International Review of

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Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries

Dennis A. Rondinelli
International Review of Administrative Sciences 1981 47: 133
DOI: 10.1177/002085238004700205

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Government Decentralization
in Comparative Perspective:
Theory and Practice in Developing Countries *
UDC by
Dennis A. RONDINELLI,
Professor and Director of the Graduate
Program in Development Planning,
Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public
Affairs, Syracuse University

The need to decentralize development plan- most of them being allocated to a small group
ning and management has become a recurring of the rich and powerful &dquo;. He pointed out
theme in the plans and policies of inter- that if developing nations were truly interested
national assistance agencies and developing in alleviating poverty and balancing develop-
&dquo;
nations in recent years. With the shifting ment, experience shows that there is a greater
emphasis in development strategies toward chance of success if institutions provide for
promoting more socially equitable economic popular participation, local leadership and de-
growth and meeting the basic needs of the centralization of authority &dquo; (2).
poorest groups in developing societies, wide- The related argument is that if the poorest
spread participation in decision-making is con-
sidered essential to the development process, groups in developing societies are to obtain
and decentralization has been advocated as a a larger share of government services, means
must be found to decentralize public service
way of eliciting that participation.
delivery and involve beneficiaries in planning
Two major arguments are made for en- and decision-making at the local level. USAID
couraging government decentralization in analysts contend that &dquo; decentralization is ne-
Third World Countries. One is that decentral- cessary to increase the scope of decisions,
ization is necessary to accelerate the pace and and thus incentives, available to local partici-
spread the benefits of growth, integrate diverse pants, as well as to build institutions and
regions in heterogeneous countries and use to encourage, structure, focus and stabilize
scarce resources more efficiently to promote such participation &dquo; (3). The United Nations
development in poverty stricken or economic- Development Program (UNDP), in an evalua-
ally lagging areas. Analysts in the U.S. Agency tion of 200 rural development projects funded
for International Development (USAID) have during the 1970s, found that the poorest groups
noted that &dquo; as developing states and donor in developing societies cannot rely on the
agencies move to larger numbers of small- central government to meet their needs. &dquo; The
scale projects and area-wide, multi-sector, ion- efficient delivery of services to rural com-
tegrated’ projects in order to reach the rural munities must depend on effective organization
poor, over-centralized management is be- at the community level in order to have mean-
coming more of a problem&dquo; (1). World ingful interaction with the delivery agencies
Bank president Robert McNamara, in his re- in the establishment of priorities &dquo;, UNDP
port to the Board of Governors in Nairobi, evaluators insist. &dquo;Moreover, communities
charged that &dquo; in most countries, the central- must be able to mobilize political resources
ized administration of scarce resources both -
to be able to provide incentives for efficient
money and skills -
has usually resulted in bureaucratic performance &dquo; (4).

*
Decentralization has also become an im-
Research for this paper was supported in part by
the Regional Planning and Area Development Project portant part of the development strategies of
at the University of Wisconsin-Madison under contract
with the U.S. Agency for International Development.
Opinions and conclusions, however, are those of the (2) World Bank, The Assault on World Poverty (Balti-
author and do not necessarily reflect the policies of more : Johns Hopkins, 1975), pp. 90-98.
either USAID or the Project. - -
(3) USAID, op. cit., p. 25.
(1) U.S. Agency for International Development, (4) United Nations Development Program, Rural
Office of Rural Development, Managing Decentral- Development : Issues and Approaches for Technical
ization, Project Paper.(Washington : U.S. International Evaluation Study No. 2 (New York :
Cooperation,
Development Cooperation Agency, 1979), mimeo., p. 24 UNDP, 1979), p. 104.

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134

many Third World governments, especially In the mid-1970s many central

responsibilities.
those in East Africa (5). Among the most ministries were abolished and nearly all plan-
notable attempts to decentralize development ning and administrative responsibilities were
planning and administration has been Tan- devolved to the provinces. Plans are now
zania’s program of administrative reform underway to regionalize the entire country
initiated in 1972. It abolished traditional and to grant administrative autonomy to re-
local governments, absorbed local officers into gional governments (7).
the national civil service and decentralized the
In practice, however, developing nations have
national ministries. The reforms gave regional
authorities greater responsibility for rural devel- faced complex problems implementing decen-
tralization policies. Observing more than a
opment planning. Powers of district and vil- decade of experimentation in Tanzania, Picard
lage development committees were expanded. notes that while &dquo; decentralization has brought
Central ministry technical officers were assigned
about a modicum of deconcentration of power
to local development committees and local
to the regions and districts, the administrative
development directors were recruited and train- structure has not been able to establish the
ed by the national government. Administrative
decentralization in Tanzania was designed to mechanisms that will ensure increased parti-
strengthen the ongoing ujamaa program in cipation at the district and subdistrict levels &dquo; (8).
He insists that &dquo; a major goal of President
which the widely dispersed rural population
was concentrated in communal production and Nyerere, that decentralization provide mechan-
isms for popular participation in the districts,
settlement units and given responsibility for
remains largely unachieved &dquo; (9). Similarly,
planning and carrying out programs for self- in Kenya, control over development planning
reliant development.
and administration remains highly centralized
Decentralization of development planning despite the decentralized structures and pro-
also became a cornerstone of Kenya’s rural cedures adopted in the 1970s, and the Sudan
development policy in the early 1970s. Pro- has seen a decade of political struggle to
vincial and district development advisory com- establish decentralized processes of planning
mittees were established in Kenya pursuant and decision-making, which are still far from
to policies announced in the government’s operational or effective (10).
national plan for 1970-1974. The goal was to
Recent evaluations raise profound questions
&dquo; coordinate and stimulate development at the
local level by involving in the planning process about the commitment of national bureau-
cracies to decentralization, about the political
not only Government officials but also the
motivations for decentralization in some coun-
people through their representatives&dquo; (6). tries and their implications for achieving so-
Kenya established a system of district develop-
ment committees in 1974 through which tech- cially equitable economic growth. Decentral-
ization has been thwarted in some cases by
nical assistance was provided to local planning
conflicts arising between the desire of govern-
organizations. ment leaders to control fragile and poverty-
But perhaps the most extensive program of stricken economies and their programs for
decentralization in Africa was initiated by the encouraging widespread participation in devel-
revolutionary government of the Sudan in 1971. opment. Moreover, decentralization requires
The Local Government Act, promulgated in certain preconditions and supporting policies
that year, expanded the duties of Province that many governments cannot or will not
Commissioners and created Province Executive provide, and changes in attitudes and behavior
Councils to coordinate the work of local offi- on the part of central government officials
cials and central ministry representatives in that have been difficult to achieve. Nor have
the provinces. The province Executive Coun- the roles of central and local administrative
cils were given authority to create district,
town, rural and village councils to which they
could delegate planning and administrative (7) A review of early experience can be found in
John Howell (ed), Local Government and Politics in the
Sudan (Khartoum University Press, 1974).
"
(5) For a detailed descussion see Dennis A. Ron- (8) Louis Picard, Socialism and the Field Adminis-
dinelli, Administrative Decentralization and Area De- trator : Decentralization in Tanzania ", Comparative
velopment Planning in East Africa : Implications for Politics, Vol. 12, No. 4 (July 1980), pp. 439-457; quote
United States Aid Policy, Occasional Paper No. 1 at p. 450.
(Madison, Wisconsin : Regional Planning and Area (9) Ibid., p. 455. "
Development Project, University of Wisconsin, 1980), (10) See Musa Mahgoub Hamad El-Nil, The New
especially pages 21-54. System of Local Government ", The People’s Local
(6) Republic of Kenya, Development Plan 1970-1974 Government Journal, Vol. 4, No. 3 (December 1975),
(Nairobi : The Government Printer, 1969), p. 4. pp. 1-26.

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 135

units -
or those of citizens always been
-
in developing nations that result in part from
clearly delineated in decentralization laws. the overconcentration of power, authority and
Ironically, many of the weaknesses of highly resources at the center of government in the
centralized government that decentralization national capital (12).
policies were designed to overcome, are often 3. By decentralizing functions and reassign-
the strongest obstacles to making decentraliza-
tion work. ing central government officials to local levels,
their knowledge of and sensivitity to local
For these reasons, it is necessary to re-exam- problems and needs will be increased. Closer
ine the concept of decentralization and to re- contact between government officials and the
view the practical problems of implementing local population would allow both to obtain
decentralization policies in the light of recent better information with which to formulate
experience. This paper outlines the benefits more realistic and effective plans for govern-
that are claimed for decentralization of devel- ment projects and programs.
opment planning and administration and the 4. Decentralization would also allow greater
various forms that decentralization can take.
The problems of implementing policies in East political and administrative &dquo; penetration &dquo; of
Africa are summarized, and the essential fi- national government policies into areas remote
nancial and administrative resources and the from the national capital, where central govern-
ment plans are often unknown or ignored
political, organizational and behavioral con-
ditions for making decentralization work are by the rural people or are undermined by local
described and analyzed. Finally, the paper elites, and where support for national develop-
ment plans is often weak (13).
discusses implications for providing technical
assistance to developing nations. 5. Decentralization would allow greater re-
presentation for various political, religious,
THE BENEFITS OF DECENTRALIZATION ethnic and tribal groups in development deci-
sion-making that could lead to greater equity
A number of advantages have been claimed in the allocation of government resources and
for transferring greater responsibilities for investments (14).
development planning and management from 6. Decentralization would lead to the devel-
central governments to lower levels of admin-
istration or other organizations in developing opment of greater administrative capability
countries. Among the potential benefits of among local governments and private institu-
decentralization are the following : tions in the regions and provinces, and thus
expand their capacities to take over functions
1. Decentralization is a means of over- that are not usually performed well by central
coming the severe limitations of centrally con- ministries, such as the maintenance of roads
trolled national planning that have become and infrastructure investments in areas remote
evident in most developing nations over the from the national capital. It would also give
past two decades, by delegating greater author- local officials the opportunity to develop their
ity for development planning and management managerial and technical skills.
to officials who are working. in the field, closer
to the problems. Decentralization to regional 7. The efficiency of the central government
or local levels allows officials to disaggregate could be increased through decentralization by
and tailor development plans and programs relieving top management officials of routine
to the needs of heterogeneous regions and tasks that could be more effectively performed
groups within a country (11).
2. Decentralization is a means of cutting (12) Some of these problems in East Africa are
&dquo;
through the enormous amounts of red tape &dquo; discussed in Christopher Trapman, Changes in Ad-
ministrative Structure : A Case Study of Kenyan Agri-
and the highly structured procedures charac- cultural Development, London : Overseas Development
teristic of central planning and management Institute, 1974.
(13) The concept of political penetration is described
in most detail in L. Cliffe, J.S. Coleman and M.R.
(11) The deficiencies in national planning are out-
"
Doornbos (eds.), Government and Rural Development
lined in Dennis A. Rondinelli, National Investment in East Africa (The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff, 1977).
Planning and Equity Policy in Developing Countries : (14) This argument has been especially strong in the
The Challenge of Decentralized Administration ", Sudan, where decentralization was used to satisfy
Policy Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 1 (August 1978), pp. 45- dissident political and religious groups’ demands for
74; and Dennis A. Rondinelli, " Administration of administrative autonomy. See Omar el-Haq Musa,
Integrated Rural Development : The Politics of " Reconciliation, Rehabilitation and Development
Agrarian Reform in Developing Countries ", World Efforts in Southern Sudan ", Middle East Journal,
Politics, Vol. XXI, No. 3 (April 1979), pp. 389-416. Vol. 27 (Winter 1973), pp. 1-6.

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 136

by field staff or local officials. The time tested or created for replication in other areas
released from routine administration would of the country (18).
free political and administrative leaders to plan
more carefully and supervise more effectively 12. The creation of a regional, provincial
the implementation of development policies or local structure of government through de-
(15). centralization of development planning and
management functions allows local leaders to
8. Decentralization can also provide a locate services and facilitate more effectively
structure through which activities of various within communities, to integrate isolated or
central government ministries and agencies in- lagging areas into regional economies and to
volved in development could be coordinated monitor and evaluate the implementation of
more effectively with each other and with those development projects more effectively than can
of local leaders and nongovernmental organ- be done by central planning agencies.
izations within various regions. Regions, pro-
13. Decentralization can increase political
vinces or districts provide a convenient geo-
stabilityand national unity by giving groups in
graphical base for coordinating the myriad different sections of the country the ability to
specialized projects that many governments in participate more directly in development deci-
developing countries are undertaking in rural sion-making, thereby increasing their &dquo; stake &dquo;
areas (16). in maintaining the political system.
9. A decentralized governmental structure 14. As societies, economies and govern-
is needed to institutionalize participation of ments become more complex, central control
citizens in development planning and man- and decision-making becomes more difficult,
agement. A decentralized government structure costly and inefficient. By reducing disecon-
can facilitate the exchange of information about omies of scale inherent in the overconcentration
local needs and channel political demands of decision-making in the national capital,
from the local community to national min- decentralization can increase the number of
istries (17). public goods and services and the efficiency
-

with which they are delivered at lower -

10.By creating alternative means of deci- cost (19).

sion-making, decentralization can offset the
influence or control over development activities The assertions and hypotheses underlying
by entrenched local elites who are often un- these alleged advantages have not all been
sympathetic to national development policies empirically verified; and indeed, many of the
and insensitive to the needs of the poorer benefits of decentralization are cited by advo-
cates as potential rather than actual results
groups in rural communities.
of decentralization programs. In reality, as
11. Decentralization can lead to more flex- noted earlier, the results of decentralization
ible, innovative and creative administration. policies in many developing nations have been
Regional, provincial or district administrative disappointing.
units may have potentially greater opportuni-
ties to test innovations and to experiment with
THE CONCEPT OF DECENTRALIZATION
new policies and programs in selected areas
without having to justify them for the whole
Some of the problems that have arisen in
country. If the experiments fail, their impacts developing nations with implementing decen-
are limited to small jurisdictions; if they suc-
tralization have been conceptual. Decentral-
ceed, preconditions for their success can be ization is often discussed and proposed by
government officials .and staffs of international
(15) See USAID, op. cit., passim. aid agencies without a concise conception of its
(16) The advantages of a regional base for planning meaning and without a real understanding of
and administration
"
are outlined in Albert Waterston, the alternative forms that decentralization can
An Operational Approach to Development Planning", take.
International Journal of Health Services, Vol. 1, No. 3
(1971), pp. 233-252, and John Friedmann, Urbanization,
Planning and National Development (Beverly Hills:
Sage, 1973), chapters 12-16. (18) See Uma Lele, The Design of Rural Development:
(17) The roles of participation in development are Lessons from Africa, (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins, 1975),
reviewed by John M. Cohen and Norman T. Uphoff, chapters VIII and IX for a discussion of alternative
"
Participation’s Place in Rural Development : Seeking forms of organization for rural development and their
Clarity through Specificity ", World Development, implications for innovation and flexibility.
Vol. 8, (1980), pp. 213-235. (19) USAID, op. cit., passim.

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 137

The Meaning of Decentralization and convenient for the public and may even
promote a feeling that government is close to
Decentralization is defined here as the trans- the people &dquo;, he notes. &dquo; But it may not in-
fer or delegation of legal and political authority volve any decentralization of power, that is,
to plan, make decisions and manage public it may not provide the opportunity to exercise
functions from the central government and its substantial local discretion in decision-making&dquo;.
agencies to field organizations of those agen- (20). Although the observation is valid and
cies, subordinate units of government, semi- probably true for most Western nations, in
autonomous public corporations, areawide or
highly centralized governments in developing
regional development authorities; functional countries even the shifting of workload from
authorities, autonomous local governments, or central offices to staff outside the capital can
nongovernmental organizations. The degree have an important impact on development,
of political and legal power that is transferred and may be a crucial first step that highly
or delegated with the authority plan, decide centralized governments must take toward more
or manage -
that is, the amount of power extensive deconcentration later.
that the central government &dquo; gives up&dquo; to
subordinate or semi-autonomous institutions -
_A greater degree of deconcentration can be
depends on the form of decentralization used achieved through field administration. As op-
and the amount of support that the central posed to merely shifting workloads from cen-
government provides to other organizational tral government offices in the capital city to
units in carrying out decentralized functions. those in other locations, creation of a system
of field administration implies the transfer of
Forms of Decentralization decision-making discretion to field staff, allow-
Decentralization take a number of forms.
can
ing them some latitude to plan, make routine
decisions and adjust the implementation of
First, distinctions be made between func-
can
central directives to local conditions, within
tional and areal decentralization. The former
focuses on the transfer of authority to per- guidelines set by the central ministries. Under
a system of field administration, even though
form specific tasks or activities to specialized
government officers are working within local
organizations that operate nationally, or at jurisdictions that may have semi-autonomous
least across local jurisdictions. Creation of
or delegated powers, field staff are employees
field offices within national ministries dealing of a central ministry and remain under its
with health care or highway construction, for direction and control.
instance, or of public enterprises to build
and maintain utilities are forms of functional A useful distinction can also be made
decentralization. Areal decentralization, on the between field administration and local admin-
other hand, is always primarily aimed at trans- istration. Local administration is a form of
ferring responsibility for public functions to or- deconcentration in which all subordinate levels
ganizations within well-defined sub-national of government within a country are agents of
spatial or political boundaries a province,
-

the central authority, usually the executive

district, municipality, river basin or geographic- branch. Regions, provinces, districts, muni-
al region. Usually the transfer or delegation
of authority is to an institution that may
cipalities and other units of government are
headed by leaders who are either appointed
legally perform those functions only within a by or are responsible directly to a central gov-
specified geographical or political boundary. ernment agency, usually a Ministry of the
Interior or Local Government. Local func-
A second distinction can be made among
tions are performed under the technical super-
three degrees of decentralization : deconcentra- vision and control of central ministries, and
tion, delegation and devolution. the heads of the local administrations serve at
1. Deconcentration. The least extensive the pleasure of the nation’s chief executive.
form of decentralization is deconcentration. Local administrations may either be integrated,
At one extreme this merely involves the shift- wherein ministry officials and local officers
ing of workload from central government min- work under the supervision of the local exec-
istry headquarters to staff located in offices utive, or unintegrated, wherein field staff of
outside of the national capital, and the staff central ministries and administrative staff of
may not be given the authority to decide how
those functions are to be performed. Fesler
argues that the shifting of workload may not (20) James W. Fesler, " Centralization and De-
centralization ", in David L. Sills (ed.), International
really be decentralization at all : &dquo; to move Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, (New York : Mac-
workload out of the capital may be efficient millan, 1968), p. 373.

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138

local jurisdictions work independently of each concept and arrangement quite separate from
other and are supervised by different sets of decentralization, in that it implies the divest-
executives (21). ment of functions by the central government
and the creation of new units of governance
2. Delegation. Another form of decentral- outside the control of central authority. Sher-
ization is the delegation of decision-making
and management authority for specific func-
wood, for example, has noted that devolution
means &dquo; the transfer of power to geographic
tions to organizations that are only under the units of local government that lie outside the
indirect control of central government min- formal command structure of the central gov-
istries. Often the organizations to which public ernment. It is not decentralization. Thus,
functions are delegated have semi-independent devolution represents the concept of separate-
authority to perform their responsibilities, and ness, of diversity of structures within the pol-
may not even be located within the regular itical system as a whole&dquo;. He and others
government structure. Delegation of functions argue that decentralization and devolution are
from central ministries to such organizations two different phenomena and would use &dquo; de-
as public corporations, regional planning and centralization to describe an intra-organization-
area development authorities, multi-purpose al pattern of power relationships and devolu-
and single-purpose functional authorities, and tion to describe an inter-organizational pattern
project implementation units represents a more of power relationships &dquo; (23).
extensive form of decentralization than admin-
istrative deconcentration. Delegation implies In this framework, devolution has certain
the transfer or creation of broad authority characteristics. First, it requires that local
to plan and implement decisions concerning
or a variety of activities
government be given autonomy and independ-
specific activities -

ence and be clearly perceived of a separate

within specific spatial boundaries to an or-
-

level over which central authorities exercise

ganization that is technically and administra- little or no direct control. Second, the local
tively capable of carrying them out. units must have clear and legally recognized
The response of many governments and most geographical boundaries over which they exer-
international lending institutions to the severe cise authority and within which they perform
limitations on public administration in much public functions. Third, local governments
of the Third World has been to delegate more must be given corporate status and the power
functions to public corporations and special to raise sufficient resources to perform specified
authorities, which have been used extensively functions. Fourth, devolution implies the need
&dquo;
in East Africa to execute development schemes. to develop local governments as institutions &dquo;
in the sense that they are perceived of by local
During the 1950s and 1960s the creation of
citizens as organizations providing services
corporations and parastatal organizations was that satisfy their needs and as governmental
an integral part of Western public admin-
istration theory’s prescription for administrative units over which they have some influence.
reform and modernization, and was seen by Finally, devolution is an arrangement in which
there are reciprocal, mutually benefitting and
many development-motivated
&dquo;
political leaders coordinate relationships between central and
as a way to short-circuit the normal govern-
ment machinery and endow it with develop- local governments; that is, the local govern-
mental drive, coherence and authority to plan ment has the ability to interact reciprocally
and pursue economic development by such with other units in the system of government
means as seen fit to it&dquo; (22). of which it is a part (24).

3. Devolution. Finally, the most extreme

form of decentralization is the strengthening or "
(23) Frank P. Sherwood, Devolution as a Problem
creation of independent levels and units of of Organization Strategy ", in R.T. Daland (ed.),
government through devolution. Some admin- Comparative Urban Research (Beverly Hills : Sage,
istrative theorists argue that devolution is a 1969), pp. 60-87.
(24) Uphoff and Esman argue that " local institutions
which are separated and isolated from other levels are
likely to be impotent developmentally. Local autonomy
(21) Examples discussed in Paul Collins, "De-
are by itself provides little leverage for development.
centralization and Local Administration for Develop- What makes the most difference are systems or net-
ment in Tanzania ", Africa Today, Vol. 21, (Summer works of organization that make local development
1974), pp. 15-25. "
more than an enclave phenomenon. Thus, we found
(22) Martin J. Boodhoo, The Organization and linkage to be a more significant variable than autonomy
Management of Development Agencies : A Compara- when it comes to promoting rural development ". See
tive Perspective ", International Review of Administra- Norman Uphoff and Milton J. Esman, Local Organ-
-tive Sciences, Vol. 42 (1976), pp. 221-236; quote at ization for Rural Development in Asia (Ithaca : Cornell
p. 222. University Center for International Studies, 1974), p. xii.

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 139

Although the specifications for devolution results in implementing their policies. In

may be valid from a Western theoretical or Tanzania, Kenya and the Sudan, decentraliza-
legal perspective, in most developing nations tion was pursued in somewhat different ways
actual requirements are less stringent. Devolu- and with different purposes, but many of the
tion is usually seen as a form of decentralization problems and difficulties encountered by the
in which local government units are given three governments have been quite similar,
responsibility for some functions but in which as have been the overall results. A review
the central government often retains some of the problems not only reveals the con-
supervisory powers and may play a large finan- straints under which programs must be carried
cial role. Even where most of the Western out, but suggests conditions that must be estab-
theoretical conditions for devolution are met, lished to make decentralization effective.
central governments in developing nations often
First, political commitment to decentraliza-
attempt to make local governments act con- tion has been
sistently with national development policies relatively shallow in all three
and plans in the performance of their functions, countries, despite the strong advocacy of gov-
and certain formal or informal controls are ernment reform by the dominant political leader
often maintained to accomplish that goal. Few in two of them. In Tanzania, President Julius
K. Nyerere had the general support of im-
developing nations have a system of formal
devolution meeting all of the conditions noted portant political leaders but initially received
little cooperation from local leaders and the
earlier, but some national constitutions devolve national bureaucracy. Central ministry tech-
specific powers and responsibilities to local nicians in Tanzania only supported decentral-
governments or give them residual powers that ization after they came under the control of
are not claimed by the central government.
And for development purposes, the strength of TANU, the country’s single political party.
local government units -
in terms of the In the Sudan, President Gaafar Mohamed
salience of functions they perform, the skill Nimiery acted with the backing of the Sudan
and professionalism of local officials, their base Socialist Union, that country’s only political
of financial resources and the effectiveness party, and some regional leaders, but the
with which they carry out their responsibilities central bureaucracy often opposed or under-
mined decentralization policies. Political sup-
-

may be much more significant than their

legal status as independent units (25). port for decentralization and local participation
in development planning and management in
Thus, various forms of decentralization must Kenya and Tanzania has usually been limited
be analyzed on a continuum. Each form of to arrangements for obtaining greater com-
decentralization has different implications for pliance by rural people to central government
institutional arrangements, the degree of trans- policies. In all three countries, strong political
fer of authority and power, local citizen parti- leadership was required for more than a decade
cipation, preconditions for successful imple- to make the concept of decentralization -

mentation, and advantages or benefits for the even in the limited forms of deconcentration
political system. In reality, although there now recognized in East Africa politically
-

are differences among the various forms of

palatable. The difficulties of building political
decentralization, they are not mutually exclu- commitment to decentralization have delayed
sive. All government structures consist of and often obstructed progress in all three coun-
some combination of these forms of decentral- tries (26).
ized administration, with emphasis on the
amount of authority transferred to decentralized A strong obstacle to implementing decen-
units differing from country to country. The tralized planning and administration proposals
distinctions, however, are often not clearly in East African countries has been the con-
reflected in the decentralization proposals of tinuing resistance of central government bu-
developing nations, and the ambiguity can lead reaucrats in both the national ministries
-

&dquo;
to serious political and administrative problems and local administrative units to decision-
-

during implementation. making from below&dquo;. In Kenya and Tan-

DECENTRALIZATION IN PRACTICE - (26) See Richard N. Blue and James H. Weaver,
PROBLEMS IN EAST AFRICA "A Critical Assessment of the Tanzanian Model of
Development ", Agricultural Development Council Re-
Nearly a decade of experience with de- prints, No. 30 (July 1977), pp 19; Joel D. Barkan and
centralization in East Africa suggests that coun- John J. Okumu (eds.), Politics and Public Policy in
tries- in that region have had, at best, mixed Kenya and Tanzania, (New York : Praeger, 1979) ; and
Abdel Moneim al Rayah and Alfred Logune Taban,
"
Decentralization : Power to the Provinces ", Su-
(25) Idem. danow (March 1979), pp. 9-14.

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140

zania the central bureaucracies still maintain regional and district development committees
control over regional, provincial and district (29). Evaluations of &dquo; bottom-up &dquo; planning
development planning. In the Sudan, President for rural development in Kenya conclude that
Nimiery had to reorganize or abolish many mutual distrust is reinforced by poor com-
central ministries to overcome bureaucratic munications and lack of knowledge about rural
opposition to decentralization decrees. The people’s objectives and motivations within
resistance is attributable not only to the un- central planning and operating agencies in
willingness of central ministries to transfer Nairobi. Thus, despite the formal structure
those functions that provided their base of of decentralized planning, &dquo; poor communica-
financial resources and political influence, but tions between national planners and local com-
also to the deep distrust that technicians and munities is still a problem &dquo;, Mbithi and Barnes
professionals within central ministries have of contend. &dquo; In fact, their points of view are
local administrators and tribal, religious and quite different in many respects, such as per-
community leaders. ceptions of goals and constraints, short- and
Opposition also came from traditional elites long-term priorities, proper control of develop-
ment resources and planning techniques &dquo; (30).
and some local leaders. A primary objective
of decentralization in East Africa has been The gaps between political rhetoric and the
to break up traditional bases of political in- behavior of government officials toward de-
fluence by establishing new administrative centralized planning and management are re-
structures, by creating planning and manage- flected in ambiguities in decentralization poli-
ment procedures that would weaken the power cies. In all three countries the early decentral-
of local elites by bringing younger leaders ization laws were quite vague about the extent
into community decision-making, or by and forms of decentralization to be established,
strengthening the role of centrally appointed the procedures for participation and the roles
officials within rural communities. But in of and relationships among officials at various
Tanzania, local elites often joined with small levels of administration. Public pronounce-
landowners and some central ministry techni- ments in Tanzania and the Sudan implied that
cians in obstructing or neutralizing programs local governments would be created; the lan-
aimed at expanding participation in develop- guage of the decentralization laws and even
-

ment planning reallocating government

or at their titles used the term &dquo; local govern-
-

resources. In Kenya, local leaders and large ment i., whereas in reality, leaders in both
landowners often form alliances with ministry countries initially intended only to establish
officials and members of parliament to protect local units of administration that would act
current patterns of decision-making or to resist as agents of the central government. More-
changes proposed by district development com- over, in all three countries, the multiple levels
mittees that are adverse to their interests (27). of review and approval through which local
Decentralization policies are also weakened plans must pass, create bureaucratic delays
that discourage enthusiastic participation in
by the &dquo; centrist attitudes ~ of many govern-
ment officials -
both in the national capital development planning by rural people and
reinforce the power of the bureaucracy to
and within local communities -
that lead
them to scorn participation of rural people modify or veto proposals.
in development activities. In the Sudan, pro- But even if central ministries in Tanzania
vince officials have often worked around mem- and the Sudan were entirely committed to
bers of district and village councils. &dquo; Distrust more extensive decentralization, they have little
of the ability and probity of local councillors capacity to support and facilitate local planning
is ingrained and instructions on grass roots and administration. Successful decentraliza-
democracy are cynically administered &dquo;, Howell tion, at least in the early stages, depends on
observed (28). In Tanzania, government of- the strength and competence of the central
ficials in the regions and provinces take
primary responsiblity for development plan- (29) See P.R. Lawrence, P.L. Raikes, R.G. Saylor
ning and TANU’s leaders maintain a and D. Warner, " Regional Planning in Tanzania :
veto power over proposals submitted by Some Institutional Problems ", Eastern Africa Journal
of Rural Development, Vol. V, Nos. 1-2 (1974), pp. 10-
"
45; and Diana Conyers, " Organization for Develop-
(27) See Joel D. Barkan, Comparing Politics and ment : The Tanzanian Experience ", Journal of Ad-
Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania ", in Barkan and ministration Overseas, Vol. 13, No. 3 (July 1974),
Okumu, op. cit., pp. 3-40.
"
pp. 438-448.
(28) John Howell, Administration of Rural De- (30) Philip Mbithi and Carolyn Barnes, A Conceptual
velopment Planning : A Sudanese Case ", Agricultural Analysis of Approaches to Rural Development, Dis-
Administration, Vol. 4 (1977), pp. 99-120; quote at cussion Paper No. 204 (Institute of Development Stu-
p. 109. dies, University of Nairobi, 1975), mimeo., p. 21.

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 141 -

administration to support field agencies and development planning becomes questionable

to help create greater administrative capacity when local communities have little or no con-
at lower levels of government. Yet, in all trol over financial resources with which to
three East African countries administrative carry out their plans. A committee of the
capacity within central ministries and agencies People’s Assembly the national legislature
-

remains weak. Most central ministries are -

in the Sudan, in its 1976 evaluation of
overstaffed, but technical and managerial skills the results of the Local Government Act of
below the top level of administration are 1971, concluded that &dquo; the insufficiency of
poor (31). Bureaucracies in all three countries funds was the basic cause... of weakness...
are generally inefficient or unable to provide in the institutions of the People’s local govern-
the technical, financial, personnel or other ment and of turning them into empty skel-
resources needed by lower levels to carry out etons &dquo; (34). In much of the Sudan -
and in
development activities (32). The low level rural Tanzania and Kenya as well -
the
of administrative capacity at the center weak- revenue base is simply too small to provide
ens the entire administrative structure, and the adequate taxes to carry out decentralized func-
inability of central ministries to carry out tions. Costs of tax collection are high and
development activities effectively rebounds administration is inefficient, resulting in low
throughout a decentralized system. yields for localities (35).
Local administrative units also suffer from All of these problems are aggravated by
serious shortages of trained manpower and the lack of physical infrastructure, transport
financial resources to carry out decentralized and communications facilities, and the poorly
responsibilities. Shortages of trained personnel articulated and unintegrated spatial systems in
are severe below the central government level East African nations. Inadequate and poorly
in all three countries; skilled technical and constructed roads and the paucity of trans-
managerial personnel are quickly claimed by portation services and communications in rural
national ministries, public corporations or in- regions, make coordination among decentral-
ternational firms in the Sudan leaving local ized administrative units nearly impossible and
administrative units chronically short of skilled effective interaction among them and with
managers. Posts in local administrative units central government ministries extremely dif-
in both Kenya and Tanzania are often seen ficult. Moreover, it creates enormous difficult-
as &dquo;hardship duty&dquo; by educated officials or ies for local administrators in mobilizing re-
as temporary jobs to be held until a promotion sources, subordinate personnel,
supervising
-
to the national capital -
is received (33). delivering services and disseminating informa-
The unwillingness of many trained officials tion. Vast rural areas in Tanzania, Kenya and
to accept local government posts weakens the Sudan are inaccessible even by feeder roads,
the capacity of local units to participate effect- and participation in development planning and
ively in development planning and administra- administration by rural villagers and nomadic
tion. groups under these conditions is extremely
difficult.
Moreover, decentralization policies in East
African countries have been undermined by The lack of adequate physical and com-
the insistence of central authorities on trans- munications infrastructure in rural areas is
ferring planning and administrative functions symptomatic of a much larger and more serious
to lower levels without providing sufficient problem that inhibits decentralized planning
financial resources or adequate legal powers and management in many developing nations.
to collect and allocate revenues within local They have spatial systems that are not con-
jurisdictions. The value of participation in ducive to equitable development, decentralized
administration or widespread participation in
(31) A detailed discussion of problems of administra- development planning. The settlement system
tive capacity can be found in Jon R. Moris, " The is not well articulated or integrated; services
Transferability of Western Management Concepts and and facilities are concentrated in one or a
Programs : An East African Perspective ", in L.D. few large metropolitan centers and the vast
Stifel, J.S. Coleman, and J.E. Black (eds.), Education
and Training for Public Sector Management in Develop-
ing Countries (New York : Rockefeller Foundation, (34) Democratic Republic of The Sudan, The
1976), pp. 73-83. People’s Assembly, Final Report of the Select Committee
(32) See J.R. Nellis, " Three Aspects of the Kenyan for Study and Revision of the People’s Local Government,
Administrative System ", Cultures et Developpement, translation (Khartoum : People’s Assembly, 1976),
Vol. 5 (1973), pp. 541-570; and O. Aguda, " The Sudan mimeo., p. 38.
Civil Service 1964-1971 ", Quarterly Journal of Ad- (35) See the World Bank’s analysis of local revenue
ministration, Vol. 6 (April 1972), pp. 333-347. raising capacity, Sudan : Agricultural Sector Survey,
(33) Trapman, op. cit. ; and Moris, op. cit. Vol. III (Washington : World Bank, 1979), Annex 8

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142

majority of the population is widely dispersed perience in East Africa suggests that decentral-
in rural villages that are too small to support ization involves far more than simply declaring
&dquo;
productive or service functions or are scattered a policy of bottom-up &dquo; decision-making,
on physically isolated individual farmsteads. reorganizing the administrative structure and
Market towns and middle-size cities that might establishing local or district planning proce-
effectively link larger towns with rural areas dures. The ability of governments to im-
are few in number and unevenly distributed plement decentralization programs depends on
geographically. Settlements of all sizes are the existence of, or the ability to create, a
weakly linked to each other. Physical, social, variety of political, administrative, organiza-
economic and administrative interaction among tional and behavioral conditions, and to pro-
them is, therefore, highly constrained (36). vide sufficient resources at the local level to
Finally, the disappointing results of decen- carry out decentralized functions :
tralization in East Africa can be explained by 1. Favorable political and administrative con-
the absence of or weaknesses in supporting ditions include :
institutions. Rural areas lack both public and
private organizations needed to complement Strong political commitment and sup-
a.

and bolster the managerial capacity of local port from national leaders to the transfer of
governments. Administrative linkages between planning, decision-making and managerial
central and local administrations, therefore, authority to field agencies and lower levels of
remain weak. Where linkages do exist they administration;
&dquo;
tend to be predominantly top-down &dquo; con- b. Acceptance by political leaders of part-
trol procedures rather than channels of mu- icipation in planning and management by or-
tually beneficial, cooperative and reciprocal ganizations that are outside of the direct control
interaction. of the central government or the dominant
political party;
CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE of and commitment to decen-
DECENTRALIZATION
c. Support
tralization within line agencies of the central
The difficulties that East African govern- bureaucracy and the willingness of central
ments have had in implementing decentraliza- government officials to transfer functions pre-
tion policies should not be surprising given viously performed by them to local units of
their colonial histories, strong traditions of administration;
central control, high levels of poverty, and d. Strong administrative and technical
the severity of their current economic and
social problems. Some development theorists capacity within central government agencies
and ministries to carry out national develop-
argue that a minimum level of economic devel- ment functions and to support with ade- -

opment must already have been achieved before quate planning, programming, logistical, per-
local governments can assume broad develop- sonnel and their field
ment responsibilities (37). Others contend that
budget resources -

agencies and lower levels of government in

decentralization at least partially creates the
conditions of its own success (38). The ex-
performing decentralized functions;
e. Effective channels of political participa-
tion and representation for rural residents that
(36) The problems of spatial structure in Third reinforce and support decentralized planning
World countries are discussed in Dennis A. Rondinelli
and Kenneth Ruddle, Urbanization and Rural Develop- and administration and that allow rural people,
ment : A Spatial Policy for Equitable Growth (New especially the poorest, to express their needs
York : Praeger, 1978). and demands and to press claims for national
(37) Sherwood, op. cit., p. 75. and local development resources.
(38) Montgomery argues from his study of decen-
tralization of land reform administration, for instance,
that where it was successful " devolution seems to
2. Organizational factors conducive to decen-
work because of a combination of certain factors that tralization include :
come with public participation in program implemen-
tation : (a) easier access to knowledge; (b) more power- a. Appropriate allocation of planning and
ful motivation; (c) better communication; and (d) administrative functions among levels of gov-
increased community solidarity ". The question that ernment with each set of functions suited to
remains is whether these factors must already be pre- the
sent to some degree before devolvement will work or if
decision-making capabilities, existing or
devolvement itself strengthens and builds these charac- potential resources and performance capabilities
teristics. See John D. Montgomery, " Allocation of of each level of organization;
Authority in Land Reform Programs : A Comparative b. Concise and definitive decentralization
Study of Administrative Processes and Outputs ",
Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, (1972), laws, regulations and directives that clearly
pp. 62-75. outline the relationships among different levels

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 143

of government and administration, the alloca- or obtain adequate financial resources to ac-
tion of functions among organizational units, quire the equipment, supplies, personnel and
the roles and duties of officials at each level facilities needed to carry out decentralized
and their limitations and constraints; responsibilities;
c. Flexible arrangements, based on per- b. Adequate physical infrastructure, and
formance criteria, for reallocating functions as transportation and communications linkages,
the resources and capabilities of local govern- among local administrative units to facilitate
ments change over time; the mobilization of resources and delivery of
d. Clearly defined and relatively uncom- public services; and
plicated planning and management procedures c. Sufficiently articulated and integrated
for eliciting participation of local leaders and settlement systems within regions to promote
citizens and for obtaining the cooperation or
consent of beneficiaries in the formulation,
economic, social, political and administrative
interaction among rural settlements and be-
appraisal, organization, implementation and tween them and larger towns and cities.
evaluation of development projects and pro-
grams ; Although it is possible to identify those
e. Communications linkages among local conditions that seem to be essential for success-
units of administration or government and be- ful decentralization in light of experience in
tween them and higher levels that facilitate East Africa and other developing regions, the
reciprocal interaction, exchange of information, levels of adequacy or measures of effectiveness
cooperative activity and conflict resolution; expressed or implied in these conditions can-
not be universally prescribed, nor can the
f. Diverse supporting institutions that com-
precise combination of conditions needed to
plement local government and planning organ- make decentralization feasible. These must
izations in carrying out decentralized develop- be assessed in each country at the time that
ment functions. decentralization policies are formulated. A
3. Behavioral and psychological conditions strong argument can be made, however, that
the fewer the conditions that exist, or the
supporting decentralization include:
greater the obstacles to creating them, the
a. Changes in the attitudes and behavior greater the difficulty planners and policy-
of central and lower level government officials makers can expect in implementing decentral-
away from those that are centrist, control- ization programs.
oriented and paternalistic, toward those that
support and facilitate decentralized planning IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERNATIONAL
and administration, and a willingness on their
ASSISTANCE
part to share authority with rural people and
accept their participation in planning and im- If the programs and projects that inter-
plementing development activities; national assistance agencies are now sponsoring
b. Effective means of overcoming the re- in developing nations multi-purpose, com-
-

sistance, or getting the cooperation, of local plex, integrated ventures aimed at reaching vast
elites and traditional leaders in decentralized numbers of the poor require decentralized
-

processes of development planning and admin- planning and implementation and widespread
istration ; participation in decision-making, what can in-
c. Creation of a minimum level of trust ternational organizations do to promote de-
and respect between citizens and government centralization in Third World countries?
officials, and a mutual recognition that each
is capable of performing certain functions and Realistically, there is probably little that
participating effectively in various aspects of aid-giving agencies can do directly to in-
fluence governments that do not want to de-
development planning and management; centralize. Ultimately, the structure of gov-
d. Maintenance of strong leadership within ernment within a country is an internal political
local units of government or administration matter. International agencies can only make
that will allow reciprocal exchange between known the potential benefits of decentralized
local and central governments. planning and administration for achieving more
4. Resource conditions required for decentral-
equitable development, and the potential ad-
ization include : vantages that might accrue to developing coun-
tries by extending participation in development
a. Transfer of sufficient authority for local decision-making and implementation to lower
units of administration or government to raise levels of government.

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144

Nor should international agencies being to the importance of the local support function
see -
and sell -
decentralization as a panacea of a national headquarters &dquo; (39).
for all of the weaknesses in planning and Aid must work with central
organizations
management in developing countries or as an government agencies in identifying and using
inevitable stimulant of rural development. The administrative mechanisms that rely less on
ability of governments to decentralize is closely central control and more on incentives and
tied to progress in economic and social devel- achieve
opment. Various forms of decentralization are
exchange to development objectives.
A wide range of managerial techniques exist
more or less appropriate in different countries.
to guide and facilitate local decision-making
Each form has its own preconditions, ad-
that do not depend primarily on hierarchical
vantages and drawbacks. control, and that give local groups more lati-
At the same time, there is a great deal tude in formulating and implementing develop-
that aid agencies cando to assist those gov- ment projects. Often, central agencies can
ernments that are pursuing a policy of de- initiate desired development activities simply
centralization. These include: 1) helping to by creating sets of preconditions through
-

strengthen national political commitment and prices, subsidies and rewards that benefit
-

central government administrative support for local officials and rural people rather than
decentralization; 2) providing technical and punishing them for failure to conform to
financial assistance in the design and organ- national development plans and central direct-
ization of effective decentralization programs ives. Information dissemination, educational,
and procedures; 3) assisting developing na- and persuasion techniques are often more ef-
tions to build managerial and financial capacity fective than threats, pressures and punishments
within local units of government or administra- in eliciting cooperation and generating inno-
tion, and 4) providing technical and financial vative approaches to problem-solving. But
aid in creating the physical, spatial and organ- central government .and local officials in East
izational infrastructure needed for &dquo; bottom- Africa have a long tradition, stemming from
up &dquo; development planning.. colonial experience, with the latter methods
of governance and little experience or know-
Strengtheningnational political commitment ledge of the former (40).
and administrative support for
decentralization Providing financial and technical assistance in
the design and organization of decentraliza-
Projects aimed at strengthening support for tion programs and procedures
decentralization policies should be designed to
expand, simultaneously, the administrative and Evaluations of experience with decentraliza-
technical capacity of both central ministries and tion indicate that policies and procedures must
local governments. This may assuage the be clearly defined if they are to be implemented
fears of central ministry officials and their successfully. Technical assistance can be
political allies that resources and powers are provided for designing decentralization policies
being reallocated to local organizations at their and procedures that allocate functions appro-
expense. Some of the opposition by central priately among levels of administration, that
ministry staff might be reduced if projects were allow functions to be reallocated as capabilities
designed in a way to make it clear that de- and resources of units below the central gov-
centralization does not necessarily threaten ernment level change over time, and that clearly
their existence, but that in reallocating func- delineate the relationships among different
tions among levels of administration new sup- units of organization. Moreover, much more
portive roles are created for central ministries. attention needs to be given to the problem
Building the financial and managerial base of of designing planning and management pro-
local organizations while also providing re- cedures that are suited to the capabilities of
sources to central ministries for performing rural people and to the existing administrative
supportive functions, might also create better skills of local officials. In none of the East
linkages among levels of administration. As African countries examined in this study was
Leonard correctly points out in his study of intensive analysis done of the types of planning
&dquo;
agricultural administration in Kenya, in a de-
centralized administrative structure the center (39) David Leonard, Reaching the Peasant Farmer :
needs to be every bit as strong as in a central- Organization Theory and Practice in Kenya (University
ized one, but the reorientation required is of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 213.
one of technical service rather than of hierarch- (40) Alternative forms of interaction are discussed
in Charles E. Lindblom, The Intelligence of Democracy
ical control &dquo;. He notes that &dquo; Tanzania and (New York : The Free Press, 1965) and Politics and
(to a lesser extent) Kenya have underestimated Markets, (New York : Basic Books, 1977).

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 145

and administrative functions, that the central projects within local communities. General
government should delegate to different levels budget support is also needed by countries
of administration or of the capabilities of such as the Sudan and Tanzania for programs
local administrative units to assume those that expand local organization’s administrative
functions that were decentralized. Nor was capacity. General budget support would give
much flexibility provided in decentralization ministries greater flexibility to assist local ad-
laws for reallocating functions as capabilities ministrative units than is possible through spe-
of local organizations changed over time. In cific project funding. Moreover, in the early
the Sudan, for example, functions were de- phases of decentralization, when local units of
volved from central ministries to provincial administration may be in the weakest financial
councils and commissioners en masse. Their positions, it may be necessary for international
capacity to absorb and perform those functions agencies to finance some of the local or recur-
were never assessed. It was simply assumed rent costs of projects that build up the service
that capacity for development planning and delivery, planning, and administrative capabili-
management existed, or that it would expand ties of local organizations.
as functions were decentralized.
Providing technical and financial assistance for
Building administrative and financial capacity creating physical infrastructure and for
among local units of administration and developing spatial systems more conducive
government to assume decentralized plan- to local interaction
ning and management activities Decentralized planning and administration
International aid agencies can provide assist- requires the expansion of capacity for local
ance for decentralized development most effect- administrative units to interact and commun-
icate with each other. The lack of adequate
ively by helping to build the capacity of local
administrative units and to strengthen sup- physical infrastructure, transportation and com-
munications linkages within rural regions of
porting institutions. The most urgent needs the three East African countries, for instance,
of East African governments, for instance, are
for personnel training in managerial and tech- severely inhibits interaction among local ad-
nical skills and for generating local financial ministrative units and between them and higher
resources. The need for personnel training levels of administration. It also obstructs the
is especially urgent at the province level in mobilization of local resources and the delivery
the Sudan and among local development com- of services. These problems are exacerbated
munities in all three countries. Technical and by poorly articulated and unintegrated spatial
administrative officers and council members systems within rural regions. Weak linkages
need to be trained in the rudiments of area among rural settlements and between them
and larger urban centers contribute to the low
analysis so they can better identify and define level of interaction within rural areas.. Aid
investment needs, and development committee
members in Tanzania and Kenya need training agencies must give more attention to providing
in the broader aspects of project planning the essential physical infrastructure in rural
areas that will make interaction possible, and
and management. Moreover, immediate at-
tention must be given to building at least a to locating services and facilities in such a
minimal statistical base for planning and pro- way that they contribute to integrating spatial
ject identification within rural provinces and systems in rural regions (42).
districts in all three countries (41). Finally, much remains to be learned about
the role of decentralization in stimulating econ-
The ways in which aid is provided can
omic growth with social equity and about
also have an important impact on the success
the conditions required to make decentraliza-
of decentralization. Serious consideration
tion effective. International organizations must
should be given within international organ-
monitor the progress of nations adopting de-
izations to providing grants instead of making
centralized planning and administrative pro-
loans for projects that are aimed primarily at
cedures and evaluate their effectiveness in ex-
building local administrative capacity or at panding the participation of the poorest groups
providing basic needs for rural populations in the development process.
-
such as health, education and social ser-
vices -
in countries attempting to decentralize. (42) One method of spatial analysis and planning
This would both relieve national governments has been developed for USAID and UN Agencies for
of added debt servicing burdens and make application in countries with these spatial characteris-
tics. See Dennis A. Rondinelli, Spatial Analysis for
funds available for non-revenue producing
Regional Development : A Case Study in the Bicol River
Basin of the Philippines, Resource Systems Theory and
(41) See Moris, op. cit., for a more detailed dis- Methodology, Series No. 2 (Tokyo : United Nations
cussion. University Press, 1980).

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