Grade 12 Biology Module4

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
GRADE 12
BIOLOGY
MODULE 4
EVOLUTION
PUBLISHED BY FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

PRIVATE MAIL BAG, P.O. WAIGANI, NCD
FOR DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
2017
Writer
Jerald Bablis
Content Editors
Science Department
Subject Review Committee
Language Editor
Dr. Steven Winduo
Course Format Editor

Anna Liza Cale
GR 12 BIO M4 TITLE
GRADE 12
BIOLOGY
MODULE 4
EVOLUTION
IN THIS MODULE YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT:
12.4.1: THEORIES AND EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

12.3.2: MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
1
GR 12 BIO M4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT &ISBN
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the contributions of all Lower and Upper Secondary teachers, who in
one way or another helped to develop this Course.
Our profound gratitude goes to the former Principal of FODE, Mr. Demas Tongogo for
leading FODE team towards this great achievement.
Special thanks are given to the staff of the Science Department- FODE who played active
roles in coordinating writing workshops, outsourcing of module writing and editing
processes involving selected teachers of Central Province and NCD.
We also acknowledge the professional guidance and services provided throughout the
processes of writing by the members of:
Science Subject Review Committee-FODE

Academic Advisory Committee-FODE
Science Department- CDAD
This book is developed with the invaluable support and co-funding of the GO-PNG and
World Bank.
DIANA TEIT AKIS

PRINCIPAL
.
Flexible Open and Distance Education
Papua New Guinea
Published in 2017
@ Copyright 2017, Department of Education
Papua New Guinea
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or any
other form of reproduction by any process is allowed without the
prior permission of the publisher.
Printed by Flexible, Open and Distance Education

ISBN: 978-9980-89-625-4
National Library Services of Papua New Guinea
2
GR 12 BIO M4 CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Title……………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Acknowledgments………………………………………………………...…………………………………. 2
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………………………… 3
Secretary’s Message…………………………………………………………………………………………. 4
MODULE 12.4 : EVOLUTION 5
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
Terminology……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 6
12.4.1: Theories and Evidence of Evolution………………………………………………….. 9
Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution……………………………..……………………………. 9

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection……………………………. 10
Evidence for Evolution……………………………………………………..………………… 13
12.4.2: Mechanism of Evolution..………………………………………………………………….. 24
Evolutionary Agents: Non Random Mating and Mutation…….……………. 24

Mechanisms of Evolution…………………………………………………………………… 28
Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
Answers to Learning Exercises………………………………………..………………………………… 37
References………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
3
GR 12 BIO M4 MESSAGE
SECRETARY’S MESSAGE
Achieving a better future by individual students and their families, communities or the nation as a
whole, depends on the kind of curriculum and the way it is delivered.
This course is a part of the new Flexible, Open and Distance Education curriculum. The learning
outcomes are student-centred and allows for them to be demonstrated and assessed.
It maintains the rationale, goals, aims and principles of the national curriculum and identifies the
knowledge, skills, attitudes and values that students should achieve.
This is a provision by Flexible, Open and Distance Education as an alternative pathway of formal
education.
The course promotes Papua New Guinea values and beliefs which are found in our Constitution,
Government Policies and Reports. It is developed in line with the National Education Plan (2005 -
2014) and addresses an increase in the number of school leavers affected by the lack of access into
secondary and higher educational institutions.
Flexible, Open and Distance Education curriculum is guided by the Department of Education’s
Mission which is fivefold:
 To facilitate and promote the integral development of every individual

 To develop and encourage an education system satisfies the requirements of Papua New Guinea
and its people
 To establish, preserve and improve standards of education throughout Papua
New Guinea
 To make the benefits of such education available as widely as possible to all
of the people
 To make the education accessible to the poor and physically, mentally and
socially handicapped as well as to those who are educationally disadvantaged.
The college is enhanced to provide alternative and comparable pathways for students and adults to
complete their education through a one system, many pathways and same outcomes.
It is our vision that Papua New Guineans’ harness all appropriate and affordable technologies to
pursue this program.
I commend all those teachers, curriculum writers, university lecturers and many others who have
contributed in developing this course.
UKE KOMBRA, PhD

Secretary for Education
4
GR 12 BIO M4 EVOLUTION
MODULE 12.4: EVOLUTION
Introduction
In Module 3 we looked at Genetics and how certain characteristics are passed down from
the parents to the children or to the offspring. These characteristics are eye, skin, hair
colour, height, and hair colour. Every now and then you get an individual plant or animal
that is slightly different. These variations are of particular features that are different from
the parents. These variations happen very slowly. In fact these differences happen over
many generations to produce an offspring that is different from the parent.
The differences also may be beneficial to the organism. The differences that are passed on
come in the form of genes. Genes are passed on from the parent to the offspring. There are
good genes and there are bad genes. The bad genes do not continue to the next generation
because it does not allow the offspring to survive. The genes that help an organism to
survive are the good genes. These are the genes that are passed down from one generation
to the next.
The methods in which these beneficial genes are passed on, are mechanisms that enable an
organism to evolve overtime. This is how organisms evolve to adapt to their environment.
Evolution is all about surviving in an environment. If an organism is not able to survive then
it is at risk of becoming extinct. One prominent scientist that significantly contributed to our
understanding of evolution is Charles Darwin. In Module 4 we will closely look at people
who contributed to the study of evolution and the mechanisms that cause it to occur.
Learning Outcomes
After going through this module, you are expected to:
 state the difference between Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution and Charles Darwin’s
Theory of Evolution.
 explain the differences between fossil record, transitional fossils, comparative bio-
chemistry, comparative anatomy, and bio-geographic distribution.
 identify evolutionary agents such as non-random mating, mutation, descent with
modification (survival of the fittest), migration (gene flow), and genetic drift.
 define between immigration, emigration, and migration.
 compare and contrast homologous structures and analogous structures.
 differentiate between the four (4) types of mutation that occur in the gene sequence.
 explain the difference between spontaneous mutation and induced mutation.
5
Time Frame Suggested allotment time: 10 weeks
If you set an average of 3 hours per day, you should be able to complete the module
comfortably by the end of the assigned week. Try to do all the learning activities and
compare your answers with the ones provided at the end of the module. If you do not get a
particular exercise right in the first attempt, you should not get discouraged but instead, go
back and attempt it again. If you still do not get it right after several attempts then you
should seek help from your friend or even your tutor. Do not pass any question without
solving it first.
DO NOT LEAVE ANY QUESTION UNANSWERED
Terminology
Analogous structures A development of a certain physical structure

developed by two or more organisms that
enable them to perform the same function
but they all descend from different ancestors.
For example, a bat’s wings and a bird’s wings.
Bottleneck Effect When a small number of species are able to

reproduce, this may lead to a different
generation of species.
Cast The filling in of a hole to produce a three-

dimensional model of an organism .
Emmigration Movement of organism(s) out of one

population to the next population.
Founder effect The end result of a founder population.
Founder population Movement or change in a population from

one geographic area to another area. Where
the population begins another new
population. That new population can either be
representative of the population or not.
Fossilisation Step by step process, where organism’s body

and bones become preserved over thousands
and millions of years.
6
Genetic drift An event that occurs accidentally to make one

gene from one population go to another
population of genes.
Gene flow The physical movement of organisms of the

same species from one geographic area to
another geographic area.
Gene pool A geographic area where a group of the same

species (along with their genes) are located.
Genetic variation A small change in the physical makeup of an

organism of the same species.
Homologous structure A certain physical structure developed by two

or more organisms that enable them to
perform the same function and they all
descend from one common ancestor.
Immigration Movement of organism(s) outside the

population and into the population.
Induced mutation A change in the genetic code of an organism

and the cause of the change is known.
Law of fossil succession The way in which fossils are found along the
soil profile from top (most recent fossils) to
the bottom (most pre-historic).
Migration The movement of organisms along with their

genes from one geographic area to another.
Mould An impression in the ground which an

organism causes millions of years ago.
Mutagents They are the agents causing mutation.
Mutation A change in the genetic code that makes an

organism a little different from others of the
same species. It could be based on their
physical appearance.
Natural selection A process by which traits that help an
organism to survive are passed on to the
offspring.
7
Organelles Tiny structures found inside a cell that plays a

a certain role in the overall function of the
cell.
Paleontology The study of dead extinct animal or plant

remains.
Population A group of the same species numbering more

than one, in the same area.
Species An organism when mating with the same

organisms will produce a fertile offspring.
Spontaneous mutation A change in the genetic code but the cause is

unknown.
Trace fossils These are imprints such as footprints, teeth,

hand marks and holes caused by organisms
millions of years ago.
Transitional Fossils These are fossils that link one species of

organisms to another.
8
12.4.1 Theories and Evidence of Evolution
The theory of evolution has been long proposed and

redefined until the present. One of those early scientists was a
man named Jean Baptiste Lamarck. He stated that a trait can
be acquired during an organism’s lifetime. There were
scientists before Lamarck who also stated their own theory of
evolution but Lamarck was closer to the real one. Charles
Darwin was a later scientist who put all other theories into
one simple to understand theory that we come to know now
as the “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection”.
Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
In 1809, a French biologist by the name of Jean Baptiste

Jean Baptiste Lamarck, who
Lamarck came up with a theory to explain how plants and proposed the theory of
animals change over time. evolution before Charles
Darwin.
His theory reasonably explained why there were changes in characteristics of plants and
animals.
He searched for answers to the existences of

such a great diversity of characteristics and
came up with two important perspectives:
 The features (traits/characteristics) of

an organism can change in response
to the type of environment it lives in
and what it’s internal body needs.
 These acquired traits are passed down
from one generation to the next. For
example, as giraffes feed on the
leaves of trees. the act of stretching
their necks will enable it to grow
longer. Consequently these traits will
be acquired by its genes and passed
onto the next generation.
He also believed that animal organs continue to Long necked giraffes stretching their necks to eat the
exist by being used or begin to disappear if not leaves above. Lamarck assumed that if the giraffe
began stretching its’ neck when it was young to adult
being used. For example, if chickens did not use age, it would develop a longer neck. Consequently,
their wings to fly then eventually their wings passing on its genes to its offspring who would also
would disappear. If the wings were used then it have a long neck.
would continue to exist.
9
However, the problem with Lamarck’s theory is that it was based on assumption. He had no
proof and did not bother to find out how it could happen.
Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by

Natural Selection
In 1858, a British biologist, Charles

Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
independently came up with a theory
that fully explained the change in
characteristics and the abundance in
diversity. Their theory was based on
evidence and proof.
Charles Darwin was the first to come up

with a credible theory of evolution. The
theory he came up with is called: the To the left is young Charles Darwin and on the right is
Theory of Evolution by Natural Alfred Russel Wallace who both independently came up
Selection. with the “the theory of evolution”.
Charles Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection” states that: Species

evolve or change their traits over many generations through a process that helps the
traits to survive and continue its’ traits to the next generation.
This theory explains the causes of evolution and that it could be tested by observation and
experimentation. It states that change or evolution does not happen during an individual’s
lifetime, it occurs over several generations in populations.
A population is made out of a group of plants or animals of the same

species. Examples include a population of ants on one tree, a herd of
cows on a farm, and the Bird of Paradise in Papua New Guinea.
For example, take a group of giraffes. Giraffes naturally have a long neck. From one
generation to the next you get young giraffes that have long necks.
Suddenly, the trees they like to eat start to show signs of disease. Eventually the whole
species of that particular tree dies out. Now the other tree that these giraffes like to feed on
is taller than the diseased trees. If a giraffe that is born has a much taller neck than normal is
able to get to these taller trees then its offspring (babies) will also have the same longer
necks than the parent.
10
Therefore, overtime the giraffe with the longer neck will be able to produce more offspring
then the originally shorter necked giraffes and eventually there will no longer be any Giraffes
with shorter necks. This is an example of one particular characteristic that changes overtime.
There are many other examples of characteristics that change overtime that help an animal
or plant survive in its environment.
It is now time for you to complete Learning Activity 1. Remember, learning activities are not
sent in for assessment. However, this learning activity will help you complete Assignment 1
(which you will send in for assessment).
Learning Activity 1 30 minutes
A. Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. In what year did Jean Baptiste Lamarck came up with his theory of evolution?
a. 1808 b. 1858
c. 1809 d. 1859
2. Charles Darwin was from:
a. France b. Ireland
c. Britain d. Scotland
3. Who is credited for “The Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection”.
a. Isaac Newton
b. Alfred Wallace
c. Charles Darwin
d. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
4. The same group of species that live in one area is called a __________.
a. genus b. family
c. species d. population
11
5. Who proposed the other “Theory of Evolution”?
a. Isaac Newton
b. Alfred Wallace
c. Charles Darwin
d. Jean Baptiste Lamarck
B. Write either true or false from the statements given.
1. The “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection” occurs from one generation to the next
generation.
(True/False)
2. One individual organism is known as a population.
(True/False)
3. The “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection” is testable and observable.
(True/False)
4. A group of the same species of ants that live on the same tree can be regarded as a
population.
(True/False)
5. Jean Baptiste Lamarcks theory was based on evidence and proof.
(True/False)
Thank you for completing your Learning Activity .1 Check your work. Answers are at the end
of this module.
12
Evidence for Evolution
Evolution is a process by which plants and animals have changed (according to their
environment) so that they are able to survive and continue their existence. Before Charles
Darwin’s time, many scientists speculated how evolution occurred and did not have any
hypothesis that can be tested.
When Charles Darwin came up with his revolutionary “Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection”, there was finally a logical explanation and a theory that could be observed. Since
then the branch of evolution has grown and evidence for evolution widened to encompass
many other evidence.
Evidence that plants and animals do change (evolve) over many generations come from
several sources. These sources include:
1. Fossil Record
2. Transitional Fossils
3. Comparative Biochemistry
4. Comparative Anatomy
5. Bio-Geographic Distribution
6. Bio-Geographic Isolation
7. Hybridisation
1. The Fossil Record

Plants and animals that are buried underground without air become fossilised.
Under these ideal environments bones and living tissue can become preserved for
thousands and even millions of years. There are preserved remains of plants and
animals (under the right condition) will become preserved or fossilised.
Fossilization is the process by which the body of the organism is preserved. People
who dig up these remains and study them are called paleontologists. The
preserved remains of organisms will give us a clue as to what plants and animals
existed hundreds of millions of years ago. Below are preserved remains of a
dinosaur
A dinosaur trapped in the water. Under the right conditions the skeleton of this dinosaur was
preserved. This is known as fossilisation.
13
There are two types of evidence that

comes from the fossil record.
(a) Direct evidence

These are fossil evidence such as bones
of animals, leaves and shells of marine
dwelling creatures buried millions of
years ago.
Ocean creatures that die under layers

of sand and sediment can (in the right
condition) become preserved.
In certain situations if air is present the

A human body that was preserved in ice
remains of the organism can decay under the right conditions.
leaving an imprint or hole in the
sediment.
The hole in the sediment is called a

mould. If the mould is filled in to take
shape of the mould, a three-
dimensional model of the actual
organism can be formed. This is called
a cast, as shown in the picture on the
right. A natural cast that have formed when
flowing water removed most of the tissue
from this organism.
(b) Indirect evidence

These are fossil evidence such as footprints, holes, tooth and hand marks.
Indirect fossils are called trace fossils. Examples of trace fossils include dinosaur
footprints from dried river beds.
The fossil record shows that different

organisms lived at different times
after the formation of the Earth until
present time.
Footprints of an animal millions off ago.
14
The diagram below is an example of different species living at certain time interval known as
the law of fossilisation.
It consistently shows that certain organisms only appear at a certain time and not at any
other time. This is known as the “law of fossil succession”.
15
For example:
 Uni-cellular organisms (microbes) appeared first before multi-cellular organisms.
 Simple organisms appeared first before complex organisms.
 Marine organisms appeared first before amphibians (such as frogs).
 Amphibians appeared first before land dwelling creatures such as reptiles.
 Reptiles appeared first before birds.
 Reptiles appeared first before mammals.
 Poikilotherms (cold-blooded animals) appeared first before Homiotherms (warm-
blooded animals).
 Ferns appeared first before flowering plants.
This is usually the sequence found in the fossil record. If this is the sequence then the
progression is from simple organisms to complex organisms; soft body organisms to hard
body organisms or small organisms to large organisms.
2. Transitional Fossils
Fossil records show a progression from simple organisms to complex organisms

over millions of years. Then it should be expected that there should also be
organisms (species) that would connect the gap.
For example, there should be fossil records that connects:

(1) sea dwelling creatures to land dwelling creatures.
(2) land dwelling creatures to air dwelling creatures.
(3) uni-cellular organisms to multi-cellular organisms and so forth.
These types of fossils would be known as transitional fossils because they are the
link. The diagram below shows a sea dwelling creature to a land dwelling creature.
An animal that existed during the times of the dinosaurs. If you look closely you can see that it
has a tail of a fish and legs of an amphibian. This was a transitional fossil that linked fishes to
amphibians.
16
The very first evidence of transition

fossils came in 1861, in Germany in a
place called Bavaria. In the law of fossil
succession it is believed that birds
evolved from reptiles. The fossil
uncovered in Bavaria seemed to show a
bird but had bones of a reptile. The bird
was named Archeopteryx. Archeopteryx
had teeth in its beak, claws at the end
of its wings and a tail that had many
joints.
The first transitional fossil (Archeopteryx)

that showed a link between the reptiles and
birds.
3. Comparative Biochemistry
Comparative biochemistry (physiology) deals with the makeup and functions of

the organism’s body, and similarities between different species. When
comparing different species physiology, there are two (2) main points that are
looked a.
(i) The makeup of their proteins

Proteins are part of the chemical composition of all living organisms.
Organisms are also made up of fats (lipids), carbohydrates (sugars), and
minerals such as salt (Na+), vitamins and water.
By comparing how the proteins are similar, you can tell how closely related
different species really are. Thus, if the species are closely related to
evolution then the makeup of proteins must be similar as well.
(ii) Composition of proteins

Proteins are made up of tiny structures called amino acids. There a total of
20 amino acids. Eleven (11) amino acids are produced in our own bodies so
they are called non-essential amino acids and nine (9) amino acids are
taken in by eating various foods and are called essential amino acids.
All organisms, whether simple or complex will have all these 20 amino
acids in their bodies. For example, two species that are closely related will
have very similar proteins with fewer differences, when comparing
sequence of amino acids, then species that are distantly related.
17
Human Macaque Dog Chicken Frog Lamprey
The difference between a human blood pigment (haemoglobin) and five other organisms’
haemoglobin. The closer the organism is to humans the less difference there is in the human
protein sequence.
(ii) DNA structure

This is the structure that contains the information for the makeup of an
organism. If two different species of DNA are compared the similarities will
be based on the sequence of the DNA. The less differences in the DNA
sequence, the more related they are.
4. Comparative Anatomy
This is dealing with the structure of the body and how similar different species
are. When comparing anatomy of different species there are four (4) things
paleontologists look at.
 Homology (how similar are they in structure)

When dealing with homology, it is the bones that are studied and how similar
they are. The more similar bones two different species have in their shape the
more related they are. For example;
i) A bat.
ii) Whale.
iii) Cat.
iv) Horse.
v) Human limbs.
18
All these five different species have limbs for different purposes. A bat would
use its’ limbs for flying. A whale would use its’ limbs for swimming. A horse
would use its’ limbs for walking or running and a human would use its’ limbs for
walking, running or swimming. Even though, the limbs have different functions
their structures are all the same. It means they all come from one common
ancestor. They all are classified as mammals. The five (5) limbs of the different
species are said to be homologous structures. Even though they have different
functions they all belong to the same common ancestor.
Human Cat Bat Porpoise Horse
There are similarities in the limbs of these different animals.

They all share one common ancestor even though the limbs are
used for different purposes.
 Analogy (similar in body function).

Analogy deals with how parts of the body are used between different species. For
example, a bat’s and bird’s wings. A bat’s wings and a bird’s wings come from
different ancestors but both use their wings for flying.
A bat is a mammal and most mammals are land dwelling creatures. However, a bat
is a mammal that flies. Birds fly so they are air dwelling creatures but the bat
evolved to use its limbs as wings. So even though, a bat comes from land dwelling
creatures because it uses its’ limbs for flying, it is analogous to a bird’s wings. This is
known as analogous structures.
 Remnant/Vestigial organs
They are organs that are a part of the organism that are no longer in use. That can
be used to determine the relatedness of different species.
For example, the bone structures of the front flippers of a whale contain bones of
limbs that exist in mammals such as cows. The bone structure of the front flippers
does indeed contain bones of limbs that exist in mammals such as cows. This shows
that whales evolved from mammals to become marine dwelling creatures.
19
Pelvis Ischium
Femur
A whale with a pelvis, ischium, and femur (thigh bone) that are present in modern day
mammals, but in this case are not being used. This clearly shows that whales
descended or came from mammals or it has remnant organs that are not being used
anymore.
 Embryos
During the early development of organisms inside the womb of the mother
embryos are present. Embryos are fertilized eggs that have taken the shape of the
organism in its very early stages. In this case the embryos of different species can
be compared to determine the relatedness of different species. The more similar in
the shape the embryos are the more related two different species are. The diagram
below shows examples of embryos of organisms in their early stages.
Embryos of fish, turtle, chicken, rabbit and humans.
20
5. Bio-Geographic Distribution/Isolation
Bio-Geographical Distribution/Isolation relates to how plants and animals are

located in certain geographic areas and this could lead them to become new
species. They are the same species but because they are located in different
regions the food they are exposed to will minutely change their feature. Over
millions of years this change in features will eventually result in an entirely new
species.
For example, the tawny frogmouth (Podargus strigoides) bird. It leaves in the
woodlands of Australia. However, the northern woodland birds are small and
pale in colour, than those from the south. We could assume that there is not a lot
of food in the northern woodlands. This may lead to the birds in the north being
smaller. Both the northern and southern birds are related but because of food
availability the northern bird is smaller and paler in colour.
6. Geographic Isolation
Geographic isolation is similar to distribution however; an organism becomes a

new species because it becomes isolated from the original group. This can occur
when an organism travels out from where it was and is unable to return because
of physical barriers such as mountains, oceans and rivers.
For example, as shown in the diagram below, a bird flying from one island to
another. On the other island if it finds a lot of food, it may want to stay on this
island. It may not want to travel back because of the distance and ocean isolating
this island so it remains on this island.
A bird species evolving over millions of years. When you study where it came from, you
can see how bio-geography isolation causes variations in species.
21
Furthermore, because of the type of food it has to recover it may develop a

different type of beak. If the food source is found in flowers the finch may
develop long slender beak. If the food source is food in nuts it may develop a
strong hard beak. So because of the food source it may change its variation
according to its beak. This is known as geographic isolation.
7. Hybridisation
Hybridisation is basically the pairing of one allele from a different source and
another allele from another source to create a new gene.
For example, taking an allele from a red and white colored frangipani to produce
a pink one.
A. Choose the most appropriate answer from the four (4) options.
1. Evidence of how plants and animals change over many generations comes from ____
sources.
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 6 (d) 7
2. Which evidence shows links between one species and another closely related species?
(a) Fossil Evidence

(b) Transitional Fossils
(c) Comparative Anatomy
(d) Comparative Biochemistry
3. Which evidence shows the relatedness of different species that come from one
location and nowhere else in the world?
(a) Fossil Evidence

(b) Transitional Fossils
(c) Bio-Geographic Distribution
(d) Comparative Biochemistry
22
4. Which evidence shows the similarity in structure but difference in function?
(a) Analogous Structure

(b) Homologous Structure
(c) Comparative Anatomy
(d) Comparative Bio-chemistry
5. The process by which organism’s bodies become preserved is known as

______________.
(a) moulds (b) casts
(c) fossilisation (d) trace fossils
B. Encircle True if the statement is true and False if the statement is false..
1. A bat’s and bird’s wings are similar in function but come from different ancestors. This
is an example of homologous structures.
(True/False)
2. Limbs that were used before but are unused now are examples of remnant organ.
(True/False)
3. The makeup of proteins and how two different species are related is an example of
comparative anatomy.
(True/False)
4. Archeopteryx is an example of a remnant organ.
(True/False)
5. The makeup of DNA between two different species is an example of comparative

anatomy.
(True/False)
Thank you for completing your Learning Activity 2. Check your work. Answers are at the end
of this module.
23
12.4.2 Mechanisms of Evolution
Evolutionary Agents: Random, Non-Random Mating and Mutation

Evolutionary agents are methods in which evolution can take place. It is the building blocks
upon which organisms evolve over time.
(1) Random Mating
Random mating occurs without selection and many hundreds of thousands of

offsprings are produced at any given time. This is done because there are predators
out there that would like to feed on the offspring. If thousands are produced than the
likelihood of a good number developing into adults is greater.
For example, sea anemones producing both sperm and eggs in the ocean, create many
offspring’s. Some of these offspring’s maybe eaten but because thousands of sex cells
were produced the chances are greater that a good number will develop into adults
later on.
(2) Non-Random Mating
Non-random mating means the individual organism (specie) gets to choose which
partner it wants to mate with.
For example, our Reggiana Bird of Paradise is one of the most beautiful species of birds
found in the world. The brightly coloured bird that symbolises Papua New Guinea flag
and many government departments is actually the male bird. The more colour the
male Reggiana bird can display during mating season, the greater its chances of
mating. The females get to choose which bird it mates with based upon the colours
displayed.
This is an example of non-random mating because mating is based on a certain criteria.

It can have an impact on evolution. The more brightly coloured the male Reggiana bird
is the chances are it will pass on it’s genes to the next generation. Those male Reggiana
bird that are not as brightly coloured will not be successful and the likelihood of their
genes being pass on to the next generation are very slim or not at all.
In three (3) or four (4) generations the less colourful male birds might disappear
leaving only the most colourful of the species. Other examples are peacocks (in which
the male bird also portrays its colours during mating) and humans.
24
A peacock displaying its colourful feathers. For peacocks it is the male that displays
its colours for female to choose the most colourful partner before they mate.
(3) Mutation
Mutation is the change in the DNA sequence that over many millennia can cause
evolution (change in an organism). Mutation is an evolutionary agent because it does
determine what genes get to be passed on over many generations. It is important
because a change in an organisms DNA sequence can have an impact on the organism.
To understand what mutation is, let us look at what makes up all living organisms.
Organelles such as the nucleus contain structures called chromosomes. Within these
structures are our genetic material called DNA. DNA is composed of structures called
bases. There are a total of four bases. There is Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and
Thymine.
Remember DNA is a “double helix” so on one side of this so called ladder you will find
one base and on the other side you will find the other base. The bases also combine in
a particular order. Guanine always attaches itself with Cytosine while Adenine always
attaches itself with Thymine. How these pairs of bases combine will also show up in
the features of an organism.
Let us say in fruit flies the normal color they display is purple and the DNA sequence
for that color is G-C, A-T, T-A and C-A. In the population if one individual is borne and
its’ DNA sequence is changed to G-C, A-T, T-A and A-C, then as a result its’ color is
orange. The last code has changed from C-A to A-C and as a result has caused this
particular fruit fly to have an orange color. If this particular fruit fly mainly eats
pawpaw then the purple colored fruit fly will be vulnerable to predators because
predators like green frogs will be able to see them as they are feasting on pawpaw.
The purple colored fruit flies will decrease in numbers over many generations because
their color makes them more susceptible to birds then the orange colored fruit flies.
25
The orange colored fruit flies will increase in numbers, over many generations because
they will be able to pass on their genes to the next generation. In this scenario a
mutation has occurred that had a beneficial effect on the population of the species. It
is beneficial for the orange colored fruit fly.
Mutation can be caused by several factors but is divided into two parts. If the agent
that caused the mutation cannot be identified then it is known as a spontaneous
mutation. If the mutation can be identified then it is called an induced mutation.
Substances that cause mutations are radiation, x-ray, ultra-violet radiation, nuclear
radiation and certain chemical substances. These agents can also be called mutagenic
agents or mutagens.
In terms of mutations there are four (4) types of mutations that occur.
1. Substitution
Substitution occurs when one base is replaced by another base. For example, the
gene sequence TAGC and after mutation TATC. The “G” is replaced by the “T”.
2. Addition
Addition occurs when one base is replaced by one or more basis. For example, the
gene sequence AAT and after mutation AGCAT. The “GC” were added between the
two As’.
3. Deletion
Deletion is the removal of one or more bases. For example, the gene sequence
GCATAC and after the mutation GCAAC. The “T” is removed from the original
sequence.
4. Alteration
Alteration occurs when one or more bases are replaced by another base but on the
same strand. For example, GCA and after the mutation GAC. The AC was swapped
with CA from the original strand.
sent in for assessment. However, this learning activity will help you complete Assignment 1
(which you will send in for assessment).
1. Which example is NOT an agent of change (evolution)?
(a) Mutation (b) Random Mating
(c) Non-Random Mating (d) Survival of the Fittest

26
2. The Bird of Paradise mates by:
(a) Mutation (b) Random Mating
(c) Non-Random Mating (d) Survival of the Fittest
3. Guanine combines with _____________ while Adenosine combines with

______________.
(a) Cytosine, Adenosine (b) Adenosine, Guanine
(c) Cytosine, Thymine (d) Thymine, Guanine
4. There are a total of ___ bases in all DNA.
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
5. How many naturally occurring or unnatural mutations are there?
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) 4
B. Encircle True if the statement is true and False if the statement is false.
1. There are four (4) types of mutations in the DNA sequence that can occur.
(True/False)
2. Spontaneous mutation is a mutation that is caused by mutagenic agents.
(True/False)
3. Alteration is the replacement of one or more bases by an outside base.
(True/False)
4. DNA is a double helix ladder.
(True/False)
27
5. Being exposed to an explosion by an atomic bomb is an example of a mutagenic agent

that can cause mutation in the DNA sequence.
(True/False)
Thank you for completing your Learning Activity 3. Check your work. Answers are at the end
of this module.
Mechanisms of Evolution
The “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection” was proposed by Charles Darwin. The theory
states that evolution or change in species occurs due to Natural Selection over many
generations.
Species means the scientific individual name of a living organism. For example, for
humans, we are called homo sapiens. “Homo” is genus name and “sapiens” is the
scientific individual name. Every living organism has a species name.
The phrase natural selection can also mean survival of the fittest. It means any species is
able to reproduce to carry on its desirable traits to the next generation. This is how traits
that are desirable pass on to the next generation. These traits mean any features (body
parts) that help a species to survive in its environment it lives in.
For example, if two different coloured (white and black) moths (large butterflies) living next
to a factory that gives off large amounts of smoke. If the smoke is black in colour it will affect
the environment that the moths live in. The moths’ predators are small birds that live there
as well. If the environment is covered in black smoke then only the white moths are seen.
The birds can easily see them.
The black moths are difficult for the birds to see. The black moths are able to pass their
genes to the next generation. Most of the white moths are eaten by the birds. Less of their
genes are passed onto the next generation.
Therefore, the black moths have a desirable trait that helps them to survive in the
environment it lives in. They are able to pass on their genes to the next generation. The
black moth has the fittest gene. This is known as the survival of the fittest. It is a mechanism
that enables natural selection in animals.
28
Natural selection is only one out of several mechanisms that help evolution or change occur
over generations. These other mechanisms that make change (evolution) possible are:
 Descent with modification
 Migration (gene flow)
 Genetic Drift
1. Descent with Modification
Organisms become what they are from their parents through a process known as
Descent with Modification. This type of mechanism involves how genes are passed on
from one generation to the next.
For example Figures A, B, C and D are of two different coloured beetles. One is green in colour
and another brown in colour. The green beetles outnumber the brown beetles in this
population (Figure C). The leaves they feed on become less because of a drought (Figure A).
After some generation the beetles’ size begins to shrink due to a lack of leaves (Fgure B). Some
more generations later the brown colored beetles outnumber the green colored beetles
(Figure D). The brown coloured beetles later on were able to pass on their gene to the
next generation and the generations afterwards.
Figure A Figure B Figure C Figure D
Suppose there is group of penguins living on one island. The penguins composed of
black and white penguins. The black penguins outnumbered the white penguins. If
there is a snow storm most black penguins would die because they do not have the
thicker layer of skin that the white penguins have. Overtime, the white penguins will
outnumber the black penguins. This is an example of how genes are passed down from
one generation to the next.
2. Migration (Gene Flow)
Migration is the movement of organisms from one place to another. An organism

moving out of an area is called emigration and an organism moving into a new area is
called immigration.
29
Brown coloured beetle moving from one population to the next population.
This is important to understand because of the genes that are either moving into an
area or moving out of an area. An area where a population of the same species lives
(and the genes they have) is called a gene pool. The flow of genes emigrating or
immigrating is described as gene flow.
Gene flow creates genetic variation in species. Genetic variation is the small
differences within the same species. It leads to changes in organisms over many
generations. When it comes to genetic variation it comes down to two factors.
I. Environmental Factors
Twins may have identical genes, but if one is brought up in a different
environment than the other twin then the features are different. One twin can
be much slimmer than the other. The slimmer one may not be eating enough
food hence is slimmer than the other.
Another example would be one group of species of birds living in the Australian
woodlands. The bird living up north may be smaller and paler than the one down
south. This may be due to the food shortage up north so even though both birds
are the same species but because of the environmental factor (which is food) the
bird up north is slightly different in its’ variation then the one down south.
II. Genetic Factors

A number of genetic factors can cause genetic variation. The most significant
genetic factor is mutation. Mutation is the change in the genetic code that can
cause a change in an organism’s physical appearance or bodily processes
(physiology). NB: Review on previous topic on mutation.
3. Genetic Drift
Is the chance event that some genes from one population continue to spread to
another area. Generally, the smaller the population the greater the effects of genetic
drift. If the population is small then the loss of genes that help the species continue
to the next generation decreases in numbers. If there is only one or two of the
species then extinction is likely.
30
Two coloured beetles: One green and one brown beetle. When squashed, most of the green beetles are
squashed, except for one. That one green beetle moves from that population to another population. The
movement of that single black beetle to another population was by chance and would have effects on
the other population. This is an example of genetic drift.
If these small numbers in the population succeed in reproducing the next generation maybe
very different from the previous generation. This is called the bottleneck effect.
For example, a small pond may hold two varieties of fish. One fish is coloured red while the
other fish is coloured yellow. In this pond most of the fish is coloured yellow. When
someone throws his net into the pond, most of the fish caught are red in colour. Therefore,
the fish caught is not representative of the population.
If the fisherman decides to create a fish nursery with only yellow fish then obviously most of
them will be yellow. The yellow fish then is called the founder population. After a while
when this fish population increase in numbers most of them will become yellow. The
unrepresentative population of mostly yellow fish that was nursed and increased in numbers
is known as the founder effect.
sent in for assessment. However, this learning activity will help you complete Summative
Test 1 (which you will send in for assessment).
1. Which example is NOT an agent of evolution (change)?
(a) Embryos (b) Mutation
(c) Mutagens (d) Genetic Drift
31
2. A population of the same species that contain different numbers of genes is known as
a ________________.
(a) gene pool (b) genetic drift
(c) genetic factors (d) genetic variation
3. The chance event that a few genes continue to pass their genes to the next generation
is known as ________________.
(a) genetic drift (b) founder effect
(c) bottleneck effect (d) founder population
4. When a few of the population’s genes, after a disastrous event, pass their genes onto
the next generation then this is called _________________.
(a) genetic drift (b) bottleneck effect
(c) founder effect( (d) founder population
5. The movement of genes from one population to the next population or vice versa is
generally known as __________________.
(a) migration (b) emigration
(c) immigration (d) outward and inward flow
B. Encircle True if the statement is true and False if the statement is false.
1. The general movement of animals in and out of one population and another
population is called gene flow.
(True/False)
2. The movement of a representative population to a different population is called

founder population.
(True/False)
3. The increase of an unrepresentative population in a different location is known as the

founder effect.
(True/False)
32
4. Environmental and genetic factors are agents of genetic variation.
(True/False)
5. The change in organisms body make up as they pass their genes to the next generation
is called genetic drift.
(True/False)
It is now time for you to complete Assignment 4 and Practical Activity 4 in your
Assessment Book 4.
REVISE WELL USING THE MAIN POINTS ON THE NEXT PAGE.
33
GR 12 BIO M4 SUMMARY
SUMMARY
You will now revise this module before doing SUMMATIVE TEST 4. Here are the main points
to help you revise. Refer back to module topics if you need more information.
 Lamarck’s theory stated that traits were acquired during the lifetime of that organism
and were passed onto the next generation.
 Charles Darwin was the first to propose the “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection”.
It stated that traits were acquired by certain agents. These traits are only seen after
many generations.
 Charles Darwin’s theory can be testable and observable.
 A population is made up of many of the same species.
 A species is an organism that can mate with itself and produce a fertile offspring.
 Evidence that organisms evolve (change) over millions of years comes from:
 Fossil evidence
 Transitional fossils
 Comparative Bio-chemistry
 Comparative Anatomy
 Bio-Geographic Distribution
 The process by which organisms bodies become preserved over thousands and millions
of years is called fossilisation.
 Two types of evidence that comes from fossils are:
 Direct evidence
 Indirect evidence
 A mould is a hole in sediment. It can be filled up to create a 3-dimensional model of an
organism. The 3-dimensional model of the organism is called a cast.
 Footprints, tooth marks of organisms millions of years ago are examples of trace
fossils.
 How fossils are arranged from simple soft bodied organisms to complex hard bodied
organisms in the fossil record is known as the “Law of Fossil Succession”.
 Poikilotherms are warm-blooded animals while homiotherms are cold-blooded
animals.
 Fossils that show a link between closely related species are called transitional fossils.
 Comparative bio-chemistry deals with the how the organism functions and what the
organism is made up of.
 Comparative bio-chemistry deals with the protein make up of organisms and the DNA
make up of an organism and the similarities between species.
 Comparative anatomy looks mainly at the bone structure and the similarities between
species.
34
 If two different species have the same common ancestor, but different function then it
is known as homologous structures.
 If two different species have different ancestors, but same function in their structure
then it is called analogous structure.
 Comparative anatomy deals with homology, remnant organs, analogy and embryology
 The distribution of plants and animals and how they can only be found in one place
only, and nowhere else in the world can be used to determine relatedness. This is
known as bio-geographic distribution.
 Non-random mating and mutation are examples of mechanisms of evolution.
 Non-random mating involves partners choosing which characteristics it wants before
mating.
 Mutation is the change in DNA sequence over millions of years.
 Mutation can be forced (induced mutation) or occurs naturally (spontaneous
mutation).
 Agents that cause mutation to occur are called mutagenic agents or mutagens.
 In terms of the change in the DNA sequence there are four (4) types of mutations that
can occur:
 Substitution
 Addition
 Deletion
 Alteration
 Other mechanisms of change include:
 Descent with modification
 Migration (gene flow)
 Genetic drift
 Descent with modification simply means the ability or fitness or survivability of an
organism to pass its genes to the next generation, thus creating a small change of
many generations.
 Organisms can mean both plants and animals.
 Migration is the both the coming in and going out of organisms from a population.
Migration can also be known as gene flow.
 Emigration is the exit of organisms from a population.
 Immigration is the entry of organisms into a population.
 A population is made up of many of the same species. Each species contain its own
genes and together it is called a gene pool.
 The small differences within the same population, like the difference in colour, are
known as genetic variation.
 The chance event, after a disastrous event, that a small population is still able to pass
on their genes to the next generation is called genetic drift. If this small population is
unrepresentative population begins to increase in numbers then is called the
bottleneck effect.
35
 Let us say if there were two groups of penguins white and black then the predominant
population were the black penguins. If a few white penguins were to travel to a
different island and started a small colony there, those white penguins would be called
the founder population. The small colony that would have resulted from that founder
population would be called the founder effect.
NOW DO SUMMATIVE TEST 4 IN YOUR ASSESSMENT BOOK AND SEND IN TO THE

PROVINCIAL COORDINATOR FOR MARKING.
36
GR 12 BIO M4 ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES
ANSWERS TO LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1-4
Learning Activity 1
A. (1) (c) (2) (c) (3) (c) (4) (d) (5) (d)
B. (1) True (2) False (3) True (4) True (5) False
___________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity 2
A. (1) (d) (2) (b) (3) (c) (4) (c) (5) (c)
B. (1) True (2) True (3) False (4) False (5) False
___________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity 3
A. (1) (b) (2) (c) (3) (c) (4) (b) (5) (d)
B. (1) True (2) False (3) False (4) True (5) True
___________________________________________________________________________
Learning Activity 4
A. (1) (a) (2) (a) (3) (a) (4) (d) (5) (a)
B. (1) True (2) False (3) True (4) True (5) False
37
GR 12 BIO M4 REFERENCES
REFERENCES
Judith Kinnear & Marjory Martin, Nature of Biology, Third Edition, Book 2,
2006, John Wiley & Sons Australia Limited, Australia.
Copyright (c) 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
bioweb.uwlax.edu/......./Evol....../Whippo.ppt
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Archaeopteryx_lithographica_paris.JPG
Evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/....../evo.......
Faculty.msmc.edu/....../developmental_%20........
ib.berkeley.edu/...../biogeographyofevolut.....
Images.pcmac.org/....../CP%20Evolution.p..instruct.uwo.ca/biology/441/lecture
media.collegeboard.com/......../pdf/....../ap13
Outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/......./theoryevolu......
rh.rock-hill.k12.sc.us/......../Documents/......./T.....
www.biology-resources.com/powerpoints.....
www.botany.wisec.edu/......powerpoints/Tra
www.carolina.com/pdf/....../comparative_v.......
www.csun.edu/~dgray/....../Chapter5.pdf
www.dis.ym.edu.tw/bio1/121806-1pdf
www.earth4567.com/....../evolution/evoluti/.......
www.explorebiology.com/pptLE/......./34ev.........
www.londonderry.org/......EvolutionEvide/........
www.opwchargers.org/....../Evidence%2of
38
FODE PROVINCIAL CENTRES CONTACTS
FODE
CUG PHONE CUG PHONE
PC NO. PROVINCIAL ADDRESS PHONE/FAX
(COORDINATOR) (SENIOR CLERK)
CENTRE
P. O. Box 822,
1 ALOTAU 6411343/6419195 72228130 72229051
Alotau
P. O. Box 154,
2 BUKA 9739838 72228108 72229073
Buka
72229050
3 CENTRAL C/- FODE HQ 3419228 72228110
P. O. Box 68,
4 DARU 6459033 72228146 72229047
Daru
P. O. Box 990,
5 GOROKA 5322085/5322321 72228116 72229054
Goroka
P. O. Box 63,
6 HELA 73197115 72228141 72229083
Tari
7 JIWAKA c/- FODE Hagen 72228143 72229085
P. O. Box 284,
8 KAVIENG 9842183 72228136 72229069
Kavieng
P. O. Box 86,
9 KEREMA 6481303 72228124 72229049
Kerema
P. O. Box 328,
10 KIMBE 9835110 72228150 72229065
Kimbe
P. O. Box 95,
11 KUNDIAWA 5351612 72228144 72229056
Kundiawa
P. O. Box 4969,
12 LAE 4725508/4721162 72228132 72229064
Lae
P. O. Box 2071,
13 MADANG 4222418 72228126 72229063
Madang
P. O. Box 41,
14 MANUS 9709251 72228128 72229080
Lorengau
P. O. Box 237,
15 MENDI 5491264/72895095 72228142 72229053
Mendi
P. O. Box 418,
16 MT HAGEN 5421194/5423332 72228148 72229057
Mt. Hagen
17 NCD C/- FODE HQ 3230299 ext 26 72228134 72229081
P. O. Box 71,
18 POPONDETTA 6297160/6297678 72228138 72229052
Popondetta
P. O. Box 83,
19 RABAUL 9400314 72228118 72229067
Kokopo
P. O. Box 38,
20 VANIMO 4571175/4571438 72228140 72229060
Vanimo
P. O. Box 259,
21 WABAG 5471114 72228120 72229082
Wabag
P. O. Box 583,
22 WEWAK 4562231/4561114 72228122 72229062
Wewak
FODE SUBJECTS AND COURSE PROGRAMMES
GRADE LEVELS SUBJECTS/COURSES
1. English
2. Mathematics
3. Personal Development
Grades 7 and 8
4. Social Science
5. Science
6. Making a Living
1. English
2. Mathematics
Grades 9 and 10 4. Science
5. Social Science
6. Business Studies
7. Design and Technology- Computing
1. English – Applied English/Language& Literature
2. Mathematics – General/Advance
3. Science – Biology/Chemistry/Physics
Grades 11 and 12 4. Social Science – History/Geography/Economics
6. Business Studies
7. Information & Communication Technology
REMEMBER:
 For Grades 7 and 8, you are required to do all six (6) subjects.
 For Grades 9 and 10, you must complete five (5) subjects and one (1) optional to be certified.
Business Studies and Design & Technology – Computing are optional.
 For Grades 11 and 12, you are required to complete seven (7) out of thirteen (13) subjects to be
certified.
Your Provincial Coordinator or Supervisor will give you more information regarding each subject and
course.
Notes: You must seek advice from your Provincial Coordinator regarding the recommended courses in
each stream. Options should be discussed carefully before choosing the stream when enrolling into
Grade 11. FODE will certify for the successful completion of seven subjects in Grade 12.
GRADES 11 & 12 COURSE PROGRAMMES

No Science Humanities Business
Language & Literature/Applied
1 Applied English Language & Literature
English
2 Mathematics -General/Advance Mathematics -General/Advance Mathematics –General/Advance
3 Personal Development Personal Development Personal Development
4 Biology Biology/Physics/Chemistry Biology/Physics/Chemistry
5 Chemistry/ Physics Geography Economics/Geography/History
6 Geography/History/Economics History / Economics Business Studies
7 ICT ICT ICT
CERTIFICATE IN MATRICULATION STUDIES

No Compulsory Courses Optional Courses
1 English 1 Science Stream: Biology, Chemistry, Physics
Social Science Stream: Geography, Intro to Economics and Asia and the
2 English 2
Modern World
3 Mathematics 1
4 Mathematics 2
5 History of Science & Technology
REMEMBER:
You must successfully complete 8 courses: 5 compulsory and 3 optional.

Grade 12 Biology Module4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Grade 12 Biology Module4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Grade 12 Biology Module4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

PUBLISHED BY FLEXIBLE OPEN AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

Course Format Editor

IN THIS MODULE YOU WILL LEARN ABOUT:

12.4.1: THEORIES AND EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

Science Subject Review Committee-FODE

DIANA TEIT AKIS

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

Printed by Flexible, Open and Distance Education

MODULE 12.4 : EVOLUTION 5

12.4.1: Theories and Evidence of Evolution………………………………………………….. 9

Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution……………………………..……………………………. 9

12.4.2: Mechanism of Evolution..………………………………………………………………….. 24

Evolutionary Agents: Non Random Mating and Mutation…….……………. 24

 To facilitate and promote the integral development of every individual

UKE KOMBRA, PhD

MODULE 12.4: EVOLUTION

After going through this module, you are expected to:

Time Frame Suggested allotment time: 10 weeks

DO NOT LEAVE ANY QUESTION UNANSWERED

Analogous structures A development of a certain physical structure

Bottleneck Effect When a small number of species are able to

Cast The filling in of a hole to produce a three-

Emmigration Movement of organism(s) out of one

Founder effect The end result of a founder population.

Founder population Movement or change in a population from

Fossilisation Step by step process, where organism’s body

Genetic drift An event that occurs accidentally to make one

Gene flow The physical movement of organisms of the

Gene pool A geographic area where a group of the same

Genetic variation A small change in the physical makeup of an

Homologous structure A certain physical structure developed by two

Immigration Movement of organism(s) outside the

Induced mutation A change in the genetic code of an organism

Migration The movement of organisms along with their

Mould An impression in the ground which an

Mutagents They are the agents causing mutation.

Mutation A change in the genetic code that makes an

Organelles Tiny structures found inside a cell that plays a

Paleontology The study of dead extinct animal or plant

Population A group of the same species numbering more

Species An organism when mating with the same

Spontaneous mutation A change in the genetic code but the cause is

Trace fossils These are imprints such as footprints, teeth,

Transitional Fossils These are fossils that link one species of

12.4.1 Theories and Evidence of Evolution

The theory of evolution has been long proposed and

Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

In 1809, a French biologist by the name of Jean Baptiste

He searched for answers to the existences of

 The features (traits/characteristics) of

Charles Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by

In 1858, a British biologist, Charles

Charles Darwin was the first to come up

Charles Darwin’s “Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection” states that: Species

A population is made out of a group of plants or animals of the same

Learning Activity 1 30 minutes

A. Choose the letter of the best answer.

2. Charles Darwin was from: