Optical Sources

LASER Diodes
L A S E R

AMPLIFIER
OR
OSCILLATOR
 LASER
(Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

• Laser is an optical oscillator.

• It comprises a resonant optical amplifier
whose output is fed back into its input with
matching phase.
• Any oscillator contains:
 An amplifier with a gain-saturated mechanism
 A feedback system
 A frequency selection mechanism
 An output coupling scheme
 LASER
(Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

• In laser the amplifier is the pumped active

medium, such as biased semiconductor
region, feedback can be obtained by
placing active medium in an optical
resonator, such as Fabry-Perot structure,
two mirrors separated by a prescribed
distance.
• Frequency selection is achieved by
resonant amplifier and by the resonators,
which admits certain modes.
• Output coupling is accomplished by making
one of the resonator mirrors partially
transmitting.
 Process for Laser Action
• Three main process:
1- Photon absorption i.e. energy absorbed from incoming photons
2- Spontaneous emission
3- Stimulated emission

• How process starts?

 Lasing in a pumped active medium
• In thermal equilibrium the stimulated emission is
essentially negligible, since the density of electrons in
the excited state is very small, and optical emission is
mainly because of the spontaneous emission.
• Stimulated emission will exceed absorption only if the
population of the excited states is greater than that of
the ground state.
• This condition is known as Population Inversion.
• Population inversion is achieved by various pumping
techniques.
• In a semiconductor laser, population inversion is
accomplished by injecting electrons into the material
to fill the lower energy states of the conduction band.
 Laser Diode Rate Equations
• In order to study all the three phenomena above, certain
coefficients have been assigned to these phenomena
which are actually defined by the transition probabilities
and are called as Einstein coefficients.
• The phenomenon that occurs in the absence of external
stimulus i.e. spontaneous emission is assigned the
coefficient, A21.
• The phenomena that occur in presence of external
stimuli are denoted by “B”.
• The absorption phenomenon is assigned B12.
• The stimulated emission is assigned B21.
• Note that the subscripts in the coefficients indicate the
direction of transition from the initial level to the final
level.
• Using these coefficients, the three processes can now
be expressed in mathematically.
 Laser Diode Rate Equations
• An optical medium has the density of atoms N1 in lower energy
state E1 and density of atoms N2 in higher energy state E2.
• The upward transition rate is R12  B12 N1  (hv)
where B12 is a constant of proportionality, as Einstein coefficient.
• The downward transition rate is R21  A21 N 2  B21 N 2  (hv )
where A21 is a constant of proportionality. It is known as Einstein coefficient for
spontaneous emission. B21 is a constant of proportionality as Einstein coefficient
for stimulated emission.
• At thermal equilibrium condition R12  R21
A21 / B21
Gives   (hv) 
B12 N1 / B21 N2  1

A21 / B21
 (hv) 
B12   E2  E1  
 exp     1
B21   kT  

Where, ρ is Radiation Spectral Density

 Two-level Laser System : Drawbacks

• Unimaginable as absorption and

stimulated processes neutralize one
another.

• The material becomes transparent.

• Solution: Three/Four level LASER System

 Three Level LASER System

The Principle of Three Level LASER System:

(a) Atoms in the ground state E1 are pumped to the energy level
E3 by a photon of energy.
(b) Atoms at E3 rapidly decay to the metastable state at energy
level E2 by releasing a photon or lattice vibrations of energy.
(c) Population inversion between E2 and E1.
(d) A photon of energy initiates the process of stimulated
emission, and avalanche action takes place and coherent photons
are emitted.
 Four Level LASER System

• Pumping requirements are much

less than 3 level system
• The pumping excites the atoms
from ground state into energy
level E4 and they decay rapidly to
the metastable level E3.
• Since the population of E4 and E2
remains essentially unchanged, a
small increase in the number of
atoms in energy level E3 creates
population inversion, and lasing
takes place between this level and
level E2.
 Optical Feedback

• The basic laser structure incorporating plane mirror.

• The optical signal is fed back many times whilst receiving amplification
(stimulated emission) as it passes through the medium.
• One mirror is made partially transmitting to allow useful radiation escape from
the cavity.
• The structure acts as a Fabry-Perot resonator.
• A stable output is obtained at saturation when the optical gain is exactly
matched by the losses incurred in the amplifying medium.
• The major losses results from
– Absorption and scattering in the amplifying medium
– Absorption, scattering and diffraction at the mirrors
– Non useful transmission through the mirrors.
 Construction of LASER
• Pump source (excitation source)
– Electrical, Optical

• A gain/ Active material or laser medium.

– Solid laser, Liquid, Gas

• Resonator (Cavity)
– Mirrors forming an optical resonator
 Laser oscillation
• Oscillations occur in the laser cavity over a small range of frequencies where the
cavity gain is sufficient to overcome the various losses.
• Hence the device is not a perfectly monochromatic source but emits over a narrow
spectral band.
• The central frequency of this spectral is
determined by the mean energy level
difference of the stimulated emission
transition.

• Other oscillation frequencies within the

spectral band result from the frequency
variations due to thermal motion of
atoms within the amplifying medium,
known as Doppler broadening
(inhomogeneous broadening
mechanism) and by atomic collisions
(homogeneous broadening).
Modes in Laser Cavity

longitudinal modes in laser cavity

transverse modes in laser cavity

 Transverse modes

• Laser oscillation may also occur in a direction which is transverse to the

axis of the cavity. This gives rise to resonant modes which are transverse to
the direction of propagation. These transverse electron magnetic modes are
designated by TEMlm where the integers l and m indicate the number of
transverse modes

• Unlike the longitudinal modes which contribute only a single spot of light to
the laser output, transverse modes may give rise to a pattern of spots at the
output. The greatest degree of coherence, together with the highest level of
spectral purity is only obtained from a laser which operates in the TEM00 (the
lowest) mode as all parts of the propagating wave front are in phase.
• Higher order transverse modes only occur when the width of the cavity is
sufficient for them oscillate. Consequently, they may be eliminated by
suitable narrowing of the laser cavity.
 Semiconductor Laser Diode structure
• Electrons are injected into the device from the
n-type side-a current-controlled device.
• Diode laser commonly takes the form of a
rectangular parallel piped >100mm to 1mm.
• The junction is a plane within the structure.
• Two of the sides perpendicular to the junction are
purposely roughened so as to reduce their
reflectivity.
• The other two sides are made optically flat and
parallel, by either cleaving or polishing.
• These two surfaces form the mirrors for the laser
cavity.
• The reflectivity of the air-semiconductor interface
is high enough that no other mirrors are needed.
• One of the reflecting surfaces may be coated to
increase the reflectivity and to enhance laser
operation.
• Light traveling in the plane of the junction is
amplified more than light perpendicular to it and
the laser emission is parallel to the plane of the
junction.
Laser Diode optical output power vs. current characteristics
• Lasing threshold is minimum current that must
• occur for stimulated emission.
• Any current produced below threshold will
result in spontaneous emission only.
• At currents below threshold LDs operate as
ELEDs.
• LDs need more current to operate and more
current means more complex drive circuitry
with higher heat dissipation.
• Laser diodes are much more temperature
sensitive than LEDs.

A- LED Operation
B- LASER Operation
C- LASER Operation
 Quantum efficiency of Laser Diode
The External Differential Efficiency of laser diode is defined as

Increasein number of output photons from thediode(per unit second)

EDQE 
Increasein number of injected electronsinto diode(per unit second)

If Po is the optical power emitted, I is the current, e is charge on an electron,

and hf is photon energy, then

dPo / hf e  dPo
EDQE  
dI / e dI ( Eg )

where Eg  hf  hc

 Quantum efficiency of Laser Diode
The External Quantum Efficiency EQE of laser diode is defined as

Number of output photons from the diode (per unit second)

EQE 
Number of injected electrons into dicode (per unit second)

Po / hf e  Po
 EQE  
I /e I ( Eg )
 Quantum efficiency of Laser Diode
Since emitted power changes linearly when the injection current I is greater
than the threshold current Ith, then we have

 I th 
EQE  EDQE 1  
 I 
External power efficiency EPE of the device in converting electrical input to
optical output is given by

Opticaloutput power
EPE 
Electricalinput power

Po Po Po  e 1 Eg
EPE  100    
P I V IEg V e

EQE Eg
 EPE 
eV
Laser Structures
 Structure and refractive index profile of laser:
(a) Homojunction, (b) single Heterojunction, and (c) double Heterojunction

• Homojunction :One type of semiconductor material with different dopants is used

to fabricate the pn junction. In this structure the index difference is low and much
light is lost.
• Single Heterojunction: this structure results in better confinement of laser light to
the optical cavity. This leads to lower losses, lower current, reduced damage, and
longer lifetime for the diodes.
• Double Heterojunction: Much better confinement is obtained in this structure. It
leads to reduced loss. The optical radiation is so well confined that the output power
may easily reach the damage threshold. The tight confinement also reduces the
effective beam width of the output aperture of the laser
Laser Diode Structure & Radiation Pattern

• Efficient operation of a laser diode requires that the

current flow must be restricted in lateral direction with
narrow strip, stabilizing the gain for lateral modes as
well as lowering the threshold current.

• These are met by structures that confine the optical

wave, carrier concentration and current flow in the
lateral direction.

• The main optical confinement methods are :

gain-induced, positive index guided, and negative
index guided.
 Gain-guided laser

Such lasers are termed as gain-guided lasers because the optical intensity distribution in
the lateral direction is determined by the gain profile produced by carrier density
distribution.
 Index-guided laser

The active region is surrounded by materials with lower refractive indices in both the
vertical (y) and lateral (x) transverse directions the active region is buried in lower
refractive indices layers on all sides as shown in Fig. For this reason, these lasers are
called buried-heterostructure lasers.
 Single Mode Laser
• Single mode laser is mostly based on the index-guided
structure that supports only the fundamental transverse
mode and the fundamental longitudinal mode.
• In order to make single mode laser we have four
options:
1- Reducing the length of the cavity to the point where
the frequency separation of the adjacent modes is
larger than the laser transition line width. This is hard to
handle for fabrication and results in low output power.
2- Structures with built-in frequency selective grating
3- Vertical-Cavity Surface Emitting laser (VCSEL)
4- Tunable laser diodes.
 Single Mode Solid State Lasers
• For single-mode operation
– single transverse mode and
– single longitudinal mode.
• Single transverse mode: by reducing the aperture of the
resonant cavity to <0.4 mm, such that only TEM00 mode is
supported.
• Single longitudinal mode: by reducing the length of cavity
until the frequency separation of the adjacent modes given by
 v  c / 2nL is larger than the laser transition linewidth.
• Only single mode that falls within the transition linewidth can
oscillate within the cavity
 Distributed Feed-Back (DFB) Laser

•In DFB laser, there is a corrugated layer, called the guiding layer (grating), next to
the active layer as shown in Fig.
•These corrugations in the refractive index act as optical feedback over the length
of the cavity by producing partial reflections.
•The optical feedback is distributed over the cavity length.
•The left and right traveling waves couple coherently to setup mode if their
frequency is related to the corrugation periodicity Λ.
 
•If q is an allowed DFB lasing mode then     B (q  1)
2

q B
2nL
where q is a mode integer q = 0, 1, 2, … and L is the effective length of the
diffraction grating.
The relative threshold gain for higher modes is so large that only the q = 0 mode
effectively lases.
 (a) DBR laser, (b) details of Bragg reflection


•The condition for in-phase interference is 2   q B
n
where n is the refractive index of corrugated material and
q = 1, 2, … is an integer called diffraction order.

•The DBR has high reflectance around Bragg wavelength λB and low
reflectance away from λB. Due to this only that particular Fabry–
Perot cavity mode, within the optical gain curve , which is close to
λB, can and exist in the output.
Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers (VCSELs)
• Multilayer mirrors are fabricated on
the top and bottom of the quantum
well gain region to give feedback.
• Dielectric mirrors made from
alternating high and low refractive
indices form the reflectors at the
ends of the cavity.
• This is quarter wave thick multilayer
structure having 20-30 layers, which
works as DBR.
• The active layer is generally very
thin (less than 0.1 μm) and is likely
to be MQW for improved threshold
current.
• The emitted beam has circular cross-
section. The height of vertical cavity
is in the range of microns, therefore
such a laser is also called as
microlaser
 Laser Characteristics
Temperature dependence Mode hopping Dynamic response

The peak emission When a current pulse is

wavelength exhibits applied to the device, it
The threshold current tends “jumps” at certain results into switch on
to increase with temperature temperatures. At a new delay (td) followed by
operating temperature, high frequency damped
another mode fulfills the oscillations known as
laser oscillation condition relaxation oscillations
 Laser Noise
• Modal (speckel) Noise: Fluctuations in the
distribution of energy among various modes.

• Mode partition Noise: Intensity fluctuations in

the longitudinal modes of a laser diode, main
source of noise in single mode fiber systems.

• Reflection Noise: Light output gets reflected back

from the fiber joints into the laser, couples with
lasing modes, changing their phase, and generate
noise peaks. Isolators & index matching fluids can
eliminate these reflections.
LASER Class & Safety
Laser Components
• Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

OPTICAL RESONATOR

LASER
beam
Active medium

high reflectance output coupler

mirror mirror
excitation

Associated hazards:
1. Laser Beam: eye injury, burns, skin cancer (UV), fire hazard
2. Active medium: toxic chemicals or gases
• (organic dyes, BeO in Ar lasers, HF, HeCd, HeHg, HeSe)
3. Excitation source: high voltage, water cooling
 Human Eye
- laser beam can be focused by cornea and the lens
to a very tight spot on the retina

400-1400 nm
<400, >1400 nm
Retinal damage

<400, >1400 nm

Burns, cataracts
Eye Injury
Skin Burns
• CO2 laser reflected from a metal surface
Types of laser eye exposure
Laser hazard classes
• Classification by wavelength and output power, according to their
ability to produce damage

Class Power Remarks Typical examples

I Very low •Inherently safe, CD, DVD drives, laser
or beam •No possibility of exposure printers…
completely
enclosed

II 1 mW •Staring into the beam is hazardous Supermarket laser

Visible only •Eye protected by aversion response scanners, some pointers

IIIa 1-5 mW •Aversion may not be adequate Laser pointers

IIIb 5-500 mW •Direct exposure is a hazard Ar laser in Birge 123

CF microscope in B219

IV >500 mW •Exposure to direct beam and scattered Laser ablation setup in

light is eye and skin hazard Birge 266
•Fire hazard
Labels on setups

Class II Class IIIa with small beam

Class IIIa with expanded beam Class IIIb
Class IV
Safety measures

• Be informed

• Eyewear for classes IIIb, IV for everybody in the room

• Beam paths above >200 mW should be guided through tubes

• Highest risk during alignment, optical setup modification

IIIb and IV requirements

• EHS 280 Laser Safety Training

• EHS 281 Laser Safety Retraining (every 3 years)

• On the Job Training – provided by PI/supervisor & documented in the

Activity Hazard Document

• Laser eye exams

Links:
UCB laser safety
LBL laser safety