Breccias associated with epithermal and porphyry systems – towards a systematic approach

to their description and interpretation

Andrew G.S. Davies, David R. Cooke, and J. Bruce Gemmell
Centre for Ore Deposit Research, an ARC Special Research Centre at the University of Tasmania
GPO Box 252-79, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia, 7001

ABSTRACT: Currently no single breccia classification scheme advocates a systematic non-genetic

descriptive approach combined with a widely applicable genetic classification scheme. We propose
a four-step descriptive-based system for breccia classification. Step 1: Description of the breccia in
terms of geometry, grainsize, components (clasts, matrix, cement, open space), internal
organisation and alteration. Step 2: Delineation of breccia facies. Step 3: Grouping of breccias into
facies associations. Step 4: Genetic classification. End-members of the genetic classification are
magmatic, volcanic, tectonic, and hydrothermal breccias. Each of these can be subdivided into
several categories. Overlap in the processes, which generate the end-members, produces hybrid
breccias (eg. phreatomagmatic and vein breccias). Use of this classification scheme will simplify the
confusing nomenclature presently in use and lead to more understandable and consistent
descriptions, names and interpretations for breccias.

INTRODUCTION collection of descriptive, non-genetic information and

The systematic description and classification of breccias supported by a widely applicable genetic classification.
associated with hydrothermal and magmatic- This paper provides an overview of the descriptive, non-
hydrothermal systems is a challenging and controversial genetic classification scheme together with a general
problem facing ore deposit researchers and genetic classification scheme modified from Sillitoe
explorationists. The identification, description and (1985).
correct interpretation of breccias can be critical to the
discovery, delineation and mining of epithermal and PRIMARY NON-GENETIC, DESCRIPTIVE
porphyry deposits. Systematic collection of descriptive APPROACH AND SECONDARY GENETIC
data must form the basis for breccia classification, since CLASSIFICATION
genetic interpretations can change as new information
becomes available. Consideration must also be given to Breccia description and interpretation should be a four-
the format of the descriptive data, as digital data storage step process: (1) The components, internal organisation,
and 3-D data modelling require that data can be readily geometry, relationship to enclosing rocks, contacts and
and consistently recorded, updated and manipulated. alteration are systematically described (Table 1). (2)
The breccia(s) are assigned to facies. (3) Facies are
Currently a proliferation of breccia terminology is in use, then combined into facies associations (groupings). (4)
most of which is genetic in nature. Several schemes for A genetic classification is applied.
breccia classification have been proposed (eg., Sillitoe,
1985, Baker et al, 1986, Laznicka, 1988, Taylor and Overall our approach is a modification of that proposed
Pollard, 1993, Corbett and Leach, 1998), which either by McPhie et al (1993) for the description of volcanic
use entirely genetic, or a mix of genetic and descriptive rocks. Documentation of the facies and facies
terminology. For example Taylor and Pollard (1993) associations facilitates non-genetic classification of
cover important aspects of breccia description at several breccias, and emphasises the relationships between
scales, although genesis is implicit in their classification. various breccias in a system. No genetic terminology
In his wide-ranging overview of breccias in volcano- should be applied until Step 4.
plutonic arcs, Sillitoe (1985) provides a useful genetic
subdivision of ore-related breccias. Step 1 – breccia description
Breccias should be broken down into four components:
We advocate a systematic approach to breccia clasts, matrix, cement and open space (Table 1). Matrix
description and interpretation, based on the careful is the clastic infill, whereas cement the chemically
precipitated infill between the clasts. A breccia may observations are essential to determining the internal
have one or both infill types, and the cement may or may organisation of the breccia body and its relationship to
not bind the clasts and/or matrix. The distinction between enclosing units. Contact relationships and styles are
cement and matrix is commonly overlooked, but is often best observed at the outcrop scale. Alteration may
critical in highlighting the role of hydrothermal fluids in be pre, syn and/or post-brecciation, and can significantly
the brecciation event, fluid flow through the broken rock modify the original appearance of clasts and matrix.
and/or the role of fluids in post-brecciation modification Attention should also be paid to pseudo or apparent
(eg. cementation, alteration). breccia textures at all scales.

Descriptive names for breccias Step 2 – facies assignment

Ideal combination: Within a single breccia body, there may be considerable
5+4+3 +2+1 variation in the component characteristics and internal
Components GrainsizeGeometry
AlterationInternal
Organisation A+B+C
organisation. It may be useful to break a single breccia
Minimum combination: 4 + 3 + 2 body into several facies, or describe individual breccia
4 + 3 + 2eg. jigsaw-fit quartz cemented bodies as facies.
andesite breccia
4 + 3 + 2 + 1eg. massive, matrix supported, rock Step 3 – facies associations
flour matrix polymict breccia pipe The facies determined in Step 2 can be grouped into
5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 eg. kaolinite-altered, monomict facies associations. For example a jigsaw-fit breccia
clast-supported breccia dyke may grade laterally into in-situ-rotated-clast breccia and
1) Geometry then into a chaotic breccia. Each of these breccias is a
eg. Pipe, cone, dyke, vein, irregular, tabular facies and they can be grouped into a single facies
Contacts – sharp, gradational, faulted, irregular, association. Facies associations may be based on
planar, concordant, discordant spatial, textural, mineralogical or economic features.
2) Grainsize (clast)
Microbreccia (<2mm), breccia (>2mm) Step 4 - genetic classification
Components Genetic interpretations should only be made once the
Clasts non-genetic framework is in place. The level of
Monomict or polymict interpretation will depend on the quality of data available.
Lithology/type – lithic (type), vein, breccia, juvenile There are numerous genetic breccia classification
magmatic, accretionary lapilli, pseudo-clastic; schemes. Taylor and Pollard (1993) advocated
mineralised, altered classification by the transport direction of the breccia
Morphology – angular, subangular, subround, round, (push-up, fall-down and break apart). Corbett and Leach
faceted, tabular, equant (1998) used a complex combination of descriptive and
b) Matrix genetic terms. Sillitoe (1985) emphasised the overlap
Igneous rock, rock flour, crystal fragments, lithic between volcanic, intrusive and hydrothermal processes
fragments, vein fragments and divided breccias on the basis of the interpreted role
Texture – banded, laminated, massive of magma and/or aqueous fluids. We favour the latter
Grainsize – silt, sand, gravel, pebble, cobble approach, but also include the role of tectonic
c) Cement fragmentation, as structure can play a fundamental role
Ore and gangue mineralogy, and grainsize in the formation and/or localisation of breccias in
Texture – e.g. cockade, massive, drusy porphyry and epithermal systems.
d) Open space or vugs
4) Internal Organisation (outcrop scale features) Our approach to a genetic breccia classification is based
Clast abundance – clast/matrix/cement supported on the principal fragmentation mechanism (tectonic,
Clast distribution – jigsaw-fit, in-situ rotated, chaotic hydrothermal, magmatic, or volcanic). Regardless of the
Massive (non-graded) or graded depth of formation, most breccias can be attributed to
Stratified or unstratified one, or a combination of these processes. One of the
5) Alteration difficulties in determining the origin of a breccia is
clasts/matrix/cement and paragenesis recognition of the interaction between one or more of
these processes in the triggering, brecciation and post-
Table 1. Descriptive approach for breccias (based on the brecciation stages. Figure 1 shows the principal end-
approach to volcanic rocks of McPhie et al, 1993) member breccia types and highlights the gradations
between them. Each of the apices represents an end-
Observations must be made at several scales in order to member fragmentation process and breccia type. Each
correctly describe and interpret breccias. Hand sample end-member encompasses several subdivisions, which
or drill core observations are useful in describing the are not discussed here.
details of matrix and cement components, clast shapes
and paragenetic relationships. Outcrop scale
Genetic end-members not be related to volcanism. As a result we choose to
Magmatic breccias: Breccias with an igneous rock separate them from the volcanic breccias.
matrix. These may form by a variety of processes
including, stoping and magma injection into pre-existing Tectonic Breccias: These include wear and dilation
broken rock or fault zones. breccias. There can be significant overlap between
tectonic, hydrothermal and magmatic brecciation. The
Volcanic Breccias most obvious combination manifests as vein breccias,
where fault movement promotes fluid migration into
dilatant zones and wall rock spalling into open space.
Subsequent hydrothermal cements may partially or
completely seal the fault.

An inherent problem with this type of scheme is

determining whether the breccia should be classified by
triggering mechanism (eg. fault movement),
fragmentation process (eg. reduction in confining
pressure and steam expansion) or post brecciation
Igneous

Hydrothermal Breccias Magmatic-hydrothermal breccias Magmatic Breccias

events (eg. hydrothermal cementation). For example, a
Structural control on breccia location
quartz-cemented jigsaw-fit breccia may have formed by
fault movement and subsequent deposition of
hydrothermal cement. The breccia is a product of both
tectonic fragmentation and hydrothermal sealing. If the
Stockw

early tectonic event is not identifiable, then this breccia

would likely be termed a hydrothermal breccia. There is
no simple answer to this problem, and ultimately it will be
a matter of interpretation as to which process is most
Fault
breccias significant for breccia formation, mineralisation,
Tectonic Breccias exploration, or understanding of the breccia system.
Figure 1. Step 4 - genetic classification
CASE STUDY – THE KELIAN EPITHERMAL
Hydrothermal breccias: We propose that this term be GOLD DEPOSIT, INDONESIA
applied in a general sense to any broken rock formed, or Table 2 demonstrates the application of the descriptive
cemented by, hydrothermal processes (eg. gas classification scheme to a subset of breccias from the
expansion, corrosion, mineral deposition), regardless of Kelian low-sulfidation epithermal gold deposit. For
fluid source (meteoric, magmatic-hydrothermal, detailed discussion of these breccias refer to van
seawater), fluid phase (liquid, vapour, supercritical fluid) Leeuwen et al (1990) and Davies et al (1999).
or fluid composition (dilute, saline, hyper-saline).
Subdivision of this term can then be made on the basis Steps 1 and 2: Systematic descriptions and descriptive
of the fluid types or chemical constituents. Further names are applied to four spatially associated breccias,
subdivisions of this breccia class include phreatic, and each breccia is assigned to a facies.
magmatic-hydrothermal (Sillitoe, 1985) and solution-
collapse breccias. Step 3: On the basis of dominant clast compositions,
contact relationships and the absence of abundant
Volcanic Breccias: These include autobreccia, hydrothermal cement, facies PB-M1, PB-M2, QP-JF are
hyaloclastite, and volcaniclastic breccias to name a few. grouped into a single facies association referred to as
For detailed classification, the reader is referred to the Burung Breccia. Although it forms a shell around the
McPhie et al (1993). Overlap between volcanic and Burung Breccia, facies PB-M3c is distinct as it has a
hydrothermal breccias occurs when hydrothermal hydrothermal cement and lacks mudstone or quartz-
explosions vent to the surface (phreatic eruptions) and porphyry clasts.
when magma intrudes into hydrothermal reservoirs
producing hybrid magma-steam explosions and Step 4: Based on textural features, presence of a
eruptions (phreatomagmatic explosions and eruptions). juvenile magmatic component (quartz-porphyry clasts)
Shallow or eruptive hydrothermal breccias are classified and associated coherent quartz-porphyry intrusions, the
by some workers as volcanic rocks, since hydrothermal Burung Breccia facies association is interpreted to have
explosions can erupt and produce volcaniclastic a phreatomagmatic origin (Davies et al, 1999). Facies
deposits. However, hydrothermal breccias can form well PB-M3c lacks the abundant clastic matrix of the other
below the shallow volcanic environment, not vent, and polymict breccia facies and has a hydrothermal cement.
can occur in a range of environments, which may or may Explosive hydrothermal fragmentation and hydrothermal
cementation is interpreted to have produced this facies.
 CONCLUSIONS
Step 1: breccia description  A four-step classification scheme has been devised
1) Geometry – irregular pipe, upward flaring for breccias associated with porphyry and epithermal
2) Grainsize – breccia (0.5 to 100cm)
deposits: (1) Breccia description, (2) facies
3) Components:
 Clasts: polymict, sub-angular to sub-round assignment, (3) facies associations, and (4) genetic
carbonaceous mudstone > volcanic sandstone, feldspar classification.
porphyry and quartz-feldspar porphyry; accretionary  Descriptions must be made at several scales and
lapilli (2-5mm) include: Geometry, grainsize, components (clasts,
 Matrix: sand-silt-sized lithic and crystal fragments matrix, cement, open space), internal organisation
 Cement: minor illite, no open space and alteration.
4) Internal organisation – matrix supported, massive  The genetic classification is based on the principal
5) Alteration – pervasive weak smectite/illite and fragmentation process (volcanic, tectonic, magmatic,
minor carbonate
hydrothermal).
Name: Massive, matrix supported, mudstone-clast-rich
polymict breccia
Step 2: PB-M1 facies (polymict breccia – massive 1) We feel that the use of this classification scheme will
Step 1: breccia description simplify the confusing nomenclature presently in use by
1) Geometry – irregular pipes and pods economic geologists and lead to more understandable
2) Grainsize – breccia (0.5 to 100cm) and consistent descriptions, names and interpretations
3) Components: for breccias.
 Clasts: polymict, sub-round to sub-angular
carbonaceous mudstone > volcanic sandstone and
feldspar porphyry; ragged and wispy quartz-feldspar
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
porphyry clasts This work has been driven by the problems encountered
 Matrix: sand-silt-sized lithic and crystal fragments by the authors in classifying and interpreting breccias at
 Cement: minor illite, no open space the Kelian epithermal gold deposit in Indonesia and other
4) Internal organisation – matrix supported, massive magmatic-hydrothermal systems on which we have
5) Alteration – pervasive weak smectite/illite and minor worked. The work has benefited from discussions with
carbonate; feldspar porphyry clasts are quartz-sericite-
pyrite altered and veined pre-brecciation
many of our colleagues at the Centre for Ore Deposit
Name: Massive, matrix supported, mudstone-clast-rich Research and at Kelian. PT Rio Tinto Indonesia and PT
polymict breccia with wispy quartz-porphyry clasts Kelian Equatorial Mining are thanked for the financial
Step 2: PB-M2 facies (polymict breccia – massive 2) and logistical support.
Step 1: breccia description
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