tuned, resonant circuits, but
issues occurred in power networks where the power system operating frequency could
change. Sophisticated digital or numerical elements can provide a synchronous line
reference for changes in power system frequency before or during a short circuit.
Drawback of the self-polarized plain mho impedance characteristic, when used on
overhead transmission circuits with large impedance angles, is that it has a fixed
coverage of arc or fault resistance. This issue is worsened in short transmission
circuits, since the ohmic setting of protection Zone 1 is low. The degree of the resistive
coverage provided by the mho circle is linked with the forward reach setting. Therefore,
the ending resistive coverage may be too small compared to the anticipated quantities
of fault resistance. One extra advantage of using cross-polarization to a mho
impedance device is that its resistive coverage will be improved. This is presented in
Figure 12, where a mho device has 100% cross-polarization. With cross-polarization
from the healthy line(s) or from a memory system element, the mho resistive expansion
occurs during a balanced three-line short circuit as well as for unbalanced short
circuits. The expansion will not occur under load conditions, when there is no phase
shift between the measured voltage and the polarizing voltage. The increase in
resistive reach depends on the ratio of source impedance to protection relay reach
(impedance) setting, this can be deduced by referring to Figure 13.

Figure 12. Fully cross-polarized mho relay characteristic with variations of ZS/ZL
ratio
 Positive current direction for relay
ZS ZL

Relay
IF
location

Va1

ZS1 ZL1
N1 E1 F1
Ia1

Va2

ZS2 ZL2
N2 F2
Ia2

Mho unit
characteristic S2’=ZL1-Zn1
(not-cross-
polarized)

Zn1

ZL1

Zn2
30°
ZS1

Mho unit S1’=ZL1+Zn2

characteristic
(fully-cross-
polarized)

Figure 13. Diagram of enhancing protection relay resistive coverage for fully cross-
polarized characteristic

It is noteworthy to emphasize that the evident extension of a fully cross-polarized

impedance characteristic into the negative reactance quadrants of Figure 13 does not
mean that there would be trip for reverse short circuits. With cross-polarization, the
relay characteristic extends to cover the beginning of the impedance graph for forward
short circuits only. For reverse short circuits, the impact is to omit the beginning of the
impedance graph, ensuring adequate directional responses for close-up forward or
reverse short circuits. Fully cross-polarized characteristics have now been greatly
replaced, due to the trend of comparators linked with healthy line to trip under
heavy short circuit circumstances on another line. This is does not have an effect in
a switched distance protection relay, where a single comparator is linked to the
adequate short circuit loop impedance by starting units before measurements.
Nevertheless, modern protection relays provide independent impedance
measurements for each of the three ground-fault and three line-fault loops. For
these protection relays, mal-operation of live lines is not desired, particularly when
single-pole tripping is needed for single-line short circuits.

PARTLY CROSS-POLARISED MHO CHARACTERISTIC

When a dependable, independent technique of a faulted line selection is not given,

a modern non-switched distance protection relay may only use a comparatively
small percentage of cross polarization. The picked out level has to be enough to
provide a dependable directional control in the presence of CVT transients for
close-up short circuits, and also achieve dependable faulted line selection. By
using only partial cross-polarization, the drawback of the fully cross-polarized
characteristics are avoided, while still keeping the benefits. Figure 14 presents a
common characteristic that can be found using this method.
 X Self-polarized
Shield-shaped characteristic Mho circle
with 16% square-wave cross
polarization
Fully cross
polarized Mho
circle

Zn

Extra resistive
coverage of shield

Conventional 16% partially

cross polarized Mho circle

12 60
0 1 6
24
R

Figure 14. Partially cross-polarized characteristic with “shield” shape (a) comparison
of polarized characteristics made for S.I.R.= 6 (b) Resistive enlargement of shaped
partly cross-polarized Mho with increasing values of S.I.R.

QUADRILATERAL CHARACTERISTIC

This shape of a polygonal impedance characteristic is presented in Figure 15. The

characteristic is given with forward reach and resistive reach settings that are
independently changeable. Hence, it gives a better resistive coverage than any mho-
type characteristic for short transmission lines. This is particularly correct for ground
fault impedance measurement, where the arc resistances and short circuit resistance
to ground contribute to the greatest values of fault resistance. To avert significant
errors in the protection zone reach precision, it is typical to enforce a maximum
resistive reach in terms of the protection zone impedance reach. Suggestions about
this can be typically found in the technical protection relay brochures and manuals.
Quadrilateral devices with plain reactance reach lines can bring in reach error issues
for resistive ground short circuits, where the angle of total short circuit current differs
from the angle of the current sensed by the protection relay. This will be the situation
where the local and remote source voltage vectors are phase shifted with respect to
each other due to pre-short circuit power flow. This can be resolved by choosing an
option to utilize a line current for polarization of the reactance reach line. Polygonal
impedance characteristics are greatly flexible in terms of short circuit impedance
coverage for both line and ground short circuits. For this reason, most digital and
numerical protection distance relays give this shape of characteristic. An additional
factor is that extra cost implications of enforcing this characteristic in utilizing discrete
electromechanical components or early static protection relay technologies do not
apply.

Zone 3
C
Zone 2
B Zone 1
Zones 1&2

A R

Zone 3
RZ1
RZ2
RZ3

Figure 15. Quadrilateral characteristic

PROTECTION AGAINST POWER SWINGS: USE OF THE OHM CHARACTERISTIC

During serious power swing situations in which the power system is unlikely to retrieve,
stability might only be recovered if the swinging sources are separated. When such
situations are discovered, power swing, or out-of-step, tripping relay
protection can be used in order to strategically divide a power system at a selected
position. Ideally, the division should be made so that the plant capacity and the loads
on either part of the split are matched.

Generally, this disruption mode cannot be precisely described by typical distance

protection. As previously noted, it is usually required to keep distance relay protection
schemes from tripping during stable or unstable power swings to avert cascade
tripping. To start system divisions for a prospective unstable power swing, an out-of-
step tripping arrangements, using ohm impedance measuring devices, can be used.

Ohm impedance characteristics are used along the forward and reverse resistance
axes of the R/X graph, and their tripping limits are parallel to the protected transmission
line impedance vector, as presented in Figure 16.

Locus of
power
swing X
H
Line
Zone
C impedance

Zone
B

Zone
A
R
G

Out-of-step tripping relay

characteristic

Figure 16. Usage of out-of-step tripping protection relay characteristic

The ohm impedance devices split the R/X impedance graph into three zones; A, B and
C. As the impedance changes during a power swing, the point presenting the
impedance shifts along the swing locus, placing the three zones in turn and making the
ohm elements to trip in sequence. When the impedance gets into the third zone, the
trip sequence is finished and the circuit breaker’s trip coil can be energized at a
favorable angle between power system sources for arc interruption with little risk of
restriking.
Only an unstable power swing situation can make the impedance vector shift
through the three zones. Hence, other types of system disruptions, such as power
system short circuit conditions, will not end in a protection relay element trip.

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS

The performance time for the algorithm for a typical distance relay protection using
quadrilateral or similar characteristics may end in a long tripping time, perhaps up to
40 ms in some protection relay arrangements. To get over this, some numerical
distance protection relays use extra algorithms that can be carried out significantly
quicker. These algorithms are typically based on sensing variations in current and
voltage that are surplus of what is anticipated.

This algorithm senses a short circuit by cross-comparing the measured quantities of

current and voltage with previously sampled quantities. If the variation between
these samples surpasses a predefined quantity, it is presumed that a short circuit
is present. In parallel, the distance to fault location is also calculated. Given the
calculated distance to fault lies within the protection Zone reach of the protection relay,
a trip command is issued. This algorithm can be carried out quicker than the typical
distance algorithm, ending in quicker overall functioning times. Faulted line selection
can be carried out by cross-comparing the signs of the variations in voltage and
current. Protection relays that use these algorithms typically run both this and
distance protection algorithms in parallel, as some short circuit types (e.g. high-
resistance short circuits) may not fall within the short circuit detection criteria of the
algorithm.

DISTANCE PROTECTION RELAY USAGE

Discriminating protection zones can be accomplished using distance protection relays

given that fault distance is a simple function of impedance. While this is true for
transmission lines, the impedances sensed by a distance protection relay also depend
on the following points:

- the magnitudes of current and voltage (the protection relay may not see all the
 current that generates the short circuit voltage)

- the fault impedance loop being sensed

- the type of short circuit

- the short circuit resistance

- the symmetry of transmission line impedance

- the circuit arrangement (single, double or multi-terminal transmission line)

It is feasible to eliminate all of the above points for all practical operating situations.
Nevertheless, significant success can be made with an adequate distance protection
relay. This may incorporate protection relay devices or algorithms for starting, distance
sensing and for scheme logic. Different distance protection relay formats exist and
they depend on the tripping speed and cost conditions related to the protection
relaying hardware, software or numerical protection relay processing capacity needed.
The most typical formats are:

- a single sensing device for each line is given, covering all line short circuits

- a more economical scheme is for ‘starter’ devices to check the lines that
have experienced a short circuit. The starter devices switch a single sensing
device or algorithm to sense the most appropriate short circuit impedance loop.
This is typically referred to as a switched distance protection relay

- a single set of impedance sensing devices for each impedance loop may have
their reach settings raised from one zone to another. The gain happens after
zone time delays are started by the functioning of starter devices. This type
of protection relay is typically referred to as a reach stepped distance
protection relay

- each protection zone may be given with independent sets of impedance

sensing devices for each impedance loop. This is known as a full distance
 protection arrangement; capable of providing the greatest performance in terms
of speed and application flexibility

Moreover, relay protection against ground faults may need different characteristics
and/or settings than those needed for line short circuits, resulting in additional
elements needed. A total of 18 impedance-sensing devices or algorithms would be
needed in a complete arrangement distance protection relay for a three zone
protection for all types of short circuits. With electromechanical or static
arrangements, each of the sensing devices would have been a separate protection
relay placed in its own enclosing. This is to ensure that the distance protection relay
is comprised of a panel-mounted assembly of the needed protection relays with suited
inter-unit wiring.

Digital/numerical distance protection relays are likely to have all of the above functions
incorporated in software. Starter elements may not be needed. The complete distance
protection relay is placed in a single enclosure, making great savings in space,
wiring and dependability, through the enhanced availability that stems from the
provision of uninterrupted self-supervision.

STARTERS FOR SWITCHED DISTANCE RELAY PROTECTION

Electromechanical and static distance protection relays do not use separate

impedance-sensing devices per phase. The cost and the final physical size make
this arrangement impractical, except for the most comprehensive EHV
transmission usages. To be more economical, only one sensing device is given,
together with ‘starter’ elements that detect the lines that are short circuited, and switch
the adequate signals to the single measuring function. A distance protection relay
using this method is known as a switched distance protection relay. A number of
different modes of starters have been utilized, the most typical is based on over-
current, under-voltage or under-impedance sensing.

Numerical distance protection relays allow direct sensing of the lines involved in a
short circuit. This is known as short circuit line selection, often abbreviated to line
selection. Several methods are available for short circuit line selection, which
allows the adequate distance-sensing zone to operate. Without line selection, the relay
protection risks having over or under-reach issues, or tripping three-line when single-
pole short circuit clearance is needed. Several modes are available for short circuit
phase selection, such as:

- Superimposed current comparisons, cross-comparing the change between

pre-short circuit load, and short circuit current. This allows very quick sensing
of the faulted lines, within several samples of the analogue current inputs

- change in voltage magnitude

- change in current magnitude

Numerical line selection is quicker than traditional starter methods utilized in

electromechanical or static distance protection relays. It does not enforce a time
penalty since the line selection and sensing zone algorithms operate in parallel. It
is feasible to make a full-arrangement protection relay with these numerical
methods. The line selection algorithm gives short circuited line selection, together
with a segregated sensing algorithm for each line-earth and line-to-line short circuit
loop (AN, BN, CN, AB, BC, CA), thus assuring complete-scheme operation.

Nevertheless, there may be cases where a numerical protection relay that mimics
switched distance protection methods is needed. The reasons may be economic
(less software needed), therefore cheaper than protection relays that contain
complete-arrangement implementations), and/or technical. Some instances may
require the numerical protection relay characteristics to match those of earlier
generations established in a transmission network, to help and enhance
selectivity. Such protection relays can be used, often with refinements such as
multi-sided polygonal impedance characteristics that help avoid tripping due to
heavy load conditions. With electromechanical or static switched distance protection
relays, a selection of available starters is usually made. The selection of starters
depends on power system parameters such as maximum load transfers relative to the
maximum reach needed, and power system grounding schemes.

When overcurrent starters are utilized, it must be carefully assured that with
minimum generating plant in operation, the setting of the overcurrent starters is
sufficiently sensitive to short circuits beyond the third zone. Moreover, these
starters need a high drop-off to pick-up ratio. This is to assure that they drop off
under maximum load conditions after a second or third zone short circuit has been
cleared by the first zone protection relay. Without these characteristics, the
operation may end for subsequent short circuits in the second or third protection
zones. For an acceptable tripping of overcurrent starters in a switched distance
protection scheme, the following conditions have to be met:

- the current setting of the overcurrent starters must not be less than 1.2 times
the maximum full load current of the protected transmission line

- the power system’s minimum short circuit current, at the Zone 3 reach of the
distance protection relay, must not be less than 1.5 times the setting of the
overcurrent starters

In multiple-grounded power systems where the neutrals of all the power transformers
are directly grounded, or in power systems where the short circuit current is less than
the full load current of the protected transmission line, the use overcurrent starters
is not feasible. Under these conditions, under-impedance starters are commonly
used. The type of under-impedance starters used depends on the maximum
anticipated load current and the minimum load impedance relative to the protection
relay setting needed to cover short circuits in Zone 3. This is shown in Figure 11
where ZD1, ZD2, and ZD3 are the minimum load impedances allowed when lenticular,
offset mho, and impedance protection relays are utilized.