BUILDING

COMPONENTS &
MATERIALS

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 MODULE 3

Building Materials

Stone, Brick, Cement, Sand, Timber, Steel, Plastic and

Concrete – Classification, Qualities and Uses.

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STONE

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WHAT IS STONE??

• Stones are derived from rocks, which form the earth’s crust and have no
definite shape or chemical combination.
• Stones are mixture of two or more minerals.
• Stones are strong, durable and descent in appearance.

Stone as a Building Material

Stones have been considered as one of the popular building material from the
olden days due to their availability in abundance from the natural rocks.

The main uses of stone as a building material are :

1. For building foundations

2. For construction of walls, arches, abutments dams etc.
3. As coarse aggregate in cement concrete (crushed form of rock)

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Stone for foundations

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Stone Walls

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Stone Arches

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Stone Abutments

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Stone for building Dams

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Stone for building roads and pavements

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Stone as coarse aggregate for concreting

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 Sources of Stone

• Rock, are naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more

minerals
• Mono-mineralic rock : Constitutes of single mineral, Eg : igneous rock
anorthosite (composed entirely of plagioclase feldspar) and metamorphic
rock marble (composed entirely of calcite)

• Polymineralic rock-or “polymineralic rock – Constitutes of two or more

minerals. Eg: granite, which is typically composed of quartz, feldspar, and
mica. Rock forming minerals: ( Found in igneous rocks)

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

I. Rocks are generally classified into three major classes based on

geological properties.

1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks

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❖ Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks are formed from molten material called ‘magma’
deep inside the Earth.
• Eg. Granite, Dacite, Obsidian, Pumice, Basalt etc.
• Igneous rocks are further divided into two sub-categories –
• Intrusive (emplaced in the crust)
• Extrusive (extruded onto the surface of and or ocean
bottom), in which case the cooling molten material is
called lava.

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❖ Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks are formed from layers of sand, silt, dead
plants and animal skeletons.
• These rocks are compacted and cemented together at the Earth’s
surface, with the assistance of running water, wind, ice or living
organism.
• Most deposited from the land surface to the bottoms of lakes, river
and oceans.
• Sedimentary rocks are generally stratified, i.e., they have
layering.
• Layers may be distinguished by differences in colour, particle size,
internal arrangement etc.
• Eg. Shelly Limestone, Chalk, Shale ,Sandstone etc.

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❖ Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks are formed from other rocks that are changed
by heat, underground pressure and chemically active solutions.
• The changes can be chemical (compositional) and physical
(textural) in character.
• Eg. Slate, Marble, Jadeite, Schist etc.

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ROCKS FORMATION PROCESS

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II. Rocks are majorly classified into three classes based on physical
properties :
1. Stratified Rocks
2. Non- Stratified Rocks
3. Foliated Rocks

❖ Stratified Rocks
• Stratified rocks show a layered structure in their natural
environment.
• They possess planes of stratification and can be split up along those
planes.
• Eg.; Sandstone, Limestone, Slate etc.

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❖ Un-stratified Rocks
• The rocks which do not show any sign of strata and cannot be
easily split into thin layers are called un-stratified rocks.
• Their structure may be crystalline or granular.
• Eg : Granite, trap and Marble.

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❖ Foliated Rocks
• Foliated Rocks possess a layered or banded structure which is
obtained by exposure of pressure and heat.
• Unlike stratified rocks, these rocks can split up in certain direction
only.
• Most of the metamorphic rocks are foliated rocks
• Eg. Gneiss, Schist, Slate etc.

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III. Rocks are further classified into three classes based on their
chemical composition :
1. Argillaceous Rocks
2. Calcareous Rocks
3. Siliceous Rocks

❖ Argillaceous Rocks
• The word Argil means “Clay”. Hence, the rocks in which clay
content is predominant are called argillaceous rocks.
• These rocks are soft in nature and with the presence of water they
can be crumbled easily. In dry state, these rocks can be crushed
easily because of their brittleness.
• Eg: Shale, Slate, Laterite etc.

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❖ Calcareous Rocks
• The rocks in which calcium carbonate is the major ingredient are
known as calcareous rocks.
• These are generally hard but their durability is dependent on
surrounding constituents which may react with Calcium and affect
the durability of ricks.
• Eg: Marble, Limestone, Dolomite etc.

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❖ Siliceous Rocks
• The rocks which contain silica in predominant amount are called as
siliceous rocks.
• Presence of a large amount of free silica makes them harder and
durable.
• It also provides strong resistance to weathering.
• Eg: Granite, Quartzite

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 Quarrying of Stones

• The process of extraction of suitable stones from their natural rock beds
or layers is commonly called Quarrying of Stones.

• The purpose of quarrying is to obtain stones for various engineering

purposes.

• Quarrying is done by various methods. Four most common methods are:

• Excavating
• Wedging
• Heating
• Blasting

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❖ Excavating

Stones buried in earth or under loose overburden are excavated with pick axes,
crow bars, chisels, hammers etc. This method is useful when soft stones occur
at low levels in the ground.

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❖ Wedging

• This method of quarrying is suitable for costly, soft and stratified rocks such as
sandstone, limestone, Laterite, marble and slate.
• About 10-15 cm deep holes, at around 10cm spacing, are made vertically in
the rock.
• Steel pins and wedges or plugs (conical wedges) are inserted in them.
• These plugs are the struck simultaneously with sledge hammer.
• The rock slab splits along the lines of least resistance through holes.
• The slab is completely detached and taken out with the help of crow bars and
rollers.
•In this method, the wastage is minimum and the slabs of required size and
shape can be quarried.

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❖ Heating

• Heating is most suitable for quarrying small, thin and regular blocks of
stones for rocks, such as granite and gneiss.
• A heap of fuel is piled and fired on the surface of rock in small area.
• The 2 consecutive layers of the rock separate because of uneven
expansion of the two layers.
• The loosened rock portions are broken into pieces of desired size and are
removed with the help of pick-axes and crow-bars.
• Stone blocks so obtained are used for coarse rubble masonry.

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❖ Blasting

• Holes are drilled or bored in the rock.

• These holes are filled with blasting powder which are then ignite by
means of a fuse.
• This method is used when rocks having no fissure or cracks are to be
broken down into small pieces.
• Stones obtained by blasting are usually of small sizes and they are used
as ballast in railway, aggregate for concrete, road metal etc.

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 Dressing of Stones

• The process of giving a proper size, shape and finish to the roughly
broken stones as obtained from the quarry.
• A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a
definite and regular shape.
• Dressing of Stones is done immediately after quarrying.
• Dressing of stone provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding with
good mortar joints, special shapes for arches, pillars etc.

Objectives of Dressing
• To reduce size of the big blocks of stones so that they are converted to
easily lift-able pieces. This reduction is generally carried out at quarry
itself because that saves a lot of transportation cost.
• To give proper shape to the stone.
• To obtain an appealing finish.

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Methods of Dressing
• Dressing of stones can be done both manually as well as mechanically.

• Manual : Skilled Stone smiths can work wonders on the suitable type of
stones with chisels and hammers.

• Mechanical : Machines can cut the stone to any desired size and shape.
Their surfaces can be made extra smooth by polishing through machines.

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Types of Dressing

▪ Pitched Dressing :
o Only edges of a stone block are made level with the help of a
hammer
o The superfluous mass on the surface is left intact

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▪ Hammer Dressing :
o Large raised portions of the stones are broken off, and the stone is
shaped somewhat flat but rough due to hammer marks.
o These stones are squared and the bed and vertical sides are
dressed to a distance of 8-10 cm from the face. This is done to
enable the stone to have proper joints.

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▪ Rough Tooling :
o The edges are first squared by using a chisel and hammer. Then a
series of grooves of variable width are developed over the surface of
the stone.

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▪ Punched Dressing :
o About 1cm vertical or horizontal grooves are sunk with a chisel
having it shaped as a hollow semi-circle.
o The sides of the rock are kept chamfered or sunk.
o It is done on the stones that have already been rough tooled. With
the help of chisels, a series of parallel ridges are developed on the
stone surface.
o It is also called furrowed finish

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▪ Tooled Dressing :
o In this finish, continuous parallel chisel marks are produced
throughout the width of the stone.
o The parallel corrugations or chisel marks are made at closer
intervals rendering the surface truly planned.

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▪ Boasted Dressing :
o Boasted finish is also called as droved finish.
o This type of finish contains intermittent parallel lines which are
horizontal or vertical or inclined.

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▪ Combed Dressing :
o Combed Finish is suitable for soft stones.
o Steel comb of sharp teeth is dragged on the surface of soft stone.
This is done in all directions of stone surface.
o This is also called dragged finish.

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▪ Polished Dressing :
o Polished finish is provided for marbles, granites etc., which are
mostly used as floor tiles
o Polishing can be done by hand or machines

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▪ Punched Dressing :
o Punched finish is obtained by punching the stone using a machine
which depresses the surface of stone and creates hollowed ridges
on it.

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▪ Rubbed Dressing :
o Rubbed finish is obtained by rubbing the surface of stones with
another hard surface or with suitable machine.
o The rubbing is fastened by using water and sand.

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 Common Uses of Building Stones

• Road base, paving

• Ready-mix concrete and asphalt
• Sandstone for garden walls and pavement
• For making walls of buildings
• Material for foundation and walling of buildings, dams, bridges etc.
• Aggregate
• Roof tile in form of slates
• As floor covering
• Limestone for plastering
• Limestone for manufacture of Portland Cement
• Shale is a component of bricks and may also be used in manufacturing of
cement
• Marble is widely used in construction industry, for aesthetic purposes and
also is strong enough for load bearing

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 Criteria for selecting Building Stones

• Hardness : denotes several qualities of stone such as resistance to

cutting and resistance to abrasion
• Durability : is the power of stone to resist atmospheric and other external
effects. It depends upon: Chemical composition, Physical structure,
Resistance to weathering effects, Place where it is used
• Decomposition : Gases and acids in rain water dissolve stones
• Porosity and Absorption : Stone can hold water in two ways Either
through porosity or absorption. For building purposes, the better stones
some constituents of stone and cause the stone decay.
• Disintegration: In cold countries water freezes and expands and thus
disintegrates the stones.
• Fire resistance: A good building stone should be fire resistant. Some
stones such as basalt are fire resistant
• Reliability: When exposed to fire stone should be reliable (good in
quality).
• Weight: This is an important characteristic of stone. It depends upon the
type of structure of stone in which we shall use. E.g. we shall use heavy
stones in the construction of the dams, bridges, etc.
• Strength: It is power of stone to sustain pressure or resistance to
crushing force. Average crushing strength of stone is 3 tons per square
inch.
• Appearance and color: Highly colourful stones are preferred for
architectural purpose but those are soft and thus less durable. Therefore,
lighter stones are preferred than to darker ones.
• Physical Strength: Crystalline structures are more durable than non-
crystalline structure stone.
• Seasoning Qualities: A good building stone should have good seasoning
qualities. All the stones contain some moisture which is known as quarry
sap stones. The period 3-6 months are enough for seasoning

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BRICKS

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WHAT IS A BRICK??

• Brick is a versatile building material that has a long history of use dating
back thousands of years.
• A brick is a type of block used to build walls, pavements and other
elements in construction.

Brick as a Building Material

• Brick is one of most popular building material. It is suitable for use in
construction and civil engineering projects as a structural element for a project,
including building, tunnels, bridges, walls, floors, archway, chimneys, fireplace,
patio or sidewalks.
• Beyond the mechanical properties of brick, there are also aesthetic appeals to
the material that favour its use in architectural applications.

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 Advantages of Brick

• Brick is a durable material, and can last hundreds or thousands of years.

• Brick is fireproof and can withstand exposure to high temperatures.
• Brick offers good noise reduction and sound isolation capabilities
• Brick does not require the application of paints or other finishes for
protection from the environment.
• Brick does not necessarily require application of paints or other finishes
for protection from the environment
• As a modular building component, problems with individual bricks can be
addressed without the need to tear down and rebuild the entire
structure.
• Since clay is available almost everywhere, brick can be fabricated locally,
eliminating the costs associated with the shipment, hence we can be cost-
effective.
• Brick is simpler to work with because of its uniformity in size, unlike stone
which needs to be sized and dressed.
• Brick is easy to handle and skilled trades-people that can construct with
brick are plentiful.

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 History of Brick

• Bricks are one of the oldest and first building materials (apart from wood).
• These bricks were made out of mud, moulded by hand and dried in the
sun for days until they were strong enough for use, dating back to
7000BC.
• The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and
dating before 7500 BC were found at Tell Aswad, Upper region of Tigris,
Jericho, Settlements in Turkey, Pre-modern China

Building remains at Tell Aswad

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Ancient Egyptian Mud Houses

Bath Houses made of Ceramic or Fired Brick from Indus Civilization

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 Brick Gothic

• During Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became

popular in Northern Europe.
• An independent style of brick architecture, known as Brick Gothic
flourished in places that lacked sources of rocks. It can be still found in
modern day Denmark, Germany, Poland and Russia
• Production of Bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial
Revolution and the rise in factory building in England

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• Production of Bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial
Revolution and the rise in factory building in England.
• The transition from the traditional method of production known as hand
moulding to a mechanized form of mass-production slowly took place
during the first half of the19th century.

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 Types of Modern Bricks

• Common Burnt Clay/Mud Bricks

• Sand Lime Bricks

• Engineering Bricks

• Concrete Bricks

• Fly Ash Bricks

• Fire Clay Bricks

• Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Bricks ( AAC)

• Hollow Bricks

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 Types of Modern Bricks

• Common Burnt Clay/Mud Bricks

The Common Burnt Clay Bricks are constructed by pressing clay into
moulds to make a shape and then dried and fired in a kiln. They are often
used in general constructions that don't require any special aesthetic
qualities

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• Sand Lime Bricks
Sand Lime Bricks or commonly known as Calcium Silicate Bricks are
made of sand and lime. These are used for several purposes in
construction industries such as ornamental works, masonry works etc.

Constituents of Calcium Silicate Bricks –

• Sand
• Lime
• Water
• Pigment

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• Engineering Bricks

An engineering brick is defined as fire clay that has a dense and strong
semi-vitreous body and which conforms to defined limits for water
absorption and compressive strength. They are often used in construction
where the overall strength of the material, as well as its resistance to
water and frost, are important considerations. Commonly used in sewers
and manhole.

There are two classes of engineering brick, each with different strength
and porosity –

Brick Class Compressiv Porosity

e Strength
Class A 125N/mm² < 4.5%
Class B 75 N/mm² < 7%

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• Concrete Bricks

Concrete brick is a mixture of cement and aggregate, usually sand,

formed in molds and cured. Certain mineral colors are added to produce
a concrete brick resembling clay. Concrete pipe is made of cement and
aggregate and cured as above. Used as a substitute for clay sewer pipe, it
does not have as much resistance to the corrosive action of certain acids.
Concrete drain tile and concrete roofing tile are produced similarly.

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• Fly Ash Bricks

Fly ash bricks are masonry units that are used in the construction of
buildings. They are considered to be a part of good and affordable
building materials.
They contain Class C fly ash and water. Compressed at 28 MPa and
cured for 24 hours in a 66 °C steam bath, then toughened with an air-
entrainment agent, the bricks last for more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles.

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• Fire Clay Bricks

A fire brick is a special type of brick made using fire clay and has a good
resistance against high temperatures which are used in kilns, lining
furnaces, fireplaces and fireboxes. These bricks are manufactured in a
way similar to that of normal bricks, except during the burning process-
Fire bricks are exposed to very high temperatures.
Fire clay is used to make fire bricks and is generally found under the coal
seams. Fire clay contains two major constituents- silica and alumina, of
which, the silica percentage varies from 60 to 70% and alumina varies
from 25 to 35%.

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• Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Bricks (AAC Blocks)

Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) is a lightweight, precast, foam

concrete building material suitable for producing concrete masonry
unit(CMU) like blocks. Composed of quartz sand, calcined
gypsum, lime, cement, water and aluminum powder, AAC products are
cured under heat and pressure in an autoclave. Invented in the mid-
1920s, AAC simultaneously provides structure, insulation, and fire-
and mold-resistance.

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SAND

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WHAT IS A SAND??

• Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided

rock and mineral particles.
• The most common constituent of sand is Silica ( Silicon Dioxide, or SiO2),
usually in the form of quartz.

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 Sources of Sand

• Sand is formed by weathering of rocks. Based on natural sources from

which sand is obtained, it is classified as follows -

1. Pit Sand
2. River Sand
3. Sea Sand

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❖ Pit Sand
• This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils.
• It is excavated from a depth of abut 1 – 2 m from the ground level.
• This sand is found as deposits in soil and it consists of sharp angular
grains, which are free from salts.
• It serves as an excellent material for mortar or concrete work.
• Pit Sand must be made free from clay and other organic materials
before it can be used in mortar.
• A coating of oxide of iron over the sand grains should be removed.

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❖ River Sand
• This sand is widely used for all purposes. It is obtained from the
banks or beds of rivers and it consists of fine rounded grains. The
presence of fine rounded grains is due to mutual attrition under the
action of water current.
• The river sand is available in clean conditions.
• The river sand is almost white in colour.

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❖ Sea Sand
• This sand is obtained from sea shores.
• It is brown in colour and it also has the fine rounded grain.
• As it is obtained from sea it contains salt, which is used n attracting
moisture from atmosphere.
• Such absorption causes dampness and disintegration of work.
• It is generally not used for engineering purposes due to its retard
setting action of cement.

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❖ Artificial Sand
• It is a substitute for River Sand, fine aggregates which manufactured
by crushing either granite or basalt rock using 3 stage crushing
process.
• This sand is manufactured in conformance to IS Codes and is an
effective alternative to river sand.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF SAND

Based on Grain Size Distribution -

1. Fine Sand – The sand passing through a sieve with clear opening of
1.5875mm is known as fine sand. Fine Sand is mainly used for
plastering.
2. Coarse Sand– The sand passing through a sieve with clear
openings of 3.175mm is known as coarse sand. It s generally used
for masonry work.
3. Gravelly Sand – The sand passing through a sieve with clear
openings of 7.62 mm is known as gravelly sand. It is generally used
for concrete work.

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 GRADING OF SAND

On the basis of particle size, fine aggregate is graded into four zones -

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 SAND FOR CONSTRUCTION WORKS

Different construction works require different standards of sand for construction.

• Brick Works – Finest modulus of fine sand should be 1.2 – 1.5 and silt
contents should be more than 4%.
• Plastering Works – Finest modulus of fine sand should not be more than 1.5
and silt contents should not be more than 4%.
• Concreting Works - Coarse sand should be used with finest modulus 2.5 –
3.5 and silt contents should not be more than 4%

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 PROPERTIES OF GOOD SAND

• It should be clean and coarse.

• It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter; usually 3 – 4 % clay is
permitted.
• It should be chemically inert.
• It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
• It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.
• It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in
suitable proportions.
• It should be strong and durable.
• It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.

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 QUALITY TESTS

• To check the quality of fine aggregates or sand :

Put some quantity of sand in a glass of water. Then it is vigorously shaken
an allowed to settle. If clay is present in sand, its distinct layer is formed at
top of sand.

• To detect the presence of organic impurities in sand :

A solution of Sodium Hydroxide or Caustic Soda is added to sand and
stirred. If the colour of the solution changes into brown, it shows presence
of impurities.

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 BULKING OF SAND

• The increase in the volume of sand due to the presence of moisture is known
as bulking of sand.
• This is due to the fact that moisture forms a film of water around the sand
particles and this results in an increase in volume of sand. The extent of
bulking depends on the grading of sand. The finer the material the more will
be the increase in volume for the given moisture content.
• For a moisture content of 5 – 8 %, the increase in volume may be about 20-
40 % depending upon the gradation of sand. When the moisture content s
further increased, the sand particles pack near each other and the amount of
bulking is decreased.

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 DELETERIOUS MATERIALS IN SAND

• Sand shall not contain any harmful impurities such as iron, pyrites, alkalis,
salts, coal or other organic impurities, mica shale or similar laminated
materials, soft fragments, sea shale in such form or in such quantities as to
effect adversely the hardening, strength or durability of the mortar. The
maximum quantities of clay, fine dust and organic impurities in the
sand/marble dust shall not exceed the following limits :
a) Clay, Fine Silt and Fine Dust when determined in accordance within
not more than 5% by mass in IS 2386(Part-II), natural sand or crushed
gravel sand and crushed stone sand.
b) Organic Impurities when determined in colour of the liquid shall be
lighter in accordance with IS 2386(Part-II) than that specified in the
code.

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CEMENT

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WHAT IS A CEMENT??

• Cement is most important material in building construction. The name

“cement” refers to the material manufactured from lime stone and clay
made available in powdered form, which when mixed with water can set
to hard durable mass even under water.

Function of Cement is to bond the sand and coarse aggregate together to fill
voids in between sand and coarse aggregate particle to from a compact mass.

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 CEMENT COMPOSITION

Magnesium
Iron Oxide
4%
6%
Alumina
9%

Silica
18%
Limestone
63%

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 CLASSIFICATION OF CEMENT

• OPC - Ordinary Portland Cement

• PPC – Portland Pozzolana Cement

• SRPC – Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement

• BFSC – Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement

• Hydrophobic Cement

• Blended Cement

• RHPC – Rapid Hardening Portland Cement

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 Ordinary Portland Cement - OPC
Chemical Composition

• C3S - Tricalcium Silicate = 3CaO.SiO2 (50%) :

• Hydrates and Hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set
and early strength.
• Early strength of cement is higher with increased percentages of C2S.

• C2S – Dicalcium Silicate = 2CaO.SiO2 (25%)

• Hydrates and Hardens slowly.
• Contributes largely to strength increase at ages beyond one week
• Responsible for long term strength.

• C3A – Tricalcium Aluminate = 3CaO.Al2O (10%)

• Liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hydration
and hardening.
• Also contributes slightly to early strength development.
• Gypsum added to the cement slows down the hydration rate of C3A.
• Cements with low percentages of C3A are specially resistant to soils
and waters containing sulphates.

• C4AF – Tetra calcium Aluminoferrite = 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (10%)

• Assists in the manufacture of Portland Cement by allowing lower
clinkering temperature.
• Also act as filler
• Contributes very little strength of concrete even though it hydrates very
rapidly.
• Also responsible for grey colour d Ordinary Portland Cement

• Gypsum – (5%)

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Hydration Of Cement

• In the presence of water the cement compounds chemically combined with

water (hydrate) to form new compounds that are the infrastructure of the
hardened cement paste in concrete.
• Both C3S and C2S hydrate to form Calcium Hydroxide and Calcium Silicate
Hydrate (CSH). Hydrated cement paste contains 15% - 25% Calcium
Hydroxide and about 50% Calcium Silicate Hydrate by mass. The strength
and other properties of hydrated cement are due primarily to Calcium
Silicate Hydrate.
• C3A reacts with water and Calcium Hydroxide to form Tetra calcium
Aluminate Hydrate.
• CAF reacts with water and calcium hydroxide to form Calcium Aluminoferrite
Hydrate

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Relative Reaction Of Cement Compounds

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Cement Manufacturing Process

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Portland Pozzolana Cement - PPC

• This type of cement is most common type available now in market.

• This is made by blending 10-25% reactive pozzolana like Fly Ash or Calcined
Clay with OPC.

• Addition of Pozzolana makes cement sensitive to curing and it requires

longer curing than OPC.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement - SRPC

• Sulphate – resistant Portland Cement (SRPC) is a special purpose cement

used where sulphates are present in concentrations that would damage
Normal Portland Cement Concrete or mortar.

• Sulphate Resistance is achieved by adjustments to chemical composition to

limit the level of Tri Calcium Aluminate (C3A) in SRPC.

• SRPC is applied at places where there is exposure to sulphate such as used

in concrete below ground.

• Higher content of Tetra Calcium Aluminoferrite and reducing the Tricalcium

Aluminate to Aluminium.

• SRPC has darker colour than OPC.

• Long Term Strength Development

• A significant characteristic of SRPC is the ability to continue significant

strength development beyond the normal 28 day period. The benefits of this
are obvious, considering that 28 days is very short period in the life of most
concrete structures.

• Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement have a much lower heat of hydration

than other cements, making them ideal for mass concrete work.

• The lower heat of hydration results in smaller temperature gradients within

mass concrete structures, thereby minimising thermal cracking

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement - BFSC

• This type of cement constitutes about 10% of cement produced in India.

• The slag forms 5-60% of the cement.

• Every ton of cast iron produce 0.3 tons of furnace slag which can be used in
cement industry.

• During its setting the Ca(OH)2 liberated by OPC hydration acts as an

activator for the slag.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Hydrophobic Cement
• In places of high rainfall and humidity normal cement tends to set when
stored, due to moisture present in the atmosphere.

• By grinding the cement clinker with water repellent film forming substance
like oleic acid, a water repellent film is formed around cement particle during
manufacturing itself. This prevent setting of cement during storage.

• During mixing with aggregates this film is broken and cement behave as
ordinary cement.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Blended Cement
• For economy a mixture of Portland cement, blast furnace slag and fly ash is
allowed to be used in some countries. This is known as blended cement.

• In India this type of cement is not produced.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
• Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) is a special purpose cement used
in concrete to ensure a higher rate of early ag strength development than
that typically achieved using Normal Portland Cement (NPC)
• The improves early age strength performance of RHPC is principally
achieved trough increased product fineness.
• Similar chemical composition as OPC but different proportion
• Causes to the increased rate of early hardening
• Concrete made with RHPC develops in 7 days the same strength
• High early strength is achieved by increasing CS and CA content.
• More finely grounded than OPC
• Allows formwork to be stuck earlier
• Providing savings either the quantity of formwork required in time
• Produce heat earlier than OPC, so it can be used in cold weather
• RHPC is produced using carefully selected raw materials
• Strict quality control throughout each stage of the manufacturing process
ensures that a consistent final product is achieved.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
PHYSICAL TESTS OF CEMENT

• Fineness

• Consistency

• Soundness

• Setting Time

• Compressive Strength

• Heat of Hydration

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
• Test for Fineness ( IS 4031 & IS 269 -1978)

• Fineness of cement is a measure of size of particle of cement. It is

expressed as specific surface of cement (in sq.cm/gm).
• The first requirement is that 90% of cement should pass IS 90 microns.
Indian Standard also specifies fineness test by Blaine’s Air permeability
method as described in IS 4031-1968.
• 95% of cement particles are smaller than 45 micro meter, with the
average particle around 15 micro meter.
• Fineness of cement affects heat released and the rate of hydration.
• The principle is based on relation between the rate of flow of air through
a cement bed and surface area of particles comprising the cement bed
of given porosity
• It should be at least 225m2/kg
• More is the fineness of cement more will be the rate of hydration.
• Thus the fineness accelerates strength development principally during
the first seven days.

• Test For Consistency

• Consistency refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement
paste or mortar or its ability to flow.
• It is the consistency at which the Vicat plunger G of 10mm diameter
and 50 mm length will penetrate 33-35 mm within 3 to 5 minutes of mixing.
• The test procedure is to carry at least three trial experiment by mixing
the cement with distilled water varying from about 24-27% of weight of
cement.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
• Test for Soundness
• Soundness is the ability of a hardened paste to retain its volume after
setting.
• The cement is said to be sound when the percentage of free lime and
magnesia is with in specified limits.
• A cement is said to be unsound (i.e., having lack o soundness) if its is
subjected to delayed destructive expansion.
• These materials expand in the structure and thus the concrete or
mortar also expand, causing unequal expansion of paste.
•The soundness test is an indication of excess of lime caused by
inadequate burning of cement or excess of magnesia or sulphates-
• Le Chatelier’s Test
• Autoclave Test

• Test for Setting Time

• The setting time is also determined by Vicat’s needle on cement
paste of normal consistency. For this test, we use 1mm square needle, this
time to penetrate 33-35mm is taken as initial setting time.
• For final setting time we use special needle (5mm diameter) and time
at which this needle will not penetrate more then 0.5mm is taken as final
set.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
CONCRETE

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
WHAT IS A CONCRETE??

• Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials.

• Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, aggregates, and in some
cases, admixtures.
• Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety
of special needs and formed to virtually any shape.
• Concrete is often looked upon as “man made rock”.

Components of Concrete
• Portland Cement
• Aggregate –Sand, Gravel, Crushed Rock
• Water
• Admixtures

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
• Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials.
• Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, aggregates, and in some
cases, admixtures.
• Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety of
special needs and formed to virtually any shape.
• Concrete is often looked upon as “man made rock”.
• Ability to be cast
• Economical
• Durable
• Fire resistant
• Energy Efficient
• On-site Fabrication

DISADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
• Low-Tensile Strength
• Low Ductility
• Volume instability
• Low Strength to weight ratio

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Ar. Rishma
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

• Workability
• Ease of placement
• Resistance to segregation
• Homogeneous mass

• Consistency
• Ability to flow

• Segregation

• Bleeding

• Curing

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Workability
• It is desirable that freshly mixed concrete be relatively easy to transport,
place, compact and finish without harmful segregation.
• A concrete mix satisfying these conditions is said to be workable.
• It is the most important property of freshly mixed concrete.
• There is no single test method that can simultaneously measure all the
properties involved in workability.
• It is determined to a large extent by measuring the consistency of the mix.

Factors affecting Workability

• Method and duration of transportation
• Quantity and characteristics of cementing materials
• Aggregate grading, shape and surface texture
• Quantity and characteristics of chemical admixtures
• Amount of water
• Amount of entrained air
• Concrete & ambient air temperature

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Consistency
• Consistency is the fluidity or degree of wetness of concrete.
• It is generally dependent on the shear resistance of the mass
• It is a major factor in indicating the workability of the freshly mixed concrete

Test Methods to measure consistency are -

• Flow Test – measure the amount of flow
• Kelly-Ball Test – measures the amount of penetration
• Slum Test – most widely used test

Slump Test
Slump Test is related with the ease with which concrete flows during placement

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Slump Test
Slump Test is related with the ease with which concrete flows during placement

• The Slump cone is filled in 3 layers. Every layer is evenly rodded 25 times.

• Measure the slump by determining the vertical difference between the top of
the mould and the displaced original centre of the top surface of the
specimen.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Segregation
• Segregation refers to a separation of the components of fresh concrete,
resulting in a non-uniform mix.
• The primary causes of the segregation are differences in specific gravity and
size of the constituents of concrete. Moreover, improper mixing, improper
placing and improper consolidation also lead to segregation.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Bleeding
• Bleeding is the tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly placed
concrete.
• It is caused by the inability of solid constituents of the mix to hold all of the
mixing water as they settle down.
• A special case of segregation

Curing
• Concrete that has been specified, batched, mixed, placed and finished
“letter-perfect” can still be a failure if improperly or inadequately cured.
• Curing is usually the last step in a concrete project and unfortunately is often
neglected even by professionals.
• Curing has a major influence on the properties of hardened concrete such as
durability, strength, water-tightness, wear resistance, stabilizing.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
MIXING OF CONCRETE

• The aim of mixing is to blend all of the ingredients of the concrete to form
a uniform mass and to coat the surface of aggregates with cement paste.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
TIMBER

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
WHAT IS A TIMBER??

• The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction or

engineering purposes is called timber.
• It should have structural as well as aesthetic merits.

Uses of Timber
• Building Construction
• House post construction
• Beams and Rafters
• Construction of Bridges ad Boats
• Furniture and Instruments
• Railway sleepers and Packing Cases
• Toys and Engraving Work
• Railway coach Wagons
• Formwork of cement concrete

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

• Colour – A darker colour in wood indicates greater durability.

• Odour – It is present only on freshly cut trees.
• Hardness – is the ability of wood to withstand indentations caused by
harder bodies.
• Density – densest woods are generally the strongest
• Grain – Depending on actual alignment, the grain may be straight,
spiral, interlocked, wavy or irregular.
• Texture – In Hardwoods, the texture depends upon the size and
distribution vessels and rays. In Softwoods, it is determined by the size
and distribution of tracheid (type of xylem cell)
• Lustre – is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly.
• Workability – the relative case in which wood is shaped cut and
fastened together than the others.
• Warping – is the general term used to describe any variation from a a
true surface.
• Moisture content – is a percentage of the mass of water over the
mass of wood fibre in a piece of timber.
• Specific Gravity – is the ratio found by dividing the weight of a
substance by the weight of an equal volume of pure water.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Moisture of Timber

• Moisture Content – It is one of the most important characteristics of

timber that affects its use on the site performance.

• Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) – Moisture Content if wood

changes in response to the temperature and humidity of its
surroundings.
• Fibre Saturation Point – when the cell cavities are empty but the cell
walls still retain their bound water.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Seasoning of Timber

• Fresh timber which is obtained from trees have about 30-40 percent
sap moisture. This sap s very harmful for the life of the timber.
• Therefore it is essential to remove the sap by applying certain special
methods.
• All such methods are collectively termed as seasoning of timber.

Types of Timber Seasoning

• Natural Seasoning

• Artificial Seasoning

• Water Seasoning

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Natural Seasoning

• In the sir seasoning or natural seasoning or natural drying, timber is

dried by direct action of air, wind and sun.
• In this method, the timber logs are arranged one over the other,
keeping some space or distance between them for air circulation of
fresh air.
• Generally this type of seasoning requires few months to over a year,
this is very slow process

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Artificial Seasoning

• Kiln Seasoning
• In Kiln seasoning, timber is places in a chamber with some special
heating arrangement.
• In this process, one thing should be kept in mind that heating
system should be under control, otherwise timber will crack or
warp.
• The time required for this seasoning is 3 to 12 days. This is a quick
process.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Artificial Seasoning

• Chemical Seasoning
• In Chemical Seasoning, carbon dioxide, ammonium carbonate or
urea acts as agents for seasoning. These chemicals are applied in
dry state. The inner surface of the timber dries first, then the outer
side.
• This ensures uniform seasoning .
• The time required for this seasoning is 30 to 40 days.

• Electrical Seasoning
• In this method electric current is passed through the timber logs.
• The time required for this seasoning is 5-8 hours.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Water Seasoning

• In Water Seasoning, timber logs are kept immersed whole in flowing

water.
• The sap present in timber is washed away.
• After that logs are kept out from water and are kept in open air, so water
present in timber would be dried by air.
• The time required for this type of seasoning is 2 – 4 weeks.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
ADVANTAGES OF SEASONED TIMBER
• It has reduced weight
• Strong and durable
• Resistance to decay and rot
• Easier to work with tools of any size
• Lasts longer
• Easily available and can be quickly transported by simple means.
• It is a good sound absorbing material.
• It can be universally employed for both load bearing and non-load
bearing members with equal ease.

DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER
• It requires regular, careful maintenance
• If not properly seasoned or not treated with preservatives, it is likely to
crack, warp and decay.
• It is not likely available, it proves to be costly.
• It is subjected to risk of fire.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
DEFECTS OF TIMBER

Defects caused in timber may be basically classified into two categories :

• Internal Defects – due to factors affecting the growing tissue or the tree.
• External Defects – due to external agents or subsequent treatment of
timber.

The defects in timber can also be grouped into following categories based on
the reason of defect –

• Defects due to conversion

• Defects due to insects
• Defects due to fungi
• Defects due to Natural Forces
• Defects due to seasoning.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Conversion

During the process of converting timber to the commercial form, the following
defects occur –

• Chip Mark – Marks or signs • Diagonal Grain – This defect is

placed by the chips on the formed due to improper sawing of
finished surface of timber. timber. It is indicated by diagonal
marks on straight grained surface
of timber.

• Wane – This defect is denoted by • Torn Grain– Defect caused when

presence of original rounded a small depression is formed on a
surface on manufactured part of finished surface of timber by
timber. falling of timber or so.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Defects due to Insects

Defects may arise in Timber due to Insect activities –

• Defect due to Termites – Termites also known as white ants which form a
colony inside the timber and eat the core part of the timber rapidly. They
do not disturb the outer layer of timber, so one cannot identify their
presence. The trees in tropical and sub-tropical regions are mostly
affected by these termites. However, some trees like Teak, Sal, etc.,
cannot be attacked by termites because of the presence of termite
preventing chemicals in their cellulose part.

• Defects due to Beetles – Beetles are a type of insect that destroy the
sapwood of the tree and make a tunnel-like hole from the bark. Usually,
the diameter of the hole is around 2mm. They convert sapwood into
powder form, and larvae of these beetles use these holes. Almost all
hardwood trees can be prone to damage by these beetles.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Defects due to Insects

• Defect due to Marine Borers – Marine borers are found near coastal
areas. They do not consume wood, but they make large holes of diameter
up to 25mm in the timber to live inside it. They excavated up to 60mm
deep in the wood. The wood attacked by marine borers is of less strength
and discolored. They can attack all types of trees present in their region.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Defects due to Fungi

Defects may arise in Timber due to Fungi activities –

• Dry Rot – Dry rot is caused by a certain type of fungi that eats wood for
their living. They make food by converting timber into dry powder form.
This occurs mainly when there is no ventilation of air or if the wood
improperly seasoned.
Absence of sunlight, dampness, presence of sap will increase the growth
of dry rot, causing fungi. This can be prevented by using well-seasoned
wood and also by painting the timber surface with copper sulfate.

• Wet Rot - Wet rot is caused by fungi that decompose the timber and
convert it into a grayish-brown powder form. Wet rot causing fungi
growths mainly when there are alternate dry and wet conditions of timber.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
Defects due to Fungi

• Brown Rot - The cellulose compounds of the wood are consumed by

certain types of fungi, which then makes the wood brownish, and this
defect is called brown rot.

• White Rot - Some types of fungi attack lignin of timber and leaves
cellulose compounds; hence the wood will turn into white color, which is
called white rot.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Fungi

• Blue Stain - Blue stain is a defect caused by some kind of fungi, which makes
the timber bluish.

• Heart Rot - Heart rot is generated in the trees when fungi attack the
heartwood through its newly formed branch. This type of fungi makes the tree
hollow by consuming heartwood. This defect is known as heart rot.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Fungi

• Sap Stain - When the moisture content in the timber is more than 25%, some
types of fungi attack the sapwood and make it discolored. This type of defect
is known as a sap stain.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Natural Forces

Defects may arise in Timber due to Natural Forces–

• Wind Cracks - If the wood is exposed continuously to the high-speed winds,

the outer surface shrinks and forms crack externally, which are called wind
cracks.

• Shakes - Shakes are nothing but cracks which separate the wood fibers partly
or completely. Different shakes are formed in different conditions as follows:
• Cup shakes are formed due to the non-uniform growth of a tree or
excessive bending by cyclones or winds. In this case, the shakes develop
between annual rings and separate them partly.
• Heart shakes, the other type of shakes which develop in maturity
approaching trees whose inner part is under shrinkage. The shake spread
from pith to sapwood following the directions of medullary rays.
• Ring shakes are similar to cup shakes, but they completely separate the
annual rings.
• Star shakes are formed due to extreme heat or severe frost action. They
develop wider cracks on the outside of timber from bark to the sapwood.
• Radial shakes are developed radially from pith to the bark.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Natural Forces

• Twisted Fibers - When the tree in its younger age is exposed to high-speed
winds, the fibers of wood gets twisted. This type of wood is not suitable for
sawing. So, this can be used for making poles, posts, etc.

• Upsets - Upsets, a defect of timber in which the fibers of the wood are
crushed and compressed by fast blowing winds or inappropriate chopping of
trees.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Natural Forces

• Rind Galls - Rind galls are curved swellings of trees which are formed at a
point where a branch of the tress is improperly removed or fell down.

• Burls - Burls are uneven projections on the body of the tree during its growth.
These are mainly due to the effect of shocks and injuries received by the tree
during its young age.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Natural Forces

• Water Stain – When the wood is in contact with water for some time, the
water will damage the color of the wood and forms a stain o its surface. This
defect is called water stain.

• Chemical Stain - Chemical stain is formed on the wood by the action of any
external chemical agents like reaction by the gases present in the atmosphere
etc. The stain area gets discolored in this defect.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Natural Forces

• Knots – The central part or stem of a tree is majorly used in the conversion of
timber. Branches from the stem are removed, and the whole rounded stem is
taken. But the base of branches forms a mark on the stem, which results in
dark-colored stains on the surface after conversion. This dark-colored stains
are due to the continuity of wood fibers. These dark-colored rings are known
as knots.

Timber Foxiness – When the timber is stored without proper ventilation, the trees
growing near the banks of water bodies and over matured trees may exhibit this
type of defect. Foxiness is generally indicated by red or yellow spots.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Seasoning

Defects may arise in Timber due to Seasoning–

• Bow - When the converted timber is stored for a longer time, some timber
planks may have a curve along its length, which is known as Bow.

• Cup - If the timber planks curve along its width, then it is called Cupping of
timber.

• Check - Check is the formation of a crack in the wood, which will separate the
wood fibers. They form due to over seasoning of timber.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Seasoning

• Split - Split forms when a check extends from one end to the other end,
which will split the wood into a number of pieces.

• Twist - Twist forms when the timber piece is distorted spirally along its length.
It looks like a propeller blade after twisting.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
 Defects due to Seasoning

• Warp – Warping is the loss of shape of wood due to stresses developed

during drying. Cupping, bowing, twisting of wood come under warping.

• Collapse - During drying, some parts of the wood may dry rapidly while some
may not. Because of this, improper drying shrinkage of wood occurs, that
results in the defect called collapse.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
USES OF TIMBER

• It is an important material for furniture making.

• It is used for floors, ceiling and panelling and partition walls.

• It is used for door and window frames & shutters.

• It is ideal for temporary bridges and boat construction

• Soft timber is mostly used for making packing cases.

• High class timber is used for making railway coaches and wagons.

• It is used for making sports goods, musical instruments, agricultural

implements etc.

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
TYPES OF TIMBER
• SOFTWOOD – Softwood is renowned for its versatility and strength.
Sourced from all over the globe, with a large breadth of applications and a
remarkably aesthetic appeal, softwood can be used across a broad range
of internal and external projects – from furniture and flooring to decking,
landscaping, external joinery and structural applications. Softwoods are
more readily available and easily manipulated.

• Cedar – is a softwood. It is light in color with medium fire and

uniform texture and normally has straight figures. It is easy to work
but has less durability; available at approximately Rs.15000/m3. This
wood is more popular for interior accessories.
• Deodar – is also soft quality wood. It is light in color but turns dark
after it is kept exposed to air. It has a fine and uniform texture with
straight grains. Easy to work and has durability; the rate is
approximately Rs.15000/m3.

• HARD AND MEDIUM WOOD – Hardwood is considered the ultimate

versatile material, with applications ranging from exquisite veneers and
furniture, musical instruments, flooring, construction and boatbuilding. It is
a material of real beauty, available in countless combinations of species,
specifications and colors.
• Teak – is a hard wood, light golden-brown in colour, has very coarse
uneven texture with normally straight grains figures. It is hard to
work upon. Durable and has resistance to the decay; available
under different names, e.g., Burma Teak etc. The rate of the teak
varies from Rs. 16000-Rs.30000/m3.
• Ebony – is a hardwood, dark brown or jet black in colour, has a very
fine uniform texture with normally straight grain figures. It is hard to
work upon. Durable and has resistance to fungus, the rate of ebony
varies from Rs1600-Rs30000/m3

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
TYPES OF TIMBER

• Mahogany – is a hard wood, dark reddish brown in colour, has very

medium fine and uniform texture with normally straight grain figures.
It is easy to work upon. Not naturally durable the rate of Mahogany
varies from Rs18000 – Rs 35000 /m3.
• Oak – is a hardwood, light brown in colour, has very coarse texture
with normally straight figures. It is hard to work upon. Durable and
has resistance to decay, the rate of Oak varies from Rs 16000 –
Rs29000 / m3. Indian
• Indian Rosewood – is a hard wood yellowish dull brown or purple in
colour, has coarse, uniform texture with normally straight grains &
dark figures. It is not easy to work upon. Durable and has resistance
to decay. The rate of Indian rosewood varies from Rs18000 – Rs
37000/m3.

• WOOD BASED PRODUCT – The timber is converted into commercial

sizes for use other than the logs and planks. Other commercial products
made from timber are known as wood products. Following are the forms
of wood products :
• Veneers
• Plywood
• Fibre Board
• Block Board
• Batten Board
• Hard Board

CINDREBAY, Kochi
Ar. Rishma
TYPES OF TIMBER

• Mahogany – is a hard wood, dark reddish brown in colour, has very

medium fine and uniform texture with normally straight grain figures.
It is easy to work upon. Not naturally durable the rate of Mahogany
varies from Rs18000 – Rs 35000 /m3.
• Oak – is a hardwood, light brown in colour, has very coarse texture
with normally straight figures. It is hard to work upon. Durable and
has resistance to decay, the rate of Oak varies from Rs 16000 –
Rs29000 / m3. Indian
• Indian Rosewood – is a hard wood yellowish dull brown or purple in
colour, has coarse, uniform texture with normally straight grains &
dark figures. It is not easy to work upon. Durable and has resistance
to decay. The rate of Indian rosewood varies from Rs18000 – Rs
37000/m3.

• WOOD BASED PRODUCT – The timber is converted into commercial

sizes for use other than the logs and planks. Other commercial products
made from timber are known as wood products. Following are the forms
of wood products :
• Veneers
• Plywood
• Fibre Board
• Block Board
• Batten Board
• Hard Board

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STEEL

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WHAT IS A STEEL??

• Steel is an allot of an iron and carbon. It is an intermediate form between

cast iron and wrought iron.
• Cast iron contains the maximum amount of carbon about 2 -4% whereas
wrought iron contains the least i.e., not more than 0.15%. In steel, the
carbon content varies from anything below 0.25% - 1.50%.
• Steel has remarkably good properties like hardness, ductility and tensile
strength. Steel can be used for both – Compressive as well as tensile
purposes and hence it is the most important basic material & has its
application n practically all the spheres of engineering.

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MARKET FORMS OF STEEL

Following are the standard shapes in which the rolled stell sections are available
in the market :
• Angle Sections • Flat Bars

• Channel Sections • Plates

• Corrugated Sheets • Ribbed-torque steel bars

• Expanded Metal • Round Bars

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• Square Bars
• Square Bars

• T – Sections

• I - Sections

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PROPERTIES OF STEEL

• It is strong, elastic and ductile.

• It can be magnetized

• It rusts easily

• Alteration of properties is possible by heat treatment

USES OF STEEL

It is used in manufacture of the following –

• Blades, drills, turning tools, stone cutting tools

• Machine parts, gears, shafts, springs

• Pipes, nails, tubes, wires, soft sheets, motor body

• Bars, boilerplates, rails, screw drivers, locomotive parts

• Files, slotting tools, etc.

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PLASTIC

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WHAT IS A PLASTIC??

• Plastic is a synthetic material made from a wide range of organic

polymers such as polyethylene, PVC, Nylon, etc, that can be moulded into
shape while soft, and then set into a rigid or slightly elastic form.

COMPOSITION OF PLASTIC

• Organic Polymer + Carbon + Oxygen + Nitrogen + Sulphur

• Organic Polymers may include , Chalk, Starch, Ivory, Dust, Wood, Zinc
oxide

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CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTIC

There are many ways of classifying plastics. They can be classified considering
various aspects :
• Behaviour with respect to heating
• Structure, and
• Physical and Mechanical properties.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON BEHAVIOUR WITH RESPECT TO HEATING

• Thermoplastics
• The thermoplastic or heat non-convertible group is the general term
applied to the plastics which becomes soft when heated and hard
when cooled.
• Thermoplastic materials can be cooled and heated several times.
• They can be recycled.
• When thermoplastics are heated, they melt to a liquid. They also
freeze to a glassy state when cooled enough.
• Thermoplastic can be moulded into any shape.
• It may melt before passing to a gaseous state.
• Allow plastic deformation when it is heated.
• They are brittle and glossy
• They are soluble in certain solvents.
• Swell in the presence of certain solvents
• Good resistance to creep

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• Thermoplastics
• The thermo setting or heat convertible group is the general term
applied to the plastics which become rigid when molded at suitable
pressure and temperature.
• This type of plastic passes originally through thermo-plastic stage.
When they are heated in temperature range of 127 ͦ C to 177 ͦ C, they
set permanently and further application of heat does not alter their
form or soften them.
• But at the temperature of about 343 ͦ C, the charring occurs. This
charring is a peculiar characteristic of the organic substances.
• These are soluble in alcohol and certain organic solvents, when they
are in thermo-plastic stage. This property is utilized for making paints
and varnishes from these plastics.
• They are available in a variety of beautiful colors.
• Good dimensional stability, excellent mechanical and electrical
properties, good resistance to heat and chemicals
• Application –
• laminated panels, handles, knobs, electrical components;
connectors, insulators.
• Electronic chips
• Fiber reinforced composite
• Polymeric coatings
• Dental fillings

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ADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS

• Corrosion Resistance
• Low electrical and thermal conductivity, insulator
• Easily formed into complex shapes, can be formed, casted and joined.
• Wide choice of appearance, colours and transparencies.

DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS

• Low strength
• Low useful temperature range (up to 600 degree Fahrenheit)
• Aging effect, hardens and become brittle over time.
• Sensitive to environment, moisture and chemicals
• Poor machinability

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END OF MODULE

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Ar. Rishma