Optimizing Management REVIEW ARTICLE


of Medically Responsive C O N T I N U UM A U D I O
I NT E R V I E W A V A I L AB L E
ONLINE

Epilepsy
By Derek Bauer, MD; Mark Quigg, MD, MSc, FANA, FAES

ABSTRACT
PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This article reviews the management of patients with
medically responsive epilepsy, including discussion of factors that may
lead to transient breakthrough seizures and patient and physician
strategies to maintain freedom from seizures.

RECENT FINDINGS:Imperfect adherence, unanticipated changes in ongoing

medical therapy, inadvertent use of proconvulsants or concurrent CITE AS:
medications that alter epilepsy medication kinetics, and a variety of CONTINUUM (MINNEAP MINN)
2019;25(2, EPILEPSY):343–361.
seizure precipitants such as stress or sleep deprivation may alter long-term
seizure control. Address correspondence to
Dr Mark Quigg, Department of
Neurology, University of Virginia,
SUMMARY: The majority of patients with epilepsy are medically responsive.
PO Box 800394, Charlottesville,
Many potential factors may lead to breakthrough seizures in these VA 22908, [email protected].
patients. Identification of these factors, patient education, and use of
RELATIONSHIP DISCLOSURE:
self-management techniques including mindfulness therapy and Dr Bauer is a site subinvestigator
cognitive-behavioral therapy may play a role in protecting patients with for GWEP-1521, a double-blind,
epilepsy against breakthrough seizures. randomized, placebo-
controlled study to investigate
the efficacy and safety of
cannabidiol as add-on therapy
in patients with tuberous
INTRODUCTION sclerosis complex who

M
experience inadequately
uch of the neurologist’s attention in the evaluation and care of controlled seizures. Dr Quigg
the patient with epilepsy is devoted to the goal of seizure has received research/grant
remission. Continuing seizures confer higher risks of health support as principal investigator
of studies from the National
care use, underemployment or unemployment, or sudden Institutes of Health/National
death. Once the hard work of seizure remission has succeeded, Institute of Neurological
however, less attention is sometimes paid to staying seizure free. This article Disorders and Stroke, the
University of Virginia Brain
reviews the maintenance of patients with medically responsive epilepsy, Institute, and ZETO Inc. Dr Quigg
including discussion of factors that may lead to transient breakthrough seizures has received publishing
royalties from Elsevier and has
and patient and physician strategies to maintain freedom from seizures. given expert medical testimony.

UNLABELED USE OF
DEFINITIONS AND INCIDENCE PRODUCTS/INVESTIGATIONAL
USE DISCLOSURE:
Of the 50 million people worldwide and the 3.4 million people in the Drs Bauer and Quigg report no
United States with epilepsy (roughly 1.2% of the population), two-thirds will disclosures.
become seizure free with appropriate pharmacotherapy.1 Many of these patients
will remain reliably seizure free, but some will have their daily routine © 2019 American Academy
interrupted by breakthrough seizures. of Neurology.

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

KEY POINT Breakthrough seizures—the primary topic of this article—must be

distinguished from two other possibly confusing entities. First, reflex epilepsies
● Approximately two-thirds
of patients with epilepsy will
are those in which seizures are provoked objectively and consistently by specific
become seizure free with stimuli or activities in patients who otherwise lack spontaneous seizures.2 For
pharmacotherapy. example, reading epilepsy does not fall into the scope of this review. Second,
acute symptomatic seizures occur in patients with or without epilepsy and are
provoked at the time of an acute, and usually severe, epileptic insult.3 Examples
of acute symptomatic seizures include those provoked by proconvulsant
medications, illicit drug or alcohol withdrawal, traumatic head injury, or renal
dialysis. Although the measures reviewed in this article may help susceptible
individuals, the focus of this article is on maintaining seizure freedom (ie,
avoidance of the breakthrough seizure) in a patient with known epilepsy.
A breakthrough seizure is defined as one that occurs despite the use of
antiseizure medications that have otherwise successfully prevented seizures in
the patient in the past. The duration of the seizure remission period (the
minimum interseizure interval) needed to be considered seizure free varies with
inherent seizure frequency. The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE)
defines seizure free or medically responsive epilepsy as seizure freedom for
12 months or 3 times the longest previous interseizure interval, whichever is
longer.4 This definition is handily referred to as “the rule of three.”
Other studies define the durations of seizure remission differently. Later
analyses with the use of Bayesian techniques suggests the “rule of three to six,”
whereby those with a high preintervention probability of seizure freedom should
be without seizures for 3 times the previous interseizure interval prior to being
considered seizure free, while those that have low preintervention probability of
seizure freedom should wait up to 6 times the previous interseizure interval.5
Clinical research has varied from the ILAE definition of seizure freedom. For
example, in a study of patients with seizures presenting to the emergency
department, Divino and colleagues6 defined breakthrough seizures as those that
occurred more than 6 months from the previous seizure that were not clearly
associated with antiseizure medication nonadherence. Alternatively, in a
secondary analysis of a large comparison of new versus standard antiseizure
medications, Bonnett and colleagues7 required at least 12 months of seizure
freedom for a recurrent seizure to be considered breakthrough. For the purposes
of this review, seizure freedom follows the standard ILAE definition.
The estimated prevalence or incidence of breakthrough seizures varies widely
by definition and sample. A Ugandan study estimated prevalence in a sample of
267 patients, of which 74% experienced breakthrough seizures; interseizure
interval was not defined.8 In an English sample of more than 2000 patients in a
prospective, observational trial of standard versus newer antiepileptic drugs
(the SANAD [Standard and New Antiepileptic Drugs] trial9), the investigators
defined breakthrough seizures as those that recurred after at least 12 months of
remission regardless of previous seizure frequency.7 The incidence of
breakthrough seizures was 37%.

CONSEQUENCES AND COSTS

As CASE 3-1 illustrates, breakthrough seizures can result in interruptions of
schedules, potential injuries, or loss of work or driving privileges. Breakthrough
seizures may place patients at worse risk because circumstances and activities are
less restrained than those with continuing seizures. Seizures may result in motor

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 A 19-year-old woman presented to the emergency department for a CASE 3-1
generalized tonic-clonic seizure witnessed by her college roommate. She
had a history of juvenile myoclonic epilepsy and had been seizure free on
lamotrigine 100 mg 2 times a day from her junior year in high school (near
the time of onset) to her second year in college (the time of her
presentation to the emergency department).
She admitted to occasionally missing her lamotrigine morning dose,
but she wasn’t sure whether she had missed a dose on the day of this
seizure.
Her medication had been recently refilled, and the generic pill she
was accustomed to had changed manufacturers (and thus possible
pharmacokinetic properties). She had also recently started oral
contraceptives. Upon further questioning, she noted that she had just
finished a term paper that had required relatively sleepless nights.
Because she presented with a head contusion from her seizure and was
initially sleepy and disoriented after her seizure, she underwent a head
CT, which was normal. Further laboratory testing in the emergency
department showed that her lamotrigine level was 2 mcg/mL (lower limit
of reference range >2.5 mcg/mL). During the neurology consultation in
the emergency department, her gynecologist was contacted, and it was
determined that she had been placed on a progesterone-only oral
contraceptive, which was thought unlikely to be a contributing factor to
low lamotrigine levels.
Given the patient’s self-reported issues with adherence, her pharmacy
was contacted. The patient filled her monthly lamotrigine prescription 9
times out of the prescribed 12 months. The medication possession ratio of
0.75 would suggest that she is missing the medication at least 25%
of the time. Based upon this evidence, it was determined her seizure was
most likely due to nonadherence. To address this, her lamotrigine was
changed from 100 mg 2 times a day to 200 mg 1 time a day of the extended
release formulation. In addition, she was counseled to maintain a regular
sleep schedule.
Following the emergency department visit, she missed a day of classes
and was prohibited from driving for 6 months.

This case illustrates an example of a breakthrough seizure. Breakthrough COMMENT

seizures interrupt a period of apparent seizure remission in a patient with
known epilepsy. The costs in terms of injury, time, health care utilization,
and employment can be considerable.
This case also displays the many factors that need to be considered with
breakthrough seizures. Medication interactions, adherence, as well as the
presence of possible seizure precipitants are all impediments to sustained
seizure freedom. In this patient’s case, the significance of her intermittent
nonadherence was only made clear through discussion with her pharmacy.
With adjustment of her antiseizure medication regimen to once-daily dosing,
the patient was able to more reliably take her medication and once again
achieved long-term seizure freedom.

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

vehicle injuries or other trauma. Breakthrough seizures may present as status

epilepticus,10 and higher rates of seizures and antiseizure medication
nonadherence are associated with sudden unexpected death in epilepsy
(SUDEP).11 Economic costs follow trauma and morbidity. In a case-control study
of those with breakthrough seizures, cases had significantly higher rates of
hospitalization and emergency department visits compared with controls and
higher total all-cause direct health care costs (median $12,714 versus $5095). All
told, patients with breakthrough seizures had 2.3 times higher adjusted health
care costs and 8.1 times higher adjusted epilepsy-related costs than controls.6
In the longitudinal management of patients with medically responsive
epilepsy, the primary goal should be to maintain seizure freedom without side
effects from antiseizure medication. The neurologist should be aware of the
significant nonadherence issues inherent with chronic medication management,
be vigilant for potential medication factors or interactions that can affect stable
antiseizure medication kinetics, and identify common seizure precipitants.
Management of these issues requires both physician expertise and buy-in from
the patient.
An increasingly expanding body of literature exists regarding patient
participation and empowerment in the long-term care of epilepsy, known as
self-management, which is defined as “activities or steps that an individual or
family can perform that are known to either control the frequency of seizures or
promote the well-being of the person with seizures.”12 In other words, the
maintenance of seizure freedom is best achieved when the physician and patient
are reading from the same playbook.

RISK FACTORS FOR BREAKTHROUGH SEIZURES

Risks for breakthrough seizures have not been uniformly studied. In multivariate
analyses of patients in the SANAD trial, three factors were found to be robust
predictors of seizure recurrence: a history of neurologic insult defined as learning
disability or a focal neurologic deficit resulting in functional impairment, the
total number of tonic-clonic seizures recorded before achieving 12-month
remission, and time taken to achieve 12-month remission.7
Although valuable for general prognosis of the potential and incidence of
breakthrough seizures, the SANAD study, however, did not evaluate variables
that could be modified by the physician or patient. Only two studies consisting of
surveys of patients with breakthrough seizures have enumerated these factors
in comparative fashion.8,13 Both studies found that antiseizure medication
adherence was the leading factor associated with breakthrough seizures (27% to
56%). Other factors fell into the broad category of seizure precipitants and will
be discussed in the appropriate section below.

ADHERENCE
Treatment adherence is an important factor in maintenance of seizure control,
and a gentle skepticism while taking a history of adherence helps both the
physician and patient.

Prevalence and Measurements of Antiseizure Medication Adherence

Nonadherence is not confined to epilepsy. The World Health Organization
estimates that medication nonadherence across all diseases is 50% worldwide.14
Patients in US clinical drug trials for a variety of diseases demonstrate adherence

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at rates ranging from 43% to 78%.15 Despite being an endemic issue, the KEY POINTS
characterization of medication adherence, including in patients with epilepsy, is
● Comparatively little
limited by lack of standardization in definitions and measurements.15,16 For evidence exists for
example, adherence may be characterized by dose adherence (ie, taking the evaluating risk factors for
proper number of pills of a medication in a given time interval) or by interval breakthrough seizures. The
adherence (ie, taking medication in the prescribed intervals between doses). The available data suggest that
nonadherence is the most
most tangible example of dose adherence is pill count, which provides an
important factor leading to
objective measure of the number of pills taken over a period of time. Interval breakthrough seizures.
adherence may be assessed through patient diary or electronic monitoring
technology. A practical adherence measurement in this area is the medication ● Antiseizure medication
possession ratio, the ratio of total days with available medication to total days nonadherence is common
and should be screened for
prescribed. A medication possession ratio of less than 0.8 is generally considered when a patient’s seizures are
nonadherent.16 This threshold translates to missing 3 doses a week in a uncontrolled.
twice-daily dosing regimen, which is an eye-opening rate to most physicians.
Given this threshold, the proportion of patients who miss 3 or more doses per ● Increasing complexity of
the antiseizure medication
week ranges between 26% and 79%, with a suggested overall rate of 40%.16 regimen, including
Patients who are nonadherent may change patterns of nonadherence over increased dosing frequency
time. Modi and colleagues17 found that rather than fitting into a binary adherent or increased numbers of
or nonadherent paradigm, patients fell into four different patterns of adherence medications, is associated
with an increased risk of
during long-term antiseizure medication therapy: high adherence, moderate
medication nonadherence.
adherence, severe early nonadherence, and variable nonadherence. In that study,
15% of patients displayed shifts among groups over the course of follow-up.
Another clinically important example of variable adherence is so-called “white
coat compliance,” which is marked by improving patient adherence in the days
around a physician office visit. This has been found in both pediatric and adult
epilepsy populations, with a reported increase in adherence around the time of
office visits ranging from 5% to 15%.18,19

Risk Factors for Antiseizure Medication Nonadherence

Frequent daily dosing is the traditional explanation for medication nonadherence.
With the use of pill bottles fitted with an electronic dose counter, Cramer
and colleagues20 found that antiseizure medication adherence dropped with
frequency: 87% adherence with 1 time a day, 81% with 2 times a day, 77% with
3 times a day, and 39% with 4 times a day. This study also compared other
measures of nonadherence and found that neither drug levels nor pill counts
correlated accurately with the electronic dose counter, finding that the first
two overestimated adherence. In line with this reasoning were later studies
using pill count techniques that failed to confirm frequency-adherence
relationships.21
Antiseizure medication polytherapy may also be an important barrier to
adherence.13,21–23 Ferrari and colleagues23 found nonadherence rates of 55% for
those receiving monotherapy compared to 71% for those receiving polytherapy.
Demographics such as age and sex have no consistent effects on adherence.13,21–23
In the authors’ experience in a tertiary epilepsy clinic, the span between late
adolescence and early adulthood appears to be an especially challenging time for
adherence as patients begin to act independently. The few studies that have
specifically examined this age group tend to agree, with adolescents or young
adults demonstrating worse adherence than younger children.8,24,25
Socioeconomic factors play a role in antiseizure medication adherence. For
example, in a study centered specifically on adherence in pediatric patients with

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

epilepsy, lower socioeconomic status was the sole factor associated with
nonadherence.17 At the other end of the age spectrum, adherence in elderly
adults measured from prescription refill counts (proportion of days covered, a
measurement related to medication possession ratio) in Medicare Part D found
that zip codes in high poverty areas were more likely to be nonadherent than
those from zip codes in wealthier areas.26
Race has also been shown to correlate with antiseizure medication
nonadherence, with minority patients, especially those who identified as African
American, at higher risk of nonadherence. In an indigent care clinic (a sample
considered as a leveling factor for wealth), compared with white patients,
African American patients had lower adherence equivalent to 2 days of missed
antiseizure medications per month in a twice daily regimen.27 In the
population-based study by Piper and colleagues,26 adherence was worse among
African American patients (40%) compared with white patients (29%).
Lastly, psychiatric factors such as mood, anxiety, or cognition may play roles
in adherence. A 2017 report from Wang and colleagues28 suggested that
moderate to severe anxiety was associated with nearly a threefold risk of
nonadherence while social support may offer some degree of protection.
Similarly, Ettinger and colleagues29 found that depression was associated with
medication nonadherence as well as poorer quality of life, although this was not
consistent across all metrics studied.

Improving Antiseizure Medication Adherence

Methods to improve antiseizure medication adherence have not been
systemically compared, but many commonly used techniques are available to the
experienced physician (TABLE 3-1). Traditionally, clinicians have depended on
what some could dub the “doomsayer approach,” pulling out verbal tarot cards
predicting, for the nonadherent, woes ranging from possible antiseizure
medication adverse effects, trauma, loss of employment, loss of driving
privileges, and the ultimate trump card, SUDEP. Although the last gets the
attention of parents and loved ones, mortality can be an abstract concept to
younger people.
Reminders may aid in adherence; those patients with smartphones enjoy a
host of medication reminder–specific apps as well as a sophisticated calendar
system that can be programmed for regular medication reminders. Less

TABLE 3-1 Methods to Aid in Antiseizure Medication Adherence

Type of Method Intervention

Reminders Smartphone alarm, smartphone app, pill box, premeasured pill packets

Supervision Recruitment of family or friends, home health care, pill dispensers/

compliance auditors, school administration

Medication Change from antiseizure medication with short half-life to one with
long half-life, fill every 3 months instead of every month, alter
scheduling to coincide with other cues

Programmatic Behavioral counseling, educational counseling

intervention

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technical, common techniques include explicit medication lists, pill boxes, and KEY POINTS
for those patients or families who are less literate, prepackaged “blister packs”
● Many demographic
can be available that contain fixed and clearly labeled antiseizure factors may convey an
medication doses. increased risk of
Antiseizure medication supervision can aid patients who are nonadherent. nonadherence, including
Recruiting family members or friends is the most common approach, but some socioeconomic status and
race, although other factors
patients may require, depending on availability, scheduled compliance checks by
such as gender and age are
home health care providers. Pediatric patients whose parents may have not clearly associated with
cognitive, social, or schedule problems can be helped by altering antiseizure increased risk.
medication scheduling to guarantee that at least a morning or afternoon dose is
dispensed at school rather than at home. ● Current data suggest that
adherence may be improved
The wily physician can sometimes aid adherence by altering antiseizure by increasing patient
medication scheduling, eg, advising that doses can be taken with meals or with education and providing
other cues rather than adhering to more “perfect” on-the-clock equal intervals. feedback to address
Formulations can be manipulated; patients with trouble remembering their twice concerns that may be
obstacles to adherence.
daily antiseizure medication may improve with an extended release once daily
formulation. Families who may have problems with monthly paychecks not
extending to the end of the month or who have travel problems sometimes
can benefit from antiseizure medications dispensed in 3-month rather than
1-month refills.
Finally, patients with persistent nonadherence may benefit from a more
systematic approach derived from cognitive-behavioral techniques.30 A few
recent randomized controlled trials with small populations have evaluated
various self-management interventions to improve adherence. Dash and
colleagues31 investigated the effect of educational intervention upon patient
adherence. This study compared 90 participants in the active intervention group
who received guided content including basic information about epilepsy and
antiseizure medications, rationales for treatment, and techniques for coping with
epilepsy, which was randomized against control participants who received
standard care. Participants in the intervention arm demonstrated a statistically
significant improvement in adherence questionnaire scores as well as decreased
seizure frequency.
Pakpour and colleagues32 compared 137 participants who were randomly
assigned to behavioral therapy that targeted antiseizure medication adherence
via counseling sessions that occurred 3 times a week that reinforced the need for
adherence, explored patient concerns that may cause nonadherence, and
reviewed methods to overcome these concerns against 138 control participants
and found that 60% of the participants in the intervention group compared with
38% of controls had antiseizure medication levels within reference range
6 months postintervention.
Tang and colleagues33 evaluated two types of intervention: 59 participants
were randomly assigned to receive medication education alone (that included
monthly calls from a pharmacist) versus 65 participants who received a
combination of this educational intervention plus behavioral intervention that
targeted systematic medication scheduling. Although there was no significant
difference between the two groups in follow-up analysis, both groups
experienced improved adherence and reduction in seizure frequency.
In summary, current data suggest that adherence may be improved by
increasing patient education and providing feedback to address concerns that
may be obstacles to adherence. Overall, relatively few randomized controlled

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

studies have evaluated methods to improve adherence in patients with epilepsy,

which was recently highlighted in a systematic review by da Mota Gomes and
colleagues.30 These studies demonstrate that short-term antiseizure medication
adherence can improve with active intervention.

Antiseizure Medication Monitoring

Expert guidelines suggest a limited but important role for antiseizure
medication monitoring via serum concentrations.34 Once a treatment regimen
is deemed effective, a trough antiseizure medication concentration can
establish a proper baseline by which to judge future problems such as toxicities
or changes in effectiveness, such as breakthrough seizures or suspected
nonadherence. Antiseizure medication levels can be obtained either in
anticipation of or in the face of changes in health or development that may
perturb steady-state levels, such as in children when they are rapidly growing,
changes in clearance as the result of aging or hepatic-renal disease, or
pregnancy. Drug levels may be helpful when encountering possible formulation
variability or pharmacokinetic interactions when coinciding medications change.
However, regular, routine blood level monitoring of antiseizure medications
is generally not needed and can even be harmful if an effective regimen is
altered because the result falls outside the “normal” range. Note that nearly every
indication for monitoring provided in expert guidelines depends on changes
of levels within individuals, not on comparison of an individual to grouped
ranges. The interpretation of normal should be done cautiously because there
can be considerable variability of reference ranges across different laboratories.35
Most importantly, what is normal for one patient may be toxic or ineffective
for another. In short, serum concentrations are only part of the story; dose
adjustments should not be made on the basis of levels alone but should be
performed when guided by the patient’s clinical state.

Antiseizure Medication Instability, Interactions, and Proconvulsants

Some patients maintain rigorous adherence but experience breakthrough
seizures arising from unanticipated changes in previously stable and effective
antiseizure medication regimens.

MEDICATION OR OTHER INTERACTIONS THAT MAY LOWER ANTISEIZURE MEDICATION

LEVELS. Antiseizure medication levels may drop unexpectedly in a previously
stable antiseizure medication regimen. Interactions between antiseizure
medications, between other medications and antiseizure medications, or from
dietary intake may affect antiseizure medication levels.
While a comprehensive listing of all interactions that result in the lowering
of antiseizure medication levels is too extensive for this review, examples of
significant interactions are discussed. Common in the authors’ clinical
experience is the interaction considered in the patient in CASE 3-1: the induced
metabolism of lamotrigine by estrogen. Estrogen-containing compounds (as well
as the menstrual elevation of estrogen in the menstrual phase of the menstrual
cycle) act as inducers of the uridine 5'-diphospho-glucuronosyltransferase
enzyme, which, in turn, metabolizes lamotrigine, resulting in an approximately
50% decrease in lamotrigine levels.36,37 Progesterone, on the other hand, has
little effect on lamotrigine.32 Although interactions with enzyme-inducing
antiseizure medications such as phenytoin and carbamazepine also feature

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similar interactions with lamotrigine, since antiseizure medications are typically KEY POINT
prescribed by neurologists and estrogens are typically prescribed by non-
● Medications and
neurologists, dips in effective lamotrigine levels are more apt to arise unexpectedly supplements may cause
because of the introduction of drugs that are not antiseizure medications. seizures, either through
A similar underappreciated but apparent interaction in the authors’ interactions with antiseizure
clinical practice is between phenytoin and tobacco. Tobacco is an established medication or through
proconvulsant properties.
inducer of multiple cytochrome P450 isoenzymes.38 The clinical significance of
this is poorly documented, but there is at least one case report of phenytoin
toxicity reported with smoking cessation.39 In the authors’ experience, tobacco
smoking may result in lowered phenytoin levels that persist despite attempts at
increasing doses, leading to the perception of nonadherence.
Medication interactions are not limited to prescribed medications; over-the-
counter medications or herbal preparations should also be routinely considered
in patients with medication-responsive epilepsy. More than 50% of patients
with epilepsy use herbs and dietary supplements, and 29% of those do not report
these exposures to their physicians.40 TABLE 3-2 contains a listing of commonly
used herbal supplements that either decrease antiseizure medication levels or
decrease seizure threshold.41,42
An example of an herb-drug interaction in epilepsy is ginkgo biloba, which is a
known hepatic enzyme inducer and has been previously shown to decrease levels
of phenytoin and valproate, which, in turn, has been documented to lead to
breakthrough seizures.41 The repercussions from such interactions can be
substantial and even deadly as at least one case report exists of seizure-related
death (a drowning) occurring because of the antiseizure medication–lowering
effects of gingko use.43

PROCONVULSANTS. As noted above, many common supplements

( TABLE 3-2) and prescription medications (TABLE 3-3)44 may lower seizure
threshold. In the authors’ experience, the ubiquitous beta-lactam antibiotics
(eg, ampicillin), which are frequently used in children who are febrile, ill, or
sleep deprived, can, in the setting of epilepsy, lower seizure threshold enough
to facilitate subsequent seizures. Certain psychotropic medications are also
associated with an increased risk of breakthrough seizures. For example,
bupropion is a commonly prescribed medication for either depression or
smoking cessation. Bupropion is thought to confer a dose-dependent lowering
of seizure threshold or emergence of epileptiform EEG abnormalities.45,46 A
limitation of this literature is that reports have focused on the emergence of
seizures or EEG findings in the general population; studies have not focused on
the specific risk to patients with epilepsy.

SWITCHING ANTIEPILEPTIC DRUGS. Breakthrough seizures may be precipitated

by well-intended iatrogenesis. Changing of antiseizure medications may occur
in a medically responsive patient when faced with a host of antiseizure
medication–related problems. For example, the child with unexpectedly poor
school performance or the adult with severe osteoporosis may require antiseizure
medication switching; or an anticipated medical condition such as planned
pregnancy may require replacement of teratogenic valproate with an antiseizure
medication with less fetal adverse effects, and an upcoming organ transplant
may require replacement of an antiseizure medication with one without
interactions with immunosuppressant drugs.

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

Switching antiseizure medications in patients with medically responsive

epilepsy is not without risk. A 2016 prospective study of patients with epilepsy
undergoing an antiseizure medication switch versus controls who were
maintained on current therapy suggested an approximate 15% increased risk of
breakthrough seizure activity over the next 6 months.47
Sometimes the prescribing hand of the physician is not forced by medical
concerns but by patients’ financial limitations. Much controversy surrounds
denials by third-party payers for coverage of brand name antiseizure
medications and subsequent “forced” replacement with theoretically equivalent
generic antiseizure medications. The data regarding brand name to generic

TABLE 3-2 Common Medicinal Herbs, Primary Uses, and Effects on Lowering of
Seizure Threshold or Antiseizure Medication Levelsa

Herb Typical Use Proconvulsant Effect

Asafoetida Memory, mood, sedative Lowering of seizure threshold

Borage Fever, diuretic Lowering of seizure threshold,

lowering of antiseizure medication levels

Ephedra Cold, flu, respiratory Lowering of seizure threshold

Ergot Migraine Lowering of seizure threshold

Eucalyptus Cold, flu, respiratory Lowering of seizure threshold

Evening Weight loss, menstrual Lowering of seizure threshold,

primrose pain lowering of antiseizure medication effects

Ginkgo biloba Memory, mood Lowering of seizure threshold,

lowering of antiseizure medication levels

Ginseng Mood, erectile Lowering of seizure threshold

dysfunction

Pennyroyal Abortion, menses Lowering of seizure threshold

induction

Sage Hyperlipidemia, Lowering of seizure threshold

gastrointestinal
symptoms

Shankhpushpi Memory Lowering of antiseizure medication levels

(Ayurveda)

Star anise Colic, gastrointestinal Lowering of seizure threshold

symptoms

Star fruit Diuretic Lowering of seizure threshold

Wormwood Gastrointestinal Lowering of seizure threshold

symptoms

Yohimbine Erectile dysfunction Lowering of seizure threshold, lowering of

antiseizure medication levels

a
Data from Samuels N, et al, Epilepsia,41 and Tyagi A, et al, Epilepsia.42

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interchange are mixed, although the data increasingly support efficacy of
generics, as recent large-scale prospective and retrospective investigations
support bioequivalence between brand name antiseizure medications and
generic substitutions approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
with overall no statistical difference in seizure frequency.48,49 However, older
single-site studies have suggested that brand name to generic antiseizure
medication exchanges are poorly tolerated.50 Current data also suggest that
switching between different generic formulations of the same antiseizure
medication is not associated with increased seizures.51 Physicians should be
vigilant about patient adherence during the initial interchange between brand
and generic formulations, as evidence suggests that changes in pill appearance
may increase the risk of nonadherence.52 These data led the American Epilepsy
Society to recommend routine counseling about possible changes in color and
shape in generic antiseizure medication substitutions in its 2016 position
statement on the topic of generic pharmacotherapy.53

Seizure Precipitants
Seizure precipitants are “any endogenous or exogenous factor that promotes the
occurrence of epileptic seizures.”54 Seizure precipitants are different from acute
symptomatic seizures in that healthy individuals will not seize when exposed to a

Drug-Drug Interactions That Depress Antiseizure Medication Levelsa TABLE 3-3

Medications That Decrease

Antiseizure Medication Antiseizure Medication Levels
Brivaracetam Rifampin

Clonazepam, other benzodiazepines Rifampin, enzyme-inducing antiseizure

medications

Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

(eg, phenytoin, carbamazepine, primidone)

Eslicarbazepine acetate, oxcarbazepine Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

Felbamate Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

Lamotrigine Rifampin, estrogen, lopinavir/ritonavir,

enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

Primidone Diuretics

Perampanel Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

(not primidone)

Rufinamide Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

Tiagabine Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

Topiramate Phenytoin, carbamazepine

Valproate/valproic acid Carbapenem antibiotics

Zonisamide Enzyme-inducing antiseizure medications

a
Modified with permission from Vossler DG, et al, Epilepsy Curr.44 © 2018 American Epilepsy Society.

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

seizure precipitant, while patients with and without epilepsy may seize in the
face of severe brain or systemic insults, which typify acute symptomatic
seizures.3 The reported prevalence of seizure precipitants varies widely based
on practice setting. A study of a community-based practice found the prevalence
of all precipitants to be 47%, while rates range higher, between 62% and 97%,
at tertiary epilepsy centers54–56 Despite a significantly wide range of estimates
of the overall prevalence of seizure precipitants, data regarding specific
patient-reported seizure precipitants are remarkably consistent, with stress,
sleep deprivation, and fatigue being the most commonly documented
(FIGURE 3-1).54–56 Patients with different epilepsy syndromes probably have
different susceptibilities among precipitants. For example, in the study by Frucht
and colleagues,54 patients with temporal lobe epilepsy cited sleep (as opposed to
sleep deprivation) as a precipitant disproportionately less frequently than
syndromes such as nontemporal focal epilepsy or idiopathic generalized epilepsy.

STRESS AND FATIGUE. The most commonly reported seizure precipitant is

54–56
stress. The original study of precipitant prevalence by Frucht and
colleagues54 documented that 30% of adult patients surveyed cited stress as a
clear precipitant. In this study, more women (36%) than men (24%) cited stress,
and the syndrome most susceptible to stress was temporal lobe epilepsy. Fatigue
is a reported seizure precipitant in 13% to 15% of patients.54–56 Isolating fatigue
as a seizure precipitant is difficult, as evidence suggests that emotional stress,
fatigue, and sleep deprivation are correlated with one another.54 Stress, sleep
deprivation, and fatigue are likely interrelated and may share a common
pathophysiology.54 Experimental models of epilepsy support the hypothesis
that stress, especially early exposure during brain development, facilitates
epileptogenic changes in stress-dependent neurotransmitters and hormone
levels within the brain.57 Observations of mass stress in humans echo animal
findings; for example, seizure control worsened shortly after the terror attacks in
the United States on September 11, 2001.58

FIGURE 3-1
Distribution of seizure precipitants for 400 adult patients surveyed at a tertiary care
epilepsy clinic.
Reprinted with permission from Frucht MM, et al, Epilepsia.54 © 2000 John Wiley and Sons.

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SLEEP DEPRIVATION AND INSOMNIA. Sleep deprivation is also a frequently KEY POINTS
documented seizure precipitant, estimated to occur in 18% to 25% of patients.54,56,59
● Switching antiseizure
Although sleep deprivation correlates highly with stress and fatigue, sleep medications may result in
deprivation and insomnia require separate discussions because of the history seizure recurrence, even in
of the use of sleep deprivation as an interictal spike– or seizure-activating the setting of prolonged
procedure in routine and epilepsy-monitoring EEG.60 seizure freedom.
Insomnia and sleep disturbances are a common problem in patients with
● Current data from large
epilepsy, affecting 24% to 55% of patients.61–65 Quigg and colleagues65 population studies suggest
documented that more than 50% of patients with epilepsy experienced some that generic antiepileptic
degree of insomnia, with 43% having clinically significant insomnia. Most studies drugs are bioequivalent to
correlate sleep deprivation or insomnia with worse seizure control. For example, name brand medication.

previous diary studies66 and surveys8,13,54 found that patients reported that ● Stress and sleep
sleep deprivation provoked seizures. deprivation are the most
Sleep deprivation and insomnia, through the enhancement of the stress common seizure
response, may worsen seizure control because of dysregulation of hypothalamic precipitants in patients
with epilepsy.
pituitary function. Insufficient sleep and the “hyperarousal” of insomnia causes
compensatory changes in homeostatic processes; stress hormones such as ● Insomnia is common in
noradrenaline and corticosteroids are dysregulated in primary insomnia.67 patients with epilepsy and
Altered corticosteroid responses to stress have been observed in children is correlated with poor
seizure control.
susceptible to stress-precipitated seizures.68 The interactions between sleep
disruptions and epilepsy may not be one way; seizures and the epileptic state may
alter circadian regulation and affect sleep distribution (among other
circadian rhythms).69,70

FLASHING LIGHTS. Flashing or flickering lights are reported as a precipitant in 4%

and 17% of surveyed patients.54,56 Flashing lights can be the cause of a reflex
photosensitive epilepsy, but the discussion here will center on flashing lights as
a more generic precipitant in patients with otherwise well-controlled epilepsy.
Flashing lights can cause mass seizure precipitation; in 1997, television airing of
a Pokémon cartoon that featured a sequence of flashing lights caused seizures
in a total of 685 children, among whom were children who likely had latent
epilepsy and had yet to have a seizure, and those with known epilepsy
with susceptibility to photic stimulation.71 Susceptibility to flashing lights is
not distributed equally among syndromes; patients with idiopathic generalized
epilepsies have 3 to 4 times the prevalence of abnormal responses to photic
stimulation during EEG as those with symptomatic focal epilepsies.72

EXERCISE. Exercise appears to have disparate effects on groups of patients.

Exercise in the form of “physical exertion” was reported by Frucht and
colleagues54 as a seizure precipitant in 9% of patients; a similar proportion also
reported that becoming overheated or exposed to heat and humidity was a
precipitant. Nakken and colleagues73 similarly found 10% of patients with
epilepsy reported exercise as a seizure precipitant; however, in contrast, the
study also found that 36% of patients reported improvement in seizure control
with regular exercise. A small randomized controlled study of exercise in
epilepsy found that regular physical activity not only improved seizure
frequency but also improved self-perceived “physical self-concept and vigor.”74

ALCOHOL. Alcohol use has also been described as a seizure precipitant54; higher
rates (15%) may be seen where alcohol use is more culturally accepted.75 These
studies did not pin down whether it was alcohol ingestion or the phase of

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

withdrawal that patients reported as the susceptibility. A review of alcohol use in

patients with epilepsy concluded that regular use in “small amounts” (one to two
drinks) neither increases seizure frequency nor affects antiseizure medication
levels.76 Greater use, however, places patients at risk of withdrawal symptoms,
and lowered seizure thresholds may occur despite the absence of symptoms of
frank delirium tremens, with the greatest risk of seizures occurring about 7 to
48 hours after the last drink.77 Furthermore, the use of alcohol may combine with
other precipitants such as nonadherence or sleep deprivation. Samsonsen and
colleagues,78 in a survey of patients hospitalized for seizures, found that alcohol
intake was associated with decreased sleep in patients with epilepsy. Alcohol
avoidance has also been reported as a self-management intervention that may
improve seizure frequency.79

MANAGEMENT OF SEIZURES DUE TO PRECIPITANTS. Breakthrough seizures due to

a precipitating factor should be considered evidence of suboptimal seizure
control and predictive of more seizures.4,7 The authors recommend the following
process in evaluating breakthrough seizures. First, acute symptomatic seizures
(the result of a new acute epileptogenic injury or progression in a patient
with a progressive epileptic disorder) should be considered. Second, either
history, detective work such as pill counts, or drug levels should establish
adherence. Third, if adherent, antiseizure medication therapies should be
optimized or changed, since breakthrough seizures can be considered as jumping
over an inadequate seizure threshold. Fourth, the physician should attempt
to identify the seizure precipitants and help strategize their avoidance. If
precipitants clearly appear to be present, avoidance strategies may be sufficient
without changes in the antiseizure medication regimen. Fifth, the clinician
should inform the patient that adequate time be designated to consider the
patient seizure free again (ie, using the rule of three to estimate how long the
patient is required to be seizure free before being considered back in “safe territory”).
Avoidance of endogenous precipitants such as stress and fatigue are nuanced
issues. Baldin and colleagues80 highlighted that the presence of anxiety and
mood disorder were associated with stress and increased risk of breakthrough
seizures. The interconnection between anxiety, depression, and stress is complex.
Privitera and colleagues81 have shown that patients with a history of depression
were more likely to have stress as a precipitating factor for seizures. Evidence
also suggests that stress and anxiety may be mediated by depression in patients
with epilepsy.82 These findings underpin the need for physician screening of
depression and mood disorders in patients with epilepsy, not only as a means
of improving mood but also to potentially optimize and maintain seizure control.
Self-management techniques have also been found to be beneficial for
stress and psychiatric comorbidities associated with epilepsy.83 In one study,
mindfulness therapy, a form of meditation, was shown to decrease seizure
frequency and reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression as compared to
control participants, who received social support only.33 In a small randomized
controlled trial, yoga was also associated with improved quality of life and seizure
frequency, although this study was limited by lack of adequate controls as both
randomly assigned groups received active interventions (yoga versus behavioral
therapy).84 Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety and depression has also
been shown to improve mood and seizure frequency.85,86 A recent randomized
controlled trial investigated seizure and stress reduction through muscle

356 APRIL 2019

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relaxation techniques. Patients in the treatment arm were instructed in a muscle KEY POINTS
relaxation protocol; controls were instructed in a “focused attention” protocol.
● Mood disorders are
Seizure frequency improved equally in both groups, but stress reduction common in patients with
improved significantly better in the treatment group.87 epilepsy. Screening should
Deleterious effects of sleep deprivation and insomnia on seizure control can, be performed to address
hopefully, be helped by improvements in sleep hygiene or treatment of both inherent mood
concerns but also to
insomnia, although hard data are largely lacking. The following is a short list of
potentially improve
simple sleep suggestions used in counseling patients in sleep hygiene: seizure control.

● Self-management
u Awaken at the same time every day (eg, 6:30 AM or 7:00 AM) and do something active and techniques may improve
in the light upon awakening psychiatric comorbidities
u No sleep “when the sun is up” (don’t steal from nighttime sleep) associated with epilepsy,
and some evidence suggests
u Give yourself at least an 8-hour window for sleep, and do something “boring” before going this may translate into
to bed improved seizure frequency.
u No caffeine past noon
● The first-line treatment
u No electronics in the bedroom (eg, smartphone, computer, television) for insomnia is cognitive-
behavioral therapy;
The authors of this article provide patients these suggestions because they sedative-hypnotic use
should be avoided as much
can be tackled by most patients and their families largely because of simplicity.
as possible in patients with
Note that these sleep suggestions mediate waking behavior; patients need to be epilepsy because of risks
counseled that sleep cannot be forced but slips into the space prepared for it by of polypharmacy and the
one’s daytime activities. A sleep history concentrating on time in bed, time fluctuation of seizure
thresholds, such as
arising, sleep fragmentation, in-bed and environmental distractions, caffeine
in the withdrawal from
use, and factors such as snoring and apneas can disclose sleep habits that may and habituation to
affect seizure control and daytime sleepiness. In the authors’ experience, a sleep benzodiazepines.
history is easily obtained but never given without explicit questioning. The
first-line treatment for insomnia is cognitive-behavioral therapy88; sedative-
hypnotic use should be avoided as much as possible in patients with epilepsy
because of risks of polypharmacy and the fluctuation of seizure thresholds,
such as in the withdrawal from and habituation to benzodiazepines. The
evidence for the proconvulsant properties of medications used for their soporific
effects due to activities at histamine receptors—tricyclic antidepressants, such
as amitriptyline or trazodone, or antihistamines, such as diphenhydramine—is
mixed.89,90 Nevertheless, in the authors’ practice, when faced with insomnia or
sleep deprivation, patient education or other behavioral methods are attempted
first, and sleep-aid agents with less of an epileptogenic burden such as melatonin
or gabapentin are preferred.
Avoidance of flashing light exposure can be surprisingly difficult. For
example, police and ambulance strobes or the stark shadows seen on bright
winter days while driving through the woods can serve as unexpected sources of
strong photic stimulation to drivers and passengers alike. Electronic devices
feature flashing lights and rapid screen redraws, and video games still feature
scenes that can provoke seizures (although guidelines for filtering especially
potent light wavelengths have been legislated).91 Special sunglasses can be tinted
with colors specifically to block particularly ictogenic light spectra, although
plain gray glasses may have equal effects.92,93 Patients can be quite clever in
self-treatment; one patient of the authors whose seizures were triggered by the
flashing “hold” button on her office phone masked most of the light with finger
nail polish, fixing the problem.

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MEDICALLY RESPONSIVE EPILEPSY

CONCLUSION
Medically responsive epilepsy is more common than medically intractable
epilepsy. Despite having a relatively straightforward prognosis, the longitudinal
treatment of the population who are seizure free requires vigilance and
education. The fundamental basics of care in this population center on a working
knowledge of antiseizure medications, patient adherence, and factors that
could precipitate seizures.

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