Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering

School of Science and Engineering

Chemical Engineering Lab II

Course Code: ChE 300

EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTIONS

Convective Drying
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying

Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3
1.1. Importance of drying ............................................................................................. 3
1.2. Methods of drying ................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Equipment for Drying ............................................................................................ 4
1.4. Drying operation in industry .................................................................................. 5
1.5. Principles of drying ................................................................................................ 6
1.7. Types of Moisture ................................................................................................. 8
1.8. Classification of drying process ............................................................................. 8
1.9. Rate of Drying ....................................................................................................... 8
1.10. Mollier’s h-x Diagram .......................................................................................... 10
2. Description ............................................................................................................... 13
2.1. Equipment Layout ............................................................................................... 13
2.2. Control cabinet .................................................................................................... 15
2.3. Flow channel with material holder ....................................................................... 15
2.4. Digital Scale ........................................................................................................ 15
2.5. Anemometer ....................................................................................................... 16
3. Learning Objectives ................................................................................................. 17
4. Experiments ............................................................................................................. 18
4.1. To determine the reduction in weight and the drying rate over time during the drying
process. .............................................................................................................. 18
4.1.1. Performing the experiment ........................................................................... 18
4.1.2. Evaluation .................................................................................................... 19
References....................................................................................................................... 21

2
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
1. Introduction
Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another solvent by
evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid.

1.1. Importance of drying

Drying plays a vital role in our day-to-day life. The importance of drying can be highlighted
with the drying of food. Drying is an important process operation for safe storage of
agricultural products and food and it plays a critical role in increasing global food security.
This method is being adopted since of start of mankind to preserve food. Drying is actually
the removal of moisture to a safe level which has a potential to

• Prevent the reproduction and growth of microbial proliferation

• Mitigate moisture-mediated deteriorative biochemical reactions
• Reduce the costs of packaging, transportation, storage and processing,
• Reduce postharvest losses
• Extend shelf life

It is notable that by carrying out drying under optimal operating conditions in well-designed
dryers it is feasible to enhance food quality. [1]
Moreover, there are numerous other applications of drying present in our daily routine. For
example,
• Drying clothes under the sun: Drying clothes after washing is a common life activity
accompanied by drying. Water is removed from the clothes as water droplets get
evaporated due to heat of the sun.
• Drying up of water and potholes from streets: Water stuck in the potholes after rain
gets evaporated due to heat of the sun
• Evaporation of perspiration from body: A natural phenomena of perspiration also
involve drying and sweat on our body evaporates taking away heat from our body.
• Drying of wet hair: Hair dry up themselves after washing them as water gets
evaporated due to heat of the sun or we dry them forcefully by using the hair dryer.
• Ironing of clothes: Clothes get ironed well when hot press evaporates water vapor
trapped in the fabric and relieves creases.
• Evaporation of nail paint remover when applied on nails: Acetone present in the nail
paint remover takes heat from our body and evaporates which is also one of the best
examples of drying.

3
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying

Figure 1: Daily life applications of drying

1.2. Methods of drying

The following are the various drying methods found in the literatures:
(i) Convective or direct drying: The product is directly heated by hot air and moisture
is lost as result. Heated air is less humid, which enhances and promotes the drying
operation.
(ii) Indirect or contact drying: The product is kept in a heated wall or drum, it gets
heated up and loses its moisture content due to the heat without coming in
contact with the drying air.
(iii) Dielectric drying: The heat is generated inside the moist material after absorbing
the radiofrequency or microwaves and that heat is transferred towards the
surface. For example, micro‐oven drying.
(iv) Freeze drying: Temperature and pressure of the drying chamber are maintained
extremely low and hence the moisture in the product is frozen and then
sublimated. It is an expensive technique used for drying pharmaceutical,
chemical and highly perishable food materials.
(v) Natural air drying: Moist materials are dried with natural air without heating and
forcing the air. Usually, this process is dependent on weather conditions. [2]

1.3. Equipment for Drying

Drying equipment can be classified according to the nature of drying process. Following
classification is useful for the choice of equipment.

4
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
1. Method of operation i.e. batch and continuous.

Batch and semi batch drying is carried out at the unsteady state conditions. Normally the
dryer is filled with the substance, which remain in the equipment during the drying purpose
and is removed after the drying is complete. In contrast, the continuous process is operated
in the steady-state manner.

2. Method of supplying the heat necessary for evaporation of the moisture i.e., direct
and indirect

The heat is supplied by direct contact with the substance in direct driers whereas in indirect
driers the supplied heat is independent from the gas used to carry away the vaporized
moisture. For example, heat can be supplied by conduction by a metal wall in contact with
the substance or by exposure to the radiations.

3. Nature of the substance to be dried

The substance can be a rigid solid or a flexible material. It can also be a granular solid or a
slurry. The physical form of the substance and associated handling methods have a huge
impact on the choice of the drier. [3]
Based on the above-mentioned specifications, the equipment type can be
Direct driers: tray driers, truck dryer, through circulation drier,
Indirect driers: Vacuum shelf driers, Agitated pan driers, Vacuum rotary driers. [3]

1.4. Drying operation in industry

This process is often used as a final production step before selling or packaging products.
In some cases, drying is an essential part of the manufacturing process, as for instance in
paper making or in the seasoning of timber, although, in the majority of processing
industries, drying is carried out for one or more of the following reasons:
• To reduce the cost of transport.
• To make a material more suitable for handling as, for example, with soap powders,
dyestuffs and fertilizers.
• To provide definite properties, such as, for example, maintaining the free-flowing
nature of salt.
• To remove moisture which may otherwise lead to corrosion. One example is the
drying of gaseous fuels or benzene prior to chlorination.

The CE130 bowl dryer experimental stand can be used to represent and scrutinize the
process of convection drying. The experimental stand consists of a flow channel with a
visible section where the material to be dried can be observed during the experiment. The
drying air is fed into the flow channel by way of a fan and is passed over the material to be
dried. To improve the drying process, the air can be warmed using a heater. The

5
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
quantitative evaluation is performed using a combined temperature/moisture sensor,
digital scale and a manual anemometer for taking measurements of the speed of air.

1.5. Principles of drying

The purpose of drying is to remove the liquid adhering to a material and contained within it.
The drying curve depends on the form in which the moisture is present in the material to be
dried.

Figure 2: Material to be dried with moisture

The surface moisture is evaporated first and carried away by the drying air as it surrounds the
material to be dried as a thin film. The drying process proceeds more slowly for the moisture
that is located in capillaries and pores within the material to be dried. This is because the
capillary forces or diffusion resistance must be overcome. The removal of the water of
crystallization contained in the material to be dried is even more difficult as it is bonded by
relatively strong molecular forces. To expel it, the material to be dried has to be intensely
heated. The drying process is therefore divided into several stages (see Fig. 2).

In the first drying stage, the liquid adhering to the surface of the material to be dried
evaporates rapidly at a uniform drying rate. When the surface has dried out, drying begins in
the capillaries. This leads to a reduction in the drying rate. Intense heating of the drying
material over a longer period of time finally expels the liquid bonded within the crystal
structure. In most technical drying processes, drying does not continue to absolute dryness
but is limited to an agreed residual moisture level.

6
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying

Figure 3: Drying curve

1.6. Mechanisms of mass transfer responsible for moisture

transport
Transport of moisture within the solid may occur by any one or more of the following
mechanisms of mass transfer:

• Liquid diffusion: If the wet solid is at a temperature below the boiling point of the
liquid.
• Vapor diffusion: If the liquid vaporizes within material.
• Knudsen diffusion: If drying takes place at very low temperatures and pressures, e.g.,
in freeze drying.
• Surface diffusion: (possible although not proven).
• Hydrostatic pressure differences: When internal vaporization rates exceed the rate
of vapor transport through the solid to the surroundings.
• Combinations of the above mechanisms.
Note that since the physical structure of the drying solid is subject to change during drying
the mechanisms of moisture transfer may also change with elapsed time of drying

Figure 4: Mechanisms of moisture transport inside a pore

7
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
1.7. Types of Moisture
Moisture content is defined as moisture present in the solid (kg moisture /kg dry solid). The
moisture content can be an equilibrium moisture content (EMC), free moisture, bound
moisture and unbound moisture. [4]

1.8. Classification of drying process

Drying processes are classified to the type of heat transfer. Some of the names of drying
processes are given below.

(i) Convection drying

(ii) Contact drying

(iii) Radiation drying

Depending on whether the drying temperature is higher or lower than the boiling point of
the liquid to be separated, an additional distinction is made:

(iv) Evaporative drying

(v) Vaporization drying

For the most part, drying is carried out using warm air at atmospheric pressure. In this case,
it is referred to as air drying. If drying takes place at significant sub atmospheric pressure, the
procedure is referred to as vacuum drying. At drying temperatures below freezing point, we
refer to freeze drying.

The experimental stand in Chemical Engineering Lab II is designed and intended exclusively for
convection drying.

In convection drying, the heat necessary for drying is transferred to the material to be dried
by a flowing gas through convection. To achieve sufficient heat transfer with loose porous
material, the gas flows over several thin layers of material simultaneously. For material that
is difficult to dry, the heat transfer is achieved by flowing the gas through a bulk of material
to be dried or a fluid bed. The air is not only used to feed in the heat but also to absorb the
vapor arising during the drying process. When it flows into the drier, the air must therefore
be hot and as dry as possible, so that it can absorb as much moisture as possible.
1.9. Rate of Drying

In drying, it is necessary to remove free moisture from the surface and also moisture from the
interior of the material. If the change in moisture content for a material is determined as a
function of time, a smooth curve is obtained from which the rate of drying at any given
moisture content may be evaluated. This form of the drying rate curve varies with structure
and type of material. A typical drying curve has following sections [5].

8
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying

Figure 5: A typical drying curve for granular material

Constant Rate Period: During the constant rate period, it is assumed that drying takes place
from a saturated surface of the material by diffusion of the water vapor through a stationary
air film into the air stream.

First Falling Period: During this period, surface is no longer capable of supplying sufficient
free surface moisture to saturate the air in contact with it. Under these conditions, the rate
of drying depends very much on the mechanism by which the moisture from inside the
material is transferred to the surface.

Second Falling Period: At the conclusion of the first falling rate period it may be assumed that
the surface is dry and that the plane of separation has moved into the solid. In this case,
evaporation takes place from within the solid and the vapor reaches the surface by molecular
diffusion through the material. The forces controlling the vapor diffusion determine the final
rate of drying, and these are largely independent of the conditions outside the material.

X* = Equilibrium moisture content

Xc = Critical moisture content

Rate of Drying

The rate of drying is calculated as follows;

𝐝𝐦 (1)
= 𝐦. 𝐯
𝐝𝐭
dm/dt = drying rate, g/h

m = Gravel mass, g

v = drying rate, g/g.h

9
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
For drying rate, following formula is used
∆𝐕 (2)
𝐯=
∆𝐭

V = moisture content, g/g

T = time, h

1.10. Mollier’s h-x Diagram

A further important aid to analyze the results of a drying process is the Mollier diagram for
moist air. This diagram helps to look at the drying process in terms of the state of the drying
air before and after passing the material to be dried. The Mollier diagram provides
information about the loading of the air with water, depending on the temperature and
the relative humidity. This diagram only applies at atmospheric pressure.

h = Specific enthalpy of air [kJ/kg]

∆h/∆𝑋 = Change in enthalpy for 1 kg absorbed water vapor [kJ/kg]

X = Loading [g/kg]

𝜗 = Temperature of moist air [C]

Ψ = Relative humidity

10
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying

Figure 6: Mollier h-x diagram

The lines in the Mollier diagram can be classified as follow:

1. Lines of constant temperature (isotherms).

2. Lines of constant specific enthalpy (isenthalps).

3. Lines of constant relative humidity 𝜑

4. Lines of constant loading x

Figure 7: Lines on h-x diagram

11
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
The following three reading examples demonstrate how to read off data from the diagram:

Example 1:
Air of 𝜗 = 40 °C and a relative humidity of 𝜑 = 0.3 has a specific enthalpy of h = 77 kJ/kg and a loading
of x = 14.3 g/kg. The temperature of dew point is 𝜗𝑇 = 19.5°C.

Example 2:

Air of 𝜗1 = 30°C and 𝜑1 = 0.4 has a specific enthalpy of h1 = 57.5 kJ/kg. When heating to 𝜗1 = 115°C,
this increases to h2 = 145 kJ/kg. The relative humidity is now 𝜑2 = 0.01.

Figure 8: Examples for reading the data points from the diagram

12
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
2. Description
2.1. Equipment Layout

Figure 9: Front overview of equipment

1. Fan
2. Support
3. Control cabinet
4. Flow channel
5. Temperature sensor of the controller
6. Transparent flap
7. Material holder with support
8. Locking wheels
9. Anemometer
10. Holder for the Temperature T - humidity sensor
11. Digital scale
12. Temperature T - humidity sensor
13. System diagram
14. Heating element on the rear

13
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
The unit is used for drying solids by convection. To do this, the moist solids are spread across
the material holder (7) in the flow channel. The air required for drying is blown into the
channel (4) by an adjustable fan (1). It can be pre-heated with the heater and the heater
power can be adjusted to various levels. The fan and heater are controlled from the control
cabinet (3). The relative humidity and temperature of the air are measured by combined
temperature/moisture sensors (12) be- fore and after the material holder. The measured
values are indicated by digital displays in the control cabinet. The air speed can be measured
using a manual anemometer (10).

Figure 10: Equipment controller

1. Fan speed control

2. Power socket
3. Fan on / off switch
4. Relative humidity
5. Connection for scale
6. Temperature T
7. Air speed in channel in m/s
8. Temperature controller of the Heater
9. Heater on / off switch
10. Temperature monitor display
11. Master switch
12. USB port
The experimental stand is supplied complete with a manual anemometer and a stopwatch.
During the experiment, the material to be dried is continuously weighed by a digital scale
(11) on which the material holder is suspended. The unit is designed as a mobile trainer.
During experiments, the trainer should be secured against rolling away using the lockable
wheels.

14
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
2.2. Control cabinet
The control cabinet contains the control unit for the fan and the heater, as well as digital
displays for temperature (20) and relative humidity (18) before and after the material to be

Figure 11: Controller

dried. The heating power is determined by the controller (22), where the temperature
setpoint is entered. The controller measures the temperature using a temperature sensor
in the flow channel. The maximum heating power is 6750 W. In case of overheating, the
heater is turned off and this is indicated on the unit (24). The heater is switched on and off
using a dual push button switch (23). For safety reasons, the heater is only switched on
when the fan is already in operation. The fan is switched on in two stages after the main
switch has been turned on: (1) Switch on at dual push button switch (23) (white lamp on
button lights up). (2) Adjust the speed control dial (15). The speed of the fan can be selected
by turning the speed adjustment dial. nmax =950 rpm

2.3. Flow channel with material holder

The flow channel is used to guide and heat the drying air. To do this, the channel has an
adjustable fan and a heating element. The material to be dried is spread across four bowls.
The bowls are inserted into the stainless steel support, which is connected to the scale
positioned in the channel. The material to be dried is changed using a trans- parent flap on
the side of the channel.

2.4. Digital Scale

The digital scale is used to measure the weight reduction of the material to be dried during
the drying process. The power supply for the scale comes from a socket (16) on the side of
the control cabinet. The scale must also be connected to the Sub-D plug at the cabinet jack
(19). Instructions for operation and maintenance of the digital scale can be found in the
separate manufacturer’s manual supplied. To switch on the scale, the master switch and the

15
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
on/off key on the scale must be pressed. The scale can be zeroed by pressing a tare button
on the scale.

Figure 12: Digital scale

2.5. Anemometer
The anemometer measures the air speed in the range 0 - 2.5 m/s at the end of the flow
channel. Further operating and maintenance instructions can be found in the
manufacturer’s operating manual supplied.

Figure 13: Anemometer

16
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
3. Learning Objectives
• Influence of air temperature and humidity on drying intensity

• Plotting of drying curves with constant external conditions

• Determination of drying rate with different air parameters and different solid
properties

• Evaluation of drying processes using energy and mass balances

17
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
4. Experiments
4.1. To determine the reduction in weight and the drying rate over
time during the drying process.
4.1.1. Performing the experiment

The preparations for a drying experiment follow this pattern:

• Remove drying plates from support frame.

• Tare scale to zero.

• Insert drying plates individually into support frame, read off and note the weight of
the individual drying plates on the digital scale.

• Switch on fan and set speed using flow rate gauge (e.g., 1.3 m/s).

• Read off volumetric air flow from display and make a note of it.

• Switch on heater and set the temperature controller (e.g., 43°C).

• Run air conditioning duct until it is warmed up evenly all along its length.

• Spread material to be dried in a thin layer on the drying plates.

• Insert drying plates in the support frame and note the total weight.

• Tare scale to zero.

• Start drying experiment, commence time measurement using stopwatch.

• When using the software to time the measurement data, start the software timer.
The drying experiment is complete when either:

▪ The drying time specified in advance has expired

▪ the total mass m of the material to be dried is no longer falling

Sample Data
The choice of time intervals depends primarily on the material to be dried. When recording
manually, the measurement data may look like the example shown on the following page:
Drying experiment no.: Date:
Type of material to be dried:
Mass of drying plate 1:
Mass of drying plate 2:
Mass of drying plate 3:
Total dry mass:

18
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
In this case composed of Gravel mass:
Introduced water:
Total mass drying plates + material to be dried:
Air speed:
heating level:
(Before introducing the water tare button was pressed)
No. Time T1(C) Φ1(%RH) X1(g/kg) T2(C) Φ2(%RH) X2(g/kg) M*(g)

hh:mm:ss Behind drying material Behind drying material

1

2
3

.
10

11

12
.

25
26
.
40

4.1.2. Evaluation

The measured results are evaluated manually in several stages:

1. The fall in total weight is plotted in a diagram, m = f (t). The diagram shows a constant
reduction in mass until a constant value is attained. This shows that no more moisture
remains in the material to be dried.

19
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying

Figure 14: Loss in mass of material

2. The measured values for weight reduction are used to plot a drying curve diagram (see
Fig. 16) (v=f(t)). The drying rate v is calculated from the change in the moisture content
V of the material to be dried in the period under analysis.

Figure 15: Drying rate

20
 ChE 300 Convective Drying
Convective Drying
References
1. Xiao, H. W.; Mujumdar, A. S. Importance of drying in support of human welfare,
Drying Technology. 2020, 38, 1542-1543.
2. Chandramohan V. P. Convective drying of food materials: An overview with
fundamental aspect, recent developments, and summary. Heat Transfer, 2020, 49,
1281- 1313.
3. Treybal, R. E. Mass Transfer Operations, 3rd Ed. 1980; Mcgrow-Hill.
4. Seader, J. D.; Henley, E. J.; Roper, D. K. Separation process principles, 1980; Vol. 25,
New York: Wiley.
5. McCoy, B. J. Chemical Engineering: Particle Technology and Separation Processes, In
Chemical Engineering, Coulson, J. M.; Richardson, J. F.; Backhurst, J. R.; Harker, J.
H. 1993; Vol. 2, pp 183-199.

21