Cell Cycle and Cell Division

and Transport Mechanisms

Cell Division—involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA to two daughter
cells. What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed along, without dilution
or error,from one generation to the next. Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
Core Concepts:
• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
• Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction.
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell.
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive
the samecomplement of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular signals
mediate theswitch in cellular activity.
• Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells.
• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer.
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only when
conditionsare favorable and the process is working correctly.
Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth, resulting in
tumor formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other organs. The Cell Cycle
control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by external stimuli (i.e.,chemical
messages).
Checkpoint—a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‘stop’ and ‘go-ahead’ signals can
regulatethe cell cycle.
• Animal cells have built-in ‘stop’ signals that halt the cell cycles and
checkpoints untiloverridden by ‘go-ahead’ signals.
Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle.
The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point
• The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and
that enough nutrients are available to support theresulting daughter
cells.
• If a cell receives a ‘go-ahead’ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually
continue with the Cell Cycle.
• If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead’ signal, it will exit the Cell Cycle and
switch to a non-dividing state called G0.
• Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase.

The G2 Checkpoint—ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been successfully

completed.
The Metaphase Checkpoint—ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the
mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
 Kinase—a protein which activates or deactivates another protein by
phosphorylating them. Kinases give the ‘go-ahead’ signals at the G1 and G2
checkpoints. The kinases that drive these checkpoints must themselves be
activated.
• The activating molecule is a cyclin, a protein that derives its name from
its cyclically fluctuating concentration in the cell. Because of this
requirement, these kinases are called cyclin-dependent kinases or
CDKs.
• Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2 phases of the Cell Cycle.
• By the G2 checkpoint, enough cyclin is available to form MPF
complexes (aggregations of CDK and cyclin) which initiatemitosis.
• MPF functions by phosphorylating key proteins in the mitotic sequence.
• Later in mitosis, MPF switches itself off by initiating a process which leads to
the destruction of cyclin.
CDK, the non-cyclin part of MPF, persists in the cell as an inactive form until it associates with new
cyclin moleculessynthesized during the interphase of the next round of the Cell Cycle.
Mitosis (apparent division)—is nuclear division; the process by which the nucleus
divides to produce two new nuclei. Mitosis results in two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to each other and to the parental cell from which they came.

Cytokinesis—is the division of the cytoplasm. Both mitosis and cytokinesis last for around one
to two hours.

• Prophase—is the preparatory stage, During prophase, centrioles move toward opposite
sides of the nucleus. The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense into visible
threads.
• Chromosomes first become visible during early prophase as long, thin, and
intertwined filaments but by late prophase, chromosomes are more
compacted and can be clearly discerned as much shorter and rod-like
structures.
As the chromosomes become more distinct, the nucleoli also become moredistinct. By the end
of prophase, the nucleoli become less distinct, often disappearing altogether.
Metaphase—is when chromosomes become arranged so that their centromeres become
aligned in one place, halfway between the two spindle poles. The long axes of the chromosomes
are 90 degreesto the spindle axis. The plane of alignment is called the metaphase plate.
Anaphase—is initiated by the separation of sister chromatids at their junction point at the
centromere.The daughter chromosomes then move toward the poles.

Telophase—is when daughter chromosomes complete their migration to the poles. The two
sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled into two-groups at opposite ends of the cell. The
chromosomesuncoil and assume their extended form during interphase. A nuclear membrane
then forms around each chromosome group and the spindle microtubules disappear. Soon, the
nucleolus reforms.

Meiosis—reduces the amount of genetic information. While mitosis in diploid cells produces
daughter cells with a full diploid complement, meiosis produces haploid gametes or spores with
only one set of chromosomes. During sexual reproduction, gametes combine in fertilization to
reconstitutethe diploid complement found in parental cells. The process involves two successive
divisions of a diploid nucleus. First Meiotic Division
The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of chromosomes (reduction division).
In mostcases, the division is accompanied by cytokinesis.
Prophase I—has been subdivided into five substages: leptonema, zygonema, pachynema,
diplonema, and diakinesis.
• Leptonema—Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already
visible. The number of chromosomes present is the sameas the number
in the diploid cell.
• Zygonema—Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around
each other in a highly specific manner. The pairing iscalled synapsis.
And because the pair consists of four chromatids it is referred to as
bivalent tetrad.
• Pachynema—Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A
form of physical exchange between homologues takes place at
specific regions. The process of physical exchange of a chromosome
region is called crossing-over. Through themechanism of crossing-
over, the parts of the homologous chromosomes are recombined
(genetic recombination).
• Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from
each other. It is at this point where crossing-over isshown to have taken
place. The area of contact between two non-sister chromatids, called
chiasma, become evident.
• Diakinesis—The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more
condensed and the chiasma often terminalize or move down the
chromatids to the ends. This delays the separation of homologous
chromosomes.

In addition, the nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear membrane begins to break down.

Metaphase I—The spindle apparatus is completely formed and the microtubules are
attached to the centromere regions of the homologues. The synapsed tetrads are found
aligned at the metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the cell) instead of only replicated
chromosomes.
Anaphase I—Chromosomes in each tetrad separate and migrate toward the opposite poles.
The sister chromatids (dyads) remain attached attheir respective centromere regions.
Telophase I—The dyads complete their migration to the poles. New nuclear
membranes may form. In most species, cytokinesis follows,producing two daughter
cells. Each has a nucleus containing only one set of chromosomes (haploid level) in
a replicated form.

Second Meiotic Division

The events in the second meiotic division are quite similar to mitotic division. The difference lies,
however, in the number of chromosomes that each daughter cell receives. While the original
chromosome number is maintained in mitosis, the number is reduced to half in meiosis.
Prophase II—The dyads contract.
Metaphase II—The centromeres are directed to the equatorial plate and then divide.
Anaphase II—The sister chromatids (monads) move away from each other and migrate to the
opposite poles of the spindle fiber.
Telophase II—The monads are at the poles, forming two groups of chromosomes. A nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomesand cytokinesis follows. The chromosomes
uncoil and extend.
Cytokinesis—The telophase stage of mitosis is accompanied by cytokinesis. The two nuclei
are compartmentalized into separate daughter cells and complete the mitotic cell division
process. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by the formation of a constriction in the middle of
the cell until two daughter cells are formed. The constriction is often called cleavage, or cell
furrow. However, in most plant cells this constriction is not evident. Instead, a new cell
membrane and cell wall are assembledbetween the two nuclei to form a cell plate. Each side of
the cell plate is coated with a cell wall that eventually forms the two progeny cells.
Phospholipids are the foundation of all known biological membranes. The lipid bilayer
forms as a result of the interaction between the nonpolar phospholipid tails, the polar
phospholipid heads, and the surrounding water. The nonpolar tails face toward the water.
Transmembrane proteins float within the bilayer and serve as channels through which
various molecules can pass. Diffusion is the natural tendency for molecules to move
constantly. Their movement is random and is due to the energy found in the individual
molecules. Net diffusion occurs when thematerials on one side of the membrane have a
different concentration than the materials on the other side. Osmosis is a special type of
diffusion specifically associated with the movement of water molecules. Many cells are
isotonic to theenvironment to avoid excessive inward and outward movement of water.
Other cells must constantly export water from their
 interior to accommodate the natural inward movement. Mostplants are hypertonic with
respect to their immediate environment. Osmotic pressure within the cell pushes the
cytoplasm against the cell wall and makes a plant cell rigid.

To control the entrance and exit of particular molecules, selective transport of materials is
necessary. One simple process is facilitated diffusion that utilizes protein transmembrane
channels that are specific to certain molecules. It is a passive process driven by the
concentration of molecules both inside and the outside of the membrane. Certain molecules
are transported in and out of the cell, independent of concentration.This process requires the
expenditure of energy in the form of ATP and is called active transport. Large molecules
enter the cell by generalized nonselective process known as endocytosis. Phagocytosis is
endocytosis of a particulate material while endocytosis of liquid material is called pinocytosis.
Exocytosis is the reverse process. Receptor- mediated endocytosis is a complicated mechanism
involving thetransport of materials via coated vesicles.
Plasma membranes—are made up of a phospholipid bilayer in an aqueous environment.
Phospholipids are the foundation of all known biological membranes. The lipid bilayer
forms as a result of the interaction between the non-polar (hydrophobic or water-fearing)
phospholipid tails, the polar (hydrophilic
or water-loving) phospholipid heads, and the surrounding water.

The nonpolar tails face toward the water. Transmembrane proteins float within the bilayer and
serve aschannels through which various molecules can pass.
They function as ‘identification tags’ on cells which enable the cell to determine if the other cells
that it encounters are like itself or not. It also permits cells of the immune
system to accept and reject foreign cells such as disease-causing bacteria.

Many membrane proteins function as enzymes that speed up reactions in cells. Others act like
paste orglue-forming cell junctions where adjacent cells stick together. Membranes also contain
cholesterolwhich reduces the cell’s permeability to substances and make the bilayer stronger.
Molecules and substances move in several ways that fall within two categories: passive
transport and active transport. In passive transport, heat energy of the cellular environment
provides all of the energy, hence, this is not energy-costly to the cell. Active transport, however,
requiresthe cell to do work, requiring the cell to expend its energy reserves.

Diffusion is a type of passive transport described as the natural tendency for molecules to
move constantly. Their movement is random and isdue to the energy found in the individual
molecules. Net diffusion occurs when the materials on one side of the membrane have a
different concentration than the materials on the other side. Osmosis is a special type of
diffusion specifically associated with the movement of water molecules.
 A solution with a higher concentration of solutes is said to be hypertonic while a solution
with a lower concentration of solutes is hypotonic.Water crosses the membrane until the
solute concentrations are equal on both sides. Solutions of equal solution concentration
are said to beisotonic. This only occurs when the solute concentration are the same on
both sides of the membrane.
Many cells are isotonic to the environment in order to avoid excessive inward and
outward movement of water. Other cells must constantlyexport water from their interior
to accommodate the natural inward movement. Most plants are hypertonic with respect to
their immediate environment. Osmotic pressure within the cell pushes the cytoplasm
against the cell wall and makes a plant cell rigid.

Large molecules enter the cell by generalized non-selective process known as

endocytosis. Phagocytosis is endocytosis of a particulatematerial while pinocytosis is
endocytosis of liquid material. In this process, the plasma membrane engulfs the particle
or fluid droplet and pinches off a membranous sac or vesicle with a particular fluid
inside into the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis is the reverse process where a membrane-bound vesicle filled with bulky
materials moves to the plasma membrane and fuses withit. In this process, the vehicle’s
contents are released out of the cell.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a complicated mechanism involving the transport of
materials through coated vesicles. Cells take up molecules more efficiently in this process
due to the receptor proteins on their surfaces. Each receptor protein bears a binding site for
a particular molecule. If the right molecule contacts a receptor protein, it attaches to the
binding site, forming a pocket and eventually pinchingoff into the cytoplasm.