ELEC 260 TUTORIAL – June 2nd, 2010

Topics to be covered:

1. Complex numbers revisited 2. Changes of variables

3. Equation of a line 4. Convolution

1. COMPLEX NUMBERS  

Three equivalent forms:

Cartesian Polar Exponential
z  a  jb z  r (cos   j sin  ) z  re j

Conjugate of a complex no.

Cartesian Polar Exponential
z  a  jb z  r (cos   j sin  ) z  re  j

Example: If z  7  2 j  z *  7  2 j
Look at the figure to the right!
It explains why z *  z and
arg z *   arg z
Other properties:

 z1  z2 
*
zz *  z  z1*  z2*
2

*
 z1  z1*
 z1 z2   z z    *
* * *
1 2
 z2  z2
Useful to express the real and imaginary
parts of any complex no. as:
1 1
Re( z )  ( z  z * ) Im( z )  ( z  z* )
2 2j

j
Euler relation:       e  cos   j sin  If you add each member of the equations...

leads to: e  j  cos   j sin  …you get: e j  e  j  2 cos 

e j  e  j
and so: cos  
2

1 
 
2. CHANGING VARIABLES

Whenever you decide to make a change of variable, the following things should be considered:
10
Example: I   x(2  t ) dt
2
1. Express the new variable in terms of the
  2t
old variable
2. Express the old variable in terms of the
t  2
new variable
3.Differentiate to express the d( ) in terms
dt  d 
of the new variable in terms of the old d( )
4. See how the limits of integration
t 2 0
(summation, interval) are changed with
t  10    8
respect to the new variable
The integral we now have to compute is:
8 0
I  x( )(d  ) 
0
 x ( ) d 
8

3. EQUATION OF A LINE

Given 2 points  x1 , y1  and  x2 , y2  , find the equation of the line that connects them.
Steps:

1. Write down the equation of a line: y  mx  n (eq. 1)

y2  y1
2. Find the slope m 
x2  y1
3. Find n, by plugging in (eq. 1) m and the coordinates of either one of the points (usually
you pick the one with “nicer” values)
4. Replace m and n with the values you have found and write the equation of the line.

Example:

Find the equation of the line that connects A(-1, 7) and B(0,2).
1. Line equation: y  mx  n
y B  y A 5
2. m    5
xB  y A 1
3. We pick B(0,2) and replace x by 0, y by 2 and m by -5 in the line equation.
We get: 2  ( 5)  0  n  n .
4. The line equation is: y  5 x  2

2 
 
4. CONVOLUTION

y (t )  x(t )  h(t )   x( )h(t   )d


You should keep in mind the following:

 Unless given, write down the

expressions of the functions to be
convolved:

  1 for  1    0
 1 for 0    1

x    
 2  3 for 1    1.5
0 elsewhere
first time reverse h(τ                                          
Example i.e. reflect its graph about the vertical axis
                       

3 
 
 shift the graph by  – t           add t to 
the time axis values

    

 when you start drawing both graphs in  always label all graphs you plot
the same figure, using different colors
might be helpful  draw the “fixed” one first

 when you start analyzing the different  write the case condition as you see it from
cases, you should search for “places” the time axis
(values of t) where the graphs of the  take some time to study the time axis, when
function changes (jumps or likewise) you consider a case

The direction in which you do the “sliding” of the graph of h(t   ) along the time axis should
not make a difference in the result. However, since the direction of the time axis is from left to
right, this is the way you should do it.

4 
 
COMPLEX NUMBERS Euler’s formula

1. Using Euler formula e jω = cos ω + j sin ω

a) show that e jω = 1 , for all ω
b) find an expression of sin ω in terms of e jω and e − jω
Solution
a) Recall the definition of the absolute value (magnitude) of a complex number, in accordance to its
form:
Cartesian Polar Exponential
z = a + jb z = r (cos θ + j sin θ ) z = re jθ
z = a 2 + b2 z =r z =r

Keep in mind that a, b, r and θ ∈ \ . Using Euler’s relation, we can write:

e jω = cos ω + j sin ω = cos 2 ω + sin 2 ω = 1 .
An alternative solution (without using Euler’s relation) is to choose working with the exponential form
of the complex number e jω , and we can write: e jω = 1 ⋅ e jω = 1 = 1 .

b) Euler’s relation: e jω = cos ω + j sin ω

leads to e − jω = cos ω − j sin ω
If we subtract these member by member, we obtain:
e jω − e − jω
jω − jω
e − e = 2 j sin ω . Therefore, sin ω =
2j

2. Show that z1 z2* + z1* z2 ≤ 2 z1 z2 , for any two complex no. z1 and z2.
Solution
Let z1 = r1e jθ1 and z2 = r2 e jθ 2 .
Let’s begin by evaluating the right-hand side term, it looks somewhat simpler.
z1 z2 = r1e jθ1 ⋅ r2 e jθ 2 = r1r2 ⋅ e jθ1 e jθ2 = r1r2 ⋅ e j (θ1 +θ2 ) = r1r2 . (Please check the table above, last entry)

Next we evaluate the left-hand side term. For this, we write: z1* = r1e − jθ1 and z2* = r2 e − jθ 2 .
(
z1 z2* + z1* z2 = r1e jθ1 ⋅ r2 e − jθ2 + r1e − jθ1 ⋅ r2 e jθ2 = r1r2 e jθ1 − jθ2 + r1r2 e − jθ1 + jθ 2 = r1r2 e j (θ1 −θ 2 ) + e − j (θ1 −θ 2 ) )
= r1r2 e j (θ1 −θ 2 ) + e − j (θ1 −θ 2 )
We can think of ( θ1 − θ 2 ) from the exponents above as of a single variable, say ω.
So we have to evaluate e jω + e − jω .
Euler’s relation: e jω = cos ω + j sin ω , leads to e − jω = cos ω − j sin ω .
Adding these equations member by member, we get: e jω + e − jω = 2 cos ω
By taking the magnitude of both sides, we obtain: e jω + e − jω = 2 cos ω = 2 ⋅ cos ω .
Since cosine is a function bounded by 1, this leads us to conclude that e jω + e − jω ≤ 2 .
Thus, we have just shown that z1 z2* + z1* z2 ≤ 2 r1r2 = z1 z2 .
CHANGE OF VARIABLES
∞ 0
1
Use a convenient change of variable to get from ∫
5
f (10 − 2τ )dτ ….to…. ∫ f ( λ )d λ .
2 −∞

Solution:
The change of variable we choose is λ = 10 − 2τ .

10 − λ
We express the old variable in terms of the new variable: τ = .
2

1
Differentiating, we obtain: dτ = − d λ .
2

Let us now see how the limits of integration change, with respect to the new variable:

• τ = 5 ⇒ λ = 10 − 2 ⋅ 5 = 0
• τ = ∞ ⇒ λ = 10 − 2 ⋅ ∞ = −∞
−∞
⎛ 1 ⎞
We can now write the new integral: ∫
0
f (λ ) ⎜ − d λ ⎟ .
⎝ 2 ⎠

If we “pull” the minus sign from inside the integral out, it will result in swapping (and not changing the sign
0
1
of!) the limits of integration, and we obtain: ∫ f (λ ) d λ .
2 −∞

LINEAR SYSTEMS

Given a system with input x(t ) and output y (t ) , described by y(t) = x(t − 2) + x(4 − t).
Determine whether the system is linear.
Solution:
A system is linear ⇔ if input x1 (t ) produces output y1 (t ) and
input x2 (t ) produces output y2 (t ) ,
then input a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x2 (t ) produces the output a1 y1 (t ) + a2 y2 (t )

Let y1 (t ) denote the system response to input x1(t) and y2(t) denote the system response to x2(t).
Therefore, we have:
y1 ( t ) = x1 ( t − 2 ) + x1 ( 4 − t )
y2 ( t ) = x2 ( t − 2 ) + x2 ( 4 − t )

Let a1 and a2 be two complex constants.

Let x3 (t ) = a1 x1 (t ) + a2 x2 (t ) . We must see what is the output of our system to this input.
By definition, y3 ( t ) = x3 ( t − 2 ) + x3 ( 4 − t ) . Replacing x3 by its expression above leads to:
y3 (t ) = ( a1 x1 ( t − 2 ) + a2 x2 ( t − 2 ) ) + ( a1 x1 ( 4 − t ) + a2 x2 ( 4 − t ) ) .
Regrouping the terms and factorizing appropriately we obtain:
y3 (t ) = a1 ( x1 (t − 2) + x1 (4 − t ) ) + a2 ( x2 (t − 2) + x2 (4 − t ) ) = a1 y1 (t ) + a2 y2 (t ) , i.e. the system is linear.

EQUATION OF A LINE.
Given the graph shown in the figure, find the equations
of all lines and write
⎧...........................................
⎪...........................................
⎪
x(τ ) = ⎨
⎪...........................................
⎪⎩...........................................
Solution:

The first line, connecting (-1,0) and (0,1), is a time shifted version of x(τ) = τ, more specifically its equation is
x(τ) = τ +1.

The second line, connecting (0,2) and (1,2) is given by x(τ) = 2.

The equation of the third line, connecting (1,2) and (2,0) can be found in the following way:

• It must be of the form: x(τ) = m τ + n.

2−0
• We find its slope: m = = −2 .
1− 2
• So its equation is x(τ) = –2τ + n
• Now we find n, by plugging in (2,0) in the equation, to get:
0 = –2·2 + n, so n = 4
So, we can state our answer:

⎧τ + 1 for − 1 < τ ≤ 0
⎪2 for 0 < τ ≤ 1
⎪
x(τ ) = ⎨
⎪ −2τ + 4 for 1 < τ ≤ 2
⎪⎩ 0 otherwise
CONVOLUTION.
If h(t ) = sin t [u (t + π ) − u (t − π )]
has the graph shown in the figure to
on the right-hand side,
plot and label h( −τ ) and h (t − τ )