International Journal of Radiation Biology

ISSN: 0955-3002 (Print) 1362-3095 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/irab20

DNA is a fractal antenna in electromagnetic fields

Martin Blank & Reba Goodman

To cite this article: Martin Blank & Reba Goodman (2011) DNA is a fractal antenna in
electromagnetic fields, International Journal of Radiation Biology, 87:4, 409-415, DOI:
10.3109/09553002.2011.538130

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/09553002.2011.538130

Published online: 28 Feb 2011.

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 Int. J. Radiat. Biol., Vol. 87, No. 4, April 2011, pp. 409–415

DNA is a fractal antenna in electromagnetic fields

MARTIN BLANK1 & REBA GOODMAN2

Departments of 1Physiology, and 2Pathology, Columbia University, New York, USA

(Received 7 October 2010; Revised 29 October 2010; Accepted 2 November 2010)

Abstract
Purpose: To review the responses of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to electromagnetic fields (EMF) in different frequency
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ranges, and characterise the properties of DNA as an antenna.

Materials and methods: We examined published reports of increased stress protein levels and DNA strand breaks due to
EMF interactions, both of which are indicative of DNA damage. We also considered antenna properties such as electronic
conduction within DNA and its compact structure in the nucleus.
Results: EMF interactions with DNA are similar over a range of non-ionising frequencies, i.e., extremely low frequency
(ELF) and radio frequency (RF) ranges. There are similar effects in the ionising range, but the reactions are more complex.
Conclusions: The wide frequency range of interaction with EMF is the functional characteristic of a fractal antenna, and
DNA appears to possess the two structural characteristics of fractal antennas, electronic conduction and self symmetry.
These properties contribute to greater reactivity of DNA with EMF in the environment, and the DNA damage could account
for increases in cancer epidemiology, as well as variations in the rate of chemical evolution in early geologic history.

Keywords: DNA damage, DNA structure, non-ionising radiations, oxidative stress, stress, proteins, stress response genes

reason, exposure to a power line is very different

Introduction
from exposure to the radiation from a cell phone,
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into two where the head is in the near field of the radiation.
broad classes, non-ionising and ionising radiation, However, the similarities in the biological effects
with each being divided into several frequency indicate that these distinctions may not be as
ranges. The same physical laws apply to electric important for interactions with living cells.
and magnetic fields across the spectrum, but the laws Regarding the effects of electric versus magnetic
give rise to important differences in properties fields in the ELF range, Blank (1995b) has shown that
between the ranges that lead to different practical they have similar effects on the membrane ion
applications. In the non-ionising range, extremely transport enzyme, the Na,K-ATPase. ELF electric
low frequency (ELF) is used to transmit electric (Blank et al. 1992) and magnetic (Goodman and
power and energise electrical appliances, and radio- Blank 1998, Goodman et al. 1994, Goodman and
frequency (RF) is used in communication technol- Henderson, 1998) fields also stimulate protein synth-
ogy. Because of the difference in frequency, there are esis in cells suspensions, a process that is stimulated by
qualitative differences in human exposure. In the ELF electric fields in vivo to initiate protein synthesis
ELF range the wavelength of the radiation can be in muscle tissue (Blank 1995a). Protein synthesis is
many kilometres, so everything is in the near field of also stimulated by combined electromagnetic fields in
the source and the electric and magnetic fields can be the RF range (dePomerai et al. 2000).
measured separately. In the RF range, where The muscle tissue studies mentioned above
wavelengths are much shorter and can be as low as indicate in vivo mechanisms that activate deoxyribo-
a few centimetres, the near field is very close to the nucleic acid (DNA) when ionic currents pass
source and exposure is to a combined electromag- through the DNA in muscle cell nuclei during the
netic field. For example, the wavelength correspond- action potentials. The muscle proteins associated
ing to an RF frequency of 1 GHz is 3 cm. For this with fast muscles are stimulated at higher frequency

Correspondence: Martin Blank, PhD, Columbia University, Physiology, 630 W 168 Street, New York 10032, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 0955-3002 print/ISSN 1362-3095 online Ó 2011 Informa UK, Ltd.
DOI: 10.3109/09553002.2011.538130
 410 M. Blank & R. Goodman

(*100 Hz) than the muscle proteins associated with the field. Studies at low field strengths are desirable
slow muscles (*10–20 Hz). Since different proteins because pathways in cells are often interconnected
can be induced by changing the frequency of and activation of one pathway usually affects others
stimulation, different parts of the DNA must be and complicates the analysis.
stimulated at different frequencies. The magnitude The discovery of the stress response activated by
of the electric field driving the process in muscle, EMF indicated an interaction with DNA (Blank and
estimated at *10 V/m (Blank and Goodman 2004), Goodman 2004, Blank et al. 1994, Goodman et al.
provides a large safety margin, since electric fields as 1994, Goodman and Blank 1998, Kultz 2003). Since
low as 3mV/m stimulate stress protein synthesis in a wide range of genes is activated by EMF (Good-
HL60 cells (Blank et al. 1992). man and Henderson 1988), it appears that many
parts of the DNA molecule interact. Also, since the
stress response is activated by other stimuli that are
Materials and methods
potentially harmful to cells (Kultz 2003), it is clear
Important similarities between electromagnetic field that the stress response is a natural protective
(EMF) interactions with DNA across different parts mechanism, and that cells respond to EMF as
of the electromagnetic spectrum are pointed out. potentially harmful.
Most of the studies cited are in the non-ionising EMF interaction with DNA in the ELF range is
range, i.e., the ELF and RF ranges, and include both also seen in reports of DNA strand breaks (Bioini-
experimental and epidemiology studies. The experi- tiative Report 2007, Lai and Singh 1997, Pathophy-
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mental studies focus on the stress response and DNA siology 2009, Reflex Project Report 2005). Single-
strand breaks. The epidemiology studies relate the strand breaks occur at field strengths that are higher
incidence of cancer to EMF exposure in each of the than the levels that stimulate the stress response. At
frequency ranges. Since cancer is believed to arise still higher field strengths, there are also double
from mutations in DNA, such as those that occur in strand breaks.
the ionising range as a result of oxidative damage, the These experimental studies indicate changes in
similar effects of EMF may arise from electron structure and molecular damage, and suggest a
transfer within the DNA of living cells. Electron probable mechanism for the many epidemiology
transfer studies are presented to support the pro- studies that have investigated health effects asso-
posed mechanism for the observed effects of EMF on ciated with chronic low-level exposures. The main
DNA. focus of these studies has been on leukemia in
The similarity of EMF interactions across a children, and pooled analyses (Ahlbom et al. 2000,
relatively wide range of frequencies suggests that Greenland et al. 2000) of the best studies in the field
the DNA acts as a fractal antenna, and an analysis of were analysed to show an increase in risk at
the structure of DNA in the cell nucleus indicates exposures of 0.3–0.4 mT. More recent studies
that there is a structural basis for this property. (Draper et al. 2005, Kabuto et al. 2006) have
Similar data for the ionising range of the electro- supported the linkage of leukemia with power lines
magnetic spectrum suggest that the fractal properties exposure. The increase in risk may actually occur at
of DNA may extend beyond the ELF and RF ranges fields as low as 0.18 mT, as suggested recently from
to higher frequencies. studies showing an association with damage to DNA
The fractal properties of DNA have implications repair genes (Yang et al. 2008).
regarding the EMF interaction mechanism with In addition to childhood leukemia, studies have
cells, EMF safety standards, and may account for shown an increase in risk from power lines associated
an effect on the rate of molecular evolution in the with adult diseases, such as leukemia (O’Carroll and
early history of the earth. Henshaw 2008), Alzheimer’s and other neurodegen-
erative diseases (Garcia et al. 2008, Huss et al.
2009).
Results Milham (2009) has analysed a century of vital
statistics in the US and correlated the incidence of
Studies in the non-ionising range
several diseases, including cancer, heart disease and
There have been many biological studies in the low diabetes, in parallel with the introduction of (low
frequency range because of health effects associated frequency) electrification.
with power lines and with the use of electrical The initial biological reactions associated with
appliances. In this range, experimental studies aimed DNA activation of the stress response in the ELF
at elucidating mechanisms have tended to use low range also occur at higher frequency in the RF range
field strengths to stimulate environmental exposures (Bioinitiative Report 2007, DePomerai et al. 2000,
and also to characterise threshold events, i.e., the Pathophysiology 2009, Reflex Project Report 2005).
biological processes that are activated by low levels of The same is true for the ability of EMF to cause
 DNA is a fractal antenna 411

DNA strand breaks and damage to proteins in the Table I. Coiled structures of increasing size in nuclear DNA (coils
RF range (Bioinitiative Report 2007, Lai and Singh get larger as more of the molecule is compacted).
1997, Pathophysiology 2009, Reflex Project Report DNA level Diameter
2005). Following the pattern in the ELF frequency
range, there are also epidemiology studies relating Double helix 1 nm
Chromatin fiber 10 nm
EMF exposure to the incidence of cancers in the RF
Solenoid 30 nm
range. Brain tumours (Hardell et al. 2009) and Hollow tube 200 nm
salivary gland tumours (Sadetzki et al. 2008) from
the RF of cell phones have been reported. The
results in the RF range appear to parallel those in the this fractal antenna is much greater than expected of
ELF range and suggest that the interaction of EMF an ordinary antenna, and it may even extend beyond
with DNA is not limited to low frequency. the RF range. There are, in fact, cancer epidemiol-
There are similar effects of EMF on DNA in the ogy studies that link DNA damage to radiation in the
ionising range. However, here there are fewer studies higher frequency ionising range. Well known exam-
and the effects are more complicated than in the ples are the incidence of cancer among atomic bomb
non-ionising range. First of all, it is well known that survivors exposed to the effects of g-rays (Gilbert
ionising radiation can damage DNA directly by 2009; Preston et al. 2004) and among children
ionising the molecule. But, in addition, recent exposed to X-rays (Sadetzki et al. 2006). The cellular
studies have shown that damage can also occur after response to molecular damage, the stress response, is
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exposure in nearby cells that were not directly also found in the middle of the ultraviolet (UV) range
irradiated (Mothersill and Seymour 2006). This (Spitz et al. 2004) which is in the ionising range.
‘bystander effect’ raises the possibility that the Electron transfer is a plausible mechanism for
biological damage in this range may not be a direct EMF interactions with DNA at higher frequencies
effect of the ionising radiation. There can be no where higher energies are involved. The damage due
doubt, however, that ionisation is due to transfer of to DNA strand breaks that occur at higher frequen-
an electron, and that the interaction of the higher cies, including ionising radiation, is generally attrib-
frequency radiation with an electron is fundamen- uted to oxidation, another chemical name for
tally related in that regard to the interactions in the electron transfer. Because of the greater energy at
non-ionising range. higher frequencies, reactive oxygen species, such as
peroxides, contribute to the DNA damage. However,
DNA strand breaks occur over a wide range of
DNA as a fractal antenna
frequencies, and do not demonstrate frequency
An antenna receives and transmits electromagnetic optima related to molecular reaction kinetics.
radiation because it is made of a material that conducts Regarding the connection between EMF and the
electricity. In general, an antenna has an optimal incidence of cancer, the different EMF energy levels
frequency that depends upon its length. An antenna in the non-ionising and ionising ranges all involve
that can operate at many different frequencies simulta- interaction with and activation of DNA and induc-
neously is unusual and is called a fractal antenna. This tion of protein synthesis. The ability of EMF to cause
property is achieved by using self-similar design to DNA strand breaks and damage to proteins in the
maximise the length of conductor that can receive or non-ionising range is similar to the destructive effects
transmit electromagnetic radiation within a given total on DNA of the much more energetic X-rays and
surface area or volume. In self-similarity, all subdivi- gamma rays in the ionising ranges, where it is
sions have a geometry that is similar to the structure as generally acknowledged that the cancers are due to
a whole, i.e., different sections of the molecule DNA damage. The recent epidemiology studies in
resemble the shape of the entire molecule. the non-ionising range link EMF-caused changes in
Since DNA can interact with EMF over a wide DNA with cancer. Additional support comes from
range of frequencies, and does not appear to be the study showing that the absence of DNA repair
limited to an optimal frequency, it has the functional genes is associated with a greater incidence of
properties of a fractal antenna. The DNA molecule leukemia from exposure to low frequency EMF
can conduct electrons within the double helix (Wan (Yang et al. 2008).
et al. 1999), and the DNA in the cell nucleus has the
compacted structural properties of a fractal antenna
(see Table I). Discussion
From the above analysis of the effect of EMF on
EMF and electron transfer
the stress response, DNA strand breaks and cancer
epidemiology, the fractal property of DNA is Based on the low EMF energy at which DNA
apparent in the ELF and RF ranges. The range of activation occurs in the stress response, it has been
 412 M. Blank & R. Goodman

proposed (Blank and Goodman 2002, 2008) that Table II. Optimal frequency stimulating biological reaction.
EMF probably interacts with the delocalised p Reaction stimulated Optimal frequency Reference
electrons in the DNA bases. The electron has a
single negative charge that can be accelerated in an Na,K-ATPase ELF (60 Hz peak) Blank and Soo, 1996
electric or magnetic field. Because of its low mass, an Cytochrome ELF (800 Hz peak) Blank and Soo, 1998
C oxidase
electron experiences a relatively large displacement
Belousov- ELF (250 Hz peak) Blank and Soo, 2003
even at low field strengths. Furthermore, the p Zhabotinsky
electrons in the DNA base pairs are delocalised and DNA (biosynthesis)
are able to move along the double helix (Wan et al. HL60, Sciara, yeast ELF (no peak) Goodman et al. 1994
1999). Conduction in DNA is a physical property C. elegans RF (no peak) dePomerai et al. 2000
Various cells Ionising (no peak) Spitz et al. 2004
that may turn out to be extremely useful in the future
development of miniature electronic components
(Bhalla et al. 2003).
Studies of the effects of EMF on electron transfer involving a reaction with cryptochromes, appears to
reactions have provided insight into the molecular explain how the magnetic compass functions in
mechanism of EMF interaction with DNA. The birds. These and other mechanisms may be operative
Na,K-ATPase (Blank 1995b), cytochrome oxidase in EMF interactions with cells, but EMF may
(Blank and Soo 1998) and the Belousov-Zhabotinski interact directly with DNA.
(oxidation of malonic acid) reactions (Blank and Soo Given the low energy at which DNA activation
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2003) all show an acceleration due to EMF. The occurs in the ELF range, the stress response
thresholds (field strengths) at 60 Hz for the reactions probably involves EMF interaction with the deloca-
are: Na,K-ATPase (0.2–0.3 mT), cytochrome oxi- lised p electrons in the DNA bases. Electrons have
dase (0.5–0.6 mT), Belousov-Zhabotinski (oxidation been described as moving along the DNA base pairs
of malonic acid) reaction (50.5 mT). The threshold at relatively high speeds of about 300 cm/s (Wan
for stimulation of DNA to elicit protein synthesis is et al. 1999). It has been suggested that the EMF-
in the same range, 50.8 mT (Goodman and Hen- induced movement of electrons can result in local
derson 1989). The low values are in the range of the charging and the subsequent disaggregation of the
epidemiological findings of a doubling in risk of DNA strands that precedes protein synthesis (Blank
childhood leukemia with EMF exposures above 0.3– 2008). Since the force due to interaction of an
0.4 mT, and they show that relatively little energy is electron with a magnetic field is determined by the
needed to affect the reactions. strength of the field and the velocity of the electron,
The two enzymes just mentioned show broad the largest force on an electron occurs when the
frequency optima that are close to the reaction magnetic field is changing and the electron is
turnover numbers (Na,K-ATPase, 60 Hz; cyto- moving. A significant contribution to electron move-
chrome oxidase, 800 Hz), and this could indicate ment could also result from the normal ‘flickering’ of
that the electromagnetic interactions are in syn- H-bonds in water molecules hydrating DNA (Fecko
chrony with the molecular kinetics. The frequency et al. 2003, McGuire and Shen 2006).
optimum of 250 Hz for the Belousov-Zhabotinski The synthesis of a stress protein is initiated at the
reaction is probably the frequency of the rate limiting promoter of the gene, and in EMF activation of the
step in a reaction that involves many steps (Table II). HSP70 gene, a specific nucleotide sequence has been
These frequency optima relate to events at the active linked to the response. The four base pair nucleotide
site of the enzyme, while the earlier frequency data sequence, nCTCTn, is essential for a response to
on muscle protein synthesis were for activation of EMF (Lin et al. 1999, Lin et al. 2001). The
different promoter sites on DNA. promoters of the HSP70 stress gene and the EMF-
activated oncogene, c-myc, have multiple copies of
this sequence. Artificial constructs containing these
EMF interaction with electrons in DNA
sequences can be stimulated by EMF to activate a
Regarding possible EMF interaction mechanisms reporter gene, and the EMF effect disappears when
that activate cells, Friedman et al. (2007) have shown the sequences are mutated.
that interaction of RF with NADH oxidase, an One can see why the nCTCTn sequences would
enzyme present in the plasma membrane, can respond readily to EMF. Their low electron affinities
generate reactive oxygen species and activate signal- enable EMF to displace electrons easily, and when
ling cascades. This is in line with the above CTCT bases are excited by UV radiation, they lose
mentioned research, where we have shown EMF EMF energy 10 times more rapidly than the GAGA
interactions with enzymes that affect basic biological bases on the complementary chain (Schwalb and
properties. The radical pair mechanism (Brockle- Temps 2008). The difference in molecular motion
hurst and McLauchlan 1996, Ritz et al. 2009), indicated by the rate of energy loss would promote
 DNA is a fractal antenna 413

separation of the two DNA strands at that site. When Many factors undoubtedly affected the rate of
DNA comes apart with purines (GAGA bases) on evolution, but the great acceleration of the process
one side and pyrimidines (CTCT bases) on the shown in the fossil record is coincident with the
other, the result is a smaller area for interaction with appearance of fractal DNA. The record actually
water molecules that makes the energetics more shows that many more new animal and plant species
favourable for separation. These properties increase have evolved since the appearance of fractal DNA, in
the probability of a split at this sequence. the same time span it took for the fractal structures to
emerge from prokaryotic DNA.
The difference between fractal and non-fractal
Possible effects on the rate of molecular evolution
structures is probably also a factor to consider in the
The molecular properties of DNA and the way in discussion on the relative roles of RNA versus DNA
which the double helix is compacted in the cell in early evolution. RNA structures contain loops but
nucleus is a unique design that also facilitates lack the self similarity of nuclear DNA, and would be
interaction with EMF. The nCTCTn sequences that less likely than DNA structures to react to EMF. It is
were shown to respond most efficiently to EMF possible that DNA may have had advantages in
would be expected to occur on average once every competition with RNA, because of this property.
256 base pairs and should be fairly common. The
interactions that lead to a separation of two DNA
Implications for safety standards
strands must therefore be possible at many sites in
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the molecule. The particular part of the double helix The many similarities in the interactions of EMF
in which a separation occurs is determined by the with DNA across a wide range of frequencies suggest
level of DNA structure that can best interact with the greater caution in approaching questions of human
frequency of the EMF to which it is exposed. Some health and safety. It should be obvious that safety
sites coding for stress proteins are ‘bookmarked’ standards in individual frequency ranges are not
(Xing et al. 2005), that is, they are in DNA segments appropriate when the same biological processes are
that are not compacted and therefore more exposed activated across the electromagnetic spectrum. It is
and available for interaction. the total exposure that should be considered, and
EMF is believed to have been an important driving EMF safety standards must be based on all biological
force in evolution. Because the physical arrangement responses.
of the DNA in a cell determines its properties as an In fact, a biologically-based safety standard is
antenna, the ability of DNA to act as a fractal desperately needed. The existing 100 mT ELF ex-
antenna could account for the large difference in the posure limit set by ICNIRP (International Commis-
rate of molecular evolution of prokaryotes and sion for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection) is many
eukaryotes. There are major differences between times higher than the 0.4 mT where a doubling of
the essentially circular prokaryotic DNA, which lacks childhood leukemia risk is widely acknowledged. It has
the self-similarity of fractals, and the DNA of also been pointed out that the specific absorption rate
eukaryotes that have a fractal arrangement in the (SAR), the widely used thermal standard for EMF
nucleus. Prokaryotes contain only a single loop of safety, does not relate at all to the biological thresholds
stable chromosomal DNA and are far less likely to of the stress response in the ELF and RF ranges, and
respond to a variety of EMF frequencies. that the threshold for the same biological process
It is generally believed that early evolution on differs by many orders of magnitude in the two ranges
Earth was driven by mutations caused by ionising (Blank and Goodman 2004).
radiation (e.g., UV, x-rays) from the Sun, as well as If EMF interactions can lead to DNA damage, the
weak natural low frequency electrical discharges in great increase in the use of RF EMF for commu-
the atmosphere, such as those that give rise to the nication in the last few decades should accelerate the
Schumann resonances (in the 0–50 Hz range). Both rate of interaction with DNA and cause more
prokaryotes and eukaryotes react to the frequencies mutations. The proliferation of mobile phones, WiFi
that affect the DNA double helix, but the fractal (wireless communication technology), etc. could
DNA of eukaryotes can also react to the wider range lead to a large increase in mutations over a very
of frequencies that affect the larger coiled structures short period of time. There have already been
in the nucleus. More changes in DNA increase the indications that proliferation of RF due to cell phone
probability of mutations and the evolution of new use may have contributed to an increase in brain
species. cancer (Appendix 2 in Cardis 2010). It is difficult to
In the fossil record, prokaryotes appeared approxi- estimate the effect on the rate of evolution because of
mately 3.5 billion years ago, only about 1 billion the explosive nature of this change when considered
years after the formation of the Earth’s crust, while on a geological time scale. The changes in DNA may
eukaryotes only appeared about 1.7 billion years ago. come too fast and in such great numbers as to be
 414 M. Blank & R. Goodman

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