CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Transgender Identities and Gender Variance in Vocational

Psychology Recommendations for Practice, Social
Advocacy, and Research
Maya Elin O’Neil
Ellen Hawley McWhirter
Alison Cerezo
University of Oregon
Effective practices for career counseling with gender variant individuals
have yet to be identified for reasons that may include perceptions that the
population is too small to warrant in-depth research, lack of funding for
such efforts, and practitioners’ lack of training and experience with
transgender concerns. In thisarticle, we describe the status of research
and practice with respect to gendervariant individuals. Definitions and
terminology, vocational and workplace concerns, and vignettes of
vocational and work-related situations that careercounseling professionals
may encounter when working with gender variant individuals are
presented. Recommendations for practice, social advocacy, and future
research are provided.
Keywords: transgender; gender identity; vocational psychology; career
counseling.
Definitions, Terminology, and Incidence
We use terminology presented by the Human Rights Campaign
Foundation([HRCF], 2004) and that is similar to terminology presented in
other resources (e.g., Leli & Drescher, 2004). Transgender is an umbrella
term referring to individuals whose gender identity or gender expression
falls outside of the stereotypical gender norms. Gender identity refers to a
person’s “innate, deeply felt psychological identification as male or
female, which may not correspond with the person’s body or assigned sex
at birth (meaning what sex was listed on a person’s birth certificate)”
(HRCF, 2004, p. 5). Gender expression or gender presentation refers to the
external characteristics and behaviors that are commonly associated with
being masculine or feminine, and include dress, speech patterns,
mannerisms, and physical characteristics.
Tran phobia is a term used similarly as homophobia. It refers to discomfort
with, fear of, or discrimination against people who are transgender or
gender variant (Laframboise & Long, 2000). Genderstrait is a term used to
describe individuals with congruent assigned and identified genders, or
traditional gender identities. Although we have chosen to use transgender
and gender variant as the primary terms for the purpose of this article, it
is important to acknowledge both the diversity of identity terminology
used within the transgender community, as well as the primacy of choice
in self-identification. We recommend that career counselors ascertain and
use the terminology preferred by their transgender clients.
Though this diagnosis is required for sex reassignment surgery, we take a
no pathological approach; many gender variant individuals do not
experience their gender identity as a disorder (Leli & Drescher, 2004). In
addition, this article is directed toward career counseling professionals
working with any individual who identifies as gender variant, not simply
one who has a diagnosis of GID.
Estimates of the number and percentage of transgender individuals in the
population vary widely. A 1994 estimate reported by the American
Psychiatric Association suggested that 1 per 30,000 adult males and 1 per
100,000adult females seek sex reassignment surgery, whereas data from
the Netherlands suggested that 1 in 11,900 males and 1 in 30,400 females
are transsexual (Van Kesteren, Gooren, & Megens, 1996). Population
estimates based on the number of individuals seeking sex reassignment
surgery are likely to be low. There are no published estimates of the
frequency with which transgender individuals present for career
counseling.

Sources of Information:
In addition to drawing from the sources cited in this article, we also
consulted with members of our local transgender community in preparing
this article. This consultation was initiated through personal contacts, as
well as through the authors’ memberships in a variety of University
organizations dedicated to gender and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual,
Transgender, and Queer issues. Such consultation seemed especially
important given both the lack of scholarship on transgender vocational
concerns and the fact that none of the authors identifies as gender
variant. Our six consultants varied with respect to ethnicity and
ability/disability status, but we do not report their specific demographic
characteristics for confidentiality reasons.
A review of the psychology and counseling literature using Psychinfo and
the index terms “transgender,” “transsexual,” “gender variant” or “gender
identity”; “career,” “occupations,” or “vocational”; and “counseling”
yielded four relevant publications—Bieschke, Perez, and DeBord (2006),
Carroll and Gilroy
(2002) Chung (2003), and Schilt (2006). In comparison, a search using the
same terms (transgender, transsexual, gender variant, gender identity,
career, occupations, vocational, and counseling) with the Google.com
search engine yielded a total of 47,300 hits. Other relevant research (e.g.,
Minter & Daley,
Transgender individuals experience discrimination within the LGB
community, as well as from genderstrait heterosexuals (e.g., HRCF, n.d.).
We haveincorporated the informationfrom the four professional
publications into thefollowing sections, as well as information from the
public domain.
Vocational and Workplace Concerns:
The preponderance of available information on the workplace experiences
and concerns of transgender individuals is available via organizations
dedicated to addressing the problems faced by transgender individuals,
rather than in scholarly and/or practitioner-focused journals. For example,
the National Center for Transgender Equality, Transgender at Work, the
HRCF, the Sylvia Rivera Law Project, and Lambda Legal all provide
information specific to transgender individuals and workplace concerns.
One major problem faced by transgender individuals in the workplace, as
well as in educational settings, is the lack of awareness and the lack of
accurate information about transgender identities and gender variance.
In addition, transgender individuals experience concerns that may be
more broadly shared by members of other minority groups. A recent study
by Minter and Daley (2003) found that among a community sample of
transgender individuals, nearly 50% of the respondents had experienced
sex-based employment discrimination or harassment. The community
sample of transgender individuals also was significantly under employed
compared to the general population (Minter & Daley, 2003). Similar
descriptions of transgender individuals’ experiences of discrimination and
underemployment are included in many of the Web-based resources
provided in the appendix (e.g., HRCF, 2004).
It is important to note that in addition to experiencing discrimination,
transgender individuals may also experience stress associated with
anticipation of discrimination and the awareness that there are few legal
recourses when such discrimination occurs.
Gender variant individuals have no formal protection for discrimination in
housing, education, employment, or other public accommodations. There
are no federal protections in place for transgender individuals, and in the
majority of states, it is legal to fire someone based on both sexual
orientation and gender identity (HRCF, 2004). An increasing number of
municipalities, including a number of states, have passed ant
discrimination legislation for gender identity, and the National Center for
Transgender Equity (2006) reports that 31% of Americans live in municipal
areas where such discrimination is banned.
Providing Effective Services Vignettes:
The are many vignettes illustrate examples of vocational and work-related
situations that career-counseling professionals may encounter when
working with gender variant individuals.
Norms for transgender individuals do not exist for career assessment
instruments, and for those that yield separate results for males and
females, interpretations should be made with great caution. It may be
most helpful to present both male and female norms for gender variant
clients and explore the best fit. Connecting with gender ambiguous
individuals via professional organizations or local social groups may
provide River with a greater level of support while increasing hir ability to
make comparisons across work settings and fields. Ultimately, whether
River changes work settings or occupations, zee is likely to benefit from
developing skills for identifying and cultivating sources of workplace
support and managing hir identity at work in a manner consistent with hire
values.
Understanding and factual information about the gender variant
experience, stages of the transition process, etc., will be important
elements of an effective response to client concerns. The career
counselor’s ability to provide effective services will be enhanced by
staying current with the literature. In addition to the materials available on
the Internet that have been listed in the appendix, there are a number of
books that career counselors may find useful for their own education and
as recommendations for clients.
Competence:
When a gender variant client presents for career counseling, it is
important for the career counselor to assess whether she or he is
competent to provide the services requested. In the case of personal
aversion to gender variant individuals, a referral should be made, followed
by continuing education, supervision, and personal exploration of the topic
in preparation for future clients. In the case of little experience with this
population, supervision and/or consultation are warranted, if the counselor
believes that she or he possesses enough knowledge and skill to begin
working with a transgender client. The National Register of Health Care
Providers, and National Psychology and Counseling Organizations such as
the American Counseling Association, the American Psychological
Association, and the National Career Development Association, are
starting points for identifying possible consultants. One of the best places
to start is with the local counselor or psychologist organizations, because
these providers will also be familiar with resources in the immediate
surrounding community.
The most frequently used standards of care (SOC) in the United States for
individuals with GID call for the involvement of appropriately trained
mental health professionals in diagnosis and treatment recommendations
(Meyer et al., 2001).
Transgender clients without a GID diagnosis may experience their career
counselor as a potential “gatekeeper,” because referral from a
psychologist is among the preliminary requirements for initiating a
medical transition. We recommend that career counselors ask their
transgender clients whether they have been diagnosed with GID (without
conveying that such a diagnosis is desirable or necessary) and explore any
expectations or assumptions that client may have with respect to the
counselor’s role in the diagnostic process.
Career counselors should clarify the limits of their competence with
respect to transgender issues. Addressing these issues early in the
relationship will help in the development of clear expectations and goals
for counseling.
Practitioner Training and Experience:
The training program with which the authors of this article are affiliated
recently offered a short course on transgender issues, and the increasing
attention to diversity issues in general within vocational psychology
suggests that related coursework is or will be more likely to include
attention to transgender issues. At this point, however, prospective clients
cannot assume that the career counselor they see will have affirming
attitudes, content knowledge, or specific awareness of concerns that may
be unique to transgender individuals.
Evidence of heterosexist bias in counselor training programs (Pilkington &
Cantor, 1996) and among counseling trainees (Barrett & McWhirter, 2002),
as well as the existence of homophobia, biphobia, and transphobia among
counselors (Carroll, Gilroy, & Murra, 2000), highlights both the need for
ongoing improvements in training and the need for prospective clients to
choose vocational counselors with care.
A description of “transgender basics” (Goldberg, 2006) summarizes
core knowledge requirements for practitioners which we suggest extends
to career counselors: “terminology, diversity of gender identity and gender
expression, the processes involved in gender transition, general trans-
specific psychosocial issues that shape clients’ goals and treatment
options, clinical transsensitivity protocols (e.g., use of preferred gender
pronoun and name).” In addition, it is critical for career counselors to be
clear about their own beliefs, assumptions, and feelings about transgender
identities, to minimize the likelihood that countertransference will
adversely affect the quality of counseling (e.g., Milrod, 2000).
Theoretical Models to Guide Practice:
A major difficulty-facing career counseling professionals is the lack of
research that tests the applicability of existing theories to gender variant
individuals.
Practitioners using the professional literature are left to piece together
recommendations and considerations that are offered for other
marginalized groups to provide the best services for their transgender
clients. Such an approach does not inevitably lead to poor practices. For
example, Byars and Hackett (1998) offer recommendations for increasing
the applicability of
Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994,
2000) to the experience of women of color and recommend that further
attention to gender, class, ethnicity, and race be incorporated into SCCT
research. Applying their recommendations to transgender clients, we
suggest that the following practices may be useful: (a) holding realistic
conversations about prejudice, discrimination, and other barriers that may
be faced by gender variant clients; (b) building clients’ support networks
and resilience for facing difficult or challenging work situations; (c)
providing opportunities to develop positive self-efficacy expectations and
outcome expectations for identity management and for exploring and
asserting their workplace rights; and (d) strengthening clients’ positive
feelings regarding their gender identity.
Although existing theories of career choice, adjustment, and development
should be used with caution in working with gender variant clients, we
recommend drawing from existing models rather than assuming these
models are inappropriate. At the same time, it is clear that additional
research is a priority in developing new theoretical frameworks as well as
practice recommendations and guidelines.
Creating a Trans-Positive Environment:
Ettner (1999) and Carroll and Gilroy (2002) recommend creating a
transpositive environment for individuals of all gender identities. This
includes both tangible and process-related forms of support and
affirmation for transgender clients, and the environment includes the
career counseling setting, as well as the client’s work environment.
Tangible materials include books, magazines, posters, and written
materials. Counselors can display quarterly newsletters from the American
Psychological Association’s Division 44 (Society for the
Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues), which routinely
reviews written materials pertaining to transgender populations (see
appendix).
Process-related forms of support and affirmation include attention to
unique facets of assessment interpretation (discussing a range of
interpretations that attend to potential misfit of gender-based norms) and
the use of culturally sensitive interventions. As an initial step, counselors
should explore practical issues arising in the career counseling
environment and the client’s work environment.
Improving Cultural Sensitivity:
An initial difficulty for some practitioners working with gender variant
clients is using appropriate language.Exploration of the extent to which
family members, coworkers, and supervisors use preferred terminology
will help the counselor understand an important dimension of the client’s
daily experience, and the impact of terminology use on the client’s well-
being and vocational satisfaction should be explored.
In addition to using affirming terminology, it is important that career-
counseling professionals learn about the many legal issues experienced by
their clients including employment discrimination, housing security, legal
requirements for sex change, requirements for changing gender
identification, and having or adopting children. Transgender clients are
likely to experience one or more forms of discrimination in their lifetime
and may be unaware of resources to secure their civil rights.
Organizations that are dedicated to legal and civil rights for gender
variant individuals include the Sylvia Rivera Law Project, Lambda Legal.
Gender variant individuals experience the same medical concerns as the
general population as well as unique concerns specific to the transgender
population.
Unique concerns include, but are not limited to, hormone treatments
and their side effects, “top” and “bottom” surgeries, feminization of facial
structure and other body areas, binding, and vocal chord/voice issues. It is
important for career counselors to be aware of these unique concerns, to
explore how they affect their client’s vocational experiences, and to
understand the utility of medical insurance for their client’s needs.
Insurance companies differ in their financial support of medical transition
and counseling services.
Finally, career counselors should acknowledge all aspects of a transgender
or gender variant person’s identity. Transgender individuals may identify
with a wide variety of sociocultural backgrounds related to sociorace,
ethnicity, national origin, age, education, sexual orientation, social
class/socioeconomic status, religion, physical and mental health/ability,
abuse history, and family makeup.
Recommendations for Social Advocacy:
The continued discrimination faced by gender variant individuals in the
workplace and other major domains of their lives highlights the
importance of social advocacy as a means of improving clients’
educational and work experiences.
Counselor social advocacy is recognized as a professional response to the
marginalization and inequities experienced by many groups in U.S. society
(Lee & Walz, 1998; McWhirter, 1994). The importance of social advocacy
and the social justice roots of vocational guidance have been highlighted
within career and vocational counseling literature as well (Blustein,
McWhirter, & Perry, 2005; Chung, 2003; Pope, 2003; Tang, 2003). Hansen
(2003) notes that a current weakness in the field is “the reluctance or
inability to see career counselors as change agents who can help not only
individuals to change but systems to change as well”. Carroll et al. (2000)
suggest that there are many barriers to counselors advocating for
transgender individuals, including lack of knowledge about the population,
fear of negative consequences, and low self-efficacy for engaging in such
advocacy. The HRCF offers a 5-step checklist for advocating for the rights
of transgender individuals, consisting of (a) “Read Transgender
Americans: A Handbook for Understanding”; (b) “Give the handbook to a
friend, family member, or co-worker”; (c) “Write a letter to the editor of
your local newspaper”; (d) “Find out your workplace policies and help
ensure fairness at your job”; and (e) “Meet with your Representative and
Senators and encourage them to support workplace protections” (HRCF,
n.d.; includes such recommendations as “Ask your library to stock books
that deal positively with transgender people,” donate money to an
organization providing direct service to transgender people, volunteer with
an LGBT advocacy group, and locate trans-affirmative social support
services, among others. Counselors can provide workplace education and
sensitivity trainings to help employers, coworkers, and supervisees create
and maintain positive, productive, and healthy work environments for all
employees, including transgender workers.
Future Research:
Clearly there is a great deal of research that has yet to be done to
increase understanding of the vocational development and workplace
experiences of gender variant individuals. We recommend that
researchers develop relationships with national and community
organizations that serve the interests and well being of transgender
persons. In the process of compiling the information for this article, a
number of promising research directions became evident. It would be
highly useful for practitioners to know how transgender and gender
variant individuals decide whether to engage in career counseling,
determine whether their career counselor is going to be helpful in
addressing their unique and universal concerns, and evaluate the quality
of the career counseling they have received. With respect to theory, we
recommend evaluation of which career development theories hold greater
promise for understanding the career development of gender variant
individuals. Factors such as decisions about workplace openness, surgical
procedures, dress/gender presentation, and persistence in a position seem
important to incorporate into existing or new theories, and it would be
helpful to know how such factors are influenced by work setting, size of
workplace, diversity competence of supervising personnel, diversity
climate, and ant discrimination policies and practices, as well as how all
these influences bear on career choices. We also recommend research on
the degree to which career guidance trainees and practicing professionals
have been exposed to diversity training that includes transgender issues,
are aware and affirmative of gender variant identities, and are prepared to
work with transgender individuals. Understanding which education and
sensitivity training approaches produce optimal outcomes among
employees, and which strategies result in the best outcomes for
transgender workers, would be invaluable.
Finally, we recommend that future research efforts include qualitative and
quantitative methodologies and include both the development of new
theoretical models, as well as the evaluation of existing and adapted
models.
Summary and Conclusion:
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of current knowledge
about the vocational and career concerns of transgender individuals and
to offer recommendations for career development practitioners to provide
effective services for this population. This article represents a starting
point in developing the content knowledge and skills for serving a unique
and important population whose needs are not well understood by the
career development practice community. We hope that this information
will serve as an initial step for career development practitioners toward
better serving their transgender clients and promoting the creation of
more affirmative, healthy, and just workplace environments for
transgender individuals.
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