Adsorption

Engineering

MOTOYUKI SUZUKl

Professor, Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 1

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Suzukl. Motoyukl. 1941-

Adsorptton englneerlng / Motoyukl Suzukl.
p. cn. --
(Chemical englneerlng monographs : vol. 25)
Includes bibllographical references
ISBN 0-444-98802-5 (U.S.)
1. Adsorptlon. I. Tttle. 11. Series Chemical englneerlng
nonographs : v . 25.
TP156.A35S89 1989
660'.28423--dc20 89-23532
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ISBN 0-444-98802-5 (Vol. 25)

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING MONOGRAPHS

Advisory Editor: Professor S.W. CHURCHILL, Department of Chemical

Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, U.S.A

Vol. 1 Polymer Engineering (Williams)

Vol. 2 Filtration Post-Treatment (Wakeman)
Vol. 3 Multicomponent Diffusion (Cussler)
Vol. 4 Transport in Porous Catalysts (Jackson)
Vol. 5 <alculation of Properties Using Corresponding-State Methods
(Sterktek et 01.)
Vol. 6 Industrial Separators for Gas Cleaning (Storch et 01.)
Vol. 7 Twin Screw Extrusion (Janssen)
Vol. 8 Fault Detection and Diagnosis in Chemical and Petrochemical
Processes (Himmelblau)
Vol. 9 Electrochemical Reactor Design (Pickett)
Vol. 10 Large Chemical Plants (Froment, editor)
Vol. 1 1 Design of lndustrial Catalysis (Trimm)
Vol. 12 Steady-state Flow-sheeting of Chemical Plants (Benedek, editor)
Vol. 13 Chemical Reactor Design in Practice (Rose)
Vol. 14 Electrostatic Precipitators (Bohm)
Vol. 15 Toluene, the Xylenes and their lndustrial Derivatives (Hancock, editor)
Vol. 16 Dense Gas Dispersion (Britter and Griffiths, editors)
Vol. 17 Gas Transport in Porous Media: The Dusty Gas Model (Mason and
Malinauskas)
Vol. 18 Principles of Electrochemical Reactor Analysis (Fahidy)
Vol. 19 The Kinetics of lndustrial Crystallization (Njrvlt et 01.)
Vol. 20 Heat Pumps in Industry (Moser and Schnitzer)
Vol. 21 Electrochemical Engineering (RouSar et 01.) in 2 volumes: Parts A-C
and Parts D-F
Vol. 22 Heavy Gas Dispersion Trials at Thorney Island (McQuaid, editor)
Vol. 23 Advanced Design of Ventilation Systems for Contaminant Control
(Goodfellow)
Vol. 24 Ventilation '85 (Goodfellow, editor)
Vol. 25 Adsorption Engineering (Suzuki)
 Preface

1 was introduced to adsorption when 1 spent two years (19691 1971)

with Professor J. M. Smith at the Universityof California, Davis,
studying application of chromatographic methods to determine rate
processes in adsorption columns. After returning to the lnstitute of
Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, 1 joined Professor Kunitaro
Kawazoe's adsorption research group where pioneering work in adsorption
engineering had been conducted, and started research on development of
adsorption technology for water pollution control.
Since then I have had many opportunities to acquire valuable ideas on
adsorption problems not only from Professor Kawazoe but from
numerous other senior colleagues including Professor Toshinaga Kawai
of Kanagawa University, Professor Yasushi Takeuchi of Meiji University
and the late Professor Hiroshi Takahashi of I.I.S., University of
Tokyo.
In the laboratory, I was fortunate to have many good collaborators
including Dr. Kazuyuki Chihara, Dr. Dragoslav M. Misic, Professor
Byun-Rin Cho, Dr. Akiyoshi Sakoda, Dr. Ki-Sung Ha and other students.
The technical assistance of Mr. Toshiro Miyazaki and Mr. Takao Fujii in
laboratory work was invaluable. This volume was written based on the
work of this group and 1 am very grateful to these colleagues and to many
others not listed here.
In preparing the manuscript, I repeatedly felt that much work
remains to be done in this field and that many directions of research are
waiting for newcomers to seek out. Because of my imperfect knowledge
and experience, many important problems which require discussion are
not included. If possible these should be treated in a future edition. It
took me far longer than expected at the beginning to prepare the
manuscript for this monograph mainly due to idleness. Mr. Ippei
Ohta of Kodansha Scientific Ltd. diligently prodded me. Without
his energy this book would never have been completed. I also had to
spend much time working at home and I am very grateful to my patient
and gentle wife, Keiko, to whom I dedicate this volume.

Tokyo
December 1989 Motoyuki Suzuki
 Contents

Preface v

1 Introduction............. ..... ............................1

2 Porous Adsorbents.. . . ... ....... . .... ..... . .. . ... .... . . .... 5

21 Activated Carbon 8
22 Slllca and Alumlna IS
23 Zeollte 16
24 Other Adsorbents 2 1
25 Measurement of Pore-related Properties 22

3 Adsorption Equllibriurn .... .... . .... ... . . .. .... ...... . ....35

31 Equ~llbr~urnRelatlons 35
32 Adsorptlon Isotherms 37
33 Heat of Adsorptlon 5 1
34 Adsorptlon Isotherms for Multlcomponent Systems 56
35 Adsorptlon Isotherms of Unknown Mlxtures 60

4 Diffusion in Porous Particles.. .. .... ... ...... . ............ .63

4 1 Dlffuslon Coefficient 63
42 Pore D~ffuslon 64
43 Surface Dlffuslon 70
44 Mlcropore Dlffus~on 85

5 Ktnetics of Adsorptlon in a Vessel ... ... . .... . .. . . .... .. . ..95

5 I Fundamental Relatlons 95
5 2 Batch Adsorptlon wlth a Constant Concentration of Surround~ng
 Fluld 97
5 3 Batch Adsorptlon In a Batch with Finrte Volume 106
5 4 Adsorptlon rn a Vessel wlth Cont~nuousFlow 117
5 5 Flurd-to-Partrcle Mass Transfer In a Vessel 118

6 Kinetics of Adsorption in a Column-Chromatographic

Analysis . .. .. . .. . .. . . . . .... . .... . ...... . ... . .... ..I25
. . .. .

6I Fundamental Relations 126

62 Analysts of Chromatograph~cElutlon Curves 127
63 Method of Moment 128
64 Extens~onof the Method of Moment to More Complex Systems 135
65 Comparrson wlth Slmpler Models 144
66 Other Methods for Handllng Chromatograph~cCurves 148

7 Kinetics of Adsorption in a Column-Breakthrough .

Curves .I51

7 1 Llnear Isotherm Systems-Solut~on to the General Model 152

7 2 Llnear Isotherm System-Slmple Models 156
7 3 Nonlinear Isotherm Systems-Constant Pattern Adsorptlon
Profile 158
7 4 Numerrcal Solutrons for Nonlinear Systems 170
7 5 Breakthrough of Mult~componentAdsorbate Systems 172
7 6 D~sperslonand Mass Transfer Parameters In Packed Beds 179

8 Heat Effect In Adsorption Operation . . .... ..... ... .. ..... ..I87

8 1 Effect of Heat Generation on Adsorptlon Rate Measurement by a
Srngle Partrcle Method 187
8 2 Basic Models of Heat Transfer In Packed Beds 190
8 3 Heat Transfer Parameters rn Packed Beds 193
8 4 Chromatographic Study of Heat Transfer In Packed Beds of
Adsorbents 197
8 5 Adrabat~cAdsorptlon rn a Column 201
8 6 Adsorptlon wrth Heat Transfer Through the Wall 203

9 Regeneration of Spent Adsorbent ...... ... . ..... . ..... . . . ..205

9 1 Thermal Desorptlon in Gas Phase 206
9 2 Chemlcal Desorptlon from a Column 208
9 3 Thermal Regeneration of Spent Actrvated Carbon from Water
Treatment 214
10 Chromatographic Separation .............................,229
10.1 Basic Relations of Chromatographic Elution Curves in Linear Isotherm
Systems 229
10.2 Separation of the Neighboring Peaks 232
10.3 Large Volume Pulses 233
10.4 Elution with Concentration Gradient Carrier 236
10.5 Chromatography for Large-scale Separation 238

11 Pressure Swing Adsorption .... ..... .... ............. .....245

I I. I
General Schema of PSA Operation 246
11.2 Equilibrium Theory for PSA Criteria 250
11.3 Numerical Solution of Nonequilibrium PSA Model 253
11.4 Simplified Solution of Dynamic Steady State Prome from Continuous
Countercurrent Flow Model 259
11.5 Mass Transfer Coefficient ln Rapid Cyclic Adsorption and
Desorption 267
11.6 PSA Based on Difference of Adsorption Rates 271

12 Adsorption for Energy Transport . ..... .... ..... . ..... .....275

12.1 Principle of Adsorption Cooling 275
12.2 Choice of Adsorbate-Adsorbent System 277
12.3 Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer in a Small-scale Adsorption
Cooling Unit Utilizing Solar Heat 280
12.4 Heat Pump Utilizing Heat of Adsorption 287

Index 291
 Introduction

Understanding of engineering design methods of adsorption systems is

an important aspect of process engineering design not only in the
chemical industry but also in the fields of environmental pollution control
and energy utilization. Moreover, adsorption is coming to be regarded as
a practicable separation method for purification or bulk separation in
newly developed material production processes of, for example, high-tech
materials and biochemical and biomedical products.
Advances in chemical engineering principles such as transfer rate
processes and process dynamics and accumulation of quantitative data in
the field of adsorption, together with the development of easily accessible
microcomputers, have combined to enable the development of an
integrated curriculum of adsorption engineering.
The first book on engineering design of adsorption apparatus in Japan,
written by Professor Kunitaro Kawazoe (1957), was published as part of
the "Advanced Series in Chemical Engineering." The contents included:
I. Adsorbents, 2. Industrial Adsorbers, 3. Adsorption Equilibrium, 4.
Adsorption Rate, 5. Contact Filtration Adsorption, 6. Moving Bed
Adsorption, 7. Fixed Bed Adsorption, and 8. Fluidized Bed Adsorption.
For many adsorption design engineers, this was the only textbook for a
long time. Later developments in the field have been published in
Kagaku-kogaku-benran(Chemical Engineering Handbook edited by the
Society of Chemical Engineers, Japan). This is a good contrast with
Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook up to 6th editions where the
works of the school of the late Professor Theodore Vermeulen were
introduced.
A number of volumes have been written on adsorbents and adsorption.
The one by professor D. M. Ruthven (1985) is a good compilation of the
chemical engineering work conducted in this field. Extensive work on
diffusion in zeolite by the author and his collaborators are summarized
and a complete collection of mathematical analyses in the literature are
useful for readers initiating advanced studies in this field. Also Professor
R. T. Yang (1986) published a book focusing on gas separation by
 adsorption, which is also a good reference for chemical engineers.
The purpose of the present volume is to provide graduate students and
chemical process engineers an overall understanding of the chemical
engineering principles related to adsorption processes. Balanced rather
than detailed discussions are attempted.
Chapter 2 gives brief picture of the adsorbents frequently used in actual
processes. Surface characteristics and pore structures of adsorbents are
the main properties in determining adsorption equilibrium and rate
properties which are needed for plant design. New adsorbents are
continuously being developed, introducing new applications for adsorption
technology.
Chapter 3 introduces the concepts of adsorption equilibrium with the
primary purpose of discussing the applicabilities and limits of some
simple expressions which are used in later sections on design of adsorbers.
Adsorption equilibrium is the fundamental factor in designing adsorption
operations.
Chapter 4 is an attempt to provide an global view of diffusion
phenomena in adsorbent particles, another important aspect of adsorp-
tion engineering.
Chapter 5 deals mainly with batch adsorption kinetics in a vessel.
Determination of intraparticle diffusion parameters should be done with
a simple kinetic system where no other rate processes are involved. For
this purpose measurement of concentration change in the finite bath
where adsorption takes place is the most effective method. Concentration
change curves derived for nonlinear isotherm systems as well as for a
linear isotherm system are presented for convenient determination of rate
parameters. These discussions are also applicable to the analysis and
design of adsorption operation in a vessel o r differential reactor.
Chapter 6 introduces another powerful technique for determining the
rate parameters involved in an adsorption column. The principle of
chromatographic measurement implicitly contains many fundamental
concepts concerning dynamic performance of a column reactor. The
mathematical treatments introduced in this chapter can easily be
extended to cover more complicated dynamic operations.
Chapter 7 gives the basic relations used for calcu!ation of breakthrough
curves in an adsorption column. The discusssion focuses on simpler
treatment with overall mass transfer parameter. There are many rigorous
solutions to fundamental equations but in most industrial designs, while a
quick estimation method is preferable at the same time the effects of many
parameters need to be clarified. Constant pattern development is an
important characteristic in the case of nonlinear (favorable) isotherm
systems simplifying design calculation.
 Heat effects in adsorption processes are discussed in Chapter 8.
Adsorption is accompanied by heat generation, and adsorption equilibrium
and rate are dependent on temperature. This coupling effect brings about
complex but interesting problems.
Chapter 9 is devoted to methods for the regeneration of spent adsorbents.
Since adsorption separation is a transient technique, regeneration of
adsorbents after the period of adsorption is an important part of an
adsorption purification or separation system. Recovery of valuable
adsorbates will also become increasingly important.
In Chapter 10, chromatographic operations on the industrial scale is
considered. Development of this area is especially needed in the area of
fine products separation such as required in biotechnological processes.
Much improvement of adsorbents and new operation schemes are
expected in this field.
Chapter 1I introduces a bulk separation technique, pressure swing
adsorption (PSA). This method has become very sophisticated and
complex. The chapter attempts to define fundamental ideas in
considering these attractive processes.
In Chapter 12, one unique application of adsorption for energy
utilization purposes is introduced. For refrigeration, cooling and heat
pumping application of adsorption phenomena has been attempted.
Fundamental ideas on these application are discussed.
As described above, Chapters 2 through 4 deal with the fundamentals
of adsorption phenomena which are necessary to understand the
operation and design of basic adsorption operations introduced in
Chapters 5 to 7. Chapters 8 and 9 are fundamental topics specific to
adsorption operations and Chapters 10, 11 and 12 introduce basic ideas
on the practical and rather new applications of adsorption phenomena.
The reader can start from any chapter of interest and refer to the
fundamentals if necessary.
 2
Porous Adsorbents

Physical adsorption is caused mainly by van der Waals force and

electrostatic force between adsorbate molecules and the atoms which
compose the adsorbent surface. Thus adsorbents are characterized first
by surface properties such as surface area and polarity.
A large specific surface area is preferable for providing large
adsorption capacity, but the creation of a large internal surface area in a
limited volume inevitably gives rise to large numbers of small sized pores
between adsorption surfaces. The size of micropore determines the
accessibility of adsorbate molecules to the adsorption surface so the pore
size distribution of micropore is another important property for
characterizing adsorptivity of adsorbents.
Also some adsorbents have larger pores in addition to micropores
which result from granulation of fine powders o r fine crystals into pellets
or originate in the texture of raw materials. These pores called
macropores are several micrometers in size. Macropores function as
diffusion paths of adsorbate molecules from outside the granule to the
micropores in fine powders and crystals. Adsorbents containing
macropores and micropores are often said to have "bidispersed" pore
structures.
Pore size distributions of typical adsorbents are shown in Fig. 2.1.
Surface polarity corresponds to affinity with polar substances such as
water. Polar adsorbents are thus called "hydrophilic" and aluminosili-
cates such as zeolites, porous alumina, silica gel or silica-alumina are
examples of adsorbents of this type.
On the other hand, nonpolar adsorbents are generally "hydrophobic."
Carbonaceous adsorbents, polymer adsorbents and silicalite are typical
nonpolar adsorbents. These adsorbents have more affinity with oil than
water.
Popular adsorbents in commercial use are reviewed in the following
sections. Measurement techniques for pore size distributions are also
briefly introduced in the later sections of this chapter.
 ( a ) Actlvatcd carbons

Fig. 2.1.a. Pore size distnbution of typ~calactivated carbons.

Pore rad~us,r, (A)

( b ) Acttvated carbons

Fig. 2.1.b Pore slze dtstr~but~onof typ~cal act~vated carbons for solven
recover
 Activated Carbon 7

10 20 50 100 200 500 10'

Pore rad~us r, (a)
Fig 2 I c Pore slze distributions of Sllica gel (A) Type A, (B) Type B

F I ~2 1 d Pore size dlstrlbut~onsof Alumma pellets w~thd~lferentpelletizing

pressures Pellet density 1 0 58, 2 0 68 3 0 83 4 1 02 g/cm'
 Pore rad~us.r, (A)
h g 2 l e Pore slze dlstnbut~ons of Molecular acve zeol~te 5 A (A)
Davtdson 2-100 (B~nderlcss). (B) Dav~dsonRegular.

2.1. Activated Carbon

Act~vated carbons are the microporous carbonaceous adsorbents
whose history can be traced back to 1600 B.C. when wood chars were
used for medicinal purposes in Egypt. In Japan, a well for underground
water equlpped with a charcoal filter at the bottom was found at an old
shrine (Kashiwara Jingu, Nara) constructed in the 13th century A. D. In
Europe, wood char and later bone char were used for refining beet
sugar, a practice started in France because of the blockade against the
Continent during the Napoleonic era. In the 20th century, during the
World Wars, the need to develop gas masks stimulated rapid growth In
adsorption research. Many books have been published on activated
carbon and ~ t applications
s (Araki, 1932; Bailleul et at!, 1962; Hassler,
1974; Mantell, 1951; Mattson and Mark, 1971; Tanso Zairyo-Gakkai,
1975.

2.1.1. Preparation of activated carbons

Commercially available activated carbons are prepared from carbon-

containing source materials such as coal (anthracite or brown coal),
lignite, wood, nut shell, petroleum and sometimes synthetic high
polymers
These materials are first pyrolyzed and carbonized at several hundred
degrees centigrade During thls process the volatlle fract~onand low
molecular products of pyrolys~sare removed and the res~dualcarbona-
 Activated Corbon 9

ceous material undergo the following activation process by using

oxidizing gases, such as steam at above 800°C or carbon dioxide at
higher temperatures. Micropores are formed during the activation
process. The yield of activated carbon from raw materials is in most
cases less than 50% and sometimes below 10%.
Carbonization and activation can also be performed using inorganic
chemicals such as zinc chloride or phosphoric acid, which is known to
have a catalytic effect on pyrolytic condensation of carbohydrates. Then
reaction proceeds at lower temperatures and increases yield of char
during carbonization. In this process, precursor of micropore is formed
when carbonization takes place around fine crystals of inorganic salt
and washing of the salt by acid after carbonization produces micropores
which are larger in diameter than those formed by gas phase activation.
This method provides the larger micropores preferable for the
adsorption of larger molecules.

2.1.2 Features of activated carbons

A. micropores
Micropores, where most adsorption takes place, are in the form of
two-dimensional spaces between two graphite-like walls, two-dimen-
sional crystallite planes composed of carbon atoms. The distance
between the two neighboring planes of graphite is 3.76 A (0.376 nm), but
in the case of activated carbons which have a rather disordered
crystallite structure (turbostratic structure), this figure must be larger
since adsorbate molecules are not accessible otherwise (Fig. 2.2).

B. suface oxide groups

Most activated carbons contain some oxygen complexes which arise
from either source materials or from chemical adsorption of air
(oxidation) during the activation stage or during storage after activation.
Surface oxides add a polar nature to activated carbons, e.g. hydrophicity,
acidity and negative [-potential.
Oxygen complexes on the surface exist mainly in the form of four
different acidic surface oxides: I) strong carboxylic groups, 11) weak
carboxylic groups which exist as lactone groups combined with the
neighboring carbonyl groups, 111) phenolic groups and 1V) carbonyl
groups which form lactone groups with carboxyl groups of Type I1
(Fig. 2.3).
Distinguishing these acidic oxides is possible by multibasic titration
(Boehm et a!., 1964), titration with alkaline solutions of different
 Fig. 2.2. Graph~testructure (a,b) and turbostratic structure (c). Cenceptual
~llustrationof granular activated carbon (d).

strength. For instance, sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, whose pK, value

is 6.37, neutralizes surface oxides of group (I). Sodium carbonate,
NalCO, (pK.=10.25), can be used for titration of groups (I) and (II),
sodium hydroxide, NaOH (pk;=15.74), for groups (I), (11) and (111) and
sodium methoxide, NaOC2H5 (pR=20.58), for groups (I), (II), (111) and
(IV). Hence it is possible to determine the amount of each surface oxide
group from the difference in titration values.
There are several other forms of oxides including basic groups such as
cyclic ether groups. The basic character of activated carbon is
emphasized when activation is conducted at higher temperatures.
Surface oxide groups can be removed by heat treatment of carbons in
an inert atmosphere or under vacuum (Puri et of., 1962. 1964,
1966). Evolution of COz is observed at temperatures below 600°C and
surface acidity 1s closely related to the amount of the evolved C02.
 Actiwted Carbon II

COOH
COOH

Open lYPe Lactonc type

Fig. 2.3. Surface oxides on carbon surface. I : Carboxyl group, a : Removed

by 200°C, b : Removed above 325OC. 11 : Carboxyl group which exists as
lactol group, 111 : Phenolic hydroxyl group, IV : Carbonyl group.

Above 600°C, the evolving C O is considered to correspond to the basic

functional groups on the carbon suiface.

C. ashes
Activated carbon also contains to some extent ashes derived from
starting materials. The amount of ash ranges from 1% to 12%. ,Ashes
consist mainly of silica, alumina, iron, alkaline and alkaline earth metals.
The functions of these ashes are not quantitatively clarified but some of
them are 1) increasing hydrophilicity of activated carbon, which is
advantageous when PAC is used for water treatment, 2) catalytic effects
of alkaline, alkaline earth and some other metals such as iron during
activation or regeneration step which modifies pore size distribution to
larger pore range, and so on. Acid soluble ashes can be removed by
washing with weak acid.

2.1.3. Powdered activated carbon ( P A C )

Activated carbons in commercial use are mainly in two forms: powder

form and granular or pelletized form. Powdered activated carbons
(PAC) in most cases are produced from wood in the form of saw dust.
The average size of PAC is in the range of 15 to 25 pm and the geometrical
standard deviation is between 0.15 to 0.266. This particle size assures
that intraparticle diffusion will not be the rate limiting step; thus the
adsorption operation is designed from the view point of selection of
 contacting apparatus, mixing of PAC with liquid, separation of PAC
after contacting and disposal or regeneration if possible after usage.
The major industrial uses of PAC are decolorization in food
processes, such as sugar refinery, oil production and sodium glutamate
production as well as wine preparation. Recently, considerable PAC is
used in water treatment for both drinking water and wastewater
treatment.
In the use of PAC in water phase, surface charge of the carbon
powder becomes an important factor since it affects ease of coagulation
sedimentation or filtration for separation of PAC from the bulk liquid
after adsorption. Surface charge can be detected by [-potential or
colloid titrations. Measurement of [-potential for several commercially
available PACs showed that it varies considerably by sample and that it
is also very dependent on pH of the solution, suggesting that the
existence of dissociative functional groups (oxide groups) is playing an
important role. The effects of the acid washing for removing soluble
ashes and the successive heat treatment to remove surface acidic oxides

Fig 2 4 Change of [-potentla1 of PAC by a c ~ dtreatment (HCI I N) and heat

treatment (900°C, N > stream) PAC Hokuetsu Tanso, wood char
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermission by S u z u k ~ ,M and Ch~hara,K , Wafer Res, 22.
630 (1988))
 Acfivaed Carbon 13

on [-potential are clearly shown in Fig. 2.4. Powdered activated carbons

produced from saw dust are used and 5-potential calculated from the
electromobility of the powders at different levels of pH are illustrated in
the figure. Presence of both acid soluble ashes and surface oxides
increases the negative charge of the particles; this is not desirable when
coagulation of the powders is needed.
When PAC is used, not only is its adsorbability utilized but its
surface charge may also cooperate as a coagulant for colloidal fractions
in the liquid phase. In this case, however, the regeneration of PAC may
become rather difficult. This is one of the reasons why spent PAC is in
most cases dumped rather than regenerated for repeated use.

2.1.4. Granular activated carbon (GAC)

Granular activated carbons (GAC) are either in the form of crushed

granules (coal or shell) o r in the pelletized form prepared by granulation
of pulverized powders using binders such as coal tar pitch. GAC
produced from petroleum pitch is prepared by activation of the spherical
beads prepared from the pitch.
Size of granules differ depending on the application. For gas phase
adsorption, cylindrically extruded pellets of between 4 to 6mm or
crushed and sieved granules of 4/ 8 mesh to lo/ 20 mesh are often used.
The main applications in gas phase are solvent recovery, air purification,
gas purification, flue gas desulfurization and bulk gas separation.
In the case of liquid phase adsorption, intraparticle diffusion often
becomes the rate determining step of adsorption so smaller particles of
for example, 12/42 mesh are advantageous from this point of view, but
operational requirements such as ease of handling, low pressure drop in
the adsorption bed, little elutriation or abrasion during back washing
and so on define the lower limit of the particle size. Decolorization in
sugar refinery, removal of organic substances, odor and trace pollutants
in drinking water treatment, and advanced wastewater treatment are
major applications of liquid phase adsorption.
Spent GAC in most applications is regenerated by a thermal method.
Detailed discussions are given in Chapter 9.

2.1. Carbon molecular sieves

Size of micropore of the activated carbon is determined during

pyrolyzing and activation steps. Thus small and defined micropores that
have molecular sieving effects can be prepared by using proper starting
materials and selecting conditions such as carbonizing temperature,
activation temperature and time or properties of binders for granulation.
The main applications of activated carbon with molecular sieving
ability are separation of nitrogen and oxygen in air on the basis of
difference of diffusion rates of these gases in small micropores, and
adjustment of fragrance of winery products where only small molecules
are removed by adsorption in liquid phase.
Carbon molecular sieve (CMS, or Molecular Sieving Carbon, MSC) is
an interesting material as a model of activated carbons since it has a
uniform and narrow micropore size distribution. The Dubinin-Astakhov
Equation for adsorption isotherms of various gases was tested using
MSC (Kawazoe et a/., 1974), and later this equation was extended for
adsorbents with micropore size distributions (Sakoda and Suzuki, 1983)
and for isotherm relation in the low pressure range. Also, chromatographic
measurement of Henry's constants and micropore diffusivities were
made for MSC (Chihara et al., 1978); these gave clear relations between
heat of adsorption and activation energy of diffusion in micropores of
MSC.

2.1.6. Activated carbon fiber

Synthetic fibers such as phenolic resin (Kynol R), polyacrylic resin

(PAN) and viscose rayon are carbonized at high temperatures in inert
atmosphere and activated carbon fiber (ACF) is then prepared by
careful activation. Recently the carbon fibers prepared by spinning from
mesophase carbon melt derived from coal tar pitch are being further
activated to provide ACF at less cost.
Most ACFs have fiber diameter of 7 to 15 pm , which is even smaller
than powdered activated carbon. Hence the intrafiber diffusion becomes
very fast and the overall adsorption rate is controlled in the case of ACF
bed, by longitudinal diffusion rate in the bed (Suzuki and Sohn,1987).
ACF is supplied in the form of fiber mat, cloth and cut fibrous chip of
various sizes. ACF and cellulose composite sheet is also available.
Application of sheet adsorbent is found in the field of air treatment
such as solvent recovery. Application in water treatment is under
development in several areas such as chlorinated organics and odorous
components removal during city water purification from deteriorated
water sources such as eutrophicated lake water and polluted under-
ground water (Sakoda et a!., 1988).
 S111caand Alwnina I5

2.2. Silica and Alumina

Pure silica, Si02, is naturally a chemically inactive non-polar material

like quartz but when it has a hydroxyl functional group (silanol group),
the surface becomes very polar and hydrophilic (Fig. 2.5).
Silica gel is the adsorbent particle prepared by coagulation of a
colloidal solution of silicic acid (3 to 5 nm) followed by controlled

Fig. 2.5. Surface hydroxyl group on sll~casurface.

Fig 2 6 Typ~calexamples of adsorpt~ont~othcrmsof water vapor on Silica

gel type A and B and acttve a l u m n a
dehydration. Liquid sodium silicates are neutralized by sulfuric acid
and the mixture is then coagulated to form hydrogel. The gel is washed
to remove the sodium sulfate formed during the neutralization reaction.
Then it is dried, crushed and sieved. Spherical silica gel particles are
prepared by spray drying of the hydrogel in hot air.
Silica gels of two types of pore size distribution are frequently used
for commercial purposes. Type A and B have different shapes of
adsorption isotherms of water vapor (Fig. 2.6). This difference
originates from the fact that type A is controlled to form pores of
2.013.0 nm while Type B has larger pores of about 7.0 nm. Internal
surface areas are about 650 m2/g (Type A) and 450 m2/g(Type B).
Silica gel contains about 0.04 to 0.06 gso/g of combined water after
heating at 350°C and if it loses this water, it is no longer hydrophilic and
loses adsorption capacity of water.
The main application is dehumidification of gases such as air and
hydrocarbons. Type A is suitable for ordinary drying but Type B is
more suitable for use at relative humidity higher than 50%.

2.2.2. Active alumina

Aluminum oxides have several crystal forms. Active alumina (porous

alumina) used as an adsorbent is mainly y-alumina. Specific surface
area is in the range of I50 and 500 m2/g with pore radius of I5 to 60 A
(1.5 to 6 nm), depending on how they are prepared. Porosity ranges from
0.4 to 0.76 which gives particle density of 1.8 to 0.8 g/cm3.
Porous alumina particles are produced by dehydration of alumina
hydrates, in most cases alumina trihydrate, Alz033H20, at controlled
temperature conditions to about 6% of moisture content.
Active alumina is also used as a drying agent and the typical
adsorption isotherm of water vapor is included in Fig. 2.6. It is also em-
ployed for removal of polar gases from hydrocarbon streams.

2.3. Zeolite
Zeolite (the word derives from a Greek word zeein meaning to boil) is
an aluminosilicate mineral which swells and evolves steam under the
blowpipe. More than 30 kinds of zeolite crystals have been found in
natural mines. Many types can be synthesized industrially.
Crystalline structures are composed of tetrahedral units, at the center
of which a silicon (Si) atom is located with four oxygen atoms
surrounding it. Several units construct secondary units, which are
 Frg 2 7 Several fundamental unlts of SI atoms In Zeolrte structures
Nerghborrng SI atoms are connected through oxygen atom not shown In the
figure

llsted In Fig 2 7 Arrangement of these secondary unrts forms regular

crystalllne structures of zeol~tes
Regular crystalllne structures prov~deunlque adsorpt~oncharacter-
~stlcs For example, m the case of zeol~tetype A, e~ghtsodal~teunits,
(a) In Fig 2 8, form a cublc cell whose unlt s ~ d e1s 12 32 A and each
sodal~teunlt 1s located at the corner Neighboring un~tsare connected
through the D4R unlt (Fig 2 7 d) rn the form of (c) In Fig 2 8 and the
resulting erght-membered rlng connecting ne~ghbonng cells controls
accesslbll~tyof adsorbate molecules Into the cell where adsorpt~ontakes
place In the case of zeol~tetype X or Y sodal~teunlts are connected
through D6R (Flg 2 7 e) unlts and form the unlt structure shown by
F I 2~ 8 e A cell In the unlt shown by F I 2~ 8 f has four openlngs
composed of I 2-membered nngs
SI atoms In tetrahedral unlts can be replaced by alumlnum (Al) Ion
whlch results m a deficit of positive valence, requlrlng the addit~onof
catlons such as alkallne or alkallne earth Ions corresponding to the
number of Al atoms These catlons are easlly exchangeable and the slze
and properties of these Ions mod~fyadsorption character~stlcsof zeol~tes
slnce they affect the sue of the wlndow between the cells

231 Natural zeol~te

Zeollte mlned I n Japan and nelghborlng countries 1s llm~tedIn type

and only cl~nopt~lollte
and rnorden~teare now excavated (Mlnato 1967)
(a) Sodal~teunrt (&cage) (SI, A1 atoms (b) Sodallte unlt ( w ~ t hoxygen atoms)
are shown)

(c) Type A structure unlt Composed (d) M~croporecell In Type A unlt-a

of erght sodalrte unlts (only SI, A1 cage, gas molecules enter through
atoms are shown, black circles are on e~ght-memberednngs
the back)
 (e) Type X and Y structure unit, composed of 10 sodal~te
units connected by W R units

(I) M~croporecell in Type X(Y) unlt, gas molecules

enter through twelve-membered rlngs

F I ~2 R Ftructurc unlt of sodalite ((a) and (b)). Type A ((c) and (d)). X(Y)
((e) and (I)) Zeolitec
The main uses of natural zeolite as adsorbent are as drying agents,
deodorants, adsorbents for air separation, ion exchangers for water
purification especially for removing ammonium ion and heavy metal
ions and for water softening, soil upgrading and so on.
Suzuki and Ha (1985) showed that clinoptilolite has good adsorp-
tion selectivity of ammonium ion and obtained the adsorption equilibrium
and rate of ammonium exchange.

2.3.3. Synthetic zeolite

Some zeolitic crystal structures can be synthesized by hydrothermal

R g 2 9 Relat~ons between effectlve pore size of Zeol~tes A and X and

Lennard-Jones klnet~cd~ameter,o Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon from Breck,
.
D W Zeolrre Molecular Sieve-srmcture, Chernrsrry and Use, J Wlley and
Sons, New York (1974)
.
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlss~onby Ruthven, M Prmcples of Adrorprron & Adr
Processes. I I , Wlley (1985))
 reaction in autoclaves. Much of the literature is devoted to clarifying
crystal structure and synthesis (Barrer 1968, Flanigan and Sand 1971,
Breck 1973, Meier and Uytterhoeven 1973, Katzer 1977, Barrer 1982,
Olson and Bisio 1984, Ramoa el al. 1984, Drzaj el al. 1985, Murakami
el al. 1986).
A limited nurnber of synthetic zeolites are currently used as
commercial adsorbents i.e., Type A and Type X.
In the crystal structures of Type A, shown in Fig. 2.8, exchangeable
cations are located near the window between neighboring cells. The 4A
type zeolite contains Na ion at this site, which permits the entry of
molecules smaller than 4 A. This effect is called the molecular sieving
effect, and is schematically illustrated in Fig. 2.9. If the K ion, which is
larger than the Na ion, is introduced to this position, effective window
(aperture) size becomes 3 A and only Hz0 and NH3 can penetrate
through the window. Then this type is called 3A zeolite. On the other
hand, if a Ca ion, which has two valences, is introduced, the effective
aperture becomes larger. The zeolite of this type is called 5A zeolite.
Type X zeolite has much larger windows made up of 12-membered
rings (Fig. 2.8). and is usually called 13X zeolite.

2.4. Other Adsorbents

2.4.1. Bone char

In sugar refineries, bone char has been commonly used as an

adsorbent for decolorizing and refining sugar since the 19th century.
Bone char is believed to have basically the same adsorption character-
istics as activated carbons. But in addition to the ion exchange abilities
derived from the main constituent, calcium hydroxy apatite functional
groups from animal matter may render superior adsorption ability for
removing color, odor and taste.
Dry bones free of flesh together with fat and oil of animals crushed,
screened and freed from miscellaneous foreign elements are put in an
airtight iron retort and heated at 600-900°C for about 8 h. The
volatile gases evolved by this process contain ammonium, tar and non-
condensible gas. The remaining char is cooled in inert atmosphere then
taken out for further crushing and screening. The yield of bone char is
about 60%.
Calcium hydroxyapatite is an interesting adsorbent which collects
cations of heavy metals such as lead and cadmium. Suzuki (1985)
suggested that hydroxyapatite is capable of ion exchange not only with
cations but also with anions such as fluoride ion. The same effects may
be expected in part of the hydroxyapatite composing bone chars.

2.4.2. Metal oxides

Metal oxides appear to be simple inorganic materials having well-

defined chemical structures. However, as far as adsorption on oxide
surface is concerned, surface properties, which is largely dependent on
how the oxide is prepared, reveal very complicated functions. This is
well known in the preparation of metal oxide catalysts.
Metal oxides developed for industrial adsorbents include magnesium
oxide, titanium oxide, zirconium oxide and cerium oxide. Magnesium
oxide (magnesia) is used for removing polar molecules such as color,
acids, and sulfide compounds from gasoline and solvent for drycleaning
purposes. Also it is effective in removing silica from water, and
magnesium trisilicate is used as a medicinal adsorbent. Ikari (1978)
showed that magnesium hydroxide is a good adsorbent for phosphate
removal in the advanced treatment of wastewaters.
Oxides of four valence metals, titanium, zirconium and cerium,
sometimes show selective adsorption characteristics in removing anions
from water phases. Hydrous titanium oxide is known to be a selective
adsorbent for recovering uranium in seawater, which is present in the
form of carbonyl complex in concentrations as low as 3.2 ppb.
Zirconium oxide in a monohydrated form is found to adsorb
phosphate ion from wastewaters (Suzuki and Fujii, 1987). Cerium oxide
is effective in adsorption of fluoride ion in industrial wastewaters.

2.5. Measurement of Pore-related Properties

2.5.1. Porosity

Porosity of adsorbents is determined by several alternative methods.

When true solid density, p, (glcm]), is known, total porosity, E I (-), or
specific pore volume, v, (cm3/g), is calculated from p, and particle
density, pp(g/cm3),as

Particle density, p,, can be determined using a mercury pycnometer by

assuming that mercury does not enter any pore of the porous sample.
 Measurement of Pore-related Propertres 23

When the sample is first evacuated and the evacuated sample is exposed
to mercury at atmospheric pressure, P., then mercury can penetrate
pores with radius larger than 7.5 pm. Most porous adsorbents have
intraparticle pores smaller than this and one atmosphere is enough to fill
the void between particles with mercury. Thus, by comparing the weight
of the empty glass pycnometer filled with mercury, W,, and that of the
pycnometer with the sample of weight, W,, filled with mercury after
evacuation, W,, the particle density, p,, is calculated as

p, = particle weight] particle volume

= Wsl[(Wm- W, + W,)lpnJ (2-3)

where p~~is the density of mercury at the measurement temperature.

True solid densities, p,, are often found in the literature. But some
porous bodies are not easy to find in the tables or to make an estimation
because they have confined pores which are not accessible from outside.
In such cases, the "true" density must be determined by direct
measurement.
One practical method is to use the same method as described for
measuring particle density using mercury, except that mercury is
replaced by a liquid which penetrates pores. Water and organic solvents
are often used. The same equation can be used by replacing p, with the
density of the liquid employed.
Another method is to employ a helium densitometer (Fig. 2.10). This
method is based on the principle of PV=constant at constant
temperature. A known weight, W,, of porous sample is put into then
evacuated from a closed vessel of volume VI. Next nonadsorbable gases
such as helium are introduced to pressure P1, the valve closed and the
volume of the vessel changed by moving the piston in the connected
cylinder. From the displacement of the piston, the change in volume,
AV, and change in pressure, AP, are obtained. Then the volume of the
sample, V,, in which helium cannot penetrate is obtained as

F I ~2 10 D~splacemcnttype pycnomeler ( h e l ~ u mdensflometer)

and true density, p,, is defined as

Obviously, adsorbable or condensable gases cannot be employed in this

method.

2.5.2. Pore size distribution

The most common methods to determine pore size distributions are

the A. mercury penetration method, B. nitrogen adsorption method,
and C. molecular probe method.

A. mercury penetration method

By applying pressure, P, to mercury surrounding a porous body,
mercury penetrates into the pores whose radii are larger than r given by
the following equation

r=- 20 cos e
P

where a represents the surface tension of mercury, 470dynelcrn

(298 K), 8 is the contact angle between mercury and the sample

Electr~c
br~dge
Pressure

Constant
temperature bath

Flg 2 1 1 Mercury penetration apparatus.

 Measurement of Pore-related Properties 25

surface, which is usually taken as 140°C. Then

An example of a mercury porosimeter is illustrated in Fig. 2.11. A small

amount of a sample is put in to the penetometer, then evacuated, after
which mercury is introduced from the separate vessel. Then the
penetometer is set in the pressure vessel shown in the figure and high
pressure is applied by oil pressure pump. Mercury penetration is
detected from displacement of meniscus at the burette of the
penetometer. The pore size distribution is calculated from the pressure-
penetration volume relation.
An ordinary mercury porosimeter generates pressure as high as
3000 kg/cm2, which makes it possible to determine pore size distribu-
tions down to r-25 A. Usually, this method is suitable for determining
larger pores such as macropores of activated carbons.

B. nitrogen adsorption merhod

When nitrogen adsorption is carried out at liquid nitrogen tempera-
ture (-195.8OC=77.34 K), nitrogen adsorption on the surface and
capillary condensation of nitrogen in the pores take place (Fig. 2.12).
The thickness of adsorbed layer on the surface, t, and the size of the pore
where condensation happens, rt, depend on the partial pressure of
nitrogen. Thus adsorption isotherm can be converted to the pore size
distribution by assuming proper relations between both t and r, and the
partial pressure, p.
There are several equations proposed for the relation between r and

(d! (b)
Ftg 2 I2 Concept of pore size measurement by the adsorpt~onmethod
the pressure, but Halsey's relation is given here as one of the most
fundamental relations.

i (A) = 4.3[5/ln(p,/p)]'13
where p, is the saturation pressure, which is the atmospheric pressure in
this case.
For the capillary condensation radius, rt, Kelvin radius is derived as

r, (A) = -9.53 /In@ Ips)

by assuming the contact angle of nitrogen 0 is given as cos 8=1 and the
surface tension u=8.85 dynelcm.
Adsorption isotherm of nitrogen at liquid nitrogen temperature is
determined by the gravimetric method (Fig. 2.13), or the constant
volume method (Fig. 2.14). From the adsorption isotherm of nitrogen
shown in Fig. 2.15, the pore size distribution is calculated by Dollimore
method (1964) and shown in Fig. 2.16. Cumulative pore size distribu-
tion is sometimes preferred when change of pore size distribution is in-
volved, for example during thermal regeneration or activation of ac-
tivated carbons.
For microporous adsorbents such as carbon molecular sieves,
Dollimore's method is not advisable since the Kelvin equation is no

Fig 2 13 Gravlmetrlc measurement of nrtrogen adsorpt~onIsotherms at llqu~d

nltrogcn temperature
Vacuum M

1
I
Pump
Vacuum I

-
Pressure
controller

Nzcyl~nder
vw - Dctccter

and evacuation

Liqu~dnitrogen
tank
Frg 2 14 Automatrc adsorptron system for nltrogen (constant volume type),
Carlo Erba

Ftg 2 15 Adsorptron ~solherm of nltrogen at Ilquld nltrogen temperature

(- 195 8'C)

longer val~d when pore sue 1s close to molecular sue of adsorbate

(Dolllmore and Heal, 1964)
For the purpose of descr~b~ng pore size d~stributionIn thls range,
Horvath and Kawazoe (1983) proposed a method based on potenttal func-
 Pore radius, r (A)
Fig 2.16 a Cumulative pore volume (below 100 A) FS 400.

Pore radtus, r (A)

Fig 2 16 b Differential. pore size d~stributloncurve, FS 400.
tion in the pore.
For obtaining an average potential in the slit-like pore between the
two layers of carbon, adsorption potential, an expression of adsorbate-
adsorbent and adsorbate-adsorbate interactions resulted in the following
equation.

where I represents the distance between the nuclei of the two layers, NA
and N., respectively, are the number of molecules per unit area of
adsorbate and the number of atoms composing the surface layer per unit
area, A, and AA are the constants in the Lennard-Jones potential
function defined as

where m is the mass of electron, c is the velocity of light, a and x

represent the polarizability and the magnetic susceptibility of adsorbent
atom (suffix, a) and an adsorbate molecule (suffix, A) and K is the
Avogadro number. d is defined as

where d, is the diameter of an adsorbent atom and dA is that of an

adsorbate molecule.
a is the distance between an adsorbate molecule and adsorbent atom
where interaction energy becomes zero and Everett and Pow1 (1976) gave
the equation as follows.

By taking proper values for the nitrogen-carbon system as shown in

TABLE
2.1, the final form becomes
TABLE
21 Phys~calPropert~esfor Pore Size D~stnbutlonCalculat~onby Horvath-Kawazoe
Method(1983)

Carbon N~trogcn

(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Horvath, G and Kawazoe K , J Chem Eng Japan

16,472 (1983))

TABLE2 2 Values of Corresponding @/pa). (1-d.) P a ~ r sAccord~ng to Horvath and

Kawazoe and Dolllmore

Relat~ve Effect~vepore sue

pressure [nml
P/P~-1 Horvath-Kawazoe model (l-d.) Dolllmorc model

146x10 ' 04 -
6 47x10 1 0 43 -
2 39x10 6 0 46 -
1 05x10 * 05 -
1 54x10-4 06 -
8 86x10 07 -
2 95x10 3 08 -
2 22x10 2 II 1 16
461x10 1 13 1 32
7 59XIC 2 IS 1 46
3 15x10 I 30 2 23
7 24x10 1 10 0 509

(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Horvath G and Kawazoe, K J Chcm Eng Japan.

16,473 (1983))

where 1 u ln I(
From the equat~on,the relatlon between p and I is unlquely defined
and thus the relatlon between the effect~vepore slze (I-d.) and p is also
obtalned as shown In TABLE 2 2 The relatlon IS also plotted in Fig. 2 17
In the table and figure, the pore s u e calculated by Doll~more'smethod 1s
included Both methods approach pore size of around 13 4 I( and
p/p,=O 05, and Howath and Kawazoe suggested that their method
should be appl~edto measurements below p/p,=O 5 and that Dolllmore's
method should be used above thls relatlve pressure
Pore size dlstrlbutlons of carbon molecular sleve determlned by thls
method are shown In Flg 2 18, where W- 1s the maxlmum pore volume
determlned from the amount adsorbed at p/p,=O 9
 Measurement o j Pore-related Properties 31

- 10 - x Dollimore
Horvath-Kawazoe
-5
U
:. 1.0- +-x-+a7X
?! +
-+
-- i
P

0. I
10-7 10-6 10-5 1W4 lo-' 10-2 10-1 1.0
Relalive pressure P/P. ( - )

Fig. 2.17. Pore size vs. pressure.

(Reproduced with permission by Horvath, G. and Kawazoc. K., J. Ckm fig
Jqpms 16,473 (1983)).

Effective pore size (nm)

Fig. 2.18. Effective pore size distributions of carbon molecular sieves

calculated by Horvath-Kawazoe method.
(Reproduced with permission by Horvath, G. and Kawazoe, K., J. Chem. fig.
Japun. 16,474 (1983)).

C. molecular probe method

As is understood from Fig. 2.9, for small pores which have molecular
sieving abilities, it is not possible to determine pore size distribution by
nitrogen adsorption method. In these cases, the most direct determina-
tion of the effective pore size is the molecular probe method.
For zeolites, size of entering molecules is determined by assuming that
the pores are cylindrical. In the case of activated carbons, especially in
the case of CMS, thickness of the molecules decides the adsorbability of
the molecules to the micropore since the micropores are considered to be
two-dimensional.
For several CMS's, this method is applied and comparison of pore
 Micropore size (A )
Fig. 2.19. Micropore size distributions of carbon molecular sieve adsorbents
determined by the molecular probe method.

sizes is tried (Fig. 2.19). Adsorption from saturated pressures of five

organic solvents, carbon disulfide (thickness of 3.7 A), methylene
dichloride (4.0 A), ethyl iodide (4.3 A), chloroform (4.6 A) and cyclo-
hexane (5.1 A), were tried and from the amount adsorbed of each
component, the pore volume for the micropores larger than this size can
be determined.

2.5.3. Surface area

lnternal surface area of microporous adsorbents is often used as one

of the measures to describe the degree of development of pores. The
concept of B.E.T. adsorption isotherm (Eq. 3-12), where the amount
adsorbed by monomolecular coverage, q,, is defined, gives the specific
surface area by assuming the molecular sectional area of nitrogen to be
16.2 A2/mo1ecu1e,which corresponds to 9.76X104 m2/mol or 4.35 m2/
Ncc.
T o determine q,,, from the experimentally obtained data of isotherm,
so-called BET plot of pr/[q(l-p,)] versus pr is made as shown in
Fig. 3.7. Then from the slope and the intersect of the straight line
obtained in the range of 0.35<pr<0.5, q, is readily obtained.
In the case of adsorbents with very fine micropores, such as those with
molecular sieving effect, it is not easy to make a rigorous definition of
the surface area. If BET plot is applied mechanically, "surface area" can
 References 33

be calculated but the physical meanlng and importance may be reduced.

For microporous adsorbents, micropore volumes and size distributions
determined by the molecular probe method or the nitrogen adsorption
method, if possible, may be more informative than the surface area.

Arakl, T , Karrer~anso(Actrvc Carbon), Maruzen. Tokyo (1932) ( ~ nJapancsc)

Badlcul, G , K Bratzlcr, W Hcrbert and W Vollmer, Aklrw Kohle und Ihrc Induc~nelle
Venvendung, 4th Ed , Fcrd~nandEnke, Stuttgart (1962)
Barrcr, R M ,Hydro~hemralChemrrtry of ZPoIr~es,Acadcmrc Press, Ncw York (1982)
Barrcr, R M (ed ). Molenrlor Swws, Roc of lhe 1st In1 Zeolrle Confirence, Soc Chem Ind
(1968)
Boehm, H P ,Advances m Calalysu, 16, 179 (1964)
Boehm, H P , E Drchl, W Hcck and R Sappok, Angew Chem ,lnt E d , 3,669 (1964)
Breck, D W , Zeohte MoImrlor Stew-Stmure, Chemutry and Use. John W~lcyand
Sons. Ncw York (1974)
.
Chlhara, K M Suzukl and K Kawazoe, AIChE Journal, 24,279 (1982)
.
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Dollrmore, D and G R Hcal, J Appl Chem 14,109 (1964)
Daaj, B S Hoccvar and S Pcjovnlk (cds). Zeolrtes-Synlhesrr Slnrrrure. Technology
and Applrcatton. Elscvlcr, Amsterdam (1985)
Everett, D H and J C Powl, J Chem Soc, Faradoy Tram, 1 72, 619 (1976)
Flanrgan. E M and L B Sand (eds ), M o k ~ h Srew r ZPolrtes-I 8 11, Proc of the 2nd
Int Zeolrtc Confcrcncc, Adv m Chemrrtry Serws 101 & 102. ACS (1971)
Hasslcr, J W , hrtfiatron wtlh Actrvared Carbon, Chcm P u b , New York (1974)
Howath, Gcza and K Kawazoe, J Chem Eng Japan, 16,470 (1983)
Hara. N and H Takahash1 (cds). Zeorarlo (2iwhtes), Kodansha, Tokyo (1975) (rn

.
Japanese)
Ikarl, Y Kagaku to Kogyo, 31,4 (1978) (In Japanese)
Katzcr, J R (cd ), Molecular Swws 11, Proc of thc 4th Int Zeolrtc Confcmncc, ACS
Symposrum Scnes, 40, ACS (1977)

..
Kawazoc, K ,T Kawa~,Y Eguchl and K Itoga. J Chem Eng Japan. 7, 158 (1974)
.
Mantcll, C L Adrorptron, 2nd Ed McGraw-H111, New York (1951)
Mattson. J S and Mark, J r ,H B Actrwted Carbon, Marcel Dekka, Ncw York (1971)
Mcrer, W M and J B Uyttcrhoevcn(cds ). Molecular Swws, Proc of the 3rd Int
Zcol~tcConfcrcnce, Adv In ChcmrstrySerlcs 121, ACS (1973)
Mlnato. H , Zeorarto to sono Rryou (Zeolne and rts Applrcatronr), Chapter 2, G~hodo,
Tokyo (1967) (m Japancsc)
.
Murakamr, Y A 11j1maand J W Ward (eds ), New lkwlopmmts m Zoolrte Scwnce
and Technology, Proc of the 7th Int Zeollte Conference. Kodansha-Elsev~er,
Tokyo/Amstcrdam (1986)
Olson, D and A Bwo (eds ), Rceeedrngs of the Surlh IntornatromI ZEOLITE
Conference, Butternorth, London (1984)
Purl, B R (ed ). Roceedrngs of the 5th Confirence on Carbon, vol 1. 165 (1962)
Pun, B R and R C Bansal, Carbon, 1,451,457 (1964)
.
Pun, B R Carbon. 4, 391 (1966)
Ramoa, F A E Rodr~gues.L D Rollmann and C Naccache(eds ). Zeobtes Scrence
and Technology, NATO AS1 Serlcs E-80 N~jhoffPub1 The Hague (1984)
Sakoda. A and M Suzuk~,J Chem Eng Japan. 15.279 (1982)
Sakoda, A , K Kawazoc and M Suzukr Wafer Re~earch21, 717 (1987)
Sm~sek, M and S Cerny Acrrbe Corbon Manufaclure Roperttes and Applrcaltons
Elsev~cr,London (1970)
Suzukl, M and K -S Ha, J. Chem Eng. Japan. 17, 139 (1984).
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 Adsorption Equilibrium

In practical operations, maximum capacity of adsorbent cannot be fully

utilized because of mass transfer effects involved in actual fluid-solid
contacting processes. In order to estimate practical or dynamic adsorption
capacity, however, it is essential, first of all, to have information on
adsorption equilibrium. Then kineticanalyses are conducted based on rate
processes depending on types of contacting processes. The most typical of
the rate steps in solid adsorbents is the intraparticle diffusion which is
treated in the next chapter.
Since adsorption equilibrium is the most fundamental property, a
number of studies have been conducted to determine I) the amount of
species adsorbed under a given set of conditions (concentration and
temperature) or 2) how selective adsorption takes place when two or more
adsorbable components coexist. There are many empirical and theoretical
approaches. Only several simple relations, however, can be applied in later
treatments on kinetic description of adsorption. These relations are
sometimes insufficient for predicting adsorption isotherms under a new
set of operating conditions. Thus more sophisticated trials on sound
thermodynamics o r on substantial models have been proposed by many
authors.
A basic review is given here. For more detailed discussions refer to Ross
and Olivier (1964) and Ruthven (1984). A recent publication by Myers
(1988) also gives adsorption equilibrium data available in the literature.

3.1. Equilibrium Relations

When an adsorbent is in contact with the surrounding fluid of a certain
composition, adsorption takes place and after a sufficiently long time, the
adsorbent and the surrounding fluid reach equilibrium. In this state the
amount of the component adsorbed on the surface malnly of the micropore
of the adsorbent is determined as shown in Fig. 3.1. The relation between
amount adsorbed, q, and concentration In the fluid phase. C. at
 Conccntratlon, C or Pressure, p

Fig 3 1 Adsorpt~on~sotherrns

Ternperaturn, T

F I ~3 2 Adsorption Isosteres.

temperature, T, is called the adsorption isotherm at T.

The relation between concentration and temperature yielding a given

amount adsorbed, q, is called the adsorption isostere (Fig. 3 2).

C = C ( T ) for q (3-2)
 Adsorprion lsorherms 37

Adsorption isotherms are described in many mathematical forms, some

of which are based on a simplified physical picture of adsorption and
desorption, while others are purely empirical and intended to correlate the
experimental data in simple equations with two o r at most threeempirical
parameters: the more the number of empirical parameters, the better the fit
between experimental data and the empirical equation. But empirical
equations unrelated to physical factors d o not have practical significance
since they d o not allow extrapolation beyond the range of variables for
which the parameters have been determined.

3.2. Adsorption Isotherms

3.2.1. Surface adsorption
The simplest model of adsorption on a surface is that in which localized
adsorption takes place on an energetically uniform surface without any
interaction between adsorbed molecules. When surface coverage or
fractional filling of the micropore is 0 (=q/qo) and the partial pressure
in the gas phase, p , which is to be replaced by C(= p / R T ) when the
concentration in the fluid phase is used, the adsorption rate is expressed as
k.p(l - 0) assuming first order kinetics with desorption rate given as kd0.
Then equilibration of adsorption rate and desorption rate gives the
equilibrium relation as

The above relation is given by Langmuir (1918) and K = k./kd is called

the adsorption equilibrium constant.
The above equation is called the Langmuir isotherm. When theamount
adsorbed, q, is far smaller compared with the adsorption capacity of the
adsorbent, go, Eq. (3-3) is reduced to the Henry type equation;

Further, when the concentration is high enough, p > I / K, then

adsorption sites are saturated and
 The above equation is modified when interaction between adsorbing
molecules are taken into account. Fowler and Guggenheim (1939) gave

p = -(-
KI '
1 - 8 ) exp (2uOlkT)

where 2u represents pair interaction energy (positive for repulsion and

negative for attraction), and k is the Boltsmann constant.
When adsorbed molecules are free to move on the adsorbent surface
(mobile adsorption), the Langmuir equation is modified to

When mobile adsorption with interaction is considered, the following is

derived.

Fig. 3.3 shows deviation of the isotherm relation from the Langmuir

Flg 3 3 Effcct of moblle adsorpt~onand interaction of adsorbed molecules o n

shape of Isotherm
 Adtorptlon Isotherms 39

equation due to mobile adsorption and interaction between molecules.

Suwanayuen and Danner (1980) introduced the nonideality of
adsorbed phase by considering the adsorbed phase as a mixture of
adsorbate and vacancies. The activity of vacancies is used to describe the
nonideality and the Wilson equation is employed to express activity
coefficient involving two parameters for a single component system.

where and A31 are Wilson's parameters for surface interaction

between adsorbate and vacancy.
Another typical example of the isotherms frequenlly employed is the
Freundllch type equation (Freundlich, 1926).

F I ~3 4 Examples of Freundllch plot Aqueous phase adsorption of s~ngle

componout organlc ac~dson actlvaled carbon. FS-400 at 298 K
This equation is often considered to be anempiricalequation. It is possible
to interpret this equation theoretically in terms of adsorption on an
energetically heterogeneous surface as described below. This form can also
be related to the Dubinin-Astakov equation, which is derived for
adsorption of the micropore filling type (Dubinin and Astakov, 1970).
Examples of correlation of adsorption data taken in aqueous phase are
shown in Fig. 3.4. This equation fits well with the experimental data for a
limited range of concentrations.
The Freundlich equation does not satisfy the conditions given by Eqs.
(3-5) and (3-6) because it gives no limit of adsorption capacity, making
the amount adsorbed go to infinity when concentration increases. It is
only applicable below the saturation concentration (solubility or satura-
tion vapor pressure) where condensation or crystallization occurs and
adsorption phenomena are no more significant.
At extremely low concentrations, the Henry type equation (Eq. (3-3))
usually becomes valid. Radke and Prausnitz (1972) formulated the
following equation, which combines the Freundlich equation with the
Henry type equation.

This equation contains three empirical constants and is useful in

a p-Chlorophenol
o p-Cresol
o Acetone

Fig. 3 5. Adsorpt~onfrom aqueous solution at 2S°C.

(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Radke, C J and Prausn~tz.J M..lnd. Eng. Chem
Fundamenralr. 11. 447 ( 1972))
 Adrorption Isotherms 41

correlating isotherm data obtained in a wide range ofconcentrations. An

example is shown in Fig. 3.5.
Another useful expression is the Toth equation (Toth, 1971) which
contains also three parameters.

The equation reduces to the Henry type at low concentrations (pressures)

KP (-)

Fig. 3.6. Toth equations for different values of r.

Fig 3 7 BET plot of gas phase adsorpt~on~sotherm.

and approaches saturation limit at high pressures. When the parameter, t,
is unity, the above equation is identical to the Langmuir equation. Fig. 3.6
shows the effect of parameter, I , on the shape of the isotherm.
When adsorption takes place in multilayers, adsorption on the
adsorbent surface and above the adsorbed molecules is considered to be
based on different attractive forces. Monolayer adsorption is formed by
the same concept as the Langmuir type adsorption while adsorption above
monolayers is equivalent to condensation of the adsorbate molecules,
giving rise to the BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Teller, 1938) equation

where p, is the relative pressure (=p fp,) and q, represents the amount
adsorbed by monomolecular coverage on the surface. From nitrogen adsorp-
tion at liquid nitrogen temperature, the surface area of the adsorbent
is determined by converting q, to the surface area. In most cases, q, is
obtained from the BETplot of the adsorption data as shown in Fig. 3.7. It
gives a straight line in the range 0.05<pr<0.35 and q, is readily determined.
Then by multiplying nitrogen surface area of 3480 m2/g with q,, specific
surface area of the adsorbent based on nitrogen adsorption is calcuIated.

3.2.2. Micropore adsorption

In micropores of size comparable to the size of adsorbate molecule,

adsorption takes place by attractive force from the wall surrounding the
micropores, and the adsorbate molecules start to fill the micropore
volurnetrically. This phenomenon is similar tocapillary condensation that
occurs in large pores at high partial pressure, although the adsorbed phase
in micropores is different because of the effect of the force field of the pore
wall.
In this type of adsorption, the adsorption equilibrium relation for a
given adsorbate-adsorbent combination can be expressed independent
of temperature by using the adsorption potential.

where W is the voiume of micropore filled by the adsorbate and p is the

density of the adsorbed phase. Adsorption potential, A, is defined as the
difference in free energy between the adsorbed phase and the saturated
liquid.
 Adsorption Isotherms 43

Fig. 3 8. Adsorpt~oncharacteristic curve.

(Reproduced with permission by Kawai, T., Ph. D. i'lzeses (Unrv of Tokyo, 1976).
p 34 (1976)).

W(A) is the adsorption characteristic curve originally introduced by

Polanyi (1914) and Berenyi (1920). Adsorption of benzene on activated
carbon is plotted in Fig. 3.8 in the form of the characteristic curve.
Dubinin (1960) assumed a distribution of the Gaussian type for the
characteristic curve and derived the following, which is called Dubinin-
Radushkevich equation.

Adsorption equilibrium relation of benzene on two types of activated

carbon are plotted by the Langmuir plot and the Dubinin plot in Fig. 3.9(a)
and (b). Apparently, the Dubinin equation gives a better regression to the
data of Hasz (1969).
Later this equation was generalized by Dubinin and Astakhov (1970)
to the following form.

In this expression E is the characteristic energy of adsorption and obtained

from adsorption potential A at W /WO= e-1. The parameter n in the
 ( a ) Langmuir plot (b) Dubinin plot

Fig. 3.9. Correlation of equilibrium data on activated carbon (Columbia NXC),

data by Hasz, source: Kawai, 1976.
(Reproduced with permission by Kawai, T.. Seiken Koushukai Text No. 3, 7,
Seisan Gijutu Shoureikai (1977)).

Dubinin-Astakhov equation was originally considered to have integer value,

and n = 1,2 and 3 respectively corresponds to adsorption on the surface,
in micropores and ultramicropores where adsorbed molecules lose one,
two or three degrees of freedom. For nonpolar adsorbates, the simplified
estimates given in TABLE 3.1 have been proposed.
Kawazoe and Kawai (1974) tried to examine applicability of the
Dubinin-Astakhov (D-A) equation to equilibrium data of molecular
sieve carbon (MSC). Since the D-A equation can be written as

It is possible to determine n and E by plotting the left hand side of Eq. (3-18)
versus In A provided WQis known. An example is given in Fig. 3.10 for
benzene on MSC 5A (Kawazoe er a!., 1971). W Ocan be estimated from
the limit of adsorption and is considered to correspond to the micropore
volume of the adsorbent. Density of the adsorbed phase, p, is necessary to
convert the amount adsorbed to the volume filled by adsorbate. For
adsorption below critical temperature, liquid density at the same
temperature can be used for p but above critical temperature, the
hypothetical density estimated from the Dubinin-Nikolaev equation is
 3 1 Parameters of Dubtntn-Astakhov Equations tn Relatton to ratto of pore s~ze,D, and molecular stte, d
TABLE AH0 represents heat
of vaporttatton
Adsorptton stte Rafto n E Examples of a adsorptton systems Three types of adsorptton sttes

I Carbon black-benzene,
( I ) Surface D/d>5 I Stltca gel-hydrocarbon
3

2 Acttvated carbon-COI, benzene

( II ) Mtcropore
3 hydrocarbon, ram gas etc

(111) Ultram~cropore 3> Dld 3 -AH0 MSCtrhane, Acttvated carbon

(Columbta LC)-saturated hydrocarbon

(Reproduced wtth permtsston by Kawatoe, K and Kawat, T,Setsan Kenkyu. 22, 493 (1970))
-
ym
0
111
b
B
2
S
8
s
3
3
 Fig 3 10 In In ( W OW /) vs In A plot according t o Eq. (3-18).
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Kawazoe. K., Astakhov. V A , Kawa~,T and
Eguch~,Y ., Kagaku Kogaku. 35. 1009 ( 197 1 )).

recommended.

where pb is the density of liquid at normal boiling point, Tb, and po is

the density of adsorbed phase at critical temperature, T,. M and b are
molecular weight and van der Waals constant. Characteristic values
of the adsorption of various gases on MSC-5A are shown in TABLE 3.2.
Characteristic energy of adsorption was correlated by parachor as shown
in Fig. 3.11 (Kawai and Kawazoe, 1975).
Also from TABLE 3.2 one can see that a parameter, n, is not necessarily an
integer. n may be a function of relative magnitude of adsorbate molecular
size and micropore size.
From this point of view, and Suzuki and Sakoda (1982) tried to extend
the D-A equation to include adsorbent which has apparent micropore size
 TABLE
3 2 Characteristic Values of Adsorption on MSC SA
Wo n E
Adsorbate
[CC /gl [-I [call moll
I nitrogen
2 carbon d ~ o x ~ d e
3 oxygen
4 hydrogen
5 neon
6 argon
7 krypton
8 xenon
9 methane
10 ethylene
I I ethane
I2 propylenc
13 n-butane
14 n-hcxanc
I5 benzene
16 ethyl acetate
17 p-xylcne
18 trichlorocthylene
19 tetrahydrofuran
20 methykne chloride
2 1 cyclohexane
22 aatone
23 carbon disulfidc
24 methanol
25 ethanol
26 n-butanol
27 acctlc acid
pyrlglnc
28 .. -

(Reproduced w~thpcrmlsslon by Kawazoc. K , Kawai. T , Eguch~,Y and Itoga, K,

J Chem Eng Jqm. 7, 160 (1974))

d~stnbut~on. In thls case n and E are assumed to be funct~onsof dlD, the

ratlo of molecule slze to pore sue, and the adsorpt~onIsotherm 1s given In
Integral form.

where f(D) 1s the denslty dlstr~but~on

functlon of mlcropore slze n(d/ D)
and E(d/ D) were deterrnlned uslng MSC 5A and 7A w ~ t hxenon, ethylene
and ethane as cal~bratlongases The results are glven In Flg. 3 12 (a)
and (b). For ordlnary actlvated carbons it is difficult to determine the
str~ctfunctional form of f(D) Assumtng normal dlstribut~onfor f(D)
from the mean pore s u e 55 and the square root of the varlance o for the
dens~tyfunct~onof pore sue, f(D) for the commercial actlvated carbon
was obta~nedfrom the adsorpt~onIsotherm measurement
 parachor

Fig. 3.11. Correlation of characteristic energy of adsorption and parachor

(For key refer to TABLE 3.2).
(Reproduced with permission by Kawazoe, K.. Kawai. T.,Eguchi. Y. and Itoga, K.,
J. Chem. Eng. Japan. 7, 161 (1974)).

A typical result is shown in Fig. 3.13. Micropore size of ordinary activated

carbon for gas phase adsorption is believed to range from 0.5 to 1.5 nm.
One obvious deficiency of the D-A equation is that it does not ap-
proach the Henry type equation at lower concentrations. According to
chromatographic measurement using helium gas as a carrier (Chihara,
Suzuki and Kawazoe, 1978), the adsorption equilibrium coefficient of the
Henry type equation, which was assumed to hold at an extreme of C=O,
could be determined for MSC 5A. The results are shown in Fig. 3.14. In
this experiment, since helium gas exists in large excess compared with
adsorbable tracer gas, the coadsorption effect of helium may not have been
negligible, making it possible to assume the Henry type isotherm for the
tracer gases.
Sakoda and Suzuki (1983) measured the adsorption isotherm of xenon
on MSC 5A in a wide pressure range (4X 1V4-IX 102 Torr) in the absence
of other components and assumed that below the point where the D-A
equation has a tangent that goes through the origin, the Henry equation
can be used instead of the D-A equation, as shown in Fig. 3.15. If this
 Adsorptron Isotherm 49

"1 0

A
0
Xenon
Ethylene
Ethane
\

(a) Varrat~onof n w~thchange of D/d from

MSC samples

0 Ethane
5 10
s 09
20 25
n (-)
( b ) Plots of E/EIdHo versus n for MSC samples

Fig. 3 12. Relations among EIAHa n and ratio of pore s ~ z eand molecular
d~ameter,D / d
(Reproduced w~thpcmusslon by Suzuki. K and Sakoda, A., J Chcm. Eng.Japan, 7,
283 (1982)).

assumption is valid, then the adsorption equilibrium constant ofthe Henry

type equation is related to the constants involved in the D-A equation as

Transience occurs at

and the fractional amount adsorbed at this point is

W /WO= exp [ - ( A / E)"/(n-l)] (3-24)

For adsorption of xenon on MSC 5A at room temperature, E, and n given

Fig 3 13 Normal distribution curves of carbon C Curve (I) from ~sothermof
xenon, Curve (11) from Isotherm of ethylene, Curve (111) from ~sothermof
ethane
(Reproduced with permisston by Suzuki. M and Sakoda, A , J Chem Eng Japun. IS
284 (1982))

Flg 3 14 van't Hofrs plot of adsorpt~onequlllbr~umconstants

(Reproduced by permlsslon by Chlhara. K ,Suzukl, M and Kawazoe, K ,AIChE
Journal, 24, 24 1 (1978))
 Heat of Adsorpiton 51

Fig 3 15 Adsorpt~onisotherms of xenon on MSC 5Aat0°Cand 19OC Dotted

llnes and so11d lines correspond to the Henry type equatlon and the D-A
equatlon. respect~vely
(Reproduced with perrnlsston by Sakoda, A and Suzuk~,M ,J Chem Eng Japon
16, 157 (1982))

In TABLE 3 2 lndlcate that the trans~encefrom the D-A equatlon to the

Henry equatlon occurs at around Wl WO= 0 001
It should be added that the D-A equatlon when n=l IS reduced to the
Freundl~chtype equatlon

Then parameters In Eq (3-10) correspond to the parameters In Eq (3-25)

as follows

3.3. Heat of Adsorption

Adsorpt~on IS accompanled by evolut~onof heat slnce adsorbate
molecules are more stablllzed on the adsorbent surface than In the bulk
phase Adsorpt~onIS accompanled by phase change and thus depending on
the occaslon ~tmay lnvolve mechanical work For thls reason, theamount
of heat evolution by unlt adsorpt~ondepends on the system adopted
(Ross and Olivier, 1964). From a practical standpoint, the important
definitions of heat of adsorption are "differential heat of adsorptionnand
"isosteric heat of adsorption."
Differential heat of adsorption, Qdlrr, is defined as heat evolution when
unit adsorption takes place in an isolated system. This heat is directly
measurable by calorimeter.
lsosteric heat of adsorption, Q,,, is defined from isotherms at different
temperatures by Eq. (3-29). Qa is bigger than Qdlr since it requires work
equivalent to p V(=RT).

Q,c is related to adsorption isotherms at different temperatures by the

van? Hoff equation

From experimental isotherms at temperature Ti and Tz, Qslis obtained as

For the Henry equation and the Langmuir equation, Q,, is related to the
equilibrium constant, K, as

When adsorption sites are energetically homogeneous and when there is

no interaction between adsorbed molecules, the heat of adsorption is
independent of the amount adsorbed. However, when the adsorbent
surface is composed of a number of patches having different energy levels,
or when interaction among adsorbed molecules cannot be neglected, the
heat of adsorption varies with the surface coverage. Whether variation
of heat of adsorption is due to surface heterogeneity or to the interac-
tion among adsorbed molecules is hard to distinguish in some cases.
Here no distinction between the two mechanisms is made and only
phenomenolog~calvariation is considered.
Variation of heat of adsorption can be described two ways. One is by
 Heat of Adrorption 53

defining the spectral density of adsorption sites where heat ofadsorption is

Q,f(Q). Then

Or more directly, it is possible to describe the heat of adsorption as a

function of amount adsorbed q, QJq).
The relation between f(Q) and e(q) is as follows: Q(q) is converted
so that the amount adsorbed, q, is written as an explicit function of Q,
q(Q), and then

When energy distribution, f(Q), is given, the corresponding form of

adsorption isotherm can be estimated by assuming that the heterogeneous
surface consists of small homogeneous patches (small areas) and that the
adsorption isotherm on homogeneous surface holds o n each small patch.
For example, Langrnuir type isotherm relation (Eq. (3-3) with Eq. (3-32))
can be assumed to hold on each patch.

where dq is the amount adsorbed on the patch having the adsorption

energy Q. Then the total isotherm equation is given as

This equation is solved for a given f(Q) using Stieltjes transform. But
for the sake of simplicity Roginsky's approximation is attractive, i.e.,
assumption of the Langrnuir type isotherm on each patch is further
simplified to a stepwise isotherm as

Then the integral in Eq. (3-36) is simplified to

 Equilibrium concentratlon. C (mol/ml)

Fig. 3.16. Summary of adsorption isotherms of propionic acid on activated

carbon HGR 5 13 from aqueous solution measured at 283,293, 303 and 3 13 K.
Hollow circles are measured points at 303 K.

where

Then if f(Q) is given, corresponding adsorption isotherm is easily

calculated.
Also from an isotherm relation, q ( p ) ,spectraldensity function,flQ), can
be calculated from the following equation.

As a typical example of an adsorption isotherm in aqueous phase.

adsorption of propionic acid on activated carbon is shown in Fig. 3.16.
At higher concentrations isotherms can be correlated by the Freundlich
type equation, but at low coverage ( 9 ~ 0 . 1mmol/g), the slope of isotherms
becomes steeper and seems to reach Henry's type relation. From isotherms
at different temperatures, isosteric heat of adsorption was obtained as a
function of the amount adsorbed as shown in Figs. 3.17 and 3.18. At
higher coverage, measured isosteric heat of adsorption seems to decrease
with increasing amount adsorbed.
 Hear of Adrorptlon 55

Fig 3 17 Adsorpt~onlsosteres lor determln~nglsostcrlc heal ofadsorpt~onfrom

Eq 3-30
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermrsslon by Suzukl, M and FUJII.T ,AlChE Journal, 28,
383 ( 1982))

This functional form is consistent with the Freundlich isotherm and the
Freundlich exponent n~ determined by experiment are compared with
Qo/ RT in TABLE 3.3. Agreement between them is reasonable.
At low coverage, the Freundllch isotherm assumes existence of sites with
very high heat of adsorption. For measured equilibrium data, the Radke
and Prausnitz equation can be used for correlating low coverage data.
Temperature dependence of K gives heat of adsorpt~onat initial coverage.
This Q,,.o was 4.6 J / m o l and is shown in Fig. 3.18 by the arrow. From
Flgs 3.16 and 3.18, transition from Henry type isotherm and Freundlich
type isotherm can be said to occur at around 4X 10-lmol/kg.
 Amount adsorbed. q (mole/kg)
Ftg 3 18 lsoster~cheat of adsorption Qstr plotted against amount adsorbed q
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsston by Suzukl, M and FUJII,T , AIChE Journal 28,
384 (1982))

TABLE
3 3 Constants of Freundl~chType Equatlon q=kcllm
Apphcd to the isotherm results for q> lW1 rnol/kg
Temperature (K) k n QoIRT
283 0 55 2 74 300
293 0 49 2 64
303 0 43 2 52
313 0 32 2 45 2 71
(Reproduced wrth permission by Suzukl, M and FUJII,T . AIChE Journal. 28. 383
( 1982))

3.4. Adsorption Isotherms for Multicomponent Systems

When two or more adsorbable components exist with the possibil~tyof
occupying the same adsorpt~onsites, isotherm relationships become more
complex. The srmplest is extension of the Langmuir type rsotherm by
assuming no interaction between adsorbing molecules. In the case of two
components, the extended Langmurr isotherm (Markham and Benton,
1931) is given as

Thls equatron enables qurck est~matron of equilibrium relatrons of

 Adsorprron Isotherms for Multtcomponent Systems 57

multicomponent adsorption from Langmuir parameters determined

from the single component isotherm of each component. Eq. ( 3 4 2 )
is thermodynamically consistent when 901= 902 holds. Furthermore, the
equation can be applied without significant error to a combination of
different values of qo if the components are similar in natureand follow the
Langmuir isotherm relation.
From Eq. (342), it follows that the separation factor for a mixture of
two components can be given directly by the ratio of the equilibrium
constants.

This relation holds independent of concentration and can naturally be

extended t o a n arbitrary combination of components.

Lewis er 01. (1950) showed that for adsorption of two components with a
constant total pressure of P = pl +p2, the following relation holds
between the amount adsorbed of each component, 91and q2.

where q0 I and q02 are the amounts of pure components adsorbed a t pressure
pa I = P a n d p02 = P. The above relation is derived from Eq. (342). For
adsorption of mixtures of hydrocarbons, Eq. (345) is valid since a,)
becomes relatively constant independent of concentration. The examples
of measurement by Lewis et al. (1950) are shown in Fig. 3.19.
The extended Langmuir (Markham-Benton) isotherm has limited
applicability especially for liquid phase adsorption, since even single-
component isotherms in liquid phase are rarely explained by the Langmuir
equation. There have been several trials to extend the Freundlich type
equation t o mixture isotherms. Fritz and Schliinder (1974) gave the
following equation.

These types of frequently found equations involve problems concerning

inconsistency with singlecomponent isotherm data and lack of
thermodynamic background. However since they employ relatively large
numbers of emplr~calparameters, final fit with the experimental data
 42/42' Less volatlle component

.
Fig 3 19 Lewis plot of amounts adsorbed for s~ltcagel and act~vatedcarbons
PCC Carbon S111cagel Columbla G carbon
0 CIHI+CIH~ V CH~+CZHI V CHICCZH~
A. C I H ~ + C J H ~ + CIH~+C,HI CIHI+CIH~
0 rC4Hto+I-C4H~ X I-C~HIO+I-C~H, CIHI+CIH~
A C,HI+C,H~

becomes satisfactory.
A more reliable method for estimating adsorption isotherm of binary
components from single-component isotherms is the IAS (Ideal Adsorbed
Solution) method of Myers and Prausnitt (1965).
Surface pressure n is determined as a function of pressure pa for each
singlecomponent sotherm.

Ideal solution assumption is applied to the adsorbed phase and the total
amount adsorbed, q ~ IS, then related to the mole fraction of each
component
 Adsorption Isotherms for Mulficomponenf Systems 59

The Raoult law is also applied to the relation between mole fraction in gas
phase and adsorbed phase.

where yi and x, are mole fraction of the i-th component in gas phase and in
adsorbed phase, respectively.

To obtain the equilibrium amounts adsorbed which correspond to a given

set of gas phase concentrations, first a guess of surface pressure R A / R T is
made and then pol andp02 are obtained. Then frompt,p2,p0 I andp02, XI
and xl are obtained by Eq. (3-49). This procedure is repeated until Eq. (3-
50) is satisfied. Then from q0 I and q02determined formpOI andpOz,q ~ c a n
be determined by Eq. (3-48). which then gives q~and q2 from X I and xl
previously obtained. The iteration procedure is minimized by employinga
small computer. When isotherms for single components can be expressed
by analytical equations, the integral of Eq. (3-47) can be determined
analytically. For instance, if the Freundlich equation can be applied in a
wide range, then the integral becomes

which greatly simplifies the procedure. But it should be kept in mind that
unless single-component isotherms especially for the weaker component
are determined in a wide range of amounts adsorbed, this simplified
treatment may result in considerable deviation.
The IAS model is practical for predicting binary isotherms from single-
component isotherm data. As an example, isotherms of propane and
butane on activated carbon are shown in Fig. 3.20. The assumption of
ideal adsorbed solution may need careful consideration in some cases
where a combination of two components forms an azeotropic mixture in the
adsorbed phase as reported by Glessner and Meyers (1969).
The IAS theory is also applicable in the case of adsorption from aqueous
solution, as shown by Radke and Prausnitz (1972b).
The vacancy solution model was extended to describe mixture adsorption
isotherm (Suwanayuen and Danner, 1980).
 i
0
/
\ A \ - -

Solid lines are from Myers and Prawitr method

100
Butane pressure, pb (Torr)
200

Fig. 3.20. Adsorption isotherms of propaneand butane mixture onactivatcd

carbon; amount adsorbed of propane and butane for propane pressures 0.76,
1 14 and 228 Torr.
(Reproduced with permission by Suzuki, M.eraL, FundmnenraLrofAdcouprion
Engineering Foundation, 622 (1985).

3.5. Adsorption Isotherms of Unknown Mixtures

In the case of water treatment by adsorption, mixtures of organics
usually become involved and phenomenological parameters are used to
express water qualities. These parameten are COD (chemical oxygen
demand), BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) or TOC (total organic
carbon), which correspond to the weighted sum of concentrations of
component organics. Since each organic component has different
adsorbability, the weighted total sometimes appears strange in adsorption
characteristics.
For the sake of simplicity. the adsorption of an aqueous solution of
COD which consists of two organic components on activated carbon is
considered here. One of the components, whose concentration is C,, is not
adsorbed at all while the other component of concentration Cz has an
adsorption isotherm of the Freundlich type, q = kC21J",when it exists as a
single component. C O D of the mixture, COD,,is the weighted sum of
CIand C2.
 Adcorpfron Isofhennsjor Unknown M ~ x w s 61

0 CI COO,

log COD,

Fig 3.21. lllustratlon of shape of the isotherms of mixtures measured by

different methods

If adsorption isotherm is measured by the batch adsorption technique, i.e.

measurement of COD concentration change in vessels with different
carbon load, then adsorption equilibrium is attained for Component 2 but
coexistence of Component 1 results in an unfamiliar shape of adsorption
isotherm with regard to adsorption of COD,, as shown in Fig. 3.21.
Another method of measurement of isotherm is the dilution method,
which is performed by preparing several bottles containing raw water
diluted to different levels and adding the same amount of adsorbent in the
bottles. Then the amount adsorbed in each flask isdetermined by comparing
the initial concentrations and the final concentrations. By this method the
measured Isotherm will become as shown by dotted lines in Flg 3.21.
The difference I n Isotherms by the two methods whlch never occurs In
slnglecomponent measurement 1s due to the dllutlon of the unadsorbed
component in the latter case. In other words, the existence of a n
unadsorbable component may be checked by measunng isotherms by these
two different methods.

Bercnyl, M , Z Physrk Chemre, 94, 628 (1920). 105, 55 (1923)

.
Brunauer, S P H. Emmett and E Teller, J Am Chem Soc. 60. 309 (1938)
Chihara, K , M Suzuki and K Kawazoe, AIChE / o u m l . 24, 237 (1978)
Dublnln M M , Chemistry and Physrcs of Corbon, vo1 2, p 51 Marcel Dckker,
New York (1966)
Dubinln, M M , Chem Rev. 60, 265 (1960)
Dublnm, M M , V A Astakhov, 2nd hr C o d on M o W a r - S t e w Zeolre (1970)
Fowler, R H and E A Guggenheim, Slarisrical 77rermodymmics, Cambridge Un~venlty
Press, Cambndgc (1939)
Freundlich, H , Collotd and Cqpillary Chemwrry, Mathucn. London, pp 110-134 (1926)
Fntz, W and E U Schlundcr, Chem Eng Scr. 29, 1279 (1974)
Glersner A J and A L Myers. Chem Eng Progr Sympo Ser. 96, Vol 65, 73 (1969)
Hasz. J W and C A Barrere. J r . Chem fig Progr Sympo Ser. 96, Vol 65,48(1969)
Kawazoe, K , T Kawal, Sewn Kcnkyu. 22, 491 (1970) (In Japanese)
.
Kawazoe, K T Kawai, Y Eguchl and K Itoga, J Chem Eng Japan. 7. 158 (1974)
Kawazoe, K . V A Astakhov, T Kawal and Y Eguch~,Kagaku Kogaku. 35, 1006 (1971)
( ~ nJapanese)
Langmuir, 1 , J Chem Soc. 40, 1361 (1918)
Lewis, W K , E R Glllll and B Chcrtow and W P Cadogen, Ind Eng C k m , 42. 1319
( 1950)
Markham E C and A F Benton, / Am C k m Soc. 53, 497 (1931)
Myers, A L , Database on Adrorprron Equrlrbrtum, in preparation (1988)
Myers. A L and J M Prausnltz, AlChE Journal 11, 121 (1965)
Polanyi, M , Verh Deur Chem. 57, 106(1914)
Radke, C J and J M Prausn~tz,Ind Eng Chem. Fundom.. 11, 445 (1972a)
Radke, C J and J M Prausnitz, AIChE Journal, 18, 761 (1972b)
Ross, S and J P Ohvier. On Ph~srcalAdrorprron. Intersclence (1964)
.
Ruthven, D M Pnncples of Adsorprron and Adtorprron Processes, John Wrley & Sons,
New York (1984)
Sakoda, A and M Suzukl. J Chem Eng Japan. 16, 156 (1983)
Suzuki. M and A Sakoda, J Chem Eng Japan. 15. 279 (1982)
.
Suzukl. M M Horl and K Kawazoe, Fundamenrols of Adsorption. 619 Eng Foundatlon,
NY (1985)
Suwanayuen S and R P Danner. AIChE Joumol. 26, 68. 76 (1980)
Suzukt. M and T Fujll. AlChE Journal. 28 380 (1982)
Toth, J , Arra Chrm Acad Srr Hung, 69 31 1 (1971)
 4
Diffusion in Porous Particles

Most of the adsorbents commercially used are porous particles. For

large adsorption capacity, large surface area is preferable, as a result
large numbers of fine pores, as fine as possible, are needed. Adsorbate
molecules come from outside adsorbent particles and diffuse into the
particle to fully utilize the adsorption sites. Depending on the structure
of the adsorbent, several different types of diffusion mechanisms become
dominant and sometimes two o r three of them compete o r cooperate.
The dominant mechanism also depends on a combination of adsorbate
and adsorbent and adsorption conditions such as temperature and
concentration range.
In adsorbent particles with bidispersed pore structures, such as
activated carbon, macropores usually act as a path for the adsorbate
molecules to reach the interior of the particle. In this case molecular
diffusion o r Knudsen diffusion takes place in the macropore; this is
called pore diffusion.
When adsorbed molecules are mobile on the surface of the adsorbent.
e.g. volatile hydrocarbon on activated carbon, diffusion due to
migration of the adsorbed molecules may contribute more than pore
diffusion to intraparticle diffusion. This type of diffusion is called
surface diffusion.
When the size of an adsorbate molecule is close to the size of the
micropore, diffusion of the molecule becomes restricted and the rate of
transport in the micropore may have a significant effect in the overall
adsorption rate. This type of diffusion in the micropore is an activated
process which depends heavily on adsorbate properties.

4.1. Diffusion Coefficient

Diffusion of an adsorbate molecule in the adsorbent particle occurs
when there is concentration distribution in the particle. Since the
mechanism of diffusion and the real driving force of diffusion may not
be sufficiently clear, diffusion data are described by means of the
diffusion coefficient defined by Fick's first law taking a gradient of an
appropriate concentration as the driving force.

Diffusion coefficient D(C) is then a phenomenological coefficient and

may be a function of concentration. The concentration may be a
concentration in fluid phase o r adsorbed phase. The physical meaning of
D(C) is dependent on the controlling mechanism in the diffusion
concerned. Then only the mathematical problem of solving differential
equations will be left.

4.2. Pore Diffusion

Diffusion of molecules to be adsorbed in the macropore of the porous
body is easily understood by describing the flux using partial pressure or
concentration of the species in the fluid phase in the pore.

D,is the effective pore diffusion coefficient.

The effective diffusion coefficient in the particle, D,, is considered to
be proportional to the diffusivity in the bulk phase, D,, when macropore
diffusion is dominant and

where a proportionality constant, s], is called the diffusibility. Then

estimation of the diffusibility and the diffusivity in the fluid phase makes
prediction of D, possible.

4.2.1. Diffusibility

The diffusibility, s], may be determined from a detailed structure o r

configurations of pore network but actual pore structure is usually quite
complicated and in most cases only simplified considerations are made.
One of the simplest models of a porous body is a packed bed of parti-
cles. Typical measured diffusibilities for packed beds of particles are
shown in Fig. 4.1. The broken line in the figure shows the diffusibility for the
system with dispersed inactive particles (spherical) determined from the
 Pore Diffi~on 65

In packed beds as a funct~onof vo~dfract~on.

h g . 4.1 D~ffus~blllty
Source 0 Hoogschagen (1955). 0
Currlc (1960), Suzukl and Srn~th
(1972).4 Porous particle. Suzukl and Srn~th(1972). A : Wooding (1959).
. Evans and Kenney (1966).

analogy of electrical conductivity as cited in Suzuki and Smith (1972).

where k is a function of the shape of the dispersed phase(partic1e) and

given as shown in TABLE 4.1.
In many cases, the diffusibility is customarily divided into two parts,
the contribution of porosity E and that of tortuosity kZ of the pore.

Tortuosity factor of the pore, k2, is 3 if the pore direction is random but
in most cases falls between 2 and 6, as shown in TABLE 4.2. Tortuosity
factor may be a functlon of pore diameter to length ratio or more
complicated parameters describing the configurat~on of the pore.
 TABLE
4.1. Parameter, k , in Eq. (4-4) for Different Particle Shapes.

Particleshape
Spherical
Ellipsoidal with
axes a=b=nC

n=10

TABLE4.2. Comparison of the Elfective Diffusivities of K, in NZand Obtained Tortuosity

Factor (20°C).

Macropore Micropore
Activated carbon (-) (-)
HGR-513 0.29 0.33
HGR-588 0.31 0.32
2GS 0.17 0.43
3GS 0.20 0.44
4GS 0.17 0.49
Silica gel D-4 - 0.69
Zeolite
I3X (1/83
5A (1 1 8 9
*For bidispened particles, porosity of macropore was used for deriving tortuosity.
Source: Kawazoc er a/. (1966)
(Reproduced with permission by Kawazoc, K. and Sugiyama, I., Kagaku Kogiyou. 30, 1010
(1966)).

Usually tortuosity factor is considered to increase with decreasing

porosity, in which case the most simplest correlation may be to assume
(Wakao and Smith, 1962).

This relation is shown in Fig. 4.1 by a solid line.

When diffusion of large molecules takes place in fine pores whose
diameter is close to the size of the diffusing molecules, pore opening
must be corrected for the size effect. Satterfield er al. (1973) gave a
simple experimental correlation which is written in terms of the
notations used here as follows,

where d, and d, respectively represents the diameter of the diffusing

molecule and that of the pore. Fig. 4.2 shows their diffusion measure-
 Pore Dzfiion 67

Non-adsorb~ngsolutes
0 Preferenttally adsorbed
03 - solutes (K,= 4)

d
01 -
0 08
006
0 05
004

0 03
0 0.1 02 03 0.4 0.5 06
d,/dP

Fig. 4.2. Effect of ratto of solute critical dtameter to pore diameter on

y restricted d~ffuslon: solid circles correspond to non
effect~ved i f f u s ~ v ~ ~in
adsorbable molecules & open c~rclesshow adsorbable molecules In sllica-alumna
beads (median pore d~ameter 3.2 nm).
(Reproduced with permlsslon by Satterlield, N., Cotton, K, and P~tcherJr., AIChE
JournaL. 19,633 (1973)).

ments for thirteen nonadsorbing solutes in silica alumina catalyst

particle.

4.2.2. Diffusivity in fluid phase

Diffusion in large size pores can be considered to be molecular

diffusion which is controlled by collision of molecules rather than
collision between molecules and the atoms constituting the pore walls.

A. molecular dtfluivity in gas phme

Molecular diffusivity in gas phase may be estimated by the Chapman-
Enskog equation. For a mixture of components 1 and 2,

where M Iand M2 are the molecular weight, P i s the total pressure(atm),

U ~ ~ = ( U ~ +isUthe
~ )collision
/~ diameter (A) determined from Lennard-
Jones potential, and SZ is a function of & / k Twhere E=G is the
Lennard-Jones force constant where k is the Boltzmann constant.
 Apparently, molecular diffusivity is inversely proportional to the total
pressure, P, and is proportional to roughly 1.7 power of temperature,
TI.', which comes from a combined effect of the T3I2 factor and
temperature effect of 52 in Eq. (4-9).

B. Knudren diffusion
When the total pressure is very low or pore diameter is small, mean
free path of a gas molecule, A, becomes smaller than the pore diameter,
2R,.

( P i n dyne/cm2) (4- 10)

A = 2Rpyields the critical pressure to determine diffusion patterns.

If the total pressure, P, is far larger than p, then molecular diffusion is

dominant in the pore of radius R,.
Then collisions between gas molecules and the pore wall become more
dominant than collisions between molecules, which are dominant in
molecular diffusion.
In this case, by colliding and bouncing on the wall, a molecule loses
its momentum in the direction of the pore and thus the more frequently
collision takes place, the smaller the diffusion speed. This type of
diffusion is known as the Knudsen diffusion.
The Knudsen diffusivity may be estimated using the following
equation.

where R, is the mean pore radius (cm), T is the temperature (K) and M
is the molecular weight of the diffusing gas.
From Eq. (4-12) it is clear that when the pressure is far smaller than
the critical pressure given by Eq. (4-1 I), diffusivity is independent of
pressure and is proportional to T1I2.

C. intermediate region
When the total pressure is around p,,, molecular diffusion and
Knudsen diffusion coexist. In this range, overall diffusivity can be
 Pore Diffuion 69

Fig. 4.3. Effect of pressure on diffusivity in a pore : D~ffusionof oxygen and

hydrogen in nitrogen, calculated by Eq. (4-13).

obtained from BosanquitS equation.

The above expression implicitly assumes equimolar counterdiffusion,

but can be used for other cases as a good approximate.
Equation (4-13) allows pressure dependency of D to be as shown in
Fig. 4.3.

D. molecular diffiivily in liquidphase

Molecular diffasion in liquid phases, such as aqueous phase, is rather
complicated because of possible dissociation of diffusing molecules or
interaction between diffusing molecules and surrounding molecules, e.g.
hydration.
In the most ideal case of infinitesimally small concentration of the
solute, the Wilke-Chiang equation is sometimes used for estimation of
molecular diffusivity.

where a represents the association coefficient given as 2.6 for water, 1.9
for methanol, 1.6 for ethanol and 1.0 for nonassociative solvents such as
benzene. M and p are molecular weight and viscosity of solvent and V I
is the molecular volume at boiling point. The above equation may give
a rough estimate of D, with less than 20% accuracy. For higher
concentrations there is no reliable estimation method for diffusivity in
liquid phase.
Diffusivities of organic molecules of low molecular weight in water
are in the range of to 1.5X10-5cm21s while it can be smaller with
increasing molecular weight.

4.3. Surface Diffusion

Migration of adsorbed molecules on the surface may contribute to
transport of the adsorbates into the particle. This effect is very much
dependent on the mobility oh the adsorbed, species, which is determined
by the relative magnitude of the heat of adsorption and the activation
energy of migration.
AS shown in Fig. 4.4, when the energy barrier, $, existing between
neighboring sites, is smaller than the heat of adsorption, Q,,, then it is
easier to hop to the next site than to desorb into the bulk phase.
The effective surface diffusion coefficient is defined by taking the
gradient of the amount adsorbed as the driving force of diffusion.

The effective surface diffusion coefficient may be written as

Posttion
0

Q : Heat of adsorpt~on

Fig 4 4 Cross sectional vlew of potentla1 energy distribution of adsorption on

sol~dsurface
where D,* is the surface diffusivity on the adsorption surface and k,2 is
the tortuosity of surface diffusion. Usually, it is difficult to define k? in
which case D, rather than D,* is taken into account when theoretical
interpretation is made.

4.3.1. Random walk concept

Surface diffusion can be related to random walk in the direction of

diffusion. When unit step is defined by length, Ax, and time, At, as
shown in Fig. 4.5, then after n steps (after dl),
variation of the position
x = f Ax f Ax f f Ax (n steps) is given as

For large n, diffusion coefficient D is related to 3 by Einstein's

equation.

Then D is given as

Hence if A< and Ar are assumed by a proper model, surface diffusivity

can be readily defined.

A. nvo-dimensionalfluid
When thermal energy of adsorbed molecules, RT, is bigger than the
energy bamer between the sites, the adsorbed phase is considered to be
two-dimensional fluid.
In this case, mean free path of the molecule, A, is determined by

where d is the diameter of molecule and a represents the amount

adsorbed. Velocity of thermal movement, VI, is given as

where k is the Boltzmann constant, Tis the temperature and M denotes

the molecular weight of the adsorbed species.
By taking A x = A and At = A / v t , Eq. (4-19) gives the surface diffusivity
as

Reported examples in actual systems are rare. This may be because

diffusion of this type does not pose a significant problem in practical
operations.

B. hopping model
When the energy barrier between neighboring adsorption sites is not
negligible, the hopping of an adsorbed molecule from the site to the
nearest vacant site is considered to be a unit step of the random walk.
In the simplest case, the lattice constant of the crystal which
constitutes the adsorbent surface is taken as the hopping distance. The
hopping frequency, ( I l A t ) , is taken to be a reciprocal of the residence
time of the molecule at the site. Then the following equation is derived
from absolute rate theory.

where u, is the vibration of the adsorbed molecules and considered to

be of the order of 1011- lo1' sec-I. E, is the activation energy of hopping.
Then D,is given as
C. eflecr of sur/oce coverage
When surface coverage cannot be neglected in considering the unit
hopping, then modification of d x or dr becomes necessary. According
to Higashi er al. (1963), when surface coverage is 8, a hopping molec-
ule has to repeat random hopping until it finds an empty site. The
expected number of hopping is a function of surface coverage.

Namely, during a unit hopping time r, n-time random walks will be

tried. Since unit step is Ax, corresponding time should be taken as
Ar=r/n. Then D, becomes a simple function of the surface coverage as

Several improvements of this equation were tried. Yang er a1. (1973)

considered the effect of residence time of the hopping molecule after
landing on the occupied site and before starting the next hopping. Then
the effective surface diffusion coefficient is described as

where ESoand E,I represent the activation energy of the diffusion of the
molecules in the first layer and that in the second layer, respectively. v,
represents the frequency of oscillation in the perpendicular direction to
the surface in i-th layer. The dependence of D, on the surface coverage
8 by Eqs. (4-27) and (4-28) is shown in Fig. 4.6.
Okazaki el al. (1981) added the effect of multilayer adsorption.
Final equation for the homogeneous surface is given as

Eso QSI

8, ~ x P ( - =) -~xP(-
),(
Ds = Dso (4-29)
[I - SXP(- ] [i
=)
QSI
]
- eC(l- +)

where 8, is the fractional coverage of the surface effective to the surface

diffusion and TO and T I represent the residence time of migrating
molecule In the first adsorption layer and in the layers the second and
above layers. T I/ TO is given as

Fig 4 6 Cornparlson of Eqs (4-27) and (4-28) with the d~ffuston data of
propane on s111caglass at 35OC
.
(Reproduced wrth perrnisslon by Yang, R er 01. AIChE Joumol. 19,242 (1978))

q imoli kg)

Fig 4 7 S u r l ~ c edlffuslon coefficients on porous Vycor glass (30°C)

(Reproduced with perrnisslon bj Okazak~.M , Tarnon, H and Toel. R , AIChE
Journal. 27. 267 ( 198 1))
Qs,and A,., are the heat of adsorption and the latent heat of
vaporization, and K Oand E,I are the activation energies of transport at
the first layer and at the second and above layers. E;I is determined from
temperature dependency of liquid viscosity of adsorbate and Eo is
considered to be proportional to Qst as discussed in 4.3.3. Further, this
model was extended to the ease of heterogeneous surface, where energy
distribution function is involved. Comparison of the model and the data
on vycor glass is shown in Fig. 4.7.

4.3.2. Surface flow induced by surface pressure gradient

A. fundamental relation of surface dxusion
When there is a gradient of surface pressure, twodimensional flow is
expected t o occur. Force balance in this case may be written as

where u represents the average velocity of adsorbed species and C, is the

coefficient of friction between the adsorbed molecules and the adsorbent
surface. Surface flow flux is written as

Surface pressure is related to the partial pressure in gas phase by

assuming local equilibrium to be

A m d ~= ( V/n)dp
= RTd Inp

where A, is an area occupied by unit adsorbed amount.

Then by comparing Eq. (4-15) and Eq. (4-32) and by using Eqs. (4-31),
(4-33) and (4-34), corresponding surface diffusion coefficient is derived
as

where S is the surface area of the adsorbent.

B. concentration dependence of D, in swface pressure drivingforce model
From Eq. (4-35) it is expected that dependence of D, on concentration
or the amount adsorbed is determined from the adsorption isotherm
relation since the following relation is expected provided C, is
independent of concentration.

D, = const. q d lnpld In q (4-36)

For instance, in the case of the Langmuir type isotherm, d lnp/d In q

varies from unity at q = 0 to infinity at q = qo and D, is expected to
increase with increase of the amount adsorbed, q.
An example of this relation is given in Fig. 4.8 for gaseous phase
adsorption of propane and butane on activated carbon pellets. Ds are
well plotted in proportion to q d lnpld In q determined from the isotherm
relations.

C. diffusion of rwo componentsfrom surJacepressure drivingforce model

Equilibrium relation for bicomponent mixtures can be formulated by
the ideal adsorbed solution model using surface pressure. This can be
extended to describe the diffusion of bi-component mixtures.
Phenomenological relations of d~ffusion of component 1 and
component 2 are written as

2
- Temperature -VI
10-7
-
Temperature
E
A 6: m303K
4 - o 273
- 252

2 -

6 - e~p
= u
6-
uE 4-
t'u
w Ou
2 * ' s ' s " ' . ' .'," 2 I * ' " * . ' 8 1 1 .

1 2 4 6 1 0 2 4 6 1 @ 2 4 6 10 2 4 6 1 0 '

(a l Propane ( b ! Butane
Fig 4 8 Effecrlve surface d~ffusioncoefficients of propane and butane In s~ngle
component runs (a) Propane, (b) Buranc
(Reproduced wlth permlsrlon by Su7uk1, M . Hon, M and Kawazoe, K ,
ofAdsorprwn. p 624. Englneer~ngFoundat~on.N Y (1985))
Fundan~i~nralr
Assuming that surface flow of both component I and component 2 occurs
by the gradient of the total surface pressure determined from the
equilibrium relation, the final corresponding equations of J, (i=l or 2)
are derived as

qn d lnp,

Then D,,
and D , , are related as

Fig 4 9 (a) Comparison of effective surface diffusion coetlic~entsof propane

, ,,
D, for s~ngle-component system and D, and D, for two-component
system
(Reproduced with permission by Suzuki, M , Hori, M and Kawazoe, K ,
Fundamenrols of Adrorp~ion.Engineering Foundation. 626 (1985)
 Fig. 4.9.(b) Comparison of effective surface diffusion coefficients of butane,
D,.b for single-component system and D r . b b and D,.b, for two-component
system.
(Reproduced w~thpermission by Suzuk~, M., Hori, M. and Kawazoe, K.,
Fwtdomenrafs of Ahorprion. Engineering Foundat~on,626 (1985).

Q1d
d lnp, + \
The above relations are verified by comparing D,.,, and D., with
d lnp,
q1

In dlncr,
-.
dq, and q d Inpiid In qJrespectively in Fig. 4.9.
In the figure, D, from singlecomponent runs are also included. All the
results are correlated by a single straight line of slope = I, suggesting
that the surface pressure driving force with the specific resistance
coefficient for each component is acceptable in the case of co-diffusion
of propane and butane on activated carbons.
 4.3.3. Activation energy of surface diffusion

A. activation energy and heat of adsorptiort

It is natural to consider the activation energy of surface migration as
being proportional to the heat of adsorption.

Sladek et al. (1974) correlated the data of the surface diffusion

coefficient in the literature, as shown in Fig. 4.10. They correlated gas
phase data of many combinations of adsorbates and adsorbents
including chemical adsorption by defining the proportionality constant a
as shown in TABLE 4.3.

-3

-5
"Carbolac" I
carbon 1
-6-.He I
A Ne I
-7 - Hz 1 J

Kr
[ vycor glass I v
-8 I
Vycor glass Iv so2 I AH-~t
\
0 2 [ A COz 1.0-W
-9- + N ~ ; O NHI JvH-W
- Kr /
o I - C ~ H I O H-NI
I
- 10 - I CH4 CzH4 I + Cs-W
o
>C?H6 I x Ba-W
I

- I 1 - ~111ca-alumina.
S~ltca '1
v ~r-w

--I2-
catalyst
A Nz
CH, I
so2 .
C ~ z C l z I o OZ-O/W
I
l
I
0 C02-C02iW

o CzHs I I
I
-13- V C J H S I

0 5 10 I5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Fig 4 10 Surface diffusion coellicient plotted against heat of adsorption

.
(Reproduced with permission by Sladek, J Gllllland, R and Baddour. F , InJ
fig Chem Fund. 13. 104 (1974))
 Suzuki and Kawazoe (1975) measured the effective surface diffusion
coefficients of various volatile organics during aqueous phase adsorption
on activated carbon pellets and correlated the data using the boiling

TABLE
4.3 Value of m Determined from Type of Blndlng Between Molecule and Solld
Surfacc

Blnding Solid m Examples

van der Waals
Conductive 2 Sot-Carbon
Polar molecule
I
Insulative
Conductive
I
I
SOz. NH3-Glass
Ar-W, NI-Carbon
Nonpolar molecule
I
Insulat~ve I
2
Kr, GH4-Glass
Ionlc
I
Conductive
Insulative
Conductive
I
3
Cs, Ba-W
-
H-Metal. 0-W
Covalent
I
Insulative I

-
2-
4 - Hcxanol

-g - Cyclohcxanc@
d 2-

lo-' .

6 I Naphthalene $

Flg 4 1 1 Plots of the effect~vesurface d~ffusloncoeffic~entagalnst Tb/T for

fifteen volatlle organics. Tb boll~ngpolnt of adsorbate (K). T adsorption
temperature (K)
(Reproduced wlth perrnlsslon by Su7uk1, M and Kawazoe, K . J Clwm Eng
Japan. 8. 38 1 (1975))
point of the organics as representative properties as shown in Fig. 4.11.

where

The above equation is related to the conventional Arrhenius form by

considering the activation energy E, as

By considering Trouton's rule,

Eq. (4-47) means that E, is about half the beat of vaporization.

D,o is related to characteristics of activated carbons if hopping
distance, 1, is considered t o be in a two-dimensional direction and time
constant of vibration, r, is considered to be 5X10-i4s. The effective
surface diffusion coefficient also includes the tortuosity of diffusing path
and k2 = 3 is taken as a first approximate. Then the estimated D,o is
given as

This is in good agreement with Eq. (4-45).

B. su@ace d ~ f l i i o non heterogeneous swjice

In the case of adsorption on heterogeneous surface, energy distribu-
tion may result in change of activation energy with increase of amount
adsorbed. Assuming that the local activation energy is proportional to
the local heat of adsorption as follows, the dependence of the surface
diffusion coefficient on the amount adsorbed can be described.
In the case of Freundlich isotherm systems, the heat of adsorpt~onis
given as Eq. (3-41) or

Combining Eqs. (4-50)-(4-52) gives

where n~ is the reciprocal exponent of the Freundlich isotherm and equal

to G I R T . The Eq. (4-54) relation is compared with experimental
results obtained for surface diffusion measurement of propionic acid
aqueous solution on activated carbon pellet in Fig. 4.12.
When decrease of the heat of adsorption is proportional to the

Amount absorbed, q (rnmol/g)

Fig 4 12 Surface diffusion coeffictent of proplonlc actd on activated carbon

plotted against amount adsorbed
.
(Reproduced wlth perm~ssionby Suzukt, M and Fuzl~,T AlChE Journal, 28.
383 (1982))
amount adsorbed as in the case of the Temk~nisotherm (Neretnieks,
1976),

then the dependence of D, is formulated as

This may explain the results obtained by Sudo et of, (1978) for
aqueous phase adsorption of chlorophenols and two other compounds
on activated carbons.

D, = Daexp(O.889) (4-57)

The above results are shown in Fig. 4.13 with TABLE

4.4.

4.3.4. Parallel contribution of surface diffusion and pore

diffusion

When contributions of both pore diffusion and surface diffusion are

of the same order of magnitude, the total flux can be written as

Amount adsorbed .q, ( r n r n ~ l / ~ )

Fig. 4 13. D,: D,o vs the amount o f adsorbed organics, q,

(Reproduced with permission by Sudo, Y , Mlsrc, M and Su7uk1, M , Chem
.
Eng Str 33, 1 289 (1978))
 L
Ln
TABIF 4 4 Equlllbr~urnConstants and Rate Results -c
P
Constants ~n Eq (3-10) Range Drestimated 2
nF k~ of q- 40 from ~q (4-44)
- Adsorbate [(g/ g)/(mg/I)' '1 (mmol/g) (cm2/s) (cm2/s) Ln

o<hlorophenol 5 0090 0 44-2 40 17x10 a 34x10 8

nt<hlorophenol 5 0 059 0 27-1 85 19x10 a I 7x10 8
p<hlorophenol 5 0 098 0 4 8 240 1 5x10 a 1 6x10 8
d~chlorophenol 55 0 084 047-1 71 I 5x10 8 1 8x10 8
B-chloroprop~on~c
ac~d 3 0 092 0 10-1 10 5 4x10 ' 2 OX10 a
benzo~ca c ~ d 4 0 068 0 44-2 42 I 4x10 8 I 2x10a
(Reproduced w ~ t hperrnlsslon by Sudo, Y ,et 01 Chem Dlg SCI,33, 1289 (1978))
where local adsorption equilibrium is assumed and p represents the
particle density.
For practical purposes, the apparent diffusion coefficient is sometimes
defined and used.

where D,* represents the apparent pore diffusion coefficient defined by

taking dpldx as the imaginary driving force of diffusion.

The apparent pore diffusion coefficient thus depends on pressure or the

amount adsorbed since dqldp is not constant in nonlinear isotherm
systems.
Also, if the apparent surface diffusion coefficient D,* is defined in
terms of dqldx, then D,+ is related to Dp and D, as follows.

Depending on the relative magnitude of D p and D,p(dq/dp), either Dp*

or D.* becomes more independent of concentration in the range of
operation conditions concerned, but it is difficult to predict which is
more practical for approximate treatment.

4.4. Micropore Diffusion

Diffusion of molecules which are similar in size to the size of the pores
is very restricted because of the effect of potential field of the wall atoms.
Diffusion in molecular sieve materials is often of this type. Diffusion in
this case is accompanied by relatively large activation energy and can be
correlated by assuming that the driving force of diffusion is the chemical
potential gradient. Ordinarily, diffusion coefficient is defined in terms
of amount adsorbed, q, similar to the case of surface dflusion.
Micropore diffusion coefficients, D,, measured by chromatographic
method for many gases in molecular sieving carbon are shown in
Fig. 4.14. The activation energies, E., are determined from the slopes of
the Arrhenius plots of the diffusion coefficients.
Sb VlFFUSlON IN YOROUS YARTICLES

Fig. 4.14. Arrhenrus' plot of d~ffusivit~es

in mlcropore
(Reproduced wrth permrsslon by Chihara, K., Suzuk~,M. and Kawazoe, K.,
AIChE J o u m l , 24,243 (1978)).

TABLE4 5 Parameters of Equrlrbr~urn Relatrons and D~ffusionIn Molecular Srevrng

Carbon, MSC 5

(PIT),,,
Qst Em Dm
Gas [kcall moll [crnllg- Kl [kcall moll [cm214
CHI 57 1.1XlV' 48 1.3X10-'
CZHI 85 3 9X 10-6 53 6.4XIV'
CzH6 90 3.OXlOd 55 2 3X 10-5
ClHs 11 4 1 6x104 70 3.4XlV'
CIHI 11 7 1.2~10~ 70 6 8x104
n-C~Hlo 13 9 7 1x10-7 78 3.0X 10-6
GH6 21.8 1.3X lV8 21.4 8 4X1V'
Ne 1.1 I.IXIO-~ - -
Ar 40 3 OX IV' 39 17XIV4
Kr 56 15x10-3 48 8 4x10-5
Xe 78 8.3XIW 65 7 2x10-5
NZ 4.5 l.3X10-> 3.9 1.5XIO-4
He
(Reproduced w~thpennlssron by Ch~hara,K., Suzuh. M and Kawazoe, K., AIChEJoumal.
24, 242 (1978))

These v a l u e s a r e listed i n TABLE

4.5 t o g e t h e r w l t h t h e e q u i l i b r i u m
 h g 4 I5 Correlation of activatton energy of the mtcropon dtffuston wtth
~sostencheat of adsorpt~on
(Reproduced wtth permission by Chhara, K. er d,A l C h E J o w ~ l24.243
, (1978))

parameters.

4.4.1. Activation energy of micropore diffusion

The activation energy thus determined is compared with the heat of

adsorption for each gas obtained by van1 Hoff plot (Fig. 3.12) in
Fig. 4.15. The activation energy for rare gases, methane and benzene
and for hydrocarbons except methane have different proportionality
constants to the isosteric heat of adsorption, Q,,.
In the figure, the measurement for zeolite 4A where more restricted
micropore diffusion is expected is included and the relation for the case
of surface diffusion is also shown. For the latter, a becomes about 0.5
while a larger than unity value for a is observed for the former.
For molecular sieving materials such as molecular sieving carbon,
zeolite 4A and 5A, Ruthven compared the activation energy of diffusion
 Fig 4 16 Vanat~on of d~ffus~onal actlvatron energy wrth van der Waals
d~ametcrfor dtffus~onIn 4 A and 5 A zeol~tesand 5 A molecular sleve carbon
(Reproduced with permlsslon by Ruthven, M , h c r p l e s of Adsorprron and
Adsorplmn Processes, p 148. John Wiley and Sons. New York (1985))

of various gases with the van der Waals diameters of the gases as shown
in Fig. 4.16.

4.4.2. Physical interpretation of Da,

Adsorbate molecules In the micropores are cons~deredto be on the
adsorption sltes. These molecules move from site to site across the
potential energy barr~er. Diffusivity for the activated diffusion can be
interpreted by means of the absolute rate theory (HIII, 1960).

where C is a constant depending on the latt~ceconfiguration and the

tortuoslty of the pore, a is the distance between nearest nelghbonng
sltes, r IS the mean time a molecule spends at a site between successive
jumps, M*/M represents the ratlo of the number of activated states to
the number of sltes wh~chdepends on the lattice type, v, is the frequency
of v~brationof a molecule at a site parallel to the surface. YO IS the
actlvatlon energy per unlt molecule, k IS the Boltzmann constant and T
is the absolute temperature.
The potential energy distribution function in the micropore of
activated carbon can be assumed to be two-dimensional sinusoidal as
follows:

1
+ 2?rx
Uo(x,y) = Urn -j-vO(l- cos ?) + -j-vO(l
1
- eos %) (4-66)

where Uo(x,y) is the potential energy at position (x,y) and U.. is the
minimum potential energy. Then the molecules vibrate around the
minima in Uo(x,y) with frequency

where m denotes the mass of a molecule. By comparing Eqs. (4-64, 65,

67) with Eq. (4-63), the preexponential factor D m is derived as

Fkg. 4 17 Dependence o f the frequency factor. DO.o n the activation energy

per unit ma55 of molecule ( V ~ j m )0
. , are from Table 4.5.
(Reproduced wkrh psrmission by Chihnra, K. and Suzuk~,M.. J Collord. In: &I.,
64. 585 (1978))
The above equation suggests that Dm is directly determined from the
activation energy provided lattice structure constants are given.
By taking C = (1/3)/3, a = 1.34 A and M*/M = 312 and by considering
the tortuosity factor for micropores as 3, Dd is written as

where Dco is given in cm2/s if E, is given in kcal/mol and M in glmol.

Fig. 4.17 compares Dd determined from chromatographic measurement
with the theoretical calculation by using Eq. (4-69) where the activa-
tion energy is given on the basis of unit mass of molecule. Apparently
agreement is satisfactory for Ar, Kr, Xe, N2 and CH4. The other gases
especially hydrocarbons with carbon number larger than two show poor
coincidence probably because they do not behave like a solid sphere in
micropores, which is implicitly assumed in deriving Eq. (4-68).

4.4.3. Interpretation of concentration dependence of micropore

diffusion coefficient in terms of chemical potential driving
force model

When the driving force of diffusion is taken as the slope of the

chemical potential, then by using mobility, B, flux can be described as

chemical potential p is

15
I column temp 1 I

t y amount adsorbed at 60. 100

Fig 4 18. (a) Dependence of d ~ f f u s ~ v ~on
and 1 SOo C
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Kawazoe, K. er a l . J Chrm. Eng Japan. 7, 151
(1974))
 d lnC/d lnq ( - )

F I ~4 18 (b) Plots of D,/a2 versus d In C/d In q

(Reproduced with perrnsslon by Ch~hara,K el al. J Chem Eng Japan, 11. 155
(1978))

e 243'C
o 152'C
o 19'C
Q O'C
A -21 3'C
I 10

Fig 4 18 (c) Cornlam of mcropon d f l u s ~ t ywth d In C/d Inq Souro: C h b a

and Suzuk~,J Chem fig Japan, 11, 153 (1978)
Thus

Then by comparison with Fick's law

where DO= BRT. At lower coverage where Henry's law is expected,

d In p / d In q = I holds and then D, = Do IS expected
Eq. (4-73) looks s~milarto Eq. (4-36) except that surface pressure
driv~ngforce assumption gives larger dependence of amount adsorbed,
since d I n p l d In q usually increases with increasing amount adsorbed, q.
Concentration dependence of micropore diffus~on coefficient of
propylene o n molecular sievlng carbon was obtained by Chlhara and
Suzuki (1978). The results are well interpreted by this concept as
shown in Fig. 4.18.
For diffus~onin other microporous adsorbents, such as zeol~tes,
concentration dependence is often successfully explained by thls model
(Ruthven, 1985)

Bosanquec, C H , Brrfrsh TA Report BR 507, Sepi 27 (1944)

Burger, H C , c~ied In D A de Vrres, Tronr 1V1h Congrress lnrern A~soc Soil
Scmce, Vol 11.41 (1950)
Carman. P C and F A Raal, Roc Roy Soc , 201.. 38 (1951)
Chlhara, K and M Suzukl, Corbon, 17,339 (1979)
Chlhara. K and M Suzukl, J Chpm Eng Jopm. 11, 153 (1978)
.
Chihara, K and M Suzuki, J CoUord Infer/c.crol Scr 64, 584 (1978)
Chthara, K , M Suzukl and K Kawazoe, A I C h E J o u d 24,237 (1978)
Curne, J A ,lhrt AppL Phys , 11,314 (1960)
Edwards, M. F and J F R~chardson.Chpm Eng Scr .23, 109 (1%8)
Evans, E V and C N Kenney, TIom Ins! Chem Engrs .44,TI 89 (1966)
.
Grll~land,E R R F Baddour and J L Russell, AlChEJournal 4.90 (1958)
Hlgash!, K ,H 110 and J Olshl, J Atomic hergy Soc Japan 5, 846 (1963)
.
HIII, T L Introdutrion fo Sforrstrcol Thermodymmics. p 198-200, Add~son-Wesley
Read~ng,Mass (1960)
Hlrschfelder, J 0 , C F Curtiss and R B Bird, Molecular 'theory of Gaces and Lquids
John W~leyand Sons New York (1964)
Hoogschagen, J , Ind Ehg Chem. 47,906 (1955)
Kawa~oe. K . I Sugryarna and Y Fukuda. Kogoku Kogaku, 30, 1008 (1966) (in
Japanese)
Kawazoe, K , M Suzukl and K Chlhara, J Chem Eng Japan, 7, 151 (1974)
Neretn~eks,1 , Chem Eng Scr ,31, 1029 (1976)
Okazakl. M , H Tamon and R Toel, AIChElournal, 27,262(1981)
.
Ruthvcn. D M h n c r p b of Adcorprzon & Adcorprton Processes, John Wlley and Sons,
New York (1984)
Sattcrtield, C N , C K Colton and W N Pltcher Jr , AlChE Journal. 19, 628
(1973)
Sladck, K J , E R Gill~landand R F Baddour, Ind Eng Ckrn Fundame#&, 13, 100
(1974)
Sudo. Y , D M MISICand M Suzuki, Chem. Eng SCI,33. 1287 (1978)
Suzuki, M and T FUJII,AIChE Journal. 28,380 (1982)
Suzukl, M and K Kawazoe, J Chem f i g Japan, 8 (1975)
Suzula, M and K Kawazoe, J Chem f i g Jupun, 7,346 (1974)
Suzuk~,M and J M Smlth, 7he Chemrcd Eqpnernng Journal. 3,256 (1972)
Suzula, M ,T Kawal and K Kawazoe. J Chem Eng Japnn. 1,203 (1975)
Suzukl, M , M Hort and K Kawazoe. Fundamenfak of Adsorpfron. p 624, Eng
Foundation, NY (1985)
Wakao. N and J M Smlth, Chem f i g Scr , l7.825 (1962)
Woodlng, R A , Roc Roy Soc A 252, 120 ( 1959)
Yang. R T , J B Fenn and G L Haller, AIChEJournal, 19, 1052 (1973)
 Kinetics of Adsorption in a Vessel

When adsorptlon takes place wlth suspended adsorbent particles In a

vessel, adsorbate IS transported from the bulk fluld phase to the adsorpt~on
sites In the adsorbent partlcle In thls type of sltuatlon, changes In the
amount adsorbed or concentratlon In the fluld phase can be predicted by
solvlng the set of dlfferentlal equatlons descr~blngthe mass balances In the
part~cle,at the outer surface and between the particle and the flu~dphase
In t h ~ schapter the adsorpt~onuptake relat~onsare shown for several
typ~calsltuatlons These are applicable to batch adsorpt~onIn a llqu~d
stlrred tank, batch measurement of gas adsorptlon by gravlty method or by
pressure method as shown In Fig 5 1 Also adsorpt~onIn a shallow bed IS a
typlcal example of appl~catlonof the treatment for batch adsorptlon w ~ t h
continuous flow (Fig 5 2)

5.1 Fundamental Relations

Baslc equat~onsto descr~beadsorptlon uptake phenomena In vessels
conslst of a set of the following mass balance equatlons. a dlffus~on
equatlon to descnbe the mass balance In a partde, mass balance at the
surface of the partlcle, global mass balance In a vessel
Mass balance at a polnt In the partlcle IS gven as

where D, and D, respectively denote the effectlve surface d~ffuslon

coefflclent and the effectlve pore d~ffusloncoefflclent In the part~cle p,
represents the partlcle denslty The amount adsorbed, q, and the
concentratlon in the pore, c, are cons~deredto be In local equ~llbrlum

Mass balance at the surface of the particle IS glven by lntroduclng mass

 h g 5 I
PI
Batch adsorpt~onIn an agltatcd tank

Ftg 5 2 Cont~nuousflow adsorpt~onIn an ag~tatcdtank

transfer reslstance of the dlffuslon boundary layer developing on the

particle surface

where hr, IS the mass flux per unlt surface area of the partlcle, whlch
corresponds to the Increase of the amount adsorbed In the partlcle when
rnultiplled by the total external surface area of the particles

where W, represents the welght of the adsorbent and A, IS the external

surface area of the adsorbents The amount adsorbed expressed by q,, IS
the Integral average of the amount adsorbed In the partlcle
 Batch Adsorprton with a Constont Concentratton of Suwoundu~gRuid 97

Fluid to particle mass transfer coefficient kr is determined from fluid

dynamic conditions as well as diffusion property of the fluid.
Mass balance in the vessel of the volume, V, is given as

for a batch adsorption.

When adsorption occurs in the vessel with continuous flow of fluid, then
the mass balance equation becomes

Adsorption equilibrium equation relates the amount adsorbed, q. and the

concentration, c, in the particle. F represents the flow rate of fluid.
In the following discussion, the Freundlich equation is adopted as an
example of nonlinear adsorption equilibrium relation.

Employing a two-parameter equation such as this may be justified for

two reasons: I ) it is enough to describe a nonlinear isotherm in a limited
concentration range for practical purposes, and 2) mathematical
simplicity.

5.2. Batch Adsorption with a Constant Concentration

of Surrounding Fluid
When adsorption takes place in a large vessel, the concentration in the
vessel is regarded as being constant throughout the progress of adsorption
so the solution of Eqs. (5-l)-(5-3) with constant concentration in the fluid
phase, C, can be obtained rather easily.
The rate processes involved in this case are mass transfer between fluid
and particle and intraparticle diffusion. First cases involving a single rate-
determining step are considered followed by cases in which bothsteps must
be accounted for.

5.2.1, Intraparticle diffusion controlling-Pore diffusion

When pore diffusion is the only rate controlling step, the governing
equations for batch kinetics in the uifinite vessel (constant surface
concentration) is Eq (5-1). where surface diffusion terms are neglected.
with the boundary condition

when the Freundlich isotherm is adopted, the above equations are to be

solved numerically. First, the basic equation is written in a dimensionless
form as follows.

where

with the initial and boundary conditions as

X = 1 at p= 1 for T > O (5- 17)

For deriving dimensionless parameters, the amount adsorbed in

equilibrium with CO,qo is introduced as a reference value.

Then the uptake curve 9/90 versus dimensionless adsorption time T

is obtained as shown in Fig. 5.3, where the Freundlich constant n is a
parameter.
In the case of a linear isotherm (the Freundlich isotherm with n=l), the
analytical solution (Crank, 1975) is given as
 Botch Aakorption with a Comtant Concentrarion of Suwpunding Fluid 99

Fig. 5.3. Uptake curve 9/90 versus T = ( D . ~ / / ? x c o / ~ & o pore

) diffusion con-
trolling in infinite bath.
(~eproducedwith permission by Suzuki, M. and Chihara. K., Seisan Kenkyu,
34. IS2 (1982)).

Also, for the case of the irreversible isotherm which is considered to be

the Freundlich isotherm with the constant n=m, the analytical solution of
the shell model (Yagi and Kunii, 1953) can be applied as shown by Suzuki
and Kawazoe (1974).

These equations are included in Fig. 5.3.

Apparently, the uptake curves in the range of q/go below 0.3, can be
aproximated by the equation of the form

As a matter of fact, Eqs. (5-19) and (5-20) respectively reduce to

9/90 = ( 6 / f i ) - f i for a linear isotherm (n=l) (5-22)

9/90 = fi.fifor a rectangular isotherm (n=m) (5-23)

For intermediate values of n, A is given as a function of the Freundlich

constant n as shown by Suzuki and Chihara (1982) in Fig. 5.4.
The interpolation may be possible as
 I/n
fg. 5.4. illustration of Eq. (5-24).

5.2.2. Intraparticle diffusion controlling-Surface diffusion

When surface diffusion is dominant in the particle, the governing

equation becomes

with the boundary condition as

where q o is given by Eq. (5-18).

By defining dimensionless time, T,, as

dimensionless form of the above equations become

with the initial and boundary conditions as

Y=O at r , = O
 Botch Adsorption with o Comtonr Concentration of Surrounding Fluid 101

Y = 1 at p = 1 for r,>O (5-30)

In this case the analytical solution is possible regardless of nonlinearity of

the isotherm relations. The solution becomes identical to Eq. (5-19) except
that nondimensional adsorption time, 7.. defined by Eq. (5-27), should be
used instead of 7 .

5.2.3. External mass transfer controlling

When fluid-to-particle mass transfer is a rate-determining step, the basic

equations are greatly simplified, since concentration in the particle is
assumed t o be uniform.

krA(C - c,) = W'dqldt (5-3 1)

where the amount adsorbed on solid phase, q, is in equilibrium with the

surface concentration, c,, as

and the initial conditions are

C = CO for r>O (5-34)

Dimensionless form of the above equation becomes

with the initial condition

X=O, Y=O at r f = 0 (5-36)

where
rr = (kf1 /Rp)(Co / P P ~ O ) (5-37)

and go is given by Eq. (5-18).

In the case of a linear isotherm, the analytical solution is easily obtained
as
 I
Fig 5 5 Uptake curve, 9 / 9 0 versus rr = .(CO/P~~O)
(3WJp$+R/kr)
-
particle-to-flu~dmass transfer controlllnn
(Reproduced wlth permlsslon by Suzukl. M end Ch~hara.K., Setsan Kenkyu
34, 151 (1982))

For the rectangular isotherm (n=oo of the Freundlich isotherm), the

solution becomes

9/90 3Tr for ~r < 1 / 3 (5-39)

q/qo = 1 for T, h 113 (5-40)

Adsorption uptake curves for these cases are shown in Fig 5.4.
Numerical sdutlons can be obtalned for an arb~traryFreundlich
constant, n, the uptake curves for which may be located between the two
curves given in Fig. 5.5.

5.2.4. Both particle-to-fluid mass transfer and intraparticle

diffusion controlling

Dimensionless forms of the basic equations in this case for pore dlffuslon
kinetlcs in the particle are given as follows:
 Botch Adsorprron with a Consrani Concenrraion of Surrounding Fluid 103

X L = I for r>O (5-45)

where Biot's number in Eq. (5-41) represents the relative importance of the
intraparticle diffusion resistance and fluid-to-particle mass transfer
resistance and is given as

Analytical solution for the above equations is derived for a linear

isotherm (n=I), as follows (Crank, 1975):

where the Bn's are the n-th positive roots of

The uptake curves according to Eq. (5-47) are given in Fig. 5.6.a with
Biot's number as a parameter (Suzuki and Chihara,l982).

F I ~5 6 a. Uptake curve, qjqo versus r = ( ~ . r j l f ) ( ~ o / p ~ both

~ o ) particle-to-
flu~dmass transfer and pore d ~ l f u s ~ ocontroll~ng.
n for n=I Eq (5-47)
(Reproduced urlth permission by Suzuk~.M and Ch~hara.K . Sersan Kenktu,
34. I50 (1982))
 F I ~5 6 c Uptake curve, q/qo versus r = ( ~ ~ r / ~ ~ ~ ~ oboth
/ p ,part~cle-to-
qo)
fluid mass transfer and pore dlffus~oncontrolling for n=2
(Reproduced wlth permrsslon by Suzuk~.M and Ch~hara,K , Stson Kenkyu
js. I so ( 1982))

Fig 5 6 b Uptake curve. 4/90 versus r = ( D , t / R ' ) ( ~ ~ / both

p ~ ~ part~cle-to-
~)
fluid mass transfer and pore dtffuslon conlrolhng, for n==
.
(Reproduced wlth permlsslon by Suzukl, M and Chlhara, K Sesan K e n k ~ u ,
34, 150 (1982))

In the case of the rectangular ~ s o t h e r m

(n=m), adsorption takes place a t
a s h a r p adsorptlon front where concentration In the pore, c, 1s zero whlle
t h e amount adsorbed, q, increases from zero t o the adsorptlon capacity,
go. In thls case, the basic equations for diffusion ln the p a r t ~ c l eare
described according t o the shell model a s follows
 d2c 2dc
D , ( +~= ) = O for rl<r<R

c=O for r d r , (5-5 1)

where r, represents the location of theadsorption front in the particleand it

is assumed that the quasi-steay diffusion through the shell part outside of
the front determines the moving speed of the adsorption front into the
interior of the particle. At particle surface, Eq. (5-4 I) is used as a boundary
condition.
By introducing dimensionless location of the adsorption front, 6, as

which naturally corresponds to the fractional uptake, q.,/q~,as

Then the basic equation describing the moving speed of the adsorption
front reduces to

with the initial condition being

where r is defined by Eq. (5-15) and Bi is given by Eq. (5-46).

Analytical solution can be obtained for the above set of equations as
follows (Suzuki and Kawazoe, 1974a).

The uptake curves obtained from Eq. (5-57) are shown in Fig. 5.6.b.
For an arbitrary value of the Freundlich constant, n, numerical
computations of Eqs. (549) to (5-50) are necessary. A typical example of
the calculation for n=2 is given In Fig. 5.6.c.
 5.3. Batch Adsorption in a Bath with Finite Volume

When batch adsorption takes place in a vessel with finite volume,

concentration of the fluid in the vessel decreases with progress of adsorption.
In this case, the mass balance (Eq. (5-7)) in the vessel must be accounted
for; this is expressed in the following form when and q=O are
considered at initial stage, 1=0.

V(Co - C ) = W,9." (5-58) '

.i.

where Go is the initial concentration in the vessel. In liquid phase'

adsorption, it is difficult to follow directly the change of the amount
adsorbed but the progress of adsorption may be traced by observing the
concentration changes in the liquid phase. Concentration changes of the
adsorbable component in the liquid phase is also concerned in the
purification of liquid products.
Again rate processes involved in the system are the fluid-to-particle mas
transfer and the intraparticle diffusion where pore diffusion or surface
diffusion may be dominant. Concentration change in the fluid phase is
presented here according to the controlling rate process in the system.

5.3.1. Intraparticle diffusion controlling-Pore diffusion

The basic equations are Eq. (5-9) and Eq. (5-58).

For a linear isotherm system (n=l), the analytical solution has been
given by Crank (1975).

where q,'s are n-th non-zero positive roots of

tan q, = 3qn/(3 +aq:) (5-60)

where a represents the adsorbent load factor:

K denotes the adsorption equilibrium constant of the linear isotherm

relation. Then the final equilibrium concentration C.. in the vessel isgiven
as
 h r c h Adsorprron rn o Ibrh wrrh Frnire Volume 107

For the irreversible adsorption, the isotherm becomes rectangular

(,=OD). Suzuki and Kawazoe (1974a) presented the solution for this case

R g 5 7 a D~agramsof C/Co versus r , for llncar ~sothcrm(D.=D,/pd(,)

.
(Reproduced w ~ i hpermlsslon by Suzuk~,M and Kawazoe, K J Chem Eng
Japun, 7, 347, 348 (1974))

Fig 5 7 b D~agrams of C/Co versus r for lrreverslble adsorpt~on w~thpore

d~ffuslonk~nctlcs
(Reproduced with nprmrscann h~ 9 1 . - * . L r. .,- -
where p = [C-/(CO-C~)]"' and 6 = [(c-C-)I(&-c~)]"'.
Concentration curves calculated from Eqs. (5-59) and (5-63) are given in
Fig. 5.7.a and 5.7.b. where Cw/COis chosen as a parameter.
For an arbitrary value of the Freundlich constant, n, numerical
calculation of the basic equations (Suzuk~and Kawazoe, 1974c) gave

a ) n=l 5
Flg 5 7 c Concentration decay C/Co versus r = ( ~ , r / ~ ' ) ( ~ o / p ~ qfor
(Reproduccd wrth permlsslon by Suzukl, M and Kawazoe, K , &isan Kenkyu.
26, 297, 298 (1974))

Ftg 5 7 d Concentration decay C/Co versus ~ = ( D , ~ / R ) ( c o / ~ , ~for

D )n=2
(Reproduccd with permtssron by Suzukr. M and Kawazoe K ,Sprsan KenX~u.
26, 297, 298 (1974))
 Barch Adsorption m o Borh with Finire Volume 109

h g 5 7 e. Concentrat~ondecay C / C o versus ~ = ( D , ~ / R ~ ) ( Cfor

O n=5.
/~~~~)
(Reproduced with permission by Suzuk~.M and Kawazoe, K , Seuan Kmkyu.
26, 297. 298 ( 1 974)).

similar concentration curves. Curves for nZ1.5, 2 and 5 are shown in

Fig. 5.7.c-5.7.e in the same manner a s Fig. 5.7.a and 5.7.b.
Final equilibrium concentration C-/ COwhich is related to theadsorbent
loading ratio, a,as

is again a parameter in Fig. 5.7.c-5.7.e.

5.3.2. Intraparticle diffusion controlling-Surface diffusion

Similar calculation is possible for surface diffusion controlling in the

particle.
For a linear isotherm system, Eq. (5-59) isapplicablesince nod~stinction
between the effect of pore diffusion and that of surface diffusion is possible
in the case of a linear ~sotherm. For dimensionless time f,, Eq. (5-27)
must be employed.
Concentration curves in this case are the same as given in Fig. 5.7.a.
In the case of the ~rreversibleisotherm, the amount adsorbed at the
external surface of the particle is considered to be constant regardless of the
decrease of llquld phaseconcentration, and then Eq. (5-19) can bemod~fied
to glve the concentration change in the vessel
 Concentration decrease in this case is calculated and given in Fig. 5.8.a.
For an arbitrary value of the Freundlich constant, n, numerical
calculation of the set of basic equations is necessary. Typical examples are
given in Fig. 5.8.b-5.8.d for n=1.5, 2, 5 (Suzuki and Kawazoe, 1974b).

5.3.3. Fluid-to-particle mass transfer controlling

Concentration curves in this case can be readily obtained by combining

Flg 5 8 a D~agramsof CICo versus r , for lrrevcrs~bleadsorption wlth surface

dlffuslon k~netlcs
(Reproduced wlth permlsslon by S u z u k ~ ,M and Kawazoe, K., J Chem Eng
Japan. 7, 348 (1974))

~ ~ n=l 5.
F I ~5 8 b CiCo versus r = D , f / for
(Reproducd w ~ t hperrnlsslon by Suzukl. M and Kawazoe, K , Sersan Kenkiu.
26 276. 277 (1974))
 Batch Adsorptton in a &fh with Finite Volume 1 11

Fig. 5.8.c. C I COversus r= D , t l p for n=2.0.

(Reproduced with permission by Suzuki, M. and Kawazoe, K., Seuan Kenkyu,
16, 276, 277 (1974))

Flg. 5 8.d C / C Oversus r = D . t / k for n=5.0.

(Reproduced wlth permission by Suzuki. M and Kawazoe, K., Seisan Kenkyu,
26. 276, 277 (1974))

the mass balance equation (Eq. (5-31)) with Eq. (5-58). Naturally q isequal
to q., in this case.
For a linear isotherm system, C/Co is given as

For a rectangular isotherm, the following solution is obtained.

C/ CO= exp(-3ar,) for C/Cu 2 Cm/Co = 1 - a (5-67)

Concentratlon decrease curves obtained by the above equations are given
in Fig. 5.9.a and b
For intermediate values of the Freundlich constant, n, some diagrams
obtained from numerical calculations (Suzuki and Kawazoe, 197%) are
shown in Fig. 5.9.c-5 9.e.

5.3.4. Both fluid-to-particle mass transfer and intraparticle

diffusion controlling

When both fluid-to-particle mass transfer resistance and intraparticle

Fig 5 9 a ClCo wrsur rr= (krr/R)(Colp,qo) for n=I obtalncd from Eq (5-66)
(Reproduced u ~ t hpermlsslon by Suzuk~,M and Kawazoe. K , Kenkju,
27. 384-386 ( 1975))

F I 5~ 9 b CICo versus r~=(krr/R)(Co/ppqo)for ~rrebers~ble

~sot~erm
svstem
Eq (5-67)
(Reproduced w ~ l hpermlsslon by Suruki. M and Kauaroe K &:son Kenktu,
27, 384-386 ( 1975))
 Botch Adsorprron in o Borh wzrh Fznzre Volume 113

Ftg 5 9 c C / G versus ri= (krr/RXCo/p,qo) for n= 1 5

(Reproduced wlth permission by Suzukt, M and Kawazoe. K , S e w n Kenkyu,
27, 384-386 (1975))

Flg 5 9 d C/Co versus rr=(krl/RMCo/p,qo) for n=2

.
(Reproduced with permrsston by Suzukl, M and Kawazoe. K Semn Kenkyu,
27, 384-386 ( 1975))

diffusion resistance play s~gnificantroles In a finlte bath batch adsorption,

two rate parameters, kf and D,, and two equilibrium parameters,
adsorbent loading ratio and the Freundlich constant, n, are involved.
For a linear rsotherm system, the analytical solution has been obtained
by Huang and Li (1973)
 Fig. 5.9 e. CICo versus rr=(krrlRXCo/ppqo) for n=5. r
*
(Reproduced with permission by Suzukl, M. and Kawazoe, K., Serron 3
27, 384-386 (1975)).

I
where /3. is the n-th nonzero root of the equation.

tan 8. - 3 Bi - a/32
/3n +
(Bi - l)abn2 3Bi
u
where Bi=krR/ D, and a= W,qo/ VCO. Final equilibrium concentration h
related to a by Eq. (5-64) where n=I is valid for this case.
I n the case of a rectangular isotherm system, the analytical
by Suzuki and Kawazoe (1974a) is as follows.

''3
where Bi=krR,/ D,, /~=(c-/(co-c~))"~ and {=[(c-C-)/(co-C-11"~.
Concentration decrease curves are given only for the case of C-/Co=0.5 ;
in Fig. 5.10.a for the linear isotherm and 5.10.b for the rectangular
isotherm with Bi as a parameter.
For an arbitrary value of the Freundlich parameter, numerical calcuh- 9
tion is involved. Kawai and Suzuki (1984) presented similar diagrams of
concentration decrease for this case. Typical calculation results are given
a
b 9
 Barch Aakorprion in a Borh with Finire Volume 1 15

in Fig. 5.10.~-5.10.e. TO utilize these diagrams, the experimental condi-

tions of the batch adsorption must be chosen so the final equilibrium
concentration satisfies C,/Co=0.5.
i' jt must be added that a similar calculation is possible for a combination
$ of the fluid-to-particle mass transfer and the dominant surface diffusionin
a

Fig. 5.10.a. (C- C,)/(Co- C-1 wrsus r for a linear isotherm system. Effea
of externai mass transfer resistance. (C./Co=O.S).
(Reproduced with permission by Kawai, T.and Suzuki, M.,K a ~ g m w o ok"
Houkoku (in Jopcnew), 7, 347 (1984)).

t r=(Co/opqo)(D.t/R2)

Fig. 3.lO.b. Effect of external mass transfer resistance for n=- and
c-/c,-0,s.
(Reproduced with permissron by Su7uki. M. and Kawazoe, K., J. Chem. Eng.
Jopon. 7. 347 / 1974)).
the partlcle The result of calculat~on1s also shown m K a w a ~and S u z u k ~
(1984)

Fig 5 I0 c (C- CI)/(Co- C-) versus r for n=1 5, C-/Co=O 5 w~th pore
dlffus~onklnetlcs
(Reproduced w~thpcrmlsslon by Kawal, T and Suzukl, M , Kamguwa Dargaku
Houkoku (mJaponew), 7, 347 ( 1984))

Fig 5 I0 d (C- C.,)/(Co- C-) versus r for n=2 C-/Co=O 5 w ~ t hpore d~ffu-
slon klnetlcs
(Reproduced with perrnlsslon by Kawa~ T and Suzukl. M , Konagawa Do~gaku
Houkoku (tn Japanese) 7 347 (1984))
 Adsorptton m a Vessel wrth Conttnuour Flow 117

Flg 5 10 e ( C - C , ) / ( C o - C - ) versur r for n=5. C-/Co=05 w i ~ hpore

diffuston kinetrcs
.
(Reproduced with perrnlsslon by Kawat, T and Suzuk~,M Konagawa h t g a k u
Houkoku (m Japanese), 7 , 347 (1984))

5.4. Adsorption in a Vessel with Continuous Flow

When adsorption occurs in a vessel where adsorbentsare incontact with
a flowing fluid, the basic equations must be modified so that Eq. (5-5) is
involved. Suzuki and Chihara (1982) provide a detailed discussion on the
topic; the results are summarized as follows: When the concentration of
the inlet fluid, C,., is constant, then the solutions obtained in Section 5.2.3
and 5.2.4 are applicable by equating

and

T h ~ smodification is understood since mass flux to the surface of the

adsorbent particle may be limited both by mass flow into the vessel and by
mass transfer from flu~dto particle, in senes.
 5.5. Fluid-to-Particle Mass Transfer in a Vessel
In many cases of liquid phase adsorption by adsorbents of small particle
size in a vessel, fluid-to-particle mass transfer becomes a n important rate
controlling step. This is mainly because molecular diffusivities in liquid
phase are small and the relative importance of fluid-to-particle contact
efficiency may be more pronounced.
For a system with multiparticles in a moving fluid, the mass transfer
coefficient between fluid and particle, kf, may be defined as follows:

where kf,,,.g...t represents the mass transfer coefficient when the fluid is
stagnant and k,.mot,on corresponds to the effect of fluid motion to the mass
transfer between fluid and particle.

5.5.1. Mass transfer coefficient o f a multiparticle system with

s t a g n a n t fluid

The mass transfer between particles and stagnant fluid is a well

established problem when a single particle and the infinite surrounding
fluid are involved. A s a matter of fact, when mass transfer takes pIace from
a single spherical particle to a n infinite body of fluid, the basic differential
equation to describe diffusion around the particle is:

where N=2 holds for a three-dimensional diffusion from a spherical

particle. The equation must be solved with the boundary condition

and the initial condition

C=O for R p < r < m at r = O

Then the steady state solution is obtained as

 Adsorprron m a Vessel wrrh Conrrnuous Flow 1 19

and the definition of the mass transfer coefficient kr derives from the
steady state concentration profile as

which becomes

This corresponds to the traditional Ranz and Marshall relation as

where d p is the particle diameter (2Rp). Sh represents a dimensionless

parameter called the Sherwood number.
This relation, as stated earlier, follows from the existence of the steady
state concentration profile around a single spherical particle. When two-
dimensional or onedimensional diffusion is considered, such as diffusion
from a single long filament or diffusion from a plane, no steady state
concentration profile can be obtained. Then mass transfer coefficient in
the same sense as in the case of a single particle, cannot be defined.
In the multiparticle system, the situation is similar and there may not be
steady concentration profiles in the same sense. In this case, the basic
equation is Eq. (5-74).but the following equation is used instead of Eq. (5-
76) as the boundary condition.

This is based on the same concept as the free surface model. ROrepresents
the outer radius of the concentric shell within which one particle is
responsible. RO is related to the void fraction defined from the multi-
particle arrangement.

where e is the void fraction of the multiparticle phase.

For this case, the steady state solution becomes C=Cofor R,<r<Ro and
then it is not possible to define the mass transfer coefficient in the same
manner as in the case of diffusion from a single particle. The transient
concentration distribution around the part~clecan be obtained and used to
define the mass transfer coeffic~entfor a multipart~clesystem.
 C po- 1 P-1
-= 2
co I - " - 1 [2(/3: + (-)')sin(Bn---)]
Po
Po- I

where is the n-th nonzero root of the equation

BncotBn= 1 - ( I / P o )

and p=r/ R,, ?=DI/R; and

PO = Ro/Rp

By defining the mass transfer coefficient as

0 02 04 06 08 10
Vod fract~on.c

Fig 5 I I L~mltlngSherwood number as a function of vold fractlon In beds of

actlve spheres
.
(Reproduced with permlsslon by Suzuki. M J Chem Ehg Japun. 8. 164(1975))
 Adsorption in a Vessel wilh Continuous Flow 12 1

where

By taking the limit of r to infinity

The Sherwood number for the stagnant fluid Sho calculated from Eq. (5-89)
is plotted in Fig. 5.1 1 (Suzuki, 1975). In the figure, the solutions of
Miyauchi (1971) and Pfeffer and Happel (1964), who used different
boundary conditions in order to obtain the steady state concentration
profile for multiparticle systems, are included.

5.4.2 Mass transfer coefficient in agitated vessels

Fluid-to-particle mass transfer is accelerated by the motion of the

surrounding fluid. Increase of the mass transfer coefficient in this case,
k~.,,,i,, can be correlated with the energy dissipation in the fluid phase, E ,
since the thickness of the concentration boundary layer which develops on
the particle surface is considered to correspond to the size of the smallest
eddy in the turbulent field.
The energy dissipation, E , is defined as the power input or the energy
consumed in the unit mass of the fluid (m2/s').

where P(kg.m/s) is the input power to the fluid ofvolume Vand thedensity
p. gc denotes the gravity conversion coefficient (kg.m/kg.s2). When
homogeneous agitation is attained in a turbulent agitated vessel with
baffles, Pg, is a function of the revolution speed and the size of the impeller
as

where n and d, respectively, represent the rotation speed (11s) and the
sweeping diameter of the impeller. N, is the power number ranging from
0.35 for propeller to about 6 for six blade flat turbin. These numbers are
decreased for the agitator without baffles.
Misic et a/. (1982) applied the diagrams presented in Fig. 5.3.c for the
adsorption of phenol and /3-naphtol on powerded activated carbon and
 Fig. 5.12. Correlation of Sherwood number, Sh=krd,/D~ against nondimen-
sional energy dissipation in the vessel. Sho is obtained from Eq. (5-89).
(Reproduced with permission by Misic, D. M. el al.. J. Chcm. Eng. Japan IS, 67
( 1982)).

correlated the data as shown in Fig. 5.12. The correlation presented is

Sh = Sho +0.74~~'/~(d~/doda~)~.' (5-92)

where Sc is the Schmidt number defined as Sc=v/D. dddy is the size of

the minimum eddy which is obtained by assuming isotropic turbulence as

The ratio dp/doddyindicates the Reynolds number of the fluid boundary

layer on the particle of the diameter d,,. Sho is the Sherwood number
presented by Eq. (5-89).
When good contact between the particle and fluid is necessary, high
speed agitation of the suspended system is often tried. But high speed
agitation of fluid does not necessarily assure good contact between the
suspended particles and the fluid, because particles move together with the
moving fluid, reducing the relative velocity between them.
In order to obtain maximum contact between particle and fluid, several
types of contactors have been tried. Suzuki and Kawazoe (1975) used a
basket impeller in which adsorbent particles were held. Since maximum
 , ,Teflon seal

F I ~
5 13 Schemat~c~llustrat~onof the reactor
(Reproduced w~thpermlsslon by Suzuki, M and Kawazoe, K , J Chem Eng
Japan, 8. 80 (1975)

turbulence is attained in the fluid around the impeller, maximum contact

or the highest relative velocity between the particles and the fluid is
expected. T h ~type
s of contactor is shown in Fig. 5.13 and the mass transfer
coefficient obtained from dissolution of naphtol particles is observed to be
four times bigger than in a suspended system with the same revolution
speed. Hence this contactor is effective when negligible mass transfer
resistance between fluid and the particle surface is desirable, a condition
which is met when the intrapartlcle diffusion rate is involved.

.
Crank, J Mathemattcs of D~/lurion.2nd ed , Clarcndon Press (1975)
.
Huang. T C and K Y Ll Ind Eng Chem, Fundamenralr. 12, 50 (1973)
Kawa~, T and M Suzuk~,Reports of Far Eng Kanagaua U n ~ v .22. 31 (1984) (In
Japanese)
MISIC,D M , Y Sudo. M Suzuk~and K Kawazoc, J Chem Eng Japan, 15. 67 (1982)
M ~ y a u c h T.
~ . J Chem Eng Japan. 4. 238 (1971)
Pfeffer. R and J Happel. AIChE Journal. 10. 605 (1964)
Suzukl, M .J Chem Eng Japan, 8, 163 (1975)
Suzukl, M and K Chlhara, Sp~sanK e n k ~ u34,
, 149 (1982) (In Japanese)
Suzukl, M and K Kawazoe, J Chem Eng Japan, 8 . 79 (1975a)
Suzukr, M and K Kawazoe, J Chem Eng Japan, 8, 379 (1975b)
Suzukl, M and K Kawazoe. Sersan Kenkyu, 27, 383 (1975~)(in Japanese)
Suzukl, M and K Kawazoe. J Chem I%g Japan, 7 , 346 (1974a)
Suzukr, M and K Kawazoe, Serson Kenkyu, 26, 275 (1974b) (rn Japanese)
Suzukl, hi and K Kawazoe, Se~sanKenkyu, 26, 296 (1974~)(In Japanese)
Yagt, S and D Kuntl. Kogyokagaku Zorshr, 56, 131. 134 (1953) (tn Japanese)
 6
Kinetics of Adsorption in a Column-
Chromatographic Analysis

Chromatography originated as an analytical method. Mathematical

theory to describe elution characteristics of chromatography was later
developed for linear isotherm systems making it possible to apply the
chromatographic method to the measurement of transport processes
which accompany adsorption in adsorbent beds. The theory itself is
very clear-cut, making it easy to understand the effects of unit transfer
processes not only on chromatographic elution curves but also on
breakthrough curves and other transient responses of the column.
Using this theory, equilibrium and rate parameters of the system can
be determined from laboratory experiments, and most of the parameters
are independent of the dimensions of the equipment, so the results from
the laboratory-scale apparatus are generally applicable to the commercial
design of the adsorbers. In this case, the nature and operation of the
laboratory apparatus are the same as for conventional chromatographic
experiments. However rigorous treatment of the effluent peak becomes
necessary for the extraction of the parameters from the response data.
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize theoretical development
regarding the analysis of the elution curves. There are two general
methods of analyzing data, one of which is known as the plate theory
(Glueckauf, 1955; Giddings, 1965; Klinkenberg and Colleagues, 1956,
1961), while the other is based on the differential equations describing
the mass balance and the rate processes in the adsorbent bed. This latter
approach was has been developed over a long period (Nusselt, 1911;
Anzelius, 1926; Thomas, 1944; Rosen, 1952; Kubin, 1965; Kucera,
1965). The treatment here follows this approach initiated by Kubin
(1965); the relation to other methods of analysis including the plate
theory is given in Section 6.6.
In a fixed bed of adsorbent particles, the adsorbate-containing input
pulse is influenced by several mass transport steps both in the gas in the
porous adsorbent particles. It is difficult to extract reliable values for
the rate parameters for all of these steps from the shape of a single
effluent peak. Therefore, pulse-response experiments at different values
of operating conditions such as gas velocity, particle size, and tf
temperature are desirable. Data for conditions that enlarge the -
influence of the rate parameter specifically desired are particularly
helpful. 2
First, the general theory is presented for a bed of monodisperse
particles, followed by illustrations of the use of specific data i 4
4
evaluating particular rate parameters. Application of the method to .'+
more compler systems such as a bed of bidisperse particles and a bed of
catalyst particles where surface reaction occurs is also discussed.
Reference is made as well to application of the theory developed for
2
linear systems to non-linear isotherm systems.
d
6.1. Fundamental Relations
In the simplest case of a fixed bed of adsorbent particles, the
following mass transport processes are considered: axial dispersion in
the interparticle fluid phase, fluid-to-particle mass transfer, intraparticle
diffusion, and a first-order, reversible adsorption in the interior of the
particle. The last step corresponds to a linear adsorption isotherm with
a finite adsorption rate. This assumption includes the case of infinitely
fast adsorption rate.
In this model, a mass balance equation for the adsorbable component
in the interparticle space is given as

where E, is the axial dispersion coefficient based on the cross sectional,

area of the bed, u is the interstitial velocity of the fluid in the bed, e is -
the void fraction and Norepresents the mass flux of the component from
fluid to outer surface of the particles. This flux may be described in .
terms of the fluid-to-particle mass transfer coefficient kr or the '
intraparticle diffusion coefficient D,:

where r is the radial coordinate in the particle and R is the radius. For
the particles, the mass balance equation is
 Anolysrr of Chromafographrc Elut~onCurves 127

where N,denotes the rate of disappearance of the tracer per unit volume
of the particle, and c, is the concentration in the pores. For a linear
isotherm system, N,is expressed as

The coefficients k, and K , represent the adsorption rate constant and

adsorption equilibrium constant, respectively. In the above equations,
pp and t pare the particle density and porosity of the particle, and C, c,
and q, denote concentrations of the component in the fluid phase, in the
pores of the particle, and adsorbed on the particle, respectively.
Pore diffusion kinetics is assumed to be dominant in Eqs. (6-2) and
(6-3) but it is easily extended to the case of dominant surface diffusion
kinetics by taking ppKaDs instead of D, in these equations, since a linear
isotherm relation is assumed here.

6.2. Analysis of Chromatographic Elution Curves

The chromatographic experiment, based on introducing a pulse of
adsorbable tracer of concentration Co and duration time r into the
entrance of the bed, is illustrated in Fig. 6.1. For quantitative analysis
of the effluent peak C,(t), there are several alternative techniques to
determine model parameters by comparing the mathematical solution of
the fundamental equations and the experimental results. These are: 1)
.fitting the solution of the fundamental equations in the time domain
d i l y with Ce(t)obtained experimentally, 2 ) fitting the solution in the
Laplace o r Fourier domain with the experimental effluent curve
transformed into the imaginary domain, and 3) comparison of the
characteristics of the elution curve such as the moments, with the
theoretically derived moment equations. Each of the techniques has its
advantages as well as disadvantages.
Since curve fitting methods both in time domain and in imaginary
Impulse
Response peak

~ ( p=C,,/S,
)
domain need rather bulky computation, the sensitivity of each of the
parameters is not neccessarily clear. The moment method described in
the next section, on the other hand, makes possible an intuitive
understanding of the effect of each transport process.

6.3. Method of Moment

Moments of the chromatographic elution curve are defined as
,m

Then the n-th absolute moment is given as

The n-th central moment is defined as

Usually the first absolute and second central moments are the most
significant, since higher moments are subject to large errors when
computating from experimental elution curves.
Moments can be related directly to the solution for C, in the Laplace
domain.
If the Laplace transform of C(t) is c@),
where
r 'P

The set of partial differential equations (6-1) to (6-4) can be transformed

to the set of ordinary differential equations. If the input is a square
pulse of injection time r, that is,

z=O; C=O for t < O a n d t > s

C=Co for O d t d r

the set of differential equations can be solved in the Laplase domain to

give
 Method of Momenr 129

where Bi is the Biot number (kilt/ D,)(Kubin, 1965).

The moments of the chromatographic elution curve are related t o the
solution in the Laplace domain as follows:

By applying Eq. (6-15) to Eq. (6-10) and by using Eqs. (6-5) to (6-7), the
first absolute moment and the second central moment are expressed
as follows:

where

and
Eqs. (6-16) and (6-18) show that the first moment expression includes
only equilibrium parameters and Eqs. (6-17) and (6-19) to (6-22) mean
that the contributions of axial dispersion, fluid-to-particle mass transfer,
intraparticle diffusion, and adsorption rate to the second central
moment are additive.
( E ( ~and ) ~ ( ~E (~; )~~respectively
~I~ denote the first moment and the
second central moment of the pulse introduced at the inlet of the
column. In the case of a square pulse as shown by Eq. (6-9), the mo-
ments are given as

and

6.3.1. First moment analysis

For linear isotherm systems, first moment data give reasonably

accurate adsorption equilibrium constants. Typical plots of E(I versus

Fig 6 2 Chromdtography o f hydrocarbons on sll~cagel (50°C) Dcpcndence

orthe reduced first ab\olute moment on :! u
.
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Schneldcr. P and Sm~th.M A l C l t t Journal.
14, 767 (1968))
 Method of Momenr 13 1

z / u are shown in Fig. 6.2 for low concentration pulses of hydrocarbon

In helium carrler passed through a bed of sillca gel (Schneider and
Smith, 1968).
For an inert (nonadsorbable) tracer, the first moment becomes

This inert moment can be evaluated from measurable properties of the

bed and the velocity. Subtracting Eq. (6-25) from the counterpart
expression for the adsorbable tracer (Eqs. (6-16) and (6-18)) gives

The ordinate of Fig. 6.2 represents this magnitude and the slopes of
the straight l~nesin the figure can then be used to determine K.. Results
obtained from Fig. 6.2 are compared with direct measurement by
constant volume method in TABLE 6.1.

6.3.2. Second moment analysis

It is evident from Eq. (6-17) or (6-19) that each transport step gives a
separate and additive contribution to the second moment. Then, for
instance, from second moments for different gas velocities, the
contribution of axial d ~ s p e r s ~ ocan
n be separated from the contribution
of the other transport steps. Similarly, from the data for different
particle sizes, the contribution of intraparticle diffusion can be separated
from the contribution of adsorption. By choosing proper operating
conditions, the contribution of the particular step can be maximized so
that the rate parameter may be determined with good accuracy.
T o simplify data reduction and minimize calculation error, the

TABLE
6 1 Adsorpt~onCoefficients o n S ~ l l c aGel at 50°C

Adsorption coefficient, K, ( m l / g S102)

Hydrocarbon From equrllbr~um From evaluation o f
adsorption chromatograph~c
measurement$ peaks
Ethane 14 5 14 6
Propane 63 65 4
n-Butane 308 31 1
(Reproduced wrth pcrmrsslon by Schncldcr. P and Smith, M , AIChE Journel, 14, 766
(1968))
following parameter, H, is introduced.

Then H i s given as

where

as is clear from Eq. (6-27), dependence of H on the fluid velocity is

interpreted to be the effect of axtal dispersion and when ppK./e, > 1
then Ho reduces to

Fig 6 3 Plot of H agalnst I / u for hydrogendeuler~umexchange on n~ckel

catalyst (Dzpulse In pure Hz)
(Reproduced w~thperrnlsston Suzuk~,M and Sm~th,J M , J Carolysl~,23, 327
(1971))
 Merhod of Moment 133

A. e/fect of axial dispersion

When H is plotted against I / u the effect of axial dispersion is clearly
demonstrated. As shown in a later section, the axial dispersion
coefficient, Ez, is dependent on fluid velocity, u, and the functional form
is

Then, the plot of H versus I / u gives the effect of axial dispersion as

shown in Fig. 6.3. The intercept gives Ho, while the dependence of H on
I / u mainly shows the contribution of axial dispersion. q and A in Eq.
(6-31) can be determined from the curves shown in Fig. 6.3.

B. eflect of intraparticle dyfiion andfluid-to-particle mass transfer

For relatively large particles and runs at high velocity, the
contribution of fluid-to-particle mass transfer (6r)to the second moment
is usually small for gaseous systems (Schneider and Smith, 1968).
Small contribution of fluid-to-particle mass transfer can be corrected by
using correlations for kr in packed beds. First, 6r is calculated, and from
, Eq. (6-29), 6 + +
d 64 are obtained. By plotting 6 d 6d of the same
system for different particle sizes versus the square of the particle radius,
a linear relation is expected, and from the slope, the intraparticle
diffusivity can be obtained. A typical example of this type of plot is
shown in Fig. 6.4.
For linear isotherm systems, contribution of surface diffusion and
. pore diffusion cannot be separated since the driving forces of the two
diffusion mechanisms are proportional. In this case, surface diffusion
,. coefficient can be determined as follows: First estimation of the
: diffusibility o r the tortuosity of pore diffusion by measuring the
4.
intraparticle diffusion coefficients at higher temperature or with
adsorbates of lower molecular weight are made where the effect of
r surface diffusion becomes negligible. Then from the obtained
/i. intraparticle diffusion coefficients at lower temperatures or with
adsorbates of higher adsorbability, the surface diffusion coefficients, D,,
1 can be determined by subtracting the estimated contribution of the pore
i diffusion which is calculated by using the diffusibility previously
determined, since the intraparticle diffusion coefficient, D,,is divided
, into the sum of the contributions of the pore diffusion and the surface
i. diffusion as follows.
 From the intercepts at R2 = 0 in plots such as Fig. 6.4, 6 d can be
determined, which should make possible estimation of the adsorption
rate constant at the adsorption site.

C. adsorption rate constant

For physical adsorption the rate at an adsorption site is likely to be
high. Hence the contribution of 6d to the second moments is very small.

Fig 6 4. Dependence of 6d + on R
(Reproduced wtth permlsslon by Schne~der,P.,AIChE Journol, 14,768 (1968)).

62
TABLE Adsorpt~onrate constants detenn~nedfrom
Intercepts In Fig 6 4

Substance k d (50°C)
~
ml/g SIO:
ethane 167
propane 255
n-butane 1500
 Extemron of the Method of Moment to More Complex Systems 135

Schnelder and S m ~ t h(1968), however, succeeded in applylng the

moment analysis for making rough estimates of adsorption rate
coefficients of low molecular weight hydrocarbons on silica gel. From
the Intercepts In Fig. 6 4, the rate constants of adsorption were given as
shown In TABLE6.2.

6.4. Extension of the Method of Moment

to More Complex Systems

6.4.1 Adsorbents with bidisperse p o r e structures

Adsorbents can have b~d~sperse pore structures when they are

produced by combining primary particles whlch themselves are porous
(Fig 6.5). The resulting particle has two pore systems micropores
withln the small particles and macropores corresponding to the space
between primary particles Generally, Inadequate diffuslvities may result
If diffus~ondata In bid~sperseadsorbents are not analyzed by models
which account for both mlcro- and macropores.
D ~ f f u s ~ o npath In microparticles IS far smaller than that in
macroparticles Hence, unless d~ffusionrate In mlcroparticles is far
slower compared w ~ t hthe rate In macropores, it may not be necessary t o
take into cons~derationthe contribution of the diffusion in micropores
to the second moments slnce the tlme constant of diffusion is
proportional to the square of the particle size. Then the diffusion in
microparticles is cons~deredto be solid diffus~onor activated diffusion.
This becomes the case for most adsorbates in zeolites or molecular sieve
carbon.

,MtcropdrItclc (radius a ) wrth micropore ins~de

(radius R )

Ftg 6 5 Concept of d~ffus~on

In a particle of b~dlspersedpore structure
 Chihara el al. (1978) showed the moment solutions for this case. The
basic equations for a particle of monodisperse pore structure are used
for material balances in the column and a macroparticle (Eqs. (6-1) to
(6-3)), but the following relations are introduced instead of Eq. ( 6 4 ) to
take into account the diffusion in microparticles of the radius, a.
Material balance at the surface of microparticles

Adsorption equilibrium at the surface of microparticle

Material balance in the interior of a microparticle

The solution of Eqs. (6-1) to (6-3) and Eqs. (6-33) to (6-35) with the

Ttme after lrnpulce I itec

Fig 6 6 Typlc.11 chromatograph^^ peak\ for krypton on MSC 5A

(Reproduced w ~ t hpcrtnlsslon by Ch~hdrd, K , SULU~I,M and Kawazoe, K,
AIChE JournaI 24. 240 (1978))
 Extension of the Merhod of Moment ro More Compiex Sysrem 137

boundary conditions of a pulse response gives the moment equations by

neglecting the moments of the inlet pulse as follows:

where 60, 6,,, 6r and 8d are expressed in the same form as Eqs. (6-18) to
(6-21) and the contribution of the diffusion in a micropore, 6,, is given as

This method was applied to evaluate the micropore diffusion rate of

various gases in molecular sieving carbon 5A (Chihara, Suzuki and
Kawazoe, 1967). Typical chromatographic elution curves for krypton
pulse are shown in Fig. 6.6. Micropore diffusivities thus determined are
given in Fig. 4.14.

6.4.2. Moments expression f o r particles with size distributions

When there is a size distribution in the particles packed in a

chromatographic column, the distribution does not change the first
moment of the elution peak while it may affect peak broadening through
the contribution not only of intraparticle diffusion but also of other
transport processes such as axial dispersion. The evaluation of the latter
effect is not clear but it is possible to make a prediction of the effect of
particle size distribution on the intraparticle diffusion contribution, 6d.
This was done by Chihara, Suzuki and Kawazoe (1977) for several
typical distribution functions. The effecvt of the particle size
distribution can be accounted for by introducing a correction factor, F,
into the expression of 6d.

R,, represents the average particle radius. The correction factor, F, is

given for a distribution function f(R)as
Then F c a n be easily obtained for typical distribution functions as:
(1) Normal distribution

(2) Log normal distribution

F=exp(a~~)

(3) Rectangular distribution

f(R) = 1/2Rw for R., - RsBR,, + Rw

(6-46)
f(R) = 0 for R<R., - R, and Ra, + Rw<R

(4) Rosin-Rammler distribution

The same concept applies to the size distribution of microparticles in the

case of adsorbents with bidisperse structures.

6.4.3. Chromatographic measurement in nonlinear isotherm

systems

Since the theory of chromatography in linear isotherm systems is

simple and useful, there have been several trials to apply the theory to
the systems where a "global" isotherm is not linear. Two typical meth-
ods are discussed here: A. perturbation chromatography or local lin-
earization technique, and B. isotope chromatography.
 firemon of the Method of Moment to More Complex System 139

A. perturbation chromatography
Even when the isotherm relation is nonlinear, chromatographic
technique ~nvolvesvery small concentration change and the isotherm
relation governing a small pulse may be considered to be locally linear
(Fig. 6.7). Then, by utilizing the local slope of the isotherm as an appar-
ent equilibrium constant, the theory developed for linear isotherm
systems can be applied to the analysis of the behavior of the small
concentration pulse introduced to the column kept at this point of the
equilibrium relation. With this in mind, chromatographic measurement
was made by introducing a small adsorbable tracer into the carrier
streams which contain the same adsorbable components of different
concentration levels. The detection of concentration perturbation at the
outlet of a column is sometimes accompanied by fluctuation of a base

Gas phase concentrarlon, C

Fig 6 7 Adsorption lsotherm and apparent equdlbnum constant of local
llnearizatlon

Fig 6 8 Dependence of d~ffuslv~ty of nitrogen In MSC on amount adsorbed at

60. 100 and 1 50°C
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Kawnoe. K , Su7uk1. M and Chlhara. K J
Chrm i51~ Japan. 7. 156 (1 974))
.
line, which may limit the accuracy of the moment calculations. But this
technique is attractive since it provides information regarding concentra-
tion dependence of micropore diffusivities as well as the local slopes of
an isotherm relation.
Adsorption of nitrogen (Kawazoe, Suzuki and Chihara, 1974) and
propylene (Chihara and Suzuki, 1978) on molecular sieving carbon
were measured by this technique. The micropore diffusivities of
nitrogen in molecular sieving carbon are shown in Fig. 6.8, where
dependence of D / a 2 on the amount adsorbed is clearly demonstrated.

B. isotope chromatography
In the case of highly nonlinear isotherm systems, such as chemical
adsorption (chemisorption) systems, application of the theory developed
for linear systems may seem unfeasible. However nonlinearity of the
~sotherm relation of chemisorption of hydrogen on nickel catalyst
extends to a very low concentration. In such a case, it may be useful if
hydrogen exchange rates on catalyst surface can be understood at
moderate concentration levels. Employment of isotope technique may
provide an answer to this type of need.
Consider a steady flow of an adsorbable gas in an inert carrier stream
through a bed of adsorbents at constant temperature and pressure.
Under these equilibrium conditions, the surface of the adsorbents is in
dynamic equilibrium with the flowing stream. The surface coverage is
constant and the fluxes (designated as 4 ) of an adsorbable component
from gas phase to adsorbent surface and from adsorbent surface to gas
phase are equal. Suppose the isotope of an adsorbable component is
introduced as a tracer to the adsorbable component at the inlet of the
column, maintaining the total pressure of adsorbable isotopes constant.
If the isotope effect is neglected, the total rates will not change, but it is
possible to distinguish isotopes from each other in the detector set at the
outlet of the column. The rate of adsorption of the isotope is equal to 4
multiplied by the mole fraction of the isotope in the gas phase.
Similarly, the rate of desorption of the isotope will be r$ multiplied by
the fraction of the adsorbed isotope on the surface. Therefore, the net
rate of adsorption of the isotope tracer is given by

The above equation is in the form

&,so = k*(C,,,,- q,,./ K*) (6-5 1)

 Externion of the Method of Moment to More Complex Systems 141

where

and
P = qt/ Ct
Once k* and K* are determined, 9 can be calculated from Eq. (6-52).
K* is not the adsorption equilibrium constant in the usual sense, but
simply the ratio of the amount adsorbed, q,, and the concentration, C,,
of the adsorbable component concerned at a single point on the non-
linear isotherm. This concept is illustrated in Fig. 6.9. Experiments at
different total concentrations (partial pressures) and temperatures give
different values of k* and K*. Hence such measurements determine the
effect of pressure and temperature on the rate and the adsorption
isotherm.
By setting

Eqs. (6-1) to (6-3) and (6-51) give the same moment equations as Eqs. (6-
16) and (6-17) except that k, and K. are replaced by k* and P.
Therefore, moment method of analysis introduced in 6-3 can be used for
isotope chromatography.
Suzuki and Smith (1971a, b) applied this technique to the ex-
change of hydrogen on copper-zinc oxide catalyst and on nickel-
kieselguhr catalyst. Introducing deuterium pulse into hydrogen stream
by maintaining the total hydrogen and deuterium concentration in
helium carrier constant, deuterium chromatogram was detected at the
exit of the column by a thermal conductivity cell. Thus, the exchange

Fig 6.9. Concept o f isotope chromatography llneart7ed lsotherm

142 KINETICSOF ADSORPTION IN A COLUMN

Inlet pulse

Fig. 6.10. Deuter~um chromalographs on Cu-ZnO parc~cles at various

temperatures
.
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Suzuk~,M and Sm~th,M J Coral., 21,342
(1971))

equilibrium and the exchange rate were determined at the dynamic

equilibrium state with regard to the exchange of total hydrogen
(HZ-F Dz)between catalyst surface and gas phase. Typical chromatogfams
for deuterium pulses o n a similar catalyst are illustrated in Fig. 6.10.
 Extension ojthe Method o j Moment to More Complex Systems 143

Fig. 6.1 1. Hydrogen isotherm on nickel-kieselguhr catalyst obtained from

deuterium chromatography. Note : Data points of O°C and -20°C not shown.
(Reproduced with permission by Suzuk~,M. and Smith, M.,I. Carol., 23, 325
(1971)).

Fig. 6.12. Effect of hydrogen pressure on exchange race on nickel-kieselguhr

catalyst.
(Reproduced w ~ t hperrn~ssionby Su7uk1. M. and Smith. M.. I. Carol., 23, 328
(1971)).
From the first moment, the apparent adsorption equilibrium constant,
K*, is obtained and by correcting the effects of axial dispersion and
intraparticle diffusion, the apparent adsorption rate constant, k*, is
determined from the second central moment. Then from measurements
at different hydrogen concentrations, the amount of hydrogen adsorbed
and the exchange rate of hydrogen on nickel catalyst can be determined
as a function of hydrogen pressure. Figs. 6.1 1 and 6.12 show the
adsorption equilibrium relation and the exchange rate thus determined
at different temperature levels. From the dependence of the amount
adsorbed and the exchange rate on hydrogen pressure, discussion of the
exchange mechanism is possible. For instance, from the results given in
Figs. 6.1 1 and 6.12, Suzuki and Smith (1971 b) suggested that the
Rideal-Eley dual site exchange mechanism might be dominant in the
exchange of hydrogen on nickel catalyst.

6.4.3. Chromatography in reacting systems

When reaction and adsorption take place in porous particles,

chromatographic measurement may give surface intrinsic reaction rate
properties separately from adsorption properties. The theoretical
development based on this idea was proposed by Suzuki and Smith
(1971 d). The treatment is rather complex but may become useful by
selecting a system where the effects of some of the transport processes
may be negligible.

6.5. C o m p a r i s o n with S i m p l e r Models

Model described by Eqs. (6-1) to (6-4) for adsorbents of monodisperse
structure or additional Eqs. (6-33) to (6-35) are too complicated for
analytical use. As a matter of fact, the model can include four rate
parameters in addition to the adsorption equilibrium constant. Those
equations finally give the solutions for the first absolute moment, p1,
and the second central moment, pi. These two moments are only
utilized in actual experiments. Therefore, it might be helpful if com-
parison is made between this model and the models which include
only two parameters including the equilibrium constant. As two-
parameter models, typical are 1) a dispersion model that includes axial
dispersion coefficient as a sole rate parameter and 2) a two-phase
exchange model which has a mass transfer coefficient as an only rate
parameter. These two models are considered to be the two extremes of
the complicated model used In the earlier section, hence the results of
 Comparrron wrrh S~mplerModels 145

the complicated model may fall between the results derived from the two
models.
The relation between the parameters of these models and the first
absolute moment and the second central moment of the pulse response of
these models is given first; then from the analytical solutions of these
models, comparison of the shape of the elution curves are made.

6.5.1. Dispersion model

The basic equation is described by using the axial dispersion

coefficient, &, as

where u denotes fluid velocity and a represents the adsorption capacity

ratio of the bed. For the sake of simplicity, the impulse response is
considered. Then the boundary conditions are:

Laplace transforms of the above equations are

Then the solution in the Laplace domain is given as

where Pe = uZ/ E, and r = crZ/u. Z is the column length.

The moments are glven by applying Eq. (6-15) to (6-59).

On the other hand the analytical solutlon to Eq. (6-55) (Levenspiel and
Smith, 1957) has been shown as
 Fig 6 13 Comparison of drspen~onmodel and two-phase exchange model.

The curves derived from Eq. (6-62) for Pe = 0.4, 1, 4, 10, 40, 100 are
illustrated in Fig. 6.13.

6.5.2. Two-phase exchange model

When there is a mass exchange between the fluid phase and the
stagnant phase which has an adsorpt~oncapacity, the basic equation is
given as

The boundary conditions are given by Eq. (6-56). Eq (6-63) is trans-

formed into the Laplace dornaln and by eliminating concentration in
the stagnant phase, c,, the resultant equation for C@) is obtained as

udcldz + ka,C/(k + ap) = 0 (644)

 Cornpanson wrth Szmpler Modeis 147

Finally C @ )is given as

where S = k Z / uand T = aZ/u.

The moments are obtained from Eq. (6-65) as

Also the solution in the time domain, C(t), can be obtained by the
inverse Laplace transform of c@).

where Il(x) is the modified Bessel function of first order. C(t) obtained
from the above equation for S = 0.4, 1, 4, 10, 40, 100 are shown by
dotted lines in Fig. 6.13.

6.5.3. Utilization of the simple models

As is apparent from Fig. 6.13, the two extreme models give similar
results when Pe in the dispersion model and S in the two-phase exchange
model become large, that is, over 40. As stated above, the result of the
rigorous model is expected to fall in between the two curves drawn for
the same magnitudes of the first and second central moments.
From Eqs. (6-60), ( M I ) , (6-66) and (6-67), the two parameters of the
simple models are related t o the first and the second moments as

Therefore, to describe column performance, either of the simple models

instead of the rigorous complete model may be used when 2p12/p; is
large enough (larger than 40), in which case the model parameter can be
found by Eqs. (6-69) and (6-70).
 6.6. Other Methods for Handling Chromatographic
Curves
Problems often arise when the moment method is applied to the
analysis of chromatographic curves. When elution peaks are highly
nonsymmetrical and accompanied by long tails, estimation of second
moments involves large experimental errors. Long tailing is usually
brought about by selecting high velocity or a short column which results
in smaller first moment compared with the time constants of the rate
process such as time constant of intrinsic adsorption rate, intraparticle
diffusion time or time constant of axial dispersion, involved in the
system. Thus, it is in principle rather diffficult to deduct useful
information from chromatographic curves with long tails.
Several trials have been made nevertheless to overcome the ambiguity
of employing the second moment. Some of the trials discussed here are
I) fitting of the model equation and the experimental elution curves in
the Laplace domain, and 2) fitting in the time domain which has often
been used for testing the validity of the parameters determined from
sophisticated mehtods. Other methods include Fourier analysis of
response curves (Gangwal el al., 1971) and the weighted moment method
introduced by Anderssen and White (1971). Comparison of these
methods have been made by Anderssen and White (1970), Wakao and
Tanisho (1974) and Boersma-Klein and Moulin (1979).

6.6.1. Fitting in Laplace domain

This method was applied to estimation of parameters in simpler

models by Hopkins er al. (1969), Ostergaard and Michelsen (1969),
Michelson and Ostergaard (1970) and Middoux and Charpentier
(1970).
In the case of a dispersion model, for instance, transfer function C@)
is given as Eq. (6-59). Transfer function is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the elution concentration curve and that of the
input concentration curve, the lalter of which is a constant in the case of
impulse input. Laplace parameter, p , is a complex variable but if a
response curve, C(r), is transformed by using Eq. (6-8) by assumingp as
a real parameter, then the resultant c ( p ) gives a transfer function C(p)
by dividing by the size of pulse, M, in a real plane. C(p) is then
compared with the solution of basic equations obtained in a Laplace
domain.
For comparison with the dispersion model, Eq. (6-59) gives the
 Other Methodsfor Handl~ngChromatograph~cCurves 149

following relation.

F(p)=ln(G(p))=(Pe/2)(1-d1+4rp/Pe) (6-71)
Then
1 l o p ) = li Pe - r ~ l ( F ( p ) ) ~ (6-72)
Thus, if G(p) is determined from elution curve for several values of
parameter, p , F(p) is obtained, and by plotting l/F(p) versus ~ l ( F ( p ) ) ~ ,
r and Pe are determined from the slope and the intercept of a straight
regression line.
Also for comparison with the two-phase exchange model, flp) =
ln(G(p)) is given from Eq. (6-65) as

Thus plots of 1 Iflp) versus l i p for various p should become a straight

line whose intercept and slope should give S a n d r.
This method is rather difficult for applying to more complicated
models since simple linear plots like Eqs. (6-72) and (6-73) are in most
cases unobtainable.
In principle, the moment method compares the slope and curvature of
a transfer function equation at p = 0 as is obvious from the relation
given by Eq. (6-15). But the fitting in Laplace domain corresponds to
the fitting at the finite values of p arbitrarily selected for comparison.
Fitting by the curvature of G(p) may sometimes give better results but
the physical meaning of the fitting is not quite clear. On the other hand,
the point p = 0 where the moment method is based, corresponds to the
integral characteristics of the transfer function as is understood from the
fact that the unit o f p is I /sec.

6.6.2. Fitting in the time domain

Another method more intuitively understandable is the fitting in the

time domain. Obviously in the cases when it is possible to obtain an
analytical solution for the basic equations to describe a model, the
comparison with the response curve is easily made. When a numerical
solution is to be employed, the effect of each parameter on the
calculated concentration curve cannot be easily visualized so the
comparison needs repeated calculations for optimum parameter search.
Anderssen and White (1970) introduced the error map method to show
the deviation of the calculated curves and the response curves, which
was later utilized by Wakao er 01. (1979, 1981).
 Obviously, tlme domain fittlng should glve the best fit by comparison
in the same d o m a n However, it should be kept In mind that important
lnformatlon may not be easily seen in the main part of the response
curve but may be hlding behind the curve. Thus it is necessary to
evaluate the validity of the estimated model parameter by repeating
response measurements in a series of experimental cond~tionsor by
comparing wlth independent measurements as well as by often
reconsidering the appropriateness of the model employed.

Adnan, J C and J M S m ~ t hJ, Caralys~s,18,578 (1970)

Anderssen, A S and E T Wh~te,Chem Eng Scr ,25, 1015 (1970)
Anderssen, A S and E T Wh~te,Chem Eng Scr ,26, 1203 (1971)
Anzelrus, A , Z Angew Marh Mech, 6.291 (1926)
Boersma-Kleln, W and J A Moulrn, Chem Eng Scr , 34, 959 (1979)
C h ~ h a r aK and M Suzukr, J Chem &g Japan, 11, 153 (1978)
Ch~hara,K , M S u z u k ~and K Kawazoe, A I C h E J o m l , 24,237 (1978)
Ch~hara, K M S u z u k ~ and K Kawazoe S e w Kenkyu 29 263
(1977) (rn Japanese)
.
Van Deemrer. J J F J Zu~derwegand A Kl~nkenberg.Chem &g Scr , 5, 271 (1956)
Gangwal, S K R R Hudg~ns,A W Bryson and P L Srlveston, Can J Chem f i g . 49
113 (1971)
Grdd~ngs,J C . Dtnamrcs of Chromarographv, part I, Chapt 4, Marcel Dekker, New
York, 1965
Glueckaui. E Trans Faradav Soc , 5 l 1540 (1955)
Hashrmoto N and J M ~ k l t h Ind , .!kg Chem ~undamentalc,12,353 (1973)
Hash~moto.h and J M Srn~th.lnd E m Chem Fundomentalc. 13. 1 I5 (1974)
Hopk~ns,M J , A J Sheppard and P E'isenklarn, Chem Eng Scr ,24, 1131 (1969)
Kawazoe. K , M S u z u k ~and K Ch~hara,J Chem f i g Japan. 7, 151 (1974)
Kl~nkenbergA and F Sjenltzer Chem &g SCI ,5.258 (1961)
Kubrn, M , Collecrron Czechoslov Chem Commun , 30, 1104 (1965)
Kub~n,M , Collectron Czechoslov Chem Commun , 30,2900 (1965)
Kucera, E ,J Chromarogr , 19,237 (1965)
Lee, D -1, S Kague~and N Wakao, J Chem f i g Japan, 14, 161 (1981)
Levensprel, 0 and J M S m ~ t h Chtm
, f i g Sci .6,227 (1957)
Mshelsen, M L and K Ostergaard, Chem &g Scr ,25, 1015 (1970)
M~doux,N and J C Charpent~er.The Chem Eng J o u m l . 1, 163 (1970)
Nusselt, W , Tech Mech Thermodynam. 1,417 (1930)
Ostergaard, K and M L M~chelsen,Can J C k m f i g , 47, 107 (1969)
Padberg, G and J M Sm~th.J Cardysrr, 12, 172 (1968)
.
Rosen, J B J Chem Phys ,20, 383 (1952)
Schne~der,P and J M Smnh, AIChEJournal. 14,762 (1968)
Suzuk~,M , Kogoku Sourr, No 6.21 (1973) (rn Japanese)
Suzuk~,M and J M S m ~ t hJ, CataIys~~, 21,336 (1971a)
Suzukr, M and J M Smrth, J Caralvs~r.23,321 (1971b)
Suzuk~,M and J M Smrth, Chem Enr Journal. 3,256 (1971~)
Suzukr, M and J M S m ~ t h .Chvm Eng Sct. 26, 211 (1971d)
.
Thomas H C J Am Chem Soc 66 1664 ( 1944)
Wakao, N 5 Kague~and J M Sm~thJ Chen~Eng Japan, 12.481 (1979)
Wakao N and \ Tdnrsho. Cheni h g Scr - 2 9 1991 (1974)
 7
Kinetics of Adsorption in a Column-
Breakthrough Curves

Actual adsorption processes are in many cases associated with

adsorption in a column. Adsorbent particles are packed in a column
and fluid that contains one or more components of adsorbates flows in
the bed. Adsorption takes place from the inlet of the column and
proceeds to the exit. In the course of adsorption, a saturated zone is
formed near the inlet of the column and a zone with increasing
concentration is observed at the frontal part. Mass transfer from fluid
to adsorbent occurs in this region called the "mass transfer zone." If
concentrations in the effluent stream are measured continuously,
seepage of the adsorbable components are observed when the mass
transfer zone approaches the exit of the bed and the so-called
"breakthrough curve" will be obtained (Fig. 7.1). When and how this
breakthrough occurs is the focus of this chapter.
The fundamental equations employed are essentially the same as those
used in the previous chapter. Namely, when rigorous treatment is
necessary, the model described by Eqs. (6-1) to (6-4) is employed
whereas for a quick estimation of the breakthrough behavior of an
adsorption column, simplified treatment with a single transfer rate
parameter can be used as shown in Section 6.5.
Mathematical treatment of breakthrough curves in a linear isotherm
system is quite similar to the case of the chromatographic elution curve,
since in this case step response (breakthrough curve) of an adsorption
column is an integration of impulse response (chromatographic elution
curve) over elapsed time. For reduction of chromatographic data,
moments of the elution curves are in volved, but when considering
breakthrough curves, an analytical solution is desirable, or more simply,
so-called dynamic adsorption capacity or break time can be estimated. It
is possible to obtain analytical solutions in linear systems, but general
solutions for a set of equations are somewhat complicated and in many
cases simplified models are used when analytical solutions are necessary.
Analytical solutions to nonlinear isotherms are limited to special cases.
For favorable isotherm relations such as those of the Langmuir or
Co

Movement of
adsorption front

0
Distance, z
-z- Mass
transfer
zone at t~

Concenlration
at the exit:
breakthrough
curve
I I
0
Time
- I1 tz t3 I 4 t5

Fig. 7.1. Movement of adsorption fronl (mass ~ransferzone) and breakthrough

curve.

Freundlich type where n>l, concentration profiles become constant as

they move along the column and solutions for these cases have long
been discussed. Simple treatment methods are given first in Section 7.3
followed by numerical calculation methods.

7.1. Linear Isotherm Systems-Solution

to the General Model
For a packed bed of porous uniform adsorbents, the basic equations
for mass balance and transfer rates are the same as those given in the
previous chapter.

When surface diffusion is a dominant process in intraparticle diffusion,

 Linear Isotherm System 153

the right-hand side of Eq. (7-4) is replaced by the following equation.

In most cases of surface diffusion kinetics, adsorption rate at the active

sites is considered to be rapid enough to assume the attainment of local
adsorption equilibrium. Furthermore, when the adsorption isotherm is
linear, Eqs. (7-3) and (7-5) are combined to give the following.

This means that pore diffusion kinetics and surface diffusion kinetics
cannot be distinguished in the mathematical treatment s o detailed
discussion must be added for an understanding of which of the two
mechanisms is controlling the actual phenomena.
For analysis of breakthrough behavior, step input should be
considered as a boundary condition at the inlet of the bed.

The solution to Eqs. (7-1) to ( 7 4 , for example, can be obtained in the

Laplace domain as

where

where p is the Laplace parameter

 Then inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (7-8) should give the
breakthrough curve in the time domain.

The above integration, however, is rather complicated, since Eq. (7-8)

includes a number of parameters. There have been many trials to obtain
analytical solutions for similar but simpler cases including the
pioneering work of Rosen (1952), which used Duhamel's theorem to
include intraparticle diffusion kinetics.
Rasmuson and Neretnieks (1980) showed an analytical solution for
the case where adsorption equilibrium holds inside the particle (infinite
k, in Eq. (74)). Their solution is shown below as an example.

with

where H Iand HZare hyperbolic functions of 1 and Bi

 Lnear Isotherm Systems 155

-.
&(A, Bi) = (7- 18)
(1 + +)l+ (+)HD 2

~ ~ , (and
l )H D , ( ~are
) defined as

Hot(*) = A(
+
sinh 2A sin 2A
cosh 2A - cos 2A

sinh 2A - sin 2A
HD?(A)= A( cosh 2A - cos 2A

When contribution of axial dispersion are negligible (E, = 0), Eq. (7-14)
should coincide wlth the limiting solution derived by Rosen (1952).

F I 7~ 2 Breakthrough curves for h e a r Isotherm systems based on Roseu's

solut~on
(Reproduced wlth permltsion by Kawa~oe,K , Kagaku-Kogaku-Benrane, p 866
Maru7cn (1978))
where H I and Hz are given by Eqs. (7-17) and (7-18). Similar solutions
have been obtained for the case where the rate of adsorption at the
adsorption site is taken into account (Masamune and Smith, 1965)
and for bi-dispersed porous particles where diffusion resistance in
micropore is accounted for in series to the macropore diffusion
resistance (Kawazoe and Sugiyama, 1967).
These solutions include two to three rate parameters, which makes it
difficult t o examine the effect of each rate step on the overall
breakthrough curves. As an example calculated breakthrough curves
based on Rosen's solution are shown in Fig. 7.2.
As is seen from the figure, breakthrough curves for larger values of
column length parameter become rather similar to each other. This
suggests that a more simple model may be used for breakthrough
characteristics in this range.

7.2. Linear Isotherm System-Simple Models

One of the simple models used t o describe adsorption in a column is
the two-phase exchange model.

Analytical solution of the chromatographic elution curve of this

model is given by Eq. (6-68).

where S = kZ!u and r = aZ/u. This equation is integrated along time

to yield step response of the model.

This equation can be approximated in terms of error function for the

range S > 40 as
 Lnear Isotherm Systems 157

C/CO= (112) (1 + e r f q (7-24)

where

and the error function is defined as

erfx = - (7-26)

By equating the second moments of the chromatographic elution curves

obtained from the general model and the simple model, k in the two-
phase exchange model is replaced by the overall mass transfer
coefficient, &aV, which is defined as

-=1 R2 +1+&
&a, 15(1 - E)D, kfau Peu

Hence, by using the estimated rate parameters of adsorption in a

column, a rough estimation of the breakthrough curve is possible by
means of the simple model, provided the column is long enough to

( I - E Z / U )( h i

Fig 7 3 E x ~ m p l e s of error function plot for breakthrough curves from

lrnear isotherm system\ E 1s obtained from concentration change. C / C,!.using Eq
(7-24). slope determines m ( 2 r )
n Kawaloe. K and Takeuchi. Y . Kagahu
(Reproduced wlth p e r m ~ s s ~ oby
Kogabu, 31. 51 (1967))
satisfy the condltlon of S>40, which is for the most part met In cases of
gas phase adsorption.
Also by applying Eqs. (7-24) and (7-25), determination of KFa, is
possible provided S is large enough. From experimental observation of
the breakthrough curve (Cl Co versus elapsed time, I ) , a relation between
E and t can be determined by using Eq. (7-24). Then a plot of E versus t
according to Eq. (7-25) gives KFU,from the slope of the regression line, S
(= K ~ a , Z l u ) . An illustration of the plot of E versus t is shown in
Fig. 7.3.
It should be noted from Eq. (7-26) that the length of the mass transfer
zone increases proportionally to the square root of the adsorption time.
This corresponds to linear increase of the second moment of
chromatographic response with increase of the column length as shown,
for instance, by Eq. (6-17).

7.3. Nonlinear Isotherm Systems-Constant

Pattern Adsorption Profile
Adsorption isotherms are in most cases nonlinear and favorable, that
is. concave to the direction of the axis of the amount adsorbed
 Fig 7 5 Establ~shmentof Constant Pattern

(Fig 7 4), which corresponds to the Langmuir equilibrium with

separation factor r < l or n > l in the Freundlich ~sotherrnsystem
In these cases, a constant profile of mass transfer zone is established
while adsorption proceeds in a column (Fig 7 5) This is in contrast to
linear isotherm systems where mass transfer zone continues to spread
with increase of traveling time The reason for the formation of a
constant pattern is explained as follows
The speed of movement of the point on the mass transfer zone whose
concentration is C , V ( C ) , can be related to the equilibrium through the
basic equation

where q is the average amount adsorbed C and art. rcidtcb io each

other by a mass transfer equation and the equilibrium relation
When equilibrium adsorption takes place, q = q(C) holds and V(C),,, I
can be written as

Fot favorable adsorption isotherm systems, the higher the concentra-

tton, C, the smaller Idq/dClc becomes, thus enlarg~ngIdC/dqlc T h ~ s
 1 Spreadrng tendency
due to non equ~lrbrrum
adsorpt~onor d~spersron

Fig 7 6 Spreading tendency due to the nonequlltbnum nature (mass transfer

reslstana) of adsorpt~on or dlspen~on In the column 1s balanced wlth
sharpening tendency due to nonllneanty of favorable ~sothermwhen a constant
pattern profile 1s established

means that a polnt with a higher concentration on the adsorpt~onfront

should proceed faster than a point at a lower concentration. T h ~ s
cannot happen in real systems so adsorpt~onfront forms a step shape. This
Imaginary relat~oncaused by a favorable equil~bnumrelat~onshould be
considered rather t o play the role of a driv~ngforce t o narrow the
adsorptlon front (mass transfer zone) once spread by mass transfer
resistance and dispers~oneffects (Fig. 7.6). Therefore, the mass transfer
zone proceeds In a constant shape after these two counteracting effects
are balanced
When constant pattern profile a establahed, V(C) IS constant
regardless of concentratlon, and then from Eq. (7-28) the following
equatlon is derlved as a cond~tlonof the constant pattern.

XE C / C o = y E i j Iqo (7-31)

7.3.1. Solution of constant pattern profile f r o m LDF models

A LDFC model
Simple models often employ two-phase exchange models The model
Introduced In Section 6 5 2 IS expressed as Eq (7-28) with
 Nonlinear Isathem System 161

where C* is an equilibrium concentration with q. This model is based on

the idea that mass transfer rate is expressed by using the overall mass
transfer coefficient, KFLI", based on the fluid phase concentration
difference as the driving force. This model is referred to as LDFC
(linear driving force model based on concentration difference).
Obviously this model is suitable for those cases where fluid-to-particle
mass transfer is a dominant mass transfer resistance. In such cases KFa,
can be replaced by fluid-to-particle mass transfer coefficient, kfa,.

B. LDFQ model
Another model often used is one similar to the above except that mass
transfer is expressed on the basis of particle phase concentration
difference. Instead of Eq. (7-32), the following form is introduced.

This model is referred to as LDFQ. L D F C and LDFQ models are

identical when the adsorption isotherm is linear (q = KC), by setting
K,a, = K F ~ ,K.
/ For nonlinear equilibrium systems, however, the two
models indicate individual behavior, that is, considerably different
concentration profiles, especially when nonlinearity is large.
Compared with a more rigorous model, this model gives better
approximation when intraparticle diffusion plays a dominant role in
mass transfer. When intraparticle diffusion is the only rate determining
step of mass transfer, Ksov can be replaced by particle phase mass
transfer coefficient, k,a,,which is related to the intraparticle diffusion
parameters as

15d,D,/ R2
ksav =
sol co
Selection of the above equations depends on the dominant mechanism
of intraparticle diffusion. When surface diffusion kinetics are
controlling, then Eq. (7-34) is used, while Eq. (7-35) should be used for
dominant pore diffusion kinetics. The parameter, d,, is introduced to
account for the deviation of the approximation from linear equilibrium
cases where 4, is taken as unity, as can be understood from the second
162 KINETICSOF ADSORPTION IN A COLUMN

moment expression of a chromatographic peak discussed in Chapter 6.

+
For the Langmuir isotherm system (y = x / [ r (I - r)x]), the
following correlation for 0,is given by Miura and Hashimoto (1977).

Also, in the case of Freundlich isotherm systems (y = xl/n), 0,is

correlated as a function of n as follows.

C. LDF series model

Better approximation is possible by considering that LDFC model
and LDFQ model are valid, respectively, at fluid-to-particle mass transfer
and at intraparticle diffusion. In this case, adsorption equilibrium is
considered to hold at the particle surface as q, = q,(c,). The basic
equations for mass transfer rate expression are as follows.

This equation is transformed by using constant pattern condition

(Eq. (7-31)) and the dimensionless form becomes

where

x = C/Co and y = 9 / 4 0

The solution to Eq. (7-39) was shown by Kawazoe and Fukuda (1965)
for the Langmuir isotherm, and Miura and Hashimoto (1976) gave
analytical forms for the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm systems.
Eq. (7-39) can be solved in terms of x, which is then converted to x and
-
Y.
For the Langmuir isotherm ( y = x/[r + (1 - r)x]),
 Nonlinear Isotherm System 163

K t a , ( r - t o ! / ( PL~O/COJ

Fig 7 7 Constant pattern profiles calculated from LDF-series model w ~ t h

Langmu~rIsotherm
 +
- ~n[r (I -r)x,] - -In r
r
l-r
+ I]

where

From x,, x is obtained as

x = [((r + I)x5 + ((1 - r)xJ/(S + I)[r + (1 - r)x,] (7-43)

The above solution reduces to more simpler forms when external mass
transfer is controlling the rate of adsorption (LDFC model) or
intraparticle diffusion is the sole rate-determining step (LDFQ model).
a. LDFC model

kra, rIn(l - x) - Inx

(I - lo) = 1- (7-44)
pbqo/ co I-r

which coincides with the results obtained by Michaels (1952).

b. LDFQ model

This equation was obtained by Hall er al. (1966).

The effect of 5 on constant pattern profiles for the Langmuir iso-
therm systems are examined from Eqs. (7-42) and (7-43) and is illu-
strated in Fig. 7.7 for r = 0.2 and 0.5. Naturally, difference of domi-
nant mass transfer mechanisms is more pronounced at smaller r.
For the Freundlich isotherm (y = x1In),a similar solution was obtained
by Miura and Hashimoto (1977) as
 Nonl~neorIsotherm System 165

where

These ~ntegralsare given by infinite series of two different forms.

I)(:- 2 2 ) k- +- l ~- k)
IA= *[I + T(- Ilk(F-k!(k
k= I
+l )n-l~ (k ~ )
( ~

FIR 7 8 Graph rcprcsentatlon of 1 , dnd IH versur reciprocal Freundl~ch

constant n
(Reproduced u ~ t hpermlsuon by M I U ~JA ( I Y I P I fig Japan 10.492 (1977))
Fig 7 9 Constant pattern breakthrough curves calculated lrom LDF-ser~es
model with Freundl~ch~sotherm( Y=X' ')
 Nonlzneor Isotherm Syslem 167

Eqs (7-49) and (7-50) over Eqs. (7-51) and (7-52) are recommended
because of faster convergence. IAand 1 0 in graph form are shown in
Fig. 7.8.
(K,a,), and to defined above (Eqs. (7-41) and (7-42)) are valid here,
and again x, can be converted to x by the equilibrium relation at the
interface, which is in this case the following equation.

x = (5s + xsl'")/ (I, + 1) (7-53)

The general solution (Eq (7-46)) is simplified when mass transfer rate
is expressed in terms of either kfa, only (LDFC model) or k,a, only
(LDFQ model).
a LDFQ model

b LDFQ model

k,a, (t - lo) = -[ln(l - x ( ~ ' ) / " ) +hl

-
Pb I-n

The effect of I, on constant pattern profiles is shown by Fig. 7 9 for

Freundlich constant n = 2 and 5

7.3.2. Solution of constant pattern profile from d~spersionmodel

For another typical case of simple models, i e. dispersion model, the

basic equation is written instead of Eq (7-28) and (7-32) as follows
or, in dimensionless form,

(1/ Pe) d2x/dz2 - dxJdz = d j ] de (7-57)

where Pe = uZ/ Ez, 8 = (ru/ Z)(Co/pbqo), x = C / Co and j = q/qo.

By assuming is in equilibrium with C, analytical solutions are given
for the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm systems (Coppola and LeVan,
1981).
Langmuir isotherm:

Freundlich isotherm:

where number of transfer units is N = Zu/& = Pe, throughput para-

meter is T = ru/ Z(pbqo/ CO),y is the Euler constant and N x ) is the psi
function.
For models with two or more rate parameters, similar solutions have
been obtained and discussed (Vermeulen, 1984). For exact treatment,
however, recent developments in computers make it easier to directly
solve complex basic equations.

7.3.3. Length of mass transfer zone

In the practical designing of adsorption columns or prediction of

adsorber performance, it is often necessary to make a quick estimate of
the length of mass transfer zone, which is readily calculated from the
constant pattern profiles. If we define a length of mass transfer zone as
the longitudinal distance between the two arbitrary points where
concentrations in the bed are CE and CB(CO<CE<CB<O), the length of
mass transfer zone is given if LDFC model is employed as

where V is the propagation speed of the mass transfer zone, which is

obviously

Elution time of mass transfer zone is naturally determined from

Usually xe = Ce/ Co and x~ = CE/COare taken as 0.05 and 0.95 or 0. I and

0.9. NO^ can be calculated easily from adsorption isotherms.
For the Langmuir isotherm ( r = (1 - y)x/(l - x)y), NOFfor XB = 0. I
and XE = 0.9 is given as

F I 7~ 10 NOFfor he Langmu~rand Freundl~ch~sotherms

For the Freundlich isotherm (y = XI'"),

Fig. 7.10 illustrates NOFdefined by taking CBand CEas 0.1 and 0.9 or
0.05 and 0.95 as a function of the separation factor r of the Langmuir
isotherm or the Freundlich exponent Iln. NOF for other isotherm
relations can be easily calculated by Eq. (7-61).

7.4. Numerical Solutions for Nonlinear Systems

Breakthrough curves may be calculated directly from basic equations
with nonlinear isotherms by numerical computation. The literature
includes many works on more rigorous models such as intraparticle
diffusion models (Tien and Thodos, 1959; Antonson and Dranoff,
1969; Carter and Husain, 1972; Kyte, 1973; Garg and Ruthven, 1973;
1974; Hashimoto er al., 1977) with or without fluid-to-particle mass
transfer resistance. Although these authors assumed negligible axial
dispersion effect, numerical computation is bulky. Computation is
greatly minimized when constant pattern assumption is employed (Hall
er at., 1966; Fleck er at., 1973; Garg and Ruthven, 1975; Miura and
Hashimoto, 1976), or linear driving force (LDF) model is employed
(Zwiebel er al., 1972; Garg and Ruthven, 1973; Miura and Hashimoto,
1977).
The advantage of numerical solutions is obviously that they provide
more rigorous results because of less simplification involved in the
model. However, when a model is more complicated and numerical
 Numerrcal Solurrom Nonlrnear Sysrem 17 1

processing is included, it becomes rather difficult to see the effect of each

parameter constituting the model Then in order t o clarify the behavior
of the model, many repeated computations using various sets of
parameters become necessary, making for bulkier computation.
The simplest advantage of numerical calculatian may be its use for
examining the validity of simpler models such as LDF models or
constant pattern model. As a matter of fact, the correction factor, &,,

Flp 7 1 1 ilevelopment of concentration profile In an adsorpt~on column,

LDFC model w ~ t hthe Freundl~chlrotherrns
 TABLE 7 1 M~nimumcolumn length needed to establrsh constant
pattern profile, Z,,., In terms of length of mass transfer zone, Z.

I / nin~Freundllch equatlon .La./ Z.

0 3> I>
x 5 >1
07 -2
(Reproduced w~thpermlsslon by Hashlmoto, K , Kagaku Kogaku, 40,
14 (1976))

r m Langmulr equatlon Ztnt.1 Z,

0 83 -5
0 71 -2
0 56 I1
0 33 0 74
(Reproduced wrth permlsslon by Garg. D G and Ruthven, D R ,
AICh E Joumaf, 21.200 ( 1975))

introduced for K,a, (Eqs. (7-34) to (7-37)) was determined by cali-

brating an LDFQ model with an Intraparticle diffusion model.
The bed length needed to approach constant pattern profile is also
discussed uslng a numerical calculation without constant pattern
assumption. According to Hashimoto ei al. (1976) and Garg and
Ruthven (1975), mlnimum column length needed to establish the
constant pattern profiles are obtalned relatlve to the mass transfer zone
length as shown in TABLE 7.1. Propagation of the mass transfer zone ob-
tained uslng the LDFC model 1s Illustrated in Fig. 7.11 for the
Freundl~chisotherms with n = 2 and 5.

7.5. Breakthrough of Multicomponent Adsorbate Systems

When multicomponent adsorbates are contained in the flu~dentering
an adsorbent bed, breakthrough behavior becomes more complicated
than In single component systems. Analysis of mult~component
adsorpt~onis necessary in many cases but two typical situations may be
of concern. One s~tuation1s related to the separation of m~xtures.
When separat~onof two or more components is necessary, the behav~or
of each component in the column must be described as precisely as
posslble The other sltuat~on1s encountered In the purificat~onof water
or alr whlch contalns many unknown pollutants ln thls case, prediction
of the global behav~orof the column may be necessary.
 0
OI
0 (b)
C,
'=
C,
m-
u
I
E
- ZoneN I Ill I1
-
m
E
I
c (c)
P Establ~shcd
E
CI
adsorprion zones

* I
7
z;, z;
I
I (d)
Equ~l~br~urn
2 model
2

lnlcr Column d~srance

h g 7 12 Development of adsorption zones tn bl component adsorption.

7.5.1. Breakthrough o f k n o w n bicomponent adsorbates

When weakly adsorbed Component 1 and strongly adsorbed

Component 2 are contained in the fluid entering an adsorbent column,
Component 1 weakly adsorbed is replaced by the stronger Component 2;
then Component 1 proceeds in the column faster than Component 2. In
this case, after a certain length of traveling path, the concentration
profiles of the two components are established as shown m Fig. 7.12.a-c.
The established profiles of the concentrations are discussed by division
into four zones.
In Zone IV, the amounts of both components adsorbed on adsorbent
are in equilibrium with the concentrat~onsof both components in the
entering fluid. Since the fraction of the amount adsorbed of Component
2 becomes bigger than that in the fluid phase, the weaker component
(Component I) will become in excess in the fluid phase and then is
pushed to the front of the column. Single-component adsorption of
Component 1 takes place a t the frontal part of the adsorption zones
(Zones I and 11) which is then partly replaced by Component 2 in Zone
111.
Mass balance in Zone 111 determines the concentration level of Com-
ponent 1 in Zone 11. Also, zone length of Zone 111 can be determined
from the equilibrium relation of replacement of Component 1 by Com-
ponent 2 and mass transfer rate during replacement. Length of Zone I
can be determined from the method of estimating the single-component
adsorption breakthrough curve stated above. Lengths of Zones 11 and
IV are calculated from mass balances of Components 1 and 2 and the
lengths of Zones I and 111.
The concentration levels at Zones I1 and IV and the length of each
zone can be obtained as follows.

A. equilibrium consideration of bicomponent breakthrough curves

When adsorption is assumed to take place in equilibrium mode,
concentration profiles in the bed may become as shown in Fig. 7.12.d,
where the lengths of Zones I and 111 become infinitesmally small.
The amounts adsorbed of both components in Zone IV are
determined from the inlet concentrations, CIOand C20, by using the
adsorption equilibrium relation for the mixture, e.g. the IAS model pro-
posed by Myers and Prausnitz (1965) or the classical Markham-Benton
equation (1931). When the Markham-Benton equation is applicable,
the amounts adsorbed of both components, q10 and q20 in equilibrium
with CIOand C20 are obtained as

420 = q2-KZC20/(1 + KICLO

-I-K2 Czo) (7-67)

where q,, and q g are the saturation amounts adsorbed of Components 1

and 2 and Kl and KZare the equilibrium constants of both species. These
parameters are determined from single-component Langmuir equa-
tions.
In the replacement zone (Zone Ill), if stoichiometric replacement is
assumed, the concentration and the amount adsorbed of Component I
at Zone 11, C,, and ql, are related to CIO,
C~O , and q : by
910 ~ the following
equation.
 a) Component 1 - b ) Component 2

-.
-
00

-
00
41.
00
M
\

e
Pure component
- - - - - - - - -- - - -
e
(0

-
P
C
Amount adsorbed of
Component 2 at
, and CZ
concenlratlons CIO
2
d
-q

ct 0 CI.

Fig. 7.13. Determination of ql, from pure component and bicomponent

isotherms.

Also, ql, and CI, are related by the single<omponent isotherm relation,
which is, in this case.

Then by solving Eqs. (7-68) and (7-69), CI, and q l ccan be determined.
For arbitrary isotherm relations, determination of CI, and 91, can be
made graphically as shown In Fig. 7.13 (Takeuchi et 01.. 1978). From
the bicomponent isotherm relation of Component 2 in Fig. 7.13.a, the
slope d q / d C is determined by connecting the point (GO,920) with the
origin with the straight line. Then the cross point of the straight line of
the same slope, dq/dC, from the point representing (Cto, 910) and the
single component isotherm of Component I gives CI, and q~,.
In the case of the Markham-Benton isotherm, the analytical solution
to Eqs. (7-68) and (7-69) gives CI, as follows.

where
 The equilibrium amount adsorbed in Zone 11 can then be obtained
from Eq. (7-69).
From q20, q10 and ql,, equilibrium zone lenght Z ~ Vand
* Z ~ I *can be
readily obtained from the mass balances as

B. degcription of replacement zone, Zone III

When Component 1 previously adsorbed is replaced by Component 2
at Zone 111, zone length will be determined from replacement
equilibrium relation and mass transfer rates involved in the replacement
process.
The simplest treatment is application of the method for estimating a
singlecomponent breakthrough curve to the propagation of the
replacement ftont of the stronger component (Component 2). In this
case the equilibrium relation for replacement must be composed from
bicomponent equilibrium relations by assuming a linear relation
between the concentration of Component I and that of Component 2 on
the surface of the adsorbent.

(CI - Clo)/(ClC- Clo) = (C20 - Cz)/ C20 (7-76)

The replacement equilibrium relation can be derived by combining the

above relation with bicomponent equilibrium relations.
In the case of the Markham-Benton equation, combining Eqs. (7-66),
(7-67) and (7-76) gives the following relation.

where

Obviously, when Component 2 is "stronger", P > O or

should hold and then the equilibrium relation described by Eq. (7-77)
becomes concave to the 42 axis or replacement is considered favorable.
In this case a constant pattern profile will be established in Zone 111.
 +
When KZC2is smaller than I K~CI,,the relation expressed by Eq. (7-
77) is approximated by the linear relation and the replacement zone does
not form a constant pattern profile.
With regard to mass transfer rate in replacement, available informa-
tion is limited. Whether resistance to the exchange of both components
at the adsorption site is negligible and whether counter diffusion of
adsorbing component and desorbing component interfere with each
other are among the problems not yet solved.
For the sake of simplicity, however, a linear driving force model may
be used with reasonable accuracy. As the overall mass transfer co-
efficient, KFU, estimated for the more slowly diffusing component,
which might be assumed to coincide with the stronger component, may
be used for representing the overall characterisics of the replacement.
Then, the length of Zone I11 can easily be estimated by applying the
relations shown for the cases of single-component adsorption systems.
The propagation speed of Zone 111 is apparent from the relation given
by Eq. (7-74), which gives

C. description of Zone I
When the concentration of Component 1 in Zone 11, CI,, is given, the
length of Zone I is readily obtained by the method used for the estima-
tion of a single-component breakthrough curve.
The propagation speed of Zone I is obtained from Eq. (7-75) as

7.5.2. Breakthrough of unknown multicomponent adsorbates

When a number of adsorbable components are contained, as for

instance, in the case of water treatment, it is difficult and in most cases
unnecessary to follow the breakthrough of each component. What is
important is to understand the overall characteristics of the break-
through of total pollutant concentration, e.g. total organic carbon
(TOC) or chemical oxygen demand (COD).
Assumlng that n adsorbable components are involved and adsorption
of the I-th component is stronger than the ( i - I)-th component, then,
considering equilibrium, adsorption zones in the column are believed to
proceed as shown in Fig. 7.14.a. The weakest component (Component
I) is pushed forward by all the rest and Component 2 follows. This way,
 Process~on of
adsorption zones

Inlet Column d~stance

0 Emuent volume

F I ~7 14 Adsorption of mult~componentadsorbates In a column

An Act~\atedcdrbon 10/32 mesh 1

0 2 4 6 8 10 I2 I4 16 I8 20 22
Eflluent volume ( I )

Fig 7 IS Typ~calbreakthrough curves for wastewater contalnlng nuknown

multlcomponent adsorbates
(Reproduced wlth permlsslon by Kawazoe, K , Kagahu Kogaiu. 39,415 (1975))
 Dicpersion and Mass Transfer Paramerers in Packed Be& 179

n equilibrium zones are formed in the bed and the length of each zone
increases in proportion to the amount of influent fluid (Fig. 7.14.b).
The breakthrough curve may become as shown in Fig. 7.14.c. In this
case, curves of different space velocity can be correlated by plotting exit
concentration versus influent volume per unit mass (volume) of
adsorbent in the bed.
More rigorous treatment is possible by taking into account the replace-
ment zones which are expected to form between the two neighboring
equilibrium zones. Actual overall breakthrough performance is in fact
given by a smooth curve rather than a step-like curve as shown in
Fig. 7.14.c, which is probably caused by the nonequilibrium nature of
adsorption. However, measured COD breakthrough curves for the
adsorption of real wastewater from a petrochemical plant (Fig. 7.15)
show that except at the initial part, SV (flow rate based on column
volume) little affects the shape of the curve, if the data are replotted
against effluent volume per column volume for each column length,
suggesting that consideration assuming equilibrium can give a rough
estimate of the breakthrough curve of a large treatment plant from a
rapid measurement using (in this case) a small column.

7.6. Dispersion and Mass Transfer Parameters

in Packed Beds
In packed beds, the main parameters of transport of adsorbates are
the axial dispersion coefficient and the fluid-to-particle mass transfer
coefficient. The other important parameter, the intraparticle diffusion
coefficient, is not dependent on type of adsorption contactor and the
treatment described in Chapter 4 can be applied.

7.6.1. Axial dispersion coefficient

Axial dispersion contributes to the broadening of the adsorp-

tion front due to flow in the void spaces between particles. Similar to
diffusion phenomena, dispersion effect in the bed is expressed in terms
of the following dispersion model:

or in dimensionless form as
where E, represents the axial dispersion coefficient, Pe is the Peclet
number (=+I &I), B = L/d, and Z = zl L and T = ufl L. L is the bed length.
Usually Ez is considered to consist of contribution of molecular
diffusion and the dispersion caused by fluid flow.

A. dispersion coused by molecular diffusion

Dispersion due to molecular diffusion in the interparticle void spaces
is described by the void fraction of the bed, E , and the tortuosity of the
diffusion path in the void space. Unlike the diffusion in porous particles
reviewed in Chapter 4, the latter is considered close to unity for
diffusion in packed beds. Then,

where D, is the molecular diffusion coefficient. The contribution of

molecular diffusion in addition t o nuid dispersion is differs considerably
in the gas and liquid phases because of a difference of more than lo4
times in molecular diffusivity between the two phases.
Generally, the contribution of molecular diffusion becomes dominant
in the range of ScRe,<lO. However, in a packed bed of particles
smaller than 2 mm, attention should be paid since a higher contribution
of dispersion due to fluid flow is often observed (See below).

B. dkpersion in furbulenffIow regime

Mechanisms of dispersion due to fluid flow differ in laminar flow
regime and in turbulent flow regime.
In turbulent flow regime (Re,>100), the fluid entering each void is
considered to be fully mixed and overall dispersion phenomenon can be
well described by a tanks-in-series model, where the residence time in a
tank is equated with the residence time of flowing fluid in a void of the
length B,d,, P,d,/u. Then the tanks-in-series model gives the residence
time distribution of the Poisson type (Aris and Amundson, 1957),
which can be approximated by the impulse response of the dispersion
model by equating

The perfect mixing assumption in a void is well understood for gas

phase turbulent flow. In the liquid phase, however, a small number of
d~ffusivitiesmay retard complete mixing in the void and a higher Re, of
 Duperston and Mass Transfer Parameters mPocked Be& 18 1

Fig 7 16 Axla1 d~spers~on~mpacked beds Peclet number=Dp.u/E~

E W , L G , S G , C 9 , L G , 0.K , K, C P , D correspond to I ~ q u ~phase
d

about 1000 may be necessary to achleve the relatlon glven by Eq. (7-86).
This situation can be read from Fig. 7.16

C. dupersron m lamrnarflow regime

In lamlnar flow reglme (Re, = d,u~/v<lOO), axlal dlsperslon in a
packed column is expected due to the local velocity distribution of fluid
in vold spaces. In thls case, variance of the residence tlme of the fluld
passing one layer of particles, a2,is considered to be proportional to
) ~ a proportionality constant of 2A.
( d , / ~ with

Then, by applying the Elnsteln equation, a2= 2Ezt, the following form
is denved.
 F:g 7 17 Peclet numbers for packed beds of small particles
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Surukr M and S m ~ t h ,M , Chem Ekg J 3,
261 (1972))

In the packed beds of cornmerc~alslze adsorbents, A = 1 - 112 can be

assumed
Consideration of d ~ s p e r s ~ oInn the lamlnar flow reglme may not be
necessary for the gaseous phase, slnce molecular dlffus~onbecomes more
slgnlficant for small Sc systems

D. dnpersron ur packed beds of small parrrcles

When the slze of packed particles 1s smaller than a crltical value of
1 - 2 mm, veloc~tyd~str~butron of the scale larger than partlcle slze may
become dominant, resulting In a larger contr~but~onof the axla1
dispers~oneffect than that expected from the relation established In the
prevlous sect~on This 1s llkely to be due t o the channeling of flow
Induced by the local lrregular~tyof packlng c o n d ~ t ~ o n s
S u z u k ~ and S m ~ t h (1972) and Mouhjn and van S w a a ~ j (1976)
showed that when partlcle slze of the packing becomes smaller Pe
reaches a limltlng value at ScRe, far smaller than 10 as Illustrated m
 Dlspersron and Mass T m f e r Paramerers rn Packed Beds 183

10
0 Catalyst parllcles
Glass beads S U Z U&
~ ISm~th(19723
A Edwards & R~chardson( 1968)
Suzuk~& Kun11 (1969)
Kl~nkenberg& Sjenltzer (1956)
A van Deemter er a! (1956)

Flg 7.18 Peclet number ( ~ nthe h~gh-velocltyreg~on)versur partlcle d~ameter

(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Suruk~,M and S m ~ t h ,M , Chem Eng J . 3,
262 (1972))

Fig. 7.17. The measured limiting value of Pe is a function of particle

size as shown in Fig. 7.18.

7.6.2. Fluid-to-particle mass transfer coefficient

Regarding mass transfer between fluid and particle, many correlations

have been proposed for both gaseous and liquid phase mass transfer.
Usually the contribution of molecular d~ffusionand that of fluid flow
are considered to be additive as in the case of mass transfer in agitated
vessels.

For the mass transfer coefficient in a stagnant fluid system, Sh,,,, = 2

is used in the case of mass transfer from a slngle particle. In rnulti-
particle systems such as packed beds, however, Sh,,,, takes a different
value for the reason noted in Chapter 5, and Sh,,,, is glven as a function
of void fraction In the packed bed, E , as shown in Fig. 5.1 1 (Suzuki,
1975). However, in most cases of adsorption in packed beds, it is rare
for mass transfer resistance at low flow rate to become a rate-controlling
step. The criteria for this situation are shown by Kunii and Suzuki
(1967) roughly as ScRe,<lO where fluid flowing in void spaces reaches
equilibrium with the surrounding particle surface during the contact
time with one layer of particles.
Many correlations have been proposed for the effect of fluid flow on
the mass transfer coefficient, Shn,,. Some of the equations easily used
are given below.
In the turbulent flow regime (Re,>100) in packed beds, regardless of
gaseous or liquid phase, the laminar boundary layer develops on the
surface of particles, acting as a shield against the effect of neighboring
particles. Then mass transfer between bulk stream and the surface of
the particle is described by the ordinary laminar boundary layer
equation and the following form can be derived by Carberry (1960).

where the Schmidt number, Sc, is defined as p l p D and the Reynolds

number, Re,, is based on particle diameter as d , p u , l ~ In deriving
Eq. (7-91), velocity distribution in the laminar boundary layer was
assumed to be proportional to the square root of the distance from the
surface.
Wakao and Funazkri (1978) correlated the published data by cor-
recting the effect of axial dispersion and gave

In the laminar flow regime (Re,<100), boundary layer treatment does

not hold. In gaseous phase, mass transfer resistance is not an important
step, since, as discussed before, ScRe, becomes rather small and fluid
phase is considered to be in equilibrium with the surface of the
particles in this range. In liquid phase mass transfer, however, because
of the magnitude of the S c number, ScRe, becomes larger than 10 even
though Re, is small and concentration boundary layer on the surface of
the particle must be considered.
For mass transfer at low Re, in liquid phase, theoretical treatment
based on free surface model (Pfeffer, 1964) or hydraulic radius model
(Kataoka el al., 1972) gave similar results. For instance, the free surface
model assumes a concentric annular cell of fluid around a particle as
mentioned in Section 5.4.1 and concentration profile was obtained
assuming potential flow in the cell at a low Rep number region, in which
 Dispersion and Mas Tramfer Parame~ersmPocked Beak 185

Reynolds number Re, ( - )

Fig 7 19 Sherwood number correlations for packed beds

case the results are as follows

A hydraullc radius model assumes the fluid path in the void spaces in a
packed bed to be equivalent to an assembly of the tubes whose radius IS
taken as the hydraullc radlus of the void spaces Then the resultant
relation of mass transfer coefficient is given as

Correlation of the experimental data In this region is given by Wllson

and Geankoplis (1966) as

Sh = (I 0 9 1 ~ Scjl3RePi"
) for 0 0015<Rep<55 (7-96)

Comparison of these equations are made in Fig 7 19

In the case of aqueous phase adsorption of volatile organics on
activated carbon, due to the r a p ~ dd ~ f f u s ~ oinside
n the carbon particle,
mass transfer between fluid and partlcle can play a sign~ficantrole in the
overall mass transfer rate process.

Antonson, C R and J S Dranoff, AlChE Symp ,Ser 65 (96), 20 and 27 (1969)

Ans, R and N R Amundson. AIChE Journal. 3,280 (1957)
Carberry, J J , AIChE Journal, 6,460 (1960)
Carberry, J J , AIChE Journal, 4, 13M (1958)
.
Carter, J W and H Husa~n,Chem Eng Scr 29 267 (1974)
Caner, J W and H Husaln, Trans I Chem Eng. 50, 69 (1972)
Cooney, D 0 and N Lightfoot, Ind Eng Chem F d . 4, 233 (1965)
Coppola, A P and D LeVan. Chem f i g So,36 967 (1981)
Edwards, M F and J F Rshardson, Chem h g Scr , 23, 109 (1968)
.
Fleck, R D ,J r D J K~nvanand K R Hall, Ind h g Chem Fund. 12.95 (1973)
Garg, D R and D M Ruthven, Chem f i g Scr , 30. 1192 (1975)
Garg, D R and D M Ruthven, Chem Eng Scr , 29, 571 (1974)
Garg, D R and D M Ruthven, Chem Eng Scr, 29, 1%1 (1974)
.
Garg, D R and D M Ruthven, Chem Eng Sci 28,79 1, 799 (1973)
Glueckauf, E , Tmns Faraday Soc. 51, 1540 (1955)
Hall K R L C Eagleton, A Acr~vosand T Vermeulen, Ind Eng Chem F w d 5, 212
(1966)
Hashlmoto, K K Mlura and M Tsukano, J Chem Eng Japan. 10, 27 (1977)
Kataoka, T , H Yoshlda and K Ueyama J C k m &g Japan. 5, 132 (1972)
Kawazoe, K and Y Fukuda, Kagaku Kogaku, 29 374 (1965) (In Japanese)
Kawazoe, K and I Sug~yama,Serran Krnkyu 21.563 (1967) (In Japanese)
Kawazoe, K and Y Takeuchl, J Chpm Eng Japan, 7,431 (1974)
.
Kl~nkenbergA Ind E q Chem , 46,2285 (1954)
Kllnkenberg A and F Sjenitzer, Chem Eng Scr 5,258 (1956)
Kunl~,D and M 5uzuki In! J Heat Marr Transfer 10, 845 (1967)
Kyte W S , Chem Eng Scl 28, 1853 (1973)
Markham, E C and A F Benton, J Am Chem Soc. 53,497 (1931)
Masamune. S and J M Sm~th,AlChEJournal 11 35 (1965)
Michaels A S Ind Eng Chem 44 1922 (1952)
M ~ u r aK
, and K Harh~moto.J Chrm E q Japan, 10.490 (1977)
Moulijn and van S Waarj (1976)
Myers A L and J M Prausn~tz,AIChEJournal 11, 121 (1965)
Pfeffer R Ind Eng Chem Fund 3 380 (1964)
. .
Rasmuson. A Chem Eng Scr 37. 787 ( 1982)
Rasmuson. A and 1 Neretnleks. A l C h E J o u r ~ l 26,686
, (1980)
Rosen, J B ,Ind Eng Chem 46 1590 (1954)
.
Rosen, J B J Chem Phjs 20 387 (1952)
Suzukl. M Kagaku Kogahu. 29. 253 (1965) (In Japanese)
Suzuk~,M and D Kunll. 34rh Annual Mfg J Soc Chem f i g r s (1969)
Suzuk~,M J Chem E q Japan 8, 163 (1975)
Suzukl, M and J M Smith. Chem Eng J 3 256(1972)
Takeuch~,Y , E Furuya and Y Suzuk~ K o g ~ oYosur (Industrial Water). 233, 30 (1978)
(In Japanese)
Tien. C and G Thodos AfChE Journal 5. 373 (1959)
van Deemter J J F J Zu~derwegand A Kl~nkenberg,Chem Eng Scr 5 271 (1956)
Verrneulen T P i r n s Cllrrn Eng Handbook, 6th ed (eds R H Perry & D Green).
McGraw-Hill. 'trw York (1984)
Wakao h and T Fun~7kri.Cheni Fng Scr 33 1375 (1978)
W~lson E J and C J Geankopl~slnd Enr Chem Fund 5 9 (1966)
Zwiebel I R L C~drrepvand J J 5chnlt/cr AfChEJournal I8 1139 (1972)
 8
Heat Effect in Adsorption Operation

Adsorption is accompanied by the evolution of heat, and temperature

changes affect the adsorption equilibrium relation and, in some cases,
adsorption rate. Thus, especially in gas phase adsorption, the effects of
heat generation and heat transfer in adsorbent beds must be taken into
account. This is essential in the case of thermal regeneration of
exhausted adsorbent using steam or hot inert gases, a topic which is
discussed in Chapter 9.
Heat generation also affects measurement of adsorption rate by batch
techniques such as the gravimetric method. First, the effect of heat
transfer rate on measurement of adsorption rate by a batch method is
shown using a simple model as an example of nonisothermal effect.
Then fundamental equations for heat transfer in packed beds are shown
and simplified models presented. Estimation mehtods for heat transfer
rate parameters in packed beds are introduced followed by a discussion
of heat transfer in an adsorbent bed in adsorption equilibrium to show
the coupling effect of heat and mass dispersion. Finally, the effect of
heat transfer on adsorption dynamics in a column is illustrated using
simple models.

8.1. Effect of Heat Generation on Adsorption Rate

Measurement by a Single Particle Method
A single particle gravimetric method, for example, is often used to
determine adsorption rate. In most cases analysis is based on isothermal
adsorption neglecting heat generation due to adsorption. Depending on
the system employed and experimental conditions, this assumption may
become critical.
The effect of heat generation can be checked and the critical conditions
for negligible heat effect derived (Chihara and Suzuki, 1976) employing
a simple model of mass and heat transfer.
Heat balance and mass balance equations for an adsorbent particle in
response to a step change of gas phase concentration from Co to Cmare
as follows.

where Q,,is the heat of adsorption, p,, Cp and R represent the density,
the specific heat and radius of the adsorbent particle. h, and kc denote,
respectively, heat transfer coefficient between particle and the wall and
mass transfer coefficient between particle and fluid. In Eqs. (8-1) and
(8-2), AT, Aq and AC are defined as deviations from the final
equilibrium states, and then AT = T - T,, Aq = q - q-, AC= C ( q ,
T) - C-, where T, represents the wall temperature and q, is the amount
adsorbed in equilibrium with the concentration, C-.
Initial and final conditions are:

r = 0 : Aq = Aqo = qo(Co,T,) - q.. and A T = 0

r==: Aq=O and A T = O

By assuming that ACo = CO- C- is small enough so that Eq. (8-2) can
be linearized for the perturbation as

I I
where K = ,H =
[a c* 1dqlq-.
TW [ac*/aTlq..T~ '
Eqs. (8-1) and (84) are solved to give

where 11>12 and

 Eflect of Hear Generarron on Rare Measurement 189

+
with y = 1 r h ( l +
fa), q = JYq
and I, = ppK(qm,Tw).R/(3kr).
The parameters r, and rt, are defined as

These parameters mean

apparent heat capacity due to adsorptiondesorption effect
T. =
heat capacity of adsorbent
time constant of heat transfer
Th =
time constant pf mass transfer

Obviously, when T.=O (negligible heat generation o r temperature effect

on equilibrium) or T ~ = O (rapid thermal equilibrium attainment) holds,
Eq. (8-5) reduces to

which is the solution for an isothermal case.

The effects of T, and rh are readily shown by comparing Eqs. (8-5) and

Flp 8 1 Ad\orptlon uptakcs conctdcr~nghcat gcneratlon ellect

by C h ~ h d r d .K and ~ u r u k l M
( ~ i ~ r o d u c ew~thperrn~tslon
d . , Chem Enq Scr. 31.
506 (1976))
(8-13). This is done in Fig. 8.1 in the form of adsorption uptake curves.
For the range rhra<O. 1 the isothermal assumption is reasonable, while
uptake curves deviate from Eq. (8-13) for larger rhr,.
A more detailed discussion based on a diffusional model for mass
transfer is given by Ruthven et al. (1980) and is consistent with the above
results.

8.2. Basic Models of Heat Transfer in Packed Beds

A packed bed of solid particles usually has poorer heat transfer ability
compared with heat transfer in solid. This is true in the case of
adsorbent particles. Heat transfer in packed beds of adsorbents can be
described by models of varying degrees of simplicity.
One rigorous model is shown in Fig. 8.2, where temperature difference
between fluid and particle is taken into account and temperature
distribution in the radial direction in the bed occurs due to heat
exchange through the column wall. In such cases a set of equations for
heat transfer is given as follows.
For fluid phase:

Center

Fig. 8 2. Temperature d~str~butions

in a radial d~rect~on
of the bed
 Busic Models of He01 Tromfer in Pocked Bedr 191

And for solid phase:

d dT, dT,
k ( r ) } +a - 1 +Q =P (8-15)

In the above equations, Cpr and C,, denote heat capacities of the fluid
and solid phases, pb is the bed density and hp is the heat transfer coefficient
between fluid and particles. Transport of heat through the fluid phase
in the axial direction and in the radial direction of the bed by conduc-
tion are described by the effective thermal conductivities, k,r and kmr,
while in the solid phase thermal conduction can be assumed to be iso-
tropic and the effective thermal conductivity kd can be used to express
this effect. Qd represents the heat evolution/absorption by adsorption
or desorption on the basis of bed volume. This model neglects the
temperature distribution in the radial position of each particle, which
may seem contradictory to the case of mass transfer, where intra-
particle mass transfer plays a significant role in the overall adsorption
rate. Usually in the case of adsorption, the time constant of heat transfer
in the particle is smaller than the time constant of intraparticle diffusion,
and the temperature in the particle may be assumed to be constant.
The above model is often too complicated hence several simplified
versions are given below.

8.2.1. Homogeneous bed model

When temperature difference between fluid and particle is neglected,

bed temperature, T ( = Tr = T,) is described by the summation of Eqs. (8-
14) and (8-1 5) as follows.

where kc, and kc, represent the effective thermal conductivities in the
axial and radial directions in the packed bed, which are given as follows

These parameters can be calculated from the theoretical equations given

below.
Heat exchange through the column wall is expressed by the boundary
condition as follows.

where hw is the apparent wall heat transfer coefficient.

When heat exchange through the column wall is dominant, heat
conduction in the direction of column length can be neglected in most
cases. In such cases k,, in Eq. (8-16) may be deleted.

8.2.2. Overall heat transfer model

T o simplify heat transfer expression, the cross-sectional average

temperature of the bed, T, is often used as the representative
temperature.

where ho denotes the overall heat transfer coefficient between wall and
bed, calculated from k,, and hw and Tw is the temperature of the wall.

8.2.3. Particle-to-fluid heat transfer model

Temperature difference between particle and fluid can sometimes play

an important role in the overall heat transfer. This may happen at high
flow rates in the adiabatic operations. In such cases, the basic equations
of heat transfer are given below.

8.2.4. Axial heat conduction model

In most adiabatic operations, except when flow rate is very high, heat
transfer in the axial direction by effective conduction may be a
dominant step. Then the temperature in the bed, T, can be given as
 Heat T r a d e r Paramerers in Packed Beds 193

8.3. Heat Transfer Parameters in Packed Beds

8.3.1. Effective thermal conductivities, k.

As shown by Eqs. (8-17) and (8-18), the effective thermal conduc-

tivities in the radial and axial directions are considered to be composed
of the effective thermal conductivity with stagnant fluid, kd, and the
contribution of fluid flow.

A. k, with stagnantjluid,
Kunii and Smith (1960) presented theoretical equations for esti-
mating kd. In most adsorption operations, temperature ranges suggest
that contribution of radiant heat transfer is negligible, so kg can be
calculated when thermal conductivity of the particle, k,, is given.

where kr is the thermal conductivity of fluid and 9 represents the

contribution of solid to solid heat transfer through thin fluid film
around a contacting point of neighboring particles. 9 is given by the
following equations where 41and 42 are shown as a function of k,/kr in

Fig 8 3 +-value5 for calculation of I m a\ a funct~onof k,/kr

(Reproduced n ~ t hpermlsslon by Su7uL.1, M , Kagaku-KofiaIu-kfit~ran,
p 290
(1978))
TABLE8 1 Effective Thermal Conduct~vlt~es
of Adsorbent Packed Beds

Adsorbents Gas kd* kdlkf

Alurn~na Air 0 2-0 29 7-10 4
S~lrcagel Air 0 15-0 22 5 4-8
Activated Alr 019-427 68-4 7
carbon
Ad~vated Steam 0 23 94
carbon (373 K)
unit WImK, Temperature 298 K unless othenr~sespec~fied

Fig 8 3

4 = 42 + (41 - ~ z ) [ ( E- 0 26)/ 0 2 161

for 0 476 L E 2 0 26
4 = 41 for E > 0 476
4 = 4 2 for E < 0 26 I
Several examples of kd calculated from thls equatlon are glven in
(8-24)

TABLE
81

B contrrbutlon ofjlu~djlowto k,
Dlsperslon of fluid in packed beds In the radlal and axlal dlrectlons
contribute to the effectlve thermal conductivlty as an addltlve term to
kd as shown by Eqs (8-17) and (8-18)
For the effectlve thermal conductivlty In the radial d~rectlon,
considerat~onof packing structure gives (Baron, 1952)

Then Eq (8-18) becomes (Yagl and Kunn, 1957)

wherecup= 1 / P e ~ = 01 - 0 I 5 a n d P r = Cpp/kfandR e p = D,puo/p

Regarding the effective thermal conduct~vltyIn the axlal direct~on,a
slmllar conslderatlon gives (Yagl, Kunu and Wakao, 1960),

where 6 = 0 5 - 1 0
 Heat Transfer Parameters in Packed Bedr 195

Fig. 8.4. Heat transfer model in the vicinity of the wall.

8.3.2. Apparent heat transfer coefficient between wall surface

a n d packed bed, h,

Particles near the column wall are arranged in differently from those
inside the column. This increases heat transfer resistance near the wall
surface, an effect accounted for by introducing an apparent heat transfer
coefficient, h,, as shown in Fig. 8.4.
The effective thermal conductivity in the wall layer of thickness
Rp = dp/2,kcw, is defined and h, is considered as a correction factor
based on the difference between kc, and kc, (Kunii and Suzuki, 1966).

where Rp is the radius of particle.

The effective thermal conductivity in the wall layer, kc,, can be
estimated by introducing a treatment similar to that for kc,.

where a, denotes the contribution of fluid mixing in the wall layer and
in several cases a, = 0.2 are obtained. h,* represents the heat transfer
coefficient of the thermal boundary layer which develops on the wall
surface. This becomes dominant at high Re, and is given by a Blasius-
type equation as

where C is an experimental coefficient with a value of 0.1 to 0.2 (Kunii,

Suzuki and Ono, 1968).
kCYOis obtained by the following equation similarly to Eq. (8-23).

where effect of radiant heat transfer is again negligible and EW denotes

void fraction in the wall layer of about 0.7. 6, can be obtained from
Fig. 8.3.

8.3.3. Overall heat transfer coefficient, ho

For heat transfer in packed beds with constant wall temperature, the
overall heat transfer coefficient defined by taking the difference between
wall temperature and the average temperature of the flowing fluid as the
driving force of heat transfer, h,, is obtained as follows.

Flg 8 5 a,' and $I ( h ) for calculat~onof ho against a parameter, h

(Reproduced w ~ t hperrnlsslon by Y a g ~and Kunll, Inr Devel Hear Tronfer IV.
p 754 (1961))
 Chromatographre Study of Heat TraNer vt Packed Beds of Adrorbents 197

alz and 4(b) can be obtained from Fig. 8.5. For extreme cases, the
above equation is readily simplified.
For b < 0.4

and for b>20 and 5 9 . 6 4

8.3.4. Fluid-to-particle heat transfer coefficient, h,

Similar to the case of mass transfer between fluid and particle, the
Carberry equation may be used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient
between particle and fluid.

Nu, = hpdp/kr= Nu0 + (1.1 5/&'f2)P11/3Rep1/2 (8-3 5)

Nu0 can be obtained from Fig. 5.1 1 as a function of void fraction but at
low PrRe,, it is not necessary to employ the model that considers
temperature difference between fluid and particle.

8.4. Chromatographic Study of Heat Transfer

in Packed Beds of Adsorbents
T o understand the coupling effect of adsorption and heat transfer, a
chromatographic study (thermal pulse response) was performed by
Sakoda and Suzuki (1984).
The fundamental relations for chromatographic methods are intro-
duced in Chapter 5 for mass transfer studies. These can be modified to
handle heat transfer problems. In fact, method of moment was used to
determine thermal pulse response in packed beds of inert particles
(Sagara, Schneider and Smith, 1970). From analogy between Eq. (8-
22) without Qadand Eq. (6-55), the first absolute moment and the second
central moment for thermal pulse in an inert bed are given as
where H is defined as [ p i / (221 U O ) ] / [PI/ (zI uo)I2.
When a packed bed of adsorbents is in equilibrium with flowing fluid
which contains an adsorbable component, then Q in Eq. (8-22) should
be considered together with the mass balance equations. In this case,
Qd is defined as

where dqldlt is connected to the mass balance equations as follows.

where q* = q*(C, T ) denotes the amount adsorbed in equilibrium with

C at temperature T.
When a small fluctuation of temperature is introduced to the bed
which is in a dynamic steady state of concentration CO,temperature TO
and the amount adsorbed qo = qo(Co, TO), then by linearizing the
equilibrium relation for a small fluctuation around the steady state
condition, the basic equations for fluctuations of concentration
(C' = C - CO),temperature (T' = T - TO)and amount adsorbed (q' =
q - qo), together with the equilibrium amount adsorbed (q*' = q* - 90)
can be derived.

EZdzCf/dz2- uodC'ldz - k,o,(q*' - q') = &dCf/dt (841)

and

q*' = K* ( d -t T'/ H*) (8-44)

 Chromatographrc Studyof Heat Trrmrjr in Packed Bedr O/ Adrorbenfs 199

K* = d q * / d C I ~ , ~and
, H* = l/(dCldT)Ir,c, (845)

Also, C,, is modified to G, by taking into account the heat capacity of

the adsorbed phase.

The above set of equations are combined to give a differential equation

for T', whose solution for moments are derived by applying an
approximate method by Suzuki (1973) (Sakoda and Suzuki, 1984).

Comparing Eqs. (8-36) and (847) for the first moment and Eqs. (8-37)
and (848) for H , it is interesting to note that for an adsorption
equilibrium system, simple heat transfer relations of Eqs. (8-36) and (8-
37) can be used by replacing Cp,, Cpr and kc, by defining the apparent
parameters as follows.

Fig 8 6 T y p ~ c a lheat pulse response curves for dry bed (1) and the bed In
adsorption equlllbrlum (11)
.
(Reproduced w ~ t hpcrmlsslon by Sahodd, A and Su7ukt. M I Cllrnl Eng
Japan. 17,116. 317 (1984))
 0
- 01 02

q o * (kslkg)

Fig 8 7 Dependency of C', on the amount adsorbed, go*

(Reproduced w ~ t hpermission by Sakoda, A. and Suzuk~,M , J C k m , fig
Jopmr, 17,316 (1984))

From the relations given above. it may be understood that besides the
apparent increases of the heat capacities of solid phase and gas phase,
the apparent transport of heat by dispersion of adsorbable species in gas
phase which carries latent heat through dynamic equilibrium between
gas phase and adsorbed phase should be added to the effective
conduction through the otherwise inert packed bed of adsorbents.
For a s~mpleequlltbr~urn relation such as q = Koexp(Q,,/ RT)C, K*
and H* are glven as

Experimental measurement in a water vapor-silica gel system (Sakoda

and Suzuki, 1984) supports the above results. Fig. 8.6 shows a typical
example of adsorption effect. Obviously, the increase of heat capacity
of fluid due to adsorption/desorption effect (Eq. (8-50)) is stronger than
the effect of existence of adsorbed phase on increase of heat capacity,
which is shown In Fig. 8.7, and the resultant first moment becomes
smaller when the amount adsorbed increases.
 Adtabarrc Adorprron l n a Column 20 1

8.5. Adiabatic Adsorption in a Column

When gas phase adsorption takes place in a large column, heat
generated due to adsorption cannot be removed from the bed wall and
accumulated in the bed because of poor heat transfer characteristics in
packed beds of particles. A typical model of this situations is an
adiabatic adsorption. The fundamental relations for this case are
Eqs. (8-22), (8-38), (8-39) and (8-40), which are essenfially similar to
those employed by Pan and Basmadjian (1950). Thermal equilibrium
between particle and fluid is assumed and only axial dispersion of heat is
taken into account while mass transfer resistance between fluid phase
and partlcle as well as axial dispersion is considered. This situation is
identical with the model employed in the previous section. For further
simplification, axial dispersion effect may be involved in the overall
mass transfer coefficient of the linear driving force model as discussed in
Chapter 5. In this case, after further justifiable simplifications such as
negligible heat capacity and accumulation of adsorbate in void spaces, a
set of basic equations to describe heat and mass balances can be given as
follows.

F I ~8 8 Typ~cal examples of concenlratlon and temperature changes of

effluent strcam from adiabat~cadsorpt~oncolumn
Langmu~r ~sothermr = 0 2. Q,,= 33 kJ/mol. Z = 0 6 m, uo = 0 04 m/s,
KmL'u = 10 Adwrbent C, = 1050 J/kg K. f i = 481 kglml, k, = 0 29 W/mK
Gar Cp(= 1138 Jlkg K , p, = I 21 kg,'m7. CO= 1 0 mol/ml, go = 1 0 mollkg
(a), 3 8 molikg (b). 10 mol/ kg (c)
where adsorption equilibrium relation holds between q*, C and T.

Several works assume that heat transfer between fluid and particle is a
major heat transfer parameter (Carter, 19661973; Meyer and Weber,
1967-1969; Raghavan and Ruthven, 1983). This situation may become
more likely when operation is carried out at high flow rate (Redloo).
Examples of calculation for adiabatic adsorption by means of the
above set of equations are given in Fig. 8.8 for adsorption of hydro-
carbon gas on activated carbon columns. Effect of heat generation on
the shape of adsorption front is clearly shown. By assuming that the
equilibrium constant varies with keeping the other parameters constant,
changes in thermal waves are also illustrated, i.e. when velocity of adsorp-
tion front is slower than that of the thermal wave which is generated at
the adsorption front, the thermal wave proceeds in front of the adsorp-
tion front while in the opposite case the formation of adsorption front is
greatly affected by the temperature increase in the bed.
Analogous to Eq. (8-36), propagation speed of heat wave in packed
beds, VH,is given from Eq. (8-54) as

F I ~8 9 Effect of heat exchange through the wall on breakthrough curve

and temperalure change of effluent stream
Overall heat transfer parameter. h a 4 1 h i = 0 (adlabat~c)(a). 10 (b)
and 100 (c) 91,= 3 8 moli kg and other parameters refer to Fig 8 8
 Also for isothermal adsorption, propagation speed of adsorpt~onfront,
VM,is given similar to Eq. (7-62) as

where go is the amount adsorbed in equilibrium with CO at inlet

temperature, TO. In Eqs. (8-58) and (8-59) accumulation of heat and
mass in void spaces can be considered negligible compared with
accumulation in the particle phase for the sake of simplicity.

8.6. Adsorption with Heat Transfer Through the Wall

In an adsorbent bed of relatively small diameter, heat exchange
through the column wall becomes appreciable. In this case, the overall
heat transfer model introduced in 8.2(ii) can replace Eq. (8-54). Then
similar calculations ae possible by taking the overall heat transfer
coefficient ho and/or the radius of the column R, as a parameter to
examine this effect. Calculation using the same example considering this
effect is shown in Fig. 8.9. Obviously the heat transfer parameter, (ho/
R,)(C,iptuo/ L), which is derived from the dimensionless form of the heat
balance equation, determines the effect of heat transfer through the wall.

. .
Baron, T Chem EM Proar 48, 118 (1952)
Carter. J W , ran,- Insr - ~ h e n t ~ n ~ i44.
s .T253 (1966), 46 T213, T222 (1968). 51, T75
( 1973)
Chlhara, K and M Suzukr, Chem Eng Scr, 31,505 (1976).
Kunir. D and J M S m ~ t h AIChEJouml,
. 6.97 (1960)
Kunrr, D and M Suzukl, 3rd Inr Dev on Hear Trader, IV, 344 (1966)
Kuni~,D , M Suzuk~and N Ono, J Chem Eng Japan, 1, 21 (1968)
Meyer, 0 W and T W Weber, AfChEJournal, 13,457 (1967)
Pan, C Y and D Basmadj~an,Chem Eng Scr , 25, 1653 (1970)
Raghavan, N S and D M Ruthven, Chem Eng Scr, 39, 1201 (1984)
Ruthven, D M ,L -K Lee and H Yucel. AIChE Journal. 26. 16 (1980)
.
Sagara, M P Schne~derand J M Srnlth, Chem Eng J., 1.47 (1970)
Sakoda, A and M Suruk~,J Chem Eng Japan. 17,316 (1984)
Suzuk~,M ,J Chem Eng Japan, 6,540 (1973)
Yag~,S and D Kunu, AfChE Journal 3,373 (1957)
Yagr, S , D Kunu, and N Wakao, AIChE Journal, 6,543 (1960)
Yosh~da,H and D M Ruthven, Chem fig Sct, 38,877 (1983)
 9
Regeneration of Spent Adsorbent

Adsorption is an unsteady process and regeneration or reactivation of

the adsorbent is needed for recyclic use. The primary objective of
regeneration is to restore the adsorption capacity of exhausted
adsorbent while the secondary objective is to recover valuable
components present in the adsorbed phase, if any.
Since adsorption operations are a cyclic process composed of
adsorption step and regeneration step, efficiency and cost of regenera-
tion play important 'roles in the overall feasibility of an adsorption
process.
There are several alternative processes available for the regeneration
of spent adsorbents: 1) desorption by inert stream or low pressure
stream, 2) desorption at high temperature where adsorption isotherm is
considerably advantageous for desorption, 3) desorption by changing
affinity between adsorbate and adsorbent by chemical reagent, 4)
desorption by extracting adsorbates by strong solvents, and 5) removal
of adsorbates by thermal decomposition or biochemical decomposition.
Methods I and 2 are commonly used for regeneration of adsorbents
used for gaseous phase adsorption. Naturally, method 2 can be applied
for liquid phase adsorption if the equilibrium relation allows in specific
cases. Fig. 9.1 shows these schemes of desorption. Desorption using an
inert stream free of adsorbent is essentially the same operation as
adsorption, which can be analyzed by the same basic equation with
different initial, and boundary conditions. The same is true of
desorption at high temperature (thermal desorption) except that the
equilibrium relation is very different. Also, in the actual operation of
thermal desorption, nonisothermal treatment becomes important in
most cases. The combination of desorption at low pressure and
adsorption at high pressure is the principle of pressure swing operation
(PSA), which is discussed in Chapter 11.
Methods 3 and 4 are specific to liquid phase adsorption and especially
effective when recovery of adsorbate is desirable. Desorption by
alkaline solution is often used for recovery of organic acids adsorbed on
 0 Concentration

Fig. 9.1. Conceptual schemes of desorption methods.

activated carbons. In this case low adsorbability of dissociated organic

acids in comparison with organic acids of molecular form is utilized.
Also, extractive desorption of adsorbed organics by using organic
solvents is an example of solvent regeneration, where extraction of an
adsorbate by solvent as well as displacement of adsorption sites by
adsorbed solvent molecules results in the effective desorption of
adsorbate molecules.
When unknown multicomponent organics are adsorbed in such cases
as activated carbons used in water treartment, simple desorption is not
applicable to fully restore adsorption capacity. In this case, regeneration
at high temperature by oxidizing gases, such as steam (thermal
regeneration), which resembles activation process of activated carbon, is
commonly used. When adsorbed organics are biochemically decom-
posable or chemically oxidizable, biochemical or chemical oxidation
may be applied for regeneration of spent activated carbons from water
treatment.

9.1. Thermal Desorption in Gas Phase

For the exhausted adsorbents from gas phase adsorption, regenera-
tion by thermal desorption is most commonly used. For example,
activated carbon used to prevent contamination of air by organic
solvents of low concentrations, and silica gel, activated alumina or
zeolite used for dehumidification of gases are regenerated by high
temperature steam, air or inert gases. In the case of organic adsorbates
 Thermal Desorprron m Gar Phase 207

such as ketones and esters, polymerization reactions or oxidizing

reactions which occur in micropores of adsorbent particles sometimes
cause severe problems such as explosion, fire or at least insufficient
recovery of adsorption sites. This type of problem should be considered
first when selecting a regenerant gas.
For estimation of desorption curves from an exhausted adsorbent
bed, the basic equations for mass and heat balances in an adiabatic
column are as follows.

u,d C/ dz 4-KraA C - C*)= 0 (9- 1)

When high temperature inert gas is introduced to the bed, the above set
of equations must be solved simultaneously under a proper set of initial
and boundary conditions and concentration and temperature profiles in
the effluent stream can be readily obtained.
Analogous to adsorption in a column with nonisothermal conditions,
the thermal front formed by a high temperature inlet stream moves
through the column and changes the equilibrium relation at and after
the front. Velocity of the thermal front is described by neglecting
consumption of heat due to desorption heat as

Veloclty of desorptlon wave, V D ,is also determined by the ratio of the

amount adsorbed, q, to the concentration, C, in equilibrium with q at
temperature, T.

The relation between C*, T and q are in most cases understood as

follows: C* increases exponent~ally with the temperature rise for a
constant q and for a constant T, q is convexly dependent on C.
Thus by chooslng a high enough temperature, imaginary speed of
desorption front can be made faster than the speed of the thermal wave.
In thls case, desorbed species at the thermal front u accoumulated at the
 Fig. 9 2 Typ~calexamples of calculated elution CUNes. Soltd l~nes case (A),
broken l~nes case (B)
CO= I 0 moll rn3, q,, = 4 moll kg,
10 = pt,qoL/ Cou, k,, = 0 29 Jj rn s K,
C p , = lO5OJ/kgK, Cpr= 1138JlkgK.
PI,= 481 kg/m7, Qrt = 32930 J! mol,
L = 0.6 m
case (A) u, = 0 04 mjs, regeneratlon temp = 350 K
case (B) u, = 0 004 m/s, regeneratlon temp = 500 K

front and a high concentration peak with less tail can be expected.
On the other hand, when the desorption temperature is not high
enough, desorption gradually occurs and long tailing will be expected as
in the case of desorption by an inert stream at the adsorption
temperature.
Numerical examples of the solution to the above set of equations for
desorption by a high temperature inert gas are shown in Fig. 9.2 for
those two extreme cases.

9.2. Chemical Desorption from a Column

When the adsorption isotherm in liquid phase can be modified by
changing pH or by introducing an organic solvent, desorption can be
expected to occur in a manner similar to thermal desorption in the case
of gas phase adsorption operation. Desorption behavior is determined
by the change of adsorption isotherm and intraparticle d~ffusionin the
desorbent phase
Fundamental equations are similar to Eqs. (9-1) to (9-4) and given as
follows
 Chemical Desorprionfrom a Column 209

u,dC/dz + K F ~ , ( C- C*)= 0
&a,(C - C*) = pbdqldt

where Cd and Cd* respectively denote concentration of desorbent in the

stream and particle phases. Adsorption or chemical consumption of
desorbent by adsorbent particles or adsorbate may become significant in
some cases but can usually be neglected since a large amount of
desorbent is introduced in comparison with the amount consumed in the
column.
Several examples for desorption of this type are glven below: I)
desorption of organics from activated carbon by methanol (Sudo and
Suzuki, 1985), 2) concentrating desorptlon of uranium from the resin
adsorbent used for recovery of uranium from sea water by using an acid
solution (Suzukl et a/., 1986), and 3) desorption of ammonium ion
from the clinoptilolite used for water treatment by sodium chloride
solution (Ha and Suzuki, 1984). Also, alkaline desorption for phenols
adsorbed on the activated carbons or acid desorption of phosphate
trapped on zirconium oxide adsorbent and many other examples may be
analyzed by s~milarmethods

9.2.1. Elution of organics adsorbed o n activated carbon by

methanol

Organic solvents such as alcohols and benzenes can be used for

desorbing adsorbed organics For Instance, adsorption isotherms of o-
chlorobenzoic acid on activated carbons from alcohol-water mlxtures of
different ratios are shown In Fig. 9.3. Obv~ously,the higher the alcohol
content in the mixture, the less the adsorbed amount of o-chlorobenzoic
acld on the activated carbon. This 1s readlly understood as the change
of solvophobic effect
Using thls equlllbrlum relatlon and the prevlous set of equations,
elutlon curves by means of methanol eluant from the activated carbon
column whlch has adsorbed o-chlorobenzo~cacid can be calculated The
rate of desorptlon is also dependent on alcohol content and the amount
adsorbed, but as a rough estimation simple treatment of constant
Fig 9 3 Adsorption isotherm of phenol on activated carbon from alcohol-
water mixtures of different ratios

u = 0 096 ml/s
C A L 071-1 Omm
Column 4 Omm~XZOOmrnl

-,
-
-g' so00
C,

0 50
Emuent vol of MeOH ( m l )

Fig 9 4 Dcwrpt~on curve of phenol from act~vaced carbon column by

methanol
 Chemrcal Desorpfronfiom a Column 2 1 1

diffuslvlty; thus constant K~a,'s can be adopted for breakthrough of

alcohol and desorption of o-chlorobenzoic acid. Comparison of the
measured elution curve with the calculated one is given in Fig. 9.4. Thus
desorbed organics can be recovered as a high concentration solution and
used as a resource.

9.2.2. Concentrating desorption of uranium from resin adsorbent

by acid

Since uranium is present in sea water in such low concentrations as

3.2pg/l, adsorption recovery could become a feasible method of
extraction and concentration for further utilization. Amidoxime resin is
one of the promising adsorbents for this purpose and in fact after
contact with sea water for more than one hundred days the resin can
accumulate several hundred mg/l of uranium in the bed. The resin also
adsorbs alkaline earth metals such as calcium and magnesium, which
must first be removed by a weak acid solution. Desorptlon of uranium
by hydrochloric acid solutions of different concentrations and the
resultant equilibrium relations are shown in Fig. 9.5. From this result,
hydrochloric acid of one molell was selected as an eluant. Acid elution
and uranium desorption are solved simultaneously by a similar set of

Urdn~umconcentrailon C, (mg I )

Fig 9 5 Desorptron ~sothermsof uranlum at a c ~ dconcentration levels of 0 1,

0 2 . 0 4 , 0 6 and 1 0 mol, I
(Reproduced with permrsston by Suzukr. M er al, 2nd Inr Conf on Funda-
rnenrolc of Adtorprron, 545, 546 (1986). Eng Foundat~on)
 Emuent volume ( B V )
Fig. 9 6 Comparison of calculated and measured elution curves from a
saturated column with hydrochloric acld solution. S Y = 3
(Reproduced with permission by Suzuki, M e! a l . 2nd In! Conf on Funda-
men!als of Adrorpuon. 545, 546 (1986). Eng Foundation)

equations and it was found that desorbed uranium 1s accumulated near

the acid elution front and a concentrated peak of more than 4000 mg/l
can be obtained. Comparison of the calculation and the measurement is
given in Fig. 9.6.

9.2.3. Regeneration of clinoptilolite used f o r ammonium removal

Ammonium ion in water is effectively captured by clinoptilolite of

sodium type, where sodium ion is exchanged by ammonium ion.
Therefore, exchange equilibrium relation follows the mass action law
and the relation is shown in Fig. 9.7. The empirical formula for
equilibrium is given as

where Y and X respectively are fractional ionic strength of ammonium

in solid phase and In aqueous phase. By using sodium chloride solution
of high concentration, ammonium type clinopt~lolitecan be regenerated
 Chemrcol Desorprronjrorn o Column 213

Fig 9 7 Cornpanson of calculated and measured ammonium ron exchange

samples A and B
isotherms for cl~nopt~lolrte
(Reproduced with permission by Suzuk~,M and K -H Ha, J Chem f i g Japan,
17, 142 (1984))

Fig 9 8 Effect of flow rate on effluent curve during regeneration of spent

clinoptilolite by sodlum chloride solut~on
.
(Reproduced w~thpermlsslon by K -H Ha and Suzukr, M J Chem f i g Japan,
17 300 (1984))

the sodium type

In t h ~ case
s total cation mass balance and s o d ~ u mIon mass balance In
column are solved simultaneously and concentration of ammonlum
ion is determined as the difference between total ion concentration and
that of sodium ion. More detailed analysis was made using the mass
balance equation based on diffusion inside particle phase,

instead of Eq. (9-8).

Examples of ammonium elution curves are given in Fig. 9.8 for
various space velocities of eluant.

9.3. Thermal Regeneration of Spent Activated Carbon

from Water Treatment
Granular activated carbon used in water treatment usually contain
many different kinds of organics and chemical o r extractive desorption
may be effective only on some fractions of the total organics adsorbed.
The most widely used regeneration method is thermal regeneration,
which is similar to the production process of activated carbons.

9.3.1. Reactors for thermal regeneration of activated carbon

Reactors widely used for the thermal regeneration of spent carbon are
multiple hearth reactors, rotary kilns, moving bed reactors and fluidized
bed reactors. Comparisons of these reactors were made in terms of
residence time, steam and fuel consumption in Fig. 9.9 (Suzuki, 1976).

9.3.2. Principles of thermal regeneration

Independent of reactor type, spent activated carbons introduced in the

reactor pass through three main steps during the temperature rise, as
shown in Fig. 9.10. Drying of wet spent carbon occurs around 373 to
383 K where a large amount of heat is consumed for evaporation heat.
Then, during temperature rise t o about 1000 K, desorption of volatile
organics, thermal cracking (decomposition) of fragile organics and
pyrolitic polymerization of some high molecule o r phenolic organics
occur in the activated carbon. This step leaves carbonized residues
which must be gasified by steam introduced at around 1100 to 1200 K. A
problem in the last step is the selective gasification of carbonized residue
since activated carbon itself is readily gasified by oxidizing gases such as
 TYPC
-
Illustratton Character~st~cs Defic~cncy Opcratton data *
Multiple Herreshof furnace, BSP- Rotatlng rabble arms moves InsuIlic~ent gas-sol~d con- Restdencc ttme 30mtn to
hearth fur S u m ~ t o m o , Nichols-0- carbon on each hearth tact Dtllicult control of sol~d 1 Ohr Steam injection ca 1
nace rgano, N~hongalshi pro toward center or outs~de temperature Interm~ttent kg/kg carbon
cesses By adjusting rotatlng speed, operatton IS not economtcal Fuel r e q u ~ r e d Kerosene
E,,au,t Coolins a,r oullct ~ s l d e n c etlmc of carbon IS Mtnrmum reactor capactty is 0 45to0 6 I/kgcarbon or pro
contmlled 1 ton/day pane 120 Ifkg carbon
Usually 4 to 8 heanhs/un~t Needs afterburner for emls About the same amount of
thermornctcr For 6 heanh unlt, upper 3 ston control fuel is nccdcd for an after-
hearths arc used for drylng, burner Fuel can be reduced
next for heatlng and the last by heat rccovcry
Ir atcarn ~nlet
2 hearths for acttvatlon
Treatment capactty 1s 400 to
2mo,julator 500 kg/day/ml heanh area
Many exlstlng plants In U S
and Japan
carbon to quenching

Rotary Japan F u r n a c t M l t s u ~Con Internal heating at drylng Small contact area between Restdence ttme 20 mln
kiln st C o process section and external heating solid and gas and small heat Steam ~ n j e c t e d 1 0 kg/k
at temperature rlse and exchange area at the external gcarbon
on gastficat~onstep Slow cml- heating section requlms large Fuel Heavy 011 1 0 l/kgcar
tng after regcneratlon stzed equipment bon

g;ulficatlon) Act~vated
carbon
 Kerosene 0 3 l/kg car-

cabon Exhaust gas mperature control

H ~ g hattrltlon of panlcles

Fuel 2500 kcallkg carbon

W ~ d ennadence tlme dlntnbu-

Actlvarcd carbon to qucnchlng

* kqcarbon refers to 1 kg of activated carbon after regeneration

FIO 9 9 rnrnn.rl=nn nf rrornrrr+ann rrarrnrc ..+-I -..-I...-

 l3ermal Regeneration of Spenr Actrvared Carbon from Warer Treatrnenr 2 17

steam if conditions such as temperature are not carefully chosen.

Naturally, the regenerant gases must be free of oxygen since it easily
bums activated carbon even at lower temperatures.

9.3.3. Changes in the temperature rise step

Below 1000 K, gas stream is considered inert unless it contains

oxygen. Thus change of organics adsorbed on activated carbon during
the temperature rise step may be estimated by thermal gravity analysis
(TGA) of activated carbon samples which have adsorbed different kinds
organics (Suzuki er al., 1978).
TGA curves of adsorbed organics were classified by shape into three
different types, which are shown in Fig. 9.1 1. They are:
(I) Thermal desorption type: concave TGA curves.
(11) Thermal cracking type: convex TGA curves.
(111) Carbonization type: gradual TGA curves.
By observing TGA curves of thirty-two different organics loaded on
activated carbon (TABLE 9.1), classification into three types were
attempted based on the boiling points of the organics and the aromatic

Spent carbon

Gaslficat~on
. Dcsorption
low b p
organlcs
Thermdl

section ca 800'C
;
1
Cooling (Quench~ng)
"g
of

Oxlddn
HzO. CL,
B
]
v-pdr
Low molecular
wclght organics,
odor, ctc
Cracking res~duc

I H2,CO
etc

tlal gdrificar~on

Fig 9 10 Pnnc~pleof thermal regeneration of spent activated carbon-change

of adsorbed organlcs
(Reproduced a ~ t hpermission by Surukl. M , Kagahu Kogoku. 40.408 (1976))
exhaust
 Temperature

F I ~9 1 1 a Phenomenolog~calclass~ficat~on of thenno-grav~ty-analys~s
(TGA)
curves of adsorbed organlcs on act~vatedcarbons
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermission by Suzuk~,M et al, Chem Eng Scr. 33, 274
( 1978))

10

08-

06-
-
I

.-.
P
P
\
'
04-
!
Hum~cacid-'-
-. .__
\
\
---
02-

1 I
0 200 400 600 800
Temperature ('C)

Fig 9 1 1 b T\pical TGA curves of organics of groups 2 and 3

(Reproduced u ~ t hpermission bv Su7uk1. M er 01. Chem En!: S(r 33, 275
(1 978))
 Thermal Regeneration of Spent Acttvated Carbonfrom Water Treatment 219

h g 9 12. Boil~ngpoint-6 (aromatic carbon fract~on)plots of the organlcs

cxamlned Hollow clrclcs, sol~dc~rclesand crosses, respec~lvclycorrespond to
groups 1.2 and 3 Keys refer to TABLE 9 1 6 values of hum~cacid and lign~narc
unknown
(Reproduced w ~ t hperrntsslon by Suzuk~,M et al, Chem Eng Scr. 33, 278
(1978)).

carbon content, 9,defined as

= number of aromatic carbon in the molecule

total number of carbon in the molecule

Then, as shown in Fig. 9.12, the organics that have low boiling points
belong to Type I. Obviously, low boiling point corresponds to low heat
of vaporization of the organic, which is a measure of low heat of
adsorption of the organic on activated carbon. The organics with higher
boiling points cannot be desorbed before they undergo thermal cracking
on the adsorbent surface. The cracking temperature is strongly
dependent on the nature of the cracking reaction of the molecule. Type
I1 assumes that fragmented reaction products are easily desorbed from
the activated carbon surface. Type 111 probably corresponds to those
organics which form polymeric products after some type of sequential
cracking reaction on the carbon surface, resulting in relatively high ratio
of carbonized residue.

9.3.4. Models for T G A kinetics

Two models were proposed to explain TGA behavior of types I and

I1
Model (a): For the thermal desorption type, equilibrium desorption
 PIPIPIPIPI 0
P I ~ Y I Y I ~
NNNNN -
N

nno N N ~ O
2 ~ f im o z m

---mm
-2 -2 -? w m Z Y I * r -
--SO-$z
--
0 0 0 0 0
, ,, w - o O o N
u u U O - O O m Q
X X S o o o o o o
 Thermal Regenerollon of Spent Acrrvared Carbonfrom Warer Trearmenr 221

with the Langmuir isotherm is considered as a first approximate. When

an activated carbon loaded with q grams of an organic per gram of the
carbon is in equilibrium with pressure p, the temperature dependence of
q is given as follows:

where K is an equilibrium constant expressed in terms of isosteric heat

of adsorption, Q,,,as

K = K , exp(Qst/RT) (9- 16)

Then, assuming that both p and 90 are temperature independent,

Eqs. (9-15) and (9- 16) give

By fitting this equation with experimentally obtained curves, Q,,can be

determined. For use in practical comparison with TGA curves of type I,
the temperature at 9/90 = 112, T,,?,and the slope of the tangential line
of TGA curve at 9/90 = 112 are recommended. Since Tin and the
reciprocal slope, A T, are given as

10

--
-I

c3
I
Tangen1 at T = TI,^

y 0 5 -----------.----------------
A

9
c3
I
-c3

2
c3

0
TI z
Temper.~ture

Fig 9 13 D e f i n ~ t ~ oofn T l i 2and A T of exper~mentalTGA curves

Fig. 9.13 shows definitions of TI/Zand AT. If the ratio of AT and Tl12 is
taken, then

and in the case when qo = q- holds

Medel (b): For thermal cracking type, the first order reaction kinetics
is assumed as a first approximation. The basic equation is

where k is given by the Arrhenius equation

k = k, exp(-E/ RT) (9-23)

By setting the heating rate as m = dT/df, Eqs. (9-22) and (9-23) give

dq/q = - k o / m exp(-El RT) d T (9-24)

Integration of the above equation becomes

where

Similar to the thermal desorption model, TI/^ and ATof TGA curves
defined by Fig. 9.13 can be related to the above solution.
 l3ermal Regeneralton of Spent A~tvaredCarbonfrom Water Trearmenl 223

Fig. 9 14 D~agramsfor obtalnlng x = E/RTI,Ifrom H x )

" -\

Model ( a )
x Model (b)
0 0 Measured

7
-
- 06-
P
\
P 04-
b . "exane

1
0 200 40 600 800
Temperature ('C)

Fig 9 IS Compar~sono f models w ~ t hmeasured TGA-curves

The function *(x) vs. x is shown in Fig. 9.14. From the above relation,
it is clear that the activat~onenergy E can be determined from by
employing Fig. 9.14 Obviously, the pre-exponential factor k, is
obtained from E as
 These two models are compared with the TGA curves of n-hexane
and polyethylene glycol (PEG) in Fig. 9.15. In the figure the thermal
desorption model compares better than the thermal cracking model with
the TGA curve of n-hexane while the reverse is true for the TGA curve
of PEG 400. The model fittings were made at q / q , = 112 for both
models with both curves.

9.3.5. TGA of spent activated carbon from multicomponent

adsorption

When adsorption is done from wastewater which contains many types

of organics, the problem of regeneration becomes more severe if the
water contains a relatively large fraction of organics of Type 111. As can
be seen from the previous discussions, organics of Types I and I1 may be
desorbed or cracked and desorbed nd can be expected to leave only
small amounts of carbonized residues. This suggests that if organics in
wastewater are composed only of Types I and 11, thermal regeneration
may become very easy since most of the organics adsorbed can be
removed during the temperature rise step. However, organics of Type
111, if present in the adsorbate phase, are anticipated to leave a
considerable fractional amount of residual carbonized material after
being heated up to about 1000 K. From TABLE 9.1, apparently phenols,
lignin and humic acid are the main components of organics of Type 111.

Fig 9 16 D~ffcrentlalTGA curves of spent activated carbon used for treatment

of sugar refinery wastewater
(Reproduced with permlrslon by Suruki. M , kag-oku Kogohu, 40.408 (1976))
 Thermal Regeneratron of Spent Actrvated Carbonfiorn Water Treatment 225

These organics may be removed by washing with alkaline solution

before going into the regeneration step.
From the classification of organics those which belong to Type I may
be replaced by organics of Type 11, which are then replaced by Type I l l ,
i.e., organics of Type I11 will accumulate in the entrance part of the
adsorption column while Type I1 and Type I are pushed forward to the
exit of the column. Fig. 9.16 shows the DTG curves (differentiation of
TGA curves) of the spent carbons used for treatment test for wastewater
from a sugar refinery. Type I1 organics are concentrated more on the
carbon sample taken from near the entrance than on the sample from
the latter half of the column.

9.3.6. Gasification of residual carbon

At temperatures higher than 1000 K,oxidizing gases such as steam or

carbon dioxide are introduced to gasify the residual carbonized material
left from the temperature rise step. As a result, micropores which are

Gas~ficat~on
tempcrrture ('C)

lo3 T (K ') (T Ga51fic~tlontemperature)

Fig 9 17 Gas~ficat~onrrtes of varlous act~vated carbon by superheated

steam ( I atm, pure steam)
.
(Reproduced wlth permlssron by S U Z U ~MI , Kagahu Kogaku, 40 408 (1976))
responsible for adsorption capacity are recovered. The problem here is
that since activated carbon itself is made of carbon, it is easily gasified to
result in a significant loss of adsorption characteristics or weight.
Obviously, the carbon residue from the adsorbed organics is expected
to be more amorphus than the base carbon structure of the activated
carbon and thus more easily gasified. However, how to select the
conditions to accomplish selective gasification has not yet been
ascertained. Appropriate gasification conditions can probably be
determined by watching closely the gasification rates of base-activated
carbons.
Gasification rates of several activated carbons were measured in
superheated steam at 1 atm and compared in Fig. 9.17 (Suzuki, 1975).
First order kinetics was assumed for the initial weight decrease of the
activated carbon samples kept in a gravimetric balance and the rate
constants, k, were determined.

where w and wo are the carbon weights after a small time lapse t and at
the beginning. The difference in gasification rates may arise from
different degrees of graphitization of the base carbon or catalytic effects
of ash metals contained in the carbon. As shown in Fig. 9.17, activated
carbons produced from lignite are the most easily gasified. Generally
speaking, wood-base carbons are considered more reactive with steam
than coal-base carbons, a fact which may be attributed to the degree of
graphitization of the carbon structure.
Matsui et al. (1984) applied TGA analysis to determine activation
energy of gasification rate of activated carbon in various steam
concentrations. Change of activation energies in the course of
gasification may suggest the catalytic effect of inorganic ashes contained
in the carbon, which is expected to be more pronounced with progress
of burnout.
In the case of spent carbon from wastewater treatment plants, it is
likely that inorganics salts are trapped in the activated carbons. Alkali
metals and alkaline earth metals are especially found to enhance
gasification of carbon and also to enlarge micropore sizes. Prior
removal of metals deposited in spent carbons is desirable for stable
regeneration. This is clearly demonstrated in Fig. 9.18 by the change of
micropore volume and surface area in the course of regeneration of the
spent carbon from the treatment of wastewater from a petrochemical
plant (Kawazoe, 1978). The effect of pretreatment by acid washing is
distinguishable, since the pretreated sample does not show decrease of
 Thermal Regeneranon of Spent Artrvated Carbonfiom Water Treatment 227

Pore volume (below 10A)

1
Due to HCI washlng
I
0
I
10 20
I
' ;o
1"'
O
Welgh decrease (%)

Fig 9.18 Change of surface area and pore volume of spent act~vatedcarbons
from pet rochenucal wastewater treatment dunng thermal regeneration, companson
of rcgcneratron with and without inrt~alacid washing Reproduced wrth per-
mtsston by (Kawazoe, K and T Osawa, Sown Kenkyu. 28 (3). 109 (1976))

surface area dunng gasification.

Change of pore volume or adsorption capacity in the course of
regeneration is rather difficult to realize from a single regeneration run,
since virgin activated carbon is not necessarily at the optimal activated
conditions. Thus, repeated regeneration and adsorption under the same
conditions may help In choosing regeneration conditions. This was done
for the powdered activated carbons used for adsorption of sucrose and
DBS by Smith and hls colleagues (Chihara el al., 1982).

Chihara, K ,J M S m ~ t hand M Suzuki, AIChEJournal. 28, 129(1982)

Ha, K -S and M Suzuki, J Chem f i g Japan, 17,297 (1984)
Kawazoe, K , in Kagahu Kogaku finran, 4th ed , Chapter 5 , Maruzen Pub Co (1978) ( ~ n
Japanese)
Kawwoe, K and T Osawa. Selsan Kenkbu, 28 ( 3 ) . 109 (1976) (in Japanese)
Matsu~,1 , D M MISICand M Suzukr, J Chem f i g Japan, 17, 13 (1984)
Kato, I ,T Kawaura, Y Sudo and M Suzukl, Gunma Meetutg. Soc Chem Engrs, Jopan,
B202, 127 (1986) (in Japanese)
Suzuki, M , Kugaku Kogaku, 40,408 (1976) (in Japanese)
Suzuki, M ,In Kmerran. Kuo ro Ouyou (Act~vatedCarbon, Fundamentals and Applsatlon),
Chapter 5, Kodansha (1975) (In Japanese)
Suzuki. M , T Fujrl, S Tanaka, T ltagak~and S Kato, 2nd Int Cot$ on Fundamenlak of
Adrorptron, Santa Barbara (1986)
Suzuk~,M , D M Marc, 0 Koyama and K Kawmoe, Chem Eng Scr ,33,271 (1978)
 10
Chromatographic Separation

Chromatography is used not only for analytical purposes but also for
separation of fine products on an industrial scale. The basic mechanism
of separation is the same as that in analytical chromatography but on
the industrial scale the use of larger amounts of sample and larger
columns often introduce additional problems. These include: 1) com-
plex adsorption problems such as nonlinearity of the adsorption
isotherm which becomes non-negligible while in the analytical chromato-
graphy the linear portion of an isotherm is usually utilized because of
the low concentration of the peak traveling in the column. Interaction
of adsorbed molecules of the components to be separated may also play
an important role in determining displacement concentration profile. 2)
large-scale packed columns often introduce nonuniform packing,
resulting in a large dispersion effect because of flow maldistribution in
the packed bed.
For efficient separation based on chromatographic principles, several
ideas have been tested and commercialized for the purpose of large size
or continuous separation, e.g. moving bed processes, simulated moving
bed processes, centrifugal planar chromatography and counter-current
droplet chromatography. Other ideas should also be explored to utilize
the attractive separation potential of the chromatographic method in the
future.

10.1. Basic Relations of Chromatographic Elution Curves

in Linear Isotherm Systems
Chromatographic elution curve, -C(r), is characterized by residence
time (first absolute moment) and peak broadening (second central
moment). The moments are defined as
where mo = c ~ ( t ) d frepresents the area under the elution curve.
When an input of negligible width (8-function) is introduced at t = 0,
the moments of the elution curve are related t o the equilibrium and rate
parameters in the adsorbent bed are as shown in Chapter 6.

For a phenomenological description of chromatographic separation, the

concept of theoretical plate is often used. Chromatographic column is
considered to consist of a large number of "theoretical plates," in each of
which equilibrium relations between fluid and particle phases hold
(Fig. 10.1). Height equivalent to theoretical plate (HETP) and number
of theoret~calplate (NTP) are then related to column length z as

z = HETP X NTP ( 10-5)

HETP and NTP are written in terms of moments as

HETP = z(p;/p12) (10-6)

NTP = p12/p; ( 10-7)

Fig 10 1 Concept of the theoretical plate model Well mlxed in each cell and moblle
phase is In equlltbrium wlth stationary phase
 Bmic Relatrots of Chromatographic Elutron Curves m Lnear Isotherm Systems 23 1

p;/p12 1s readlly obtalned from Eqs (10-3) and (104) Usually the
contrlbutlon of lntrlnslc adsorptlon rate constant, k., 1s consldered
negligibly small

When an adsorptlon equllibrlum constant is large enough, pbK./a>>l,

where ph 1s the bed denslty, (1 - ~ ) p , ,the above relatlon 1s slmpllfied

In most cases the contr~butlon of fluld-to-partlcle mass transfer

resistance a negllglble compared wlth that of lntrapartlcle dlffuslon, and
the last term In Eq (10-9) can be omitted Furthermore, for longltudlnal
dlsperslon In packed beds, the relatlon defined by Eq (7-84) 1s madlfied
as

Then Eq ( 10-9) finally glves Eq ( 10-1 1) as an expression of HETP

HETP = a
u
+ 2Ad, + 2- E
I -E
-u
R2
15D,
(10-1 1)

van Deemter et a1 (1956) gave the HETP relatlon as

HETP = 2yD,/u + 2Adp + Cud,2/Dv (10-12)

Thls equatlon was derlved by comparison of the elution curve

approximated by the normal dlstributlon and the equatlon derlved from
the plate theory The slmllarlty of Eqs (10-11) and (10-12) 1s not
surprlslng Eq (10-1 1) can be consldered to be a more generallzed form
Eq (10-11) 1s further slmpllfied In the cases of llquld phase
chromatography slnce the contrlbutlon of the first term of R H S
becomes negllglble slnce molecular d~ffuslonIn l~quldphase 1s small
232 C H R O M A T ~ G R A P H I CSEPARATION

enough.

HETP = 2Ad. +47-7 R2]u

10.2. Separation of the Neighboring Peaks

When a mixture of two components is injected in the chromato-
graphic column, separation occurs since each component moves
according to its own adsorption affinity with the solid phase. While
traveling in the column each peak broadens due to the nonequilibrium
nature of chromatography as manifested, for example, by the existence
of mass transfer resistance between fluid and solid phase. These states
for each peak are qualitatively described by moment equations.
For two neighboring elution curves, a and b, the degree of separation
of the two peaks is usually expressed in terms of the resolution, R,
which is defined by means of the distance of the two peaks in terms of
the duration of each peak, r,,, as shown in Fig. 10.2.

The peak width can be defined from the tangential lines drawn at
inflection points of the elution curve as the distance between the two
intercepts on the abscissa.
For a good separation of the two peaks, R must be at least greater
than unity. It is desirable to have as large an R as possible; when R is

Fig 10 2 Two adjacent peaks at resolut~on,R =I

 Luge Volume Pulses 233

larger than necessary productivity of the column is greatly reduced.

Thus R = 1.1-1.5 is considered to be the optimum range when a one-
path operation is used.
When the shape of the peak is close to the normal distribution curve,
the peak duration time, t,, is related to the second central moment pi as

Then Eq. (10-15) can be written as

Further simplification is possible when it is assumed that the two

components, a and b, have similar adsorption characteristics on the
adsorbent employed. For instance, the intraparticle diffusion co-
efficients, D,, of both components may be approximated as the same
when the two peaks are adjacent, then resolution for liquid phase can be
written as

This relation suggests that a longer column consistently gives better

resolution with proportionality to the square root of the column length
and that if longitudinal dispersion in the column is a dominant factor
for peak broadening then selection of velocity has little effect on
improving resolution while slow velocity usually gives higher resolution.

10.3. Large Volume Pulses

For the efficient use of a chromatographic column, cyclic introduction
of pulses of the mixture becomes necessary. Furthermore, it is desirable
for the size of the pulse introduced each time to be as large as allowable.
But when a large volume sample of mixture is introduced in a column
in the form of a square pulse, an elution peak can no longer be
approximated by the normal distribution curve shown in Fig. 10.3.
I n the case where each component travels independently, concentra-
tion profiles established in the bed can be described by applying the
method shown for breakthrough calculations to the transport of each
component.
 1 .o
Hollow key :
0.05% Bovine serum ;
0.8
Solid key :
O.IM(NH~)ZSOI
7
- 0.6 Sample volume
ao 1ocm3,nm 2oc
3 A r 30cm3, c 40c
2 0.4 Column : 2.5X25cm
Liquid velocity: 5Ocm/
0.2

Fig. 10.3. Examples of large volume peaks for gel chromatography.

(Reproduced with permission by Nakanishi, K. el ol., Agric. Biol. Chem.. 43,2510 (1979)).

For instance, the pulse introduced at the inlet of the column is given
as

C = CO for O S t S r
C=O for r < 0 and r <r (10-19)

Then the concentration change at the exit of the column, C,(r), is given
by

Here Cb(t) is the response curve for the step change of inlet
concentration from C = 0 to CO, which is a so-called breakthrough
curve.
The change of shape of the response peak with increase of pulse size,
.r, as shown experimentally in Fig. 10.3, can be also calculated by
employing an appropriate model and its parameters. Fig. 10.4.a shows
a n example from a two-phase exchange model.
Eq. (10-20) assumes a linear relation for the adsorption isotherm. This
may be fulfilled in most cases of adsorptive separation of low
concentration mixtures or gel permeation chromatography where no
adsorption effect is expected. But when nonlinearity must be taken into
account, Cc(r) should be obtained by means of numerical method. As an
example, a similar calculation as Fig. 10.4.a is shown for a Langmuir
isotherm system with R = 0.7 in Fig. 10.4.b.
 Lnrge Yohme Aclses 235

t ! ~I , P I = aZ/u

( a ) L~near ~sothermsystem

~!Pl,Pl=.zI~
(b) Ldngmulr rsolherm system ( R =0 7 )

Fig 10 4 Chromatoghraph~celution curve estimated from the two phase exchange

model (S = 100).

Also in large pulses, overlapping of the mixture for a considerable

length of a traveling distance in a column may introduce interaction
effect of both components. This effect may be quantitatively checked by
using numerical methods based on a bicomponent adsorption isotherm.
Even when separation of the two components is not completed,
 Oberlapp~ng

a
-
.
..
,,-
Product 2

Carrier Column
------ '.'.

Feed I
Recycle
I
Fig. 10.5. Production chromatography with recycle of overlapping part.

production of each pure component is possible by recycling the

overlapping part to the feed of the column (Fig. 10.5). This type of
operation is done as a preparative separation method.
As is obvious from the discussions so far, minimization of peak
broadening is one of the key factors in the design and operation of
chromatographic separation. Employment of small and homogeneous
size particles is advantageous in reducing peak broadening due to
intraparticle diffusion, and uniform packing of particles in the column is
also needed for reducing the efftct of longitudinal dispersion of flowing
liquid. Seko er al. (1982) conducted equipment trials for this purpose.

10.4. Elution with Concentration Gradient Carrier

When some of the species in the mixture introduced to a separation

column are strongly adsorbed on the adsorbent, chemical elution
becomes necessary. Desorption by chemical eluant follows a situation
similar to that described in Chapter 9, except that the concentration of
chemical eluant and hence the adsorption isotherm of adsorbates in the
carrier change gradually in the course of chromatography.
Concentration gradient in the carrier is achieved by flow-programmed
mixing of two different carrier streams or more simply by using a
mixing tank of the finite volume of the order of the volume of the
column as shown in Fig. 10.6. In the latter case,concentration change in
the entering carrier is expressed in the following form.
 Elurron wrrh Concentrarion Gradwnr Carrter 237

Solvent
A B
Solvent Solvent

Pump
A Q 3;;"
-----
Programmer
2
(In~tially)
I

Injector

Column

R g 10.6. Pr~nc~ples
t I
injector

Column

oiconcentrat~ongradlent apparatus.

where Cd.1 and Cd,2respectively represent the initial carrier concentration

in the tank and that in the carrier entering the tank. F and V corre-
spond to the flow rate of the carrier and the volume of the tank.
As shown in Figs. 9.3 and 9.5, adsorption isotherm can be given as a
function of concentration of eluant in the carrier stream. In the case of
chromatographic separation, for the sake of simplicity, an adsorption
isotherm relation often is written as a Henry type equation.

The adsorption equilibrium constant K is then considered to be a

function of eluant concentration, Cd. For the case where K is changing,
mass balance in the column is given as

Kia,(C - C*) = p,(l - ~ ) d q / d t (1 0-24)

with

where C and Cd* correspond to the equilibrium concentration of the

adsorbate and the concentration of the eluant in the particle phase. The
above set of equations should be solved simultaneously to obtain the
concentration peak curve in the effluent stream. Parameters involved in
the above model, however, are not yet completely clarified. For in-
stance, the unclear dependence of Kra, on the eluant concentration, Cd,
may influence the retention of the peak.
In the simplest case where equilibrium between the fluid phase and the
particle phase can be assumed and Cd is assumed to be uniform
throughout the column, the above set of equations reduces to the simple
form as

Then residence time, t ~ in, the column of the length, 2,can be given as

Hence, if the change of the eluant concentration in the entrance of the

column and the dependence of the equilibrium constant on the eluant
concentration is known, the first order approximation of the residence
time of the peak can be estimated from the above relation. Mass
transfer resistance between the fluid phase and the particle phase may
give additional delay of elution of the peak.
Obviously change of adsorption equilibrium constant can be achieved
by increase of temperature o r in some cases of gas phase adsorption by
increase of pressure. In any case, the same treatment is possible for
estimating the residence time of the peak.

10.5. Chromatography for Large-scale Separation

10.5.1. Cyclic chromatographic operation

Chromatographic separation of mixtures has the advantage of good

 Chromrography for Lorge-scale Separarton 239

h g 10 7 Sequent~alperlod~cchromatography

separation efficiency provided that suitable adsorbent and adsorption

conditions are selected. For applying the chromatographic principle to
large-scale separations, the cyclic operation shown in Fig. 10.7 is widely
used as a direct extension of chromatographic operation For designing
cyclic operations, the treatment introduced in the previous sections can
be utilized.
In the case when separation of two components, A and B, IS required.
the length of a column necessary to obtain good resolution is determined
by Eq. (10-17).
Also it should be noted that only the time period of r,, +
rWb is
utilized for separation of components a and b. Then repetitive
introduction of mixture impulses with the time interval of (r,, +
rWb)can
accompl~shresolution of the peaks from the peaks deriving from the
preceding or following pulses (Fig. 10.5).

10.5.2. Moving bed chromatography

When a mixture is introduced into a moving bed of adsorbents with

countercurrent carrier flow, components are separated according to
adsorbabllity. The ratio of the amount of adsorbable component, i,
transported by moving solids and by flowlng fluid is defined as
where us and ur are veloc~tyof solid and superficial fluid velocity, pb
represents the bed density and K,, is the adsorption equilibrium constant
of component i.
In the case of R,>1 then component i moves in the direction of the
solld flow and in the case of R,<1 ~tis transported in the direction of the
fluid flow.
By choosing the proper velocity ratio of u,/ul,it is possible to satisfy
the condition of RA>I and R B < ~for component A (strongly
adsorbable) and component B (weakly adsorbable). Then by the moving
bed process shown in Fig. 10.8, it is possible to achieve separation of
components A and B contained in the feed stream. In sections I, 11, 111
and IV, Rn and RB should satisfy the condit~onsshown in TABLE
10.1.
Here feed stream is introduced between sections I1 and 111, while
desorbent fluid is introduced from the bottom of the bed and
components A and B are extracted from the point between 111 and IV

Adsorbent
* Desorbent
C(+B) Net flows
B ads , C des
I t I TC .B
S, ( D - E + F - R )

t
A ads . C des
1 Rdfindte ( R )
B+C
. f
I1
S. ( D - E + F )

I 1
A dd5,Bdes
Feed ( F )
A +B
1
S, (D-E) 111

I I
C ads . A $es
Extract ( E )
A +C

. D IV
I

F I ~10 8 S c h e m ~ t ~d~agram
c of a movlng bed adsorber. S. D. E. F, R denote flow rates

T A B I E10 1 Rat10 of the Amounts o f Components A and B Transported by S o l ~ dand

Flutd Needed to A c h ~ e v eGood Separation
 Chromarographyfor hye-scale Separarionion 241

and the point between I and 11.

10.5.3. Simulated moving bed chromatography

Since a moving bed conveys solid particles, errosion or partial

crushing of the particles is inevitable. Simulated moving bed technology
was developed so that a function similar t o moving beds can be
accomplished by using a multi-fixed bed (Fig. 10.9). By simultaneously
rotating the fluid paths of the feed, the desorbent, extract product and
raffinate by the manipulation of valves, moving bed separation can be
simulated.
This process was developed and commercialized by UOP and called
the "Sorbex process," a general name applied to the separation of
p-xylence from C8 reformates (Parex) (Broughton er a/., 1970;
deRosset er a / , 1978, Broughton, 1984), normal paraffins from
isoparaffins and aromatic hydrocarbons (Molex), linear olefins from
paraffins (Olex) and fructose from dextrose and polysaccharides (Sarex)
and so on.
Hirota et a/. (1981) of Mitsubishi Kasei Co. (MKC) developed a
similar simulated moving bed system by employing eight sets of columns
and pumps as shown in Fig. 10.10. This process does not require a
sophisticated rotary valve such as the one adopted in the Sorbex
process. An example of concentration profile for fructosedextrose
separation is shown in Fig. 10.1 1 (Shioda, 1987).

F I ~10 9 Schemar~cdugram 01 the L'OP Sorbex process

(Reproduced with permlsslon by Broughlon, B , Scparal~onS o Tech, 19. 733 (1984-85))
 8

Fig 10 10 S~mulaledmoving bed continuous system developed by MKC

(Reproduced with permission by Shioda, K , Ftrsr Japan-Korea Separarlon Technologj
Conf, p 498 ( 1987))

Column number
Fig 10 I I Example of a concentration profile in a simulated moving bed for fructose-
dextrose separation
(Reproduced with permission by Shioda, K , First Jopan-Korea Separarron Technology
Conf, p 498 (1987))

Analysis tor the simulated movlng bed performance was tried by

Hashlmoto el a1 (1983).
Broughton, D B , Separarron Scr & Tech, 19,723 (1984)
Broughton, D B , R W Neuzil, J M Pharls and C S Brearley, Chem Eng h o g , 66,
70 (1970)
deRosset, A J , R W Neuzil and D J Korous, Ind Eng Chem Process Desrgn
& h l , 15,261 (1976)
Hashlmoto, K , S Adachl, H Noujlma and H Maruyama, J Chem Eng Japan, 16,
400 (1983)
Hirota, T , H Ishlkawa, M Ando and K Shloda, Kogaku Kogaku, 45, 391 (1981) ( ~ n
Japanese)
Nakan~shr,K er 01, Agrrc Biol Chem , 43,2507 (1979)
Seko, M , H Takeuchi and T Inada, Ind Eng Chem Prod Res Dev, 21,656 (1982)
Sh~oda,K ,Fusr Korea-Japan, Sympo on Separarron Technology. p 495 (1987)
van Deemter, J J , F J Zuiderweg and A Klinkenberg, Chem h g Scr 5,271 (1956)
 11
Pressure Swing Adsorption

In order to achieve bulk gas separation by adsorption, the adsorbent

must be used repeatedly. The desorption step takes a rather long time if
thermal desorption is employed because of a relatively large time
constant of heat transfer due to poor thermal conduction in the
adsorbent packed bed.
This problem is waived by employing low pressure desorption where
the time constant of desorption is of the same order of magnitude as
that of adsorption or even smaller because when pore diffusion in the
adsorbent particle is a ratedetermining step, effective diffusivity in the
particle is inversely proportional to the operating pressure. Thus bulk
separation of a mixed gas can be achieved by repeating adsorption at
higher pressure and desorption at lower pressure. In principle, the less
adsorbable component is the product in the adsorption step while the
more adsorbable component remains in the column and is recovered
through desorption. This type of operation is called pressure swing
adsorption (PSA). Usually adsorbability is determined by comparing
the adsorption equilibrium of each component on the adsorbent
employed, but since pressure swing adsorption is a transient operation,
the adsorption rate may play an important role in separation efficiency
of PSA operation. As a matter of fact, adsorption rate plays a key role
in the case of separation of two gases whose adsorption equilibria are
about the same but whose rates are considerably different. An example
of PSA of this special type is illustrated below.
In this chapter, the general background of PSA necessary for
theoretical analysis is given first followed by methods for making
theoretical predictions of PSA performances. Equilibrium theory,
numerical simulations based on nonequilibrium models and a simplified
method for obtaining a cyclic steady state profile are reviewed. The
overall mass transfer parameter in cyclic operations such as PSA may be
considerably different from the one usually employed in the calculation
of breakthrough curves. A method for relating the overall mass transfer
coefficient to intraparticle diffusivity and operating conditions is shown.
The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of PSA separation based
on the difference of adsorption rates.

1 1.1. General Scheme of PSA Operation

The main applications of PSA are to be found in the production of
oxygen from air, dehumidification of gases and purification of
hydrogen. Other applications include removal of carbon dioxide,
recovery of radioactive waste gas, enrichment recovery of rare gases,
purification of helium, purification of natural gases, separation of
isomers and separation of carbon monoxide. Separation of iso-paraffins
from normal paraffins is accomplished by using a shape-selective
adsorbent such as a molecular sieve. Separation of carbon monoxide
involves chemical adsorption on complex adsorbents.
A typical operation mode of PSA cycle is shown in Fig. 11.1,
consisting of four distinct steps. In the first step (Step 1) high pressure
feed gas is introduced into Bed 2 where adsorption of adsorbable gases
takes place and less adsorbable product gas is taken out as a product.
During this period a small portion of product gas is drawn out to
another bed, Bed 1, at low pressure to purge the accumulated adsorbate
in Bed I. Next (Step 2), Bed I is repressurized either by feed gas or
product gas to the feed pressure (repressurization), while the pressure in
Bed 2 is reduced to purge pressure (blowdown). In Steps 3 and 4, Step
1 and Step 2 are repeated with Bed 1 and Bed 2 changing roles.

Step I Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

Purge
tI

Product
0Blowdown

Product

l ccd Cced

Flg I I I Pr~ncipalsteps In a pressure swlng adsorptlcn

 General Scheme of PSA Operation 247

2nd Pressure e q u ~ l

d
E E
0 E

Pressur~zrl~on

opbp6 Pressuro
FJ:

L
O
E
c m
c

-2f?z5
racr
2: E:
f 1 Blow

Ftg 1 1 2 a Typ~calcnamplc of basic steps in four-column PSA

 1

-
- VI
.-VIVI
I
Step

C
8.f A-l
2 E
55
a, 2
6%
V

T ~ m e1 min. I

Fig. 11.2.b. Typical example of a four-bed PSA sequence (vacuum desorption

for oxygen production).
 General Scheme of PSA Operatton 249

Usually Steps 2 and 4 are completed in a far shorter time than Steps 1
and 3 and the adsorbed amount profiles are often assumed to remain
unchanged. This is called the assumption of "Frozen Profile."
During Steps 1 and 3, a portion of the product stream is used as purge
stream. Adsorption at higher pressure and desorption at lower pressure
makes it possible to complete desorption with a smaller amount of purge
gas compared to the amount of feed gas introduced. Skarstrom (1972)
empirically showed that desorption can be accomplished employing
purge gas whose volume at purge pressure is larger than the volume of
the feed gas at adsorption pressure.
In actual PSA operations, more sophisticated modes are adopted
mainly to increase product yield. Two examples of a four-bed PSA
operation mode are shown in Fig. 11.2, where two steps of pressure
equalization and repressurization with product gas (a) and vacuum
desorption and pressure equalization steps are employed (b). For larger
operations, multibed PSA (Fig. 11.3) with several steps of pressure
equalization can give higher yield.
 1 1.2. Equilibrium Theory for PSA Criteria
As a first approach to describe the behavior of the PSA column, an
equilibrium theory was developed based on negligible mass transfer
resistance between gas phase and solid phase. Shendalman and Mitchell
(1972) applied the theory developed for parametric pumping to
prediction of movement of adsorption front in PSA operation.
When adsorption equilibrium is assumed in the column, a basic
equation for mass balance of a single adsorbable component is given for
an isothermal system as

Also as a total mass balance

By introducing equilibrium relation n = KC and gas phase molar

fraction C = Py, Eq. (I 1-1) is written as

A solution to the above equation is obtained using the set of ordinary

differential equations given below.

Movement of fluid element in the column during adsorption and desorp-

tion steps is obtained employing the appropriate equations with
Eq. (1 14).
Adsorption step:

Desorption step:
 Equilibrium 7heoryfor PSA Criterio 25 1

where

and y is the purge ratio defined as V L / V H .

Eqs. (1 1-5) and (1 1-6) give the velocities of adsorption front during high
pressure adsorption and low pressure desorption. V H and V L denote
linear gas velocities at high pressure and low pressure flow.
During the blowdown and repressurization steps, if the pressure drop
in the column is neglected, d Pldz = 0 yields

Since v = 0 holds at z = 0.

By combining Eq. (1 1-9) with Eq. (I 1-4) and by integrating, the location
of adsorption front before and after pressure change is determined. The
relation between locations of adsorption front at pressure PH,Z H and
that at pressure PL,Z L is given as

Penetration distance (location of adsorption front) is obtained using

Eqs. (1 1-5, 11-6 and 11-10).
During repressurization and high pressure adsorption period, the net
penetration distance, ALH,is

Aslo, the net movement of penetration distance during blowdown and

desorption at low pressure, A L I . is

The range of operating conditions can be determined from these

parameters, i.e. in order to keep product concentration high enough,
A L H > 0 should hold and LH must be smaller than the column length Z.
Also, if LI > Z then breakthrough of purge stream is expected to occur
and this range will not be suitable. Then the operating conditions
should fall with in the hatched area shown in Fig. 11.4.
 Fig. 11.4. Operating regme i n LL-L" domain.

y t'"
y : y : ,'T
z 1 I I
Inlet ( Feed ;

Bed l

z
2
,

5
Ex11(Product !
---
n
0

p'

Bed ?

lnlct I-cell
T~me

Fig 11.5. Movement of character~st~c

points at purge-fecd raao above the
c r ~ i ~ cvalue
al
 Numerical Solurron of Nonequrlrbrrum PSA Model 253

Critical purge ratio, gammacrit, is given from the critical condition of

AL=Oas

Fig. 11.5 shows an example of movement of characteristics for a case

where y > Ycrnt.
As shown briefly here, equilibrium theory can give a range of
operating conditions for providing a pure product. This treatment has
been further extended to apply to two adsorbable component systems
(Chan, Hill and Wong, 1982 and Knaebel and Hill, 1982). Also
Kawazoe and Kawai (1973) used equilibrium assumption to estimate a
concentration profile during the blowdown step.
This treatment, however, cannot give product concentration since the
model employs over-simplified assumptions such as infinite adsorption
rate. More detailed nonequilibrium models must be employed in order
to obtain relations between product concentration o r yield and
operating conditions.

11.3. Numerical Solution of Nonequilibrium PSA Model

Changing concentration profiles in the course of cyclic pressure swing
operation can be estimated by repeated calculation of a model based on
finite mass transfer rate. Several attempts have been made (Mitchell
and Shendalman, 1973; Carter and Wyszynski, 1983; Chihara and
Suzuki, 1983a; Raghavan, Hassan and Ruthven, 1985; Yang, and
Doong, 1985.
The simplest example of numerical calculation is adopted from the
treatment given by Chihara and Suzuki (1983a).

1 1.3.I . Isothermal cases

As a first approach, the linear driving force (LDF) model is adopted

with negligible temperature effect. Mass conservation of adsorbate is
given in dimensionless form as
with the boundary conditions for high pressure flow

and for low pressure flow

where the nondimensional parameters are

time for bed saturation)

5, = ro/(L/v) = ( (1 1-19)
(retention time of carrier gas)

- (amount adsorbed in equilibrium with CO)

(adsorbate concentration in gas phase at inlet concentration CO)

-
- (time for bed saturation) (1 1-21)
(time constant for adsorption to the adsorbent)

with characteristic time, that is, saturation time, as

-
C and q denote C/COand 9/90 where COis concentration in feed gas
and q~ is the amount adsorbed in equilibrium with Co. 2 = ZIL and
-
I = fjto also hold T, = I,/IO where I, is the half cycle time. For
repressurization and blowdown steps (Steps 2 and 4 in Fig. 11. I), frozen
profile assumption is used.
An example of calculation results for the case of dehumidification of
air by silica gel is shown in Fig. 11.6. The conditions adopted for the
calculation are given in TABLE1 1.1. Calculation was started from an
evacuated bed and it was found that the cyclic steady state was reached
after about 40 cycles.

1 1.3.2. Nonisothermal cases

Temperature change due to heat generation or absorption which

 Numencal Solullon of Nonequrkbnum PSA Model 255

nd of 5th adsorption step

0 80

C
\
nd o f 5th purge step
040
IC,

000
000 020 040 060 080 100

Fig 11 6 Change of profiles of and q from startup t o the cychc steady state
In the case o f ~sotherrnaloperation
(Reproduced w ~ t hperrnlsslon by Chlhara. K and Suzuk~,M , J Chem f5tg
Japan, 16, 58 ( 1983))

T\HI E II I Physical Parameters for Cornputatlon

Adsorbent bed Feed gas

L =Irn VH =025rn,s
RH =01m PH = 5 07x10' Pa
r =04 ca = 0 79 mol: rn'
p, = 0 72X 10' kg rn' To = 303 K
h = 1 2X104kgrn' II = 0 011,,(9 rnin)
C,, = 1 26X104J!kg-K
p8 = I 2 1kg rnl (at atrnospherlc pressure) Purge gas
C,, = I DOX 10' J kg-K VL =05rn:s
PL = I OlxlO'Pa
K = 7 57 rn' kg (at 303 K)* X =+20
Q = 5 19Y1O4J rnol*
K,a, = 0 2kg m ' - ~(.it PH)*. I 0 kg: rn1.s (at PI )* r2 = 0011,~
kc, = 0 293 J m.sK**
ho = 40 0 J m \ K * * *
15D( I -t)
h,a, = (Kawdzoe el u / 1978)
RP
** Y A ~ Ier a1 (1961) lor nomsothcrm~land ~ d ~ ~ bcatcs
a t ~ c
*** Y d g ~~ n Kd U ~ I I(1961). for non~sothtrnidlirlse
follow adsorption or desorption must be taken into account in order to
describe the behavior of a PSA column especially when a large column
is employed. Rapid repetition of adsorption and desorption may not
provide enough time for heat exchange through the column wall.
Temperature effect can be checked by adding a heat balance equation
and a relation describing temperature dependency of adsorption
equilibrium coeffic~ent to the above set of equations. Temperature
dependency of adsorption equilibrium constant in Eq. (1 1-16) is given as

where T denotes ( T - TO)/TOwhere To is the temperature of feed gas.

Heat balance in the bed is described by means of an overall heat transfer
model for the exchange of heat between bed and the column wall and
axial conduction of heat for the d ~ s p e r s ~ oof
n heat inside the bed
(Chapter 8).

As addit~onalboundary cond~tions

T=o at 5 = 0 , and T ( I , I ) = I at r=I (1 1-25)

are employed In the above equations

- (heat capacity of total gas Introduced In 10)

(1 1-26)
(hcat capacity of the bed)

-
- ( t ~ m efor bed saturation)
(tlme constant for effective long~tudinalthermal conduction)

-
- (time for bed saturation) ( 1 1-28)
( t ~ m econstant for heat transfer through wall)

-
-
(total heat generated by saturat~onper unlt bcd volume)
( 1 1-29)
(hcat sustd~nedper unlt bcd volume at TO)
 Numerrcal Solurron o j Nonequtlibrtum PSA Model 257

o no f 5th adsorption step

0

$ oa f 5th purge step of 5th purge clep

o In
om ow ow - o m ono I m OW 0'0 OW OHI 0x1) ~rn

1d

F I ~1 1 7 Change of prof~lesof C' q and T-T, In (a) ad~abaticadsorptron

(s, = 0) dnd (b) nonrsothcrmal adsorpt~on( r , = 48 5)
(Reproduced w ~ t hperm~sslonby Chrhara. K and Suruk~,M J Chmt Enx
Japan. 16 58 ( 1983))

TIHI f II 2 Outlet Concentration at End of 40th Adwrptron Step

6 . t Co Dew pornt ("C]

(Isothermdl) 0 750X 10 ' -60
(Adubdt~c) 0 3311x10 -48
(\onrsothcrmal) 0 134x10 -55
(Reproduced HII~ perrnlssron by Chlhdra K and S u r u k ~M J Chem Eng Jupmz 16 56
( 1983))

Parameter rw IS the measure of heat transfer through column wall and

rw = 0 corresponds to the adlabatlc condltlon wh~leTW = m lnd~catesan
extreme case of isothermal operatlon From the case shown In
TABLE I I 1, a general case of non~sothermaloperatlon and a speclal case
of adiabat~c operatlon were s~mulated uslng the same operating
conditions glven for the so thermal case (Fig 1 1 6) The results are
shown In Fig 1 1 7 where pronounced temperature profiles are ~llus-
trated in the adlabat~ccase
Fig 11 8 Example of dependency of final outlet concentration In adsorpt~on
step on heat transfer parameter through the wall
(Reproduced wlth permlsslon by Chlhara, K and Suzukl, M , J Chem fig
Jopon, 16,59 (1983))

D P of reed gas (101X1O5Pa)

Volumetr~cpurge to feed rdt~o a'-)

Fig 1 1 9 Compar~son of calculated and exper~mentaldependence of dew

polnts of product g.1~on volumetr~cpurge to feed ratlo
.
(Reproduced uith permlsslon by Ch~hara,K and Suzukl. M J Chenl Eng
Japan, 16, 297 ( 1983))
 Conrrnuous Counrercurrent Flow Model 259

The resultant dew points of the product gases are compared in

TABLE11.2. Effects of heat transfer parameter rw is thus clearly shown
by plotting product purity versus rw in Fig. 11.8. rw larger than 100 in
this case may allow the assumption of isothermal operation.
Effects of purge ratio, bed length and length of cycle time (throughput
ratio) were determined employing this model (Chihara and Suzuki,
1983a). Experimental observations were also made for air drying with a
shorter bed of silica gel and compared with the theoretical calculation
of the same model (Chihara and Suzuki, 1983b). A reasonable
agreement of product dew points between experiment and theory was
obtained as shown In Fig. 11.9. For shorter beds it was demonstrated
that larger rw 1s necessary to justify isothermal treatment.

11.4. Simplified Solution of Dynamic Steady State Profile

from Continuous Countercurrent Flow Model
The treatment given in the previous sectlon is inevitable for

Siep I step 2 Step 3 Step 4

P r e v u r ~ / ~ ~ ~Adjorpt~on
on Bloudoun De\orptlon

Ftg 1 1 10 Conceptual scheme of pressure swtng operallon

.
(Reproduced u ~ t hpermtsslon by Suzukt. M AIChE Srnrpo Series, 81, 68
(1985))
 L Purge

Inlet ~xh.usr

Fig 1 1 1 1 Conceptual scheme of steady concurrent flow contactor

(Reproduced with perrnlsslon by Suzukl. M , AIChE Sympo Serres. 81. 69
( 1985))

complicated estimations, such as estimation of startup P S A b e h a v ~ o ro r

nonisothermal effect But in many cases, separation efficiency of P S A
o r select~onof d e s ~ g nand operation parameters for des~rableseparation
c a n be determined from functions in the cyclic steady state It 1s
advantageous if a q u ~ c kestimate can be made for the cyclic steady state
performance of P S A directly from the set of basic equations
A simple method for evaluating cyclic steady state profiles of the
amounts adsorbed was proposed by assuming equivalence of the
pressure swing operation with the countercurrent flow contacting
system ( S u z u k ~ ,1985) This idea 1s illustrated In Figs 11 10 and 11 11
In the ordinary four-step PSA, each bed undergoes four steps as shown
in Fig 11 1 For the sake of simplicity, it 1s often assumed that during
both the pressurization and blow-down steps the longitud~nalprofiles of
the amount adsorbed in the column remains unchanged (frozen) since
both steps are very r a p ~ d
Also, when the cycle time of P S A is far smaller than the time constant
of saturation of the bed, i e throughput ratio is far smaller than unity,
profiles of the amount adsorbed in the bed during adsorption and
d e s o r p t ~ o nsteps remaln almost unchanged, though concentrations in the
 Conrrnuous Counlercurren~Flow Model 261

Fig 1 1 12 Long~tudlnalprofiles of concentrat~on In gas phase and amount

adsorbed In the column durlng cycllc steady state of PSA operation In normal
mode (a) and w ~ t hextremely small throughput ratlo (b)
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Suzuk~ M , AlChE Sywpo Serws 81, 68
( 1985))

fluid phase in both steps are considerably different from each other
Namely, throughput ratlo corresponds t o th ratlo of the hatched area to
the total rectangular area In Fig 1 1 2 a If the cycle time becomes
smaller, the hatched area dlmlnlshes and the standing profile of the
amount adsorbed, q,, will be establlshed as shown in Flg 11 12 b
This profile of q, is establlshed from the balance of mass transfer
during adsorptlon step and that durlng desorption step
At any longitudinal position, the amount of mass transfer (the
adsorbed amount) during the adsorpt~onstep 1s equal to the amount
desorbed from solid phase durlng the desorptlon step Then the
assumption of a frozen profile suggests that the profile may be estimated
by analogy to a continuous countercurrent flow contactor, where the
mass flow form a high pressure flow to the adsorbent partlcle and that
from the particle to the low pressure flow take place in series.
Figure 11.1 1 shows the basic idea of the countercurrent flow model
corresponding to the PSA shown in Fig. 11.10.
The basic equations for the adsorption step (duration time t ~ and
) the
desorption step ( t ~ are
) given in the simplest form below. Adsorption
Step (t = 0 to t ~ ) :

B.C. : C,,H= C,.O at z = 0 (1 1-33)

Desorption Step (t = 0 to t ~ ) :

Profile of q,(z) at the end of the other step must be employed as an

initial condition for each step. In Eqs. (1 1-32) and (1 1-36) an L D F
model with partial pressure difference as a driving force is used. UHO and
ULO are molar flow rates of the inert component in the adsorption and
desorption steps, where total pressures are PH and PL. N,,Hand N 8 . ~
represent the rates of mass transfer of component i between particle and
fluid at the adsorption step and at the desorption step expressed in terms
of linear driving force (LDF) model by taking the partial pressure
difference or difference in amount adsorbed as the driving force of mass
transfer.
Concentration of component i for high pressure flow, C, H, and that
for low pressure flow, C, L, are defined here in terms of molar ratio to
the inert component. The molar flow rate of the inert component is
taken as the standard, since the flow rate of the inert component
remains unchanged even though adsorption or desorption takes place in
the bed. Then partial pressure of component i for the high pressure
flow, p, 14, and that for the low pressure flow, p, I , are given as
 Continuous Counrercuwmr Flow Model 263

From the equations given for ordinary PSA (Eqs. (1 1-30) to (11-37)),
corresponding basic equations for the continuous countercurrent flow
model are derived as follows:

Equivalent flow rates of inert component in high pressure flow, UH, and
low pressure flow, U L , are difined as

where 6 denotes the fractional duration time of the adsorption step in

the PSA cycle defined as

Equivalent mass transfer rate of component i between high pressure flow

and low pressure flow in the model, N,, can be written in terms of N,,H
and N,,Ldefined for the ordinary PSA model (Eqs. (1 1-32) and (1 1-36)).
When an L D F model with partial pressure difference as the driving
force of mass transfer is employed, the equivalent mass transfer rate, N,,
is written as

Then finally N, is given by eliminating p*,, which is the equilibrium

partial pressure with q,, the amount adsorbed.

where (KF~,),is the effective overall mass transfer coefficient between

high pressure flow and low pressure flow and is given as
Equilibrium concentration p*, is obtained after p , and
~ p , , are
~ obtained.
p*, is given as the weighted average of pLHand p , , then
~ q, is calculated
from the adsorption equilibrium relation.

For boundary conditions, the inlet concentrations of both flows should

be given.

The last equation shows that part of the product gas is used as the purge
stream. Outlet concentration of the purge stream, C,I I,-", is glven from
the overall mass balance as

In general, when the inlet concentrations of the high pressure flow and
the low pressure flow are given, concentration distributions are solved as
a boundary value problem. Calculation of the concentration distribu-
tion requires iteration.

T n n ~ rI 1 3 C o m p o \ ~ t ~ oand
n C o n d t t l c ~ nb\ed
~ as a Cornputatton Example o f Hydrogen
Separatton

C o m p o s ~ t ~ oofn raw gas

nltrogen 26 5 molri,
carbon monon~de 35
hydrogen 70 0

Cond~t~ons
Pressure of adsorptton step, FH = 10 k g cm2
desorpt~onrtcp PL = I kgtcm'
Flow rate of Inert ga\ ar
ad\ step. UH = 2 0 mol m'\
des step. ul = 0 2.0 22 mol rn2s
Masb tran\fcr corfllLIcrlt d l
ad\ ctcp. ( h ~ a , )H~= ( h t a , ) : ~ = 0 1 s
de\ step. (Ato,),~ = ( A I u , ) , I I ( ~ H ' ~ ~ )
Column Icngtli Z=3m
p c r n i ~ \ \ ~ ob\n Su/rlll. , \ I . Il(11f S ~ n ~ p.Yc,rrc'r
( K e p r a d ~ ~ c cud~ t h o 81 70 (1985))
 Conrrnuous Counrercurrenr Flow Model 265

Length ( m )

I00 -
Nz CO
Sol~d,q -
Gas, P
CO(-) 038 005
(KI.~,)H 0 10 0 10

10 ' l , l l l *
!
\
00 0 75 15 2 25 30

Fig 1 1 13 Calculat~onresults for the example of hydrogen separation from

cracked gas Cornpositlon IS glven In TABLEI I 3 (a) Purge ratio of Inert gas
( U L I U H ) = 0 l I and (b) 0 l
(Reproduced with permisston by Suzuki, M , AIChE Synlpo Sews, 81, 71
(1985))
 ( a ) Sol~d.q
I\P Co(-i 00039

-
\* \@Pn=50
(KFcI~.,H 1515
P~=1.00
u ~ = l O l u~=402
m
1.
-
E 101-
0'
-E
3 \o
10
Z- \@
\
10'- , I I I
00 0 25 05 0 75
Length ( m )

( b ) Gar. P -a d
Ca(-) 00039
( K ~ o)H, 1515
p11=50 P L = I 00
U"==IOI u1=402

4 -

5
I I I
00 0 25 05 0 75
Length (rn)

F I ~1 1 14 Compdr~sono f the cdiculated profiles o f (a) amount adsorbed and

(b) gd\ phdw concentrdtlons w ~ t hthe nurner~calcalculat~onfor alr d r y ~ n gglven
b) Ch1hdr3 and \u/uL.i (1983a) Open c i r ~ l e \and s o l ~ dc~rclesshow t h c ~ rrftults
o f the dlnount dd\orbed at the end o f ad\orptlon step and at the end o f de\orp-
tion \tcp re\psc!l\ci\ Solid and broken lines \how the re\ult\ from the dctalled
model
.
(Reprodu~cdu l t h pcrmlsslon b j Su7uL.1. M AIChE 6 ~ n r p oSi.rrl,r, 81. 72
(1985))
 Mars Transfer Coeficienl in Rapid Cyclic Adrorprion and Desorplion 267

Application of this model to the separation of hydrogen from

hydrocarbon cracking gas has been attempted (Suzuki, 1985). TABLE 11.3
shows the conditions for calculation and Fig. 11.13.a and 11.13.b show
the results for profiles of partial pressures and amounts adsorbed of
carbon monoxide and nitrogen at purge ratios ( U L / U H ) of 0.11 and 0.1.
Adsorption isotherm is of the Markham-Benton type.

where q o = 4.5 mmollg, KN,= 0.1 atm-I and KCO = 0.5 atm-I were
used. The effect of purge ratio is clearly shown by comparing these
figures.
As another example, the case of air drying was calculated and
compared with the complex calculation result obtained by the method
introduced in the previous section (Chihara and Suzuki, 1983a). The
case of isothermal operation (Fig. 11.6, solid and open circles) is
compared with the results of the continuous countercurrent flow model
(solid and broken lines) in Fig. 11.14. Rigorous calculation was done
for a throughput ratio of 0.01 and the change in the profiles of the
amount adsorbed after adsorption and desorption steps found to be
reasonably small. Thus the simple model simulated quite well the cyclic
steady state profile of PSA.

1 1.5. Mass Transfer Coefficient in Rapid Cyclic

Adsorption and Desorption
For a rigorous set of differential equations for mass balance in the bed
and for adsorption rate in the particle, partial differential equations are
introduced for both processes, making for lengthy computation time. In
order to finish numerical computation with in a reasonable amount of
time it is desirable to use as simple a model as precision will allow.
The linear driving force (LDF) model may be considered to be one
reliable model which can be used for this purpose. In the LDF model,
overall mass transfer coefficient k,a, is the only rate parameter, which is
usually related to the intraparticle diffusion coefficient, D,, as

where R denotes the radius of the adsorbent particle.

Equation ( I 1-53) is derived for long-term adsorption or desorption
from a uniform initial distribution of amount adsorbed in the particle.
 For the rapid adsorption-desorption cycles such as those encountered in
PSA, application of the above relation becomes dubious since, when the
cycle time is much smaller than the time constant of diffusion inside the
particle, change of concentration distribution during the adsorption
or desorption process is very complicated. Nakao and Suzuki (1983)
compared solutions of the L D F model and the rigorous partial
differential equation for the case of cyclic adsorption and desorption in
a spherical adsorbent particle and found that the proportionality
constant, K, defined by Eq. (-1 1-54) becomes a function of cycle time
factor defined by Eq. (1 1-55).

where 2, is the half cycle time. Fig. 11.15 shows change of Kagainst 8,.
By numerically solving the following basic equation with the boundary
conditions shown by Eqs. (1 1-57) and (1 1-58), concentration distribution
in the particle is obtained as a function of time.

Fig I I I5 Deptndency of o\erall mdss trdnsfcr coeffic~enton cycle time

(R~*producedw ~ t hperrnl\slon bv Nakao S and S u ~ u k M
16, 118 (19R3))
.
~ . J Cbeni fill: Jupun,
 Mass T r a d e r Coeflctenr m Raprd Cyclic Aahorprron and Desorprron 269

Fig 1 1 16 Prollles of amount adsorbed in an adsorbent particle w ~ t htlme a1

unsteady state 8, = 0 01 humbers correspond to profiles ai the end o12n + 1
(adsorpt~on)and 2n + 2 (desorptlon) perlods
.
(Reproduced wtth permlsslon by Nakno. S and 5u7uk1, M J Chem Eng Japan,
16, 116 (1983))

where n is a n integer. Typical concentration profiles with the initial

condition of q = 0 at I = 0 is shown in Fig. 11.16 for the case of
8, = D,r,/ R? = 0.1. Numbers shown in the figure correspond to the
end of 2n + +
I o r 2n 2 half cycles. As can be understood from the
figure, after several tenths of a cycle, profiles after adsorption and
desorption reach dynamic steady state and the amount adsorbed in the
center of the particle stays almost constant, 0.5 in this case, and only the
fract~onal part near the surface 1s utilized for adsorption and
desorptlon. Concentration profiles during one cycle in the dynamic
steady state are ~llustratedIn Fig. 11.17 for 6, = 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001.
When cycle time becomes smaller, the fractional volume of the
adsorbent u t ~ l ~ z ebecomes
d naturally restricted t o the v ~ c ~ n i tof
y the
surface and then diffus~on distance becomes smaller. From this
calculat~on,change of the amount adsorbed in the d y n a m ~ csteady state
is obtained as illustrated in Fig. 11.18. The flgure shows the amounts
adsorbed aftcr thc a d s o r p t ~ o nand desorption steps. The difference of
the two line\ represents the m a s transfer amount d u r ~ n gthe half cycle
LDF model I \ dclined as
 Fig. 11.17 Profiles of amount adsorbed in an adsorbent particle w ~ t htime at
dynamic steady state for cases (a) to (c). (a) 0. = 0.1 : (b) 0, = 0.01 (c)
ec = 0.001
by Nakao. S. and Suzuki. M ,J. Chem. fig. Japan,
(Reproduced w ~ t hperm~ss~on
16, 116 (1983)).

where qo is the amount adsorbed in equilibrium with the fluid phase in

the adsorption step and qo = 0 for the desorption step. From this
model, the amount adsorbed after the adsorption step and that after the
desorption step in the dynamic steady state were obtained as
 PSA Bared on Difference of Adsorption Rates 271

Fig 1 i 18 Dependency o l total amount adsorbed at end o l adsorpt~onand

desorpt~onper~odon hallcycle tlme in dynam~csteady state
(Reproduced w ~ t hpermlsslon by Nakao, S and Suzuk~,M J Chem Eng Japan,
16, 1 17 (1983))

where

Then by fitt~ngEqs (11-60) and (11-61) wlth the results from the
dlfferent~al equatlon shown In Flg I1 18, k,a, or K IS defined as a
functlon of 8,. wh~chIS shown by Fig 11 15 For further deta~ls,refer to
Nakao and S u z u k ~(1983)

11.6. PSA Based on Difference of Adsorption Rates

By cons~derlng PSA as a separatlon process based on translent
characteristics, lt 1s also poss~blet o construct a PSA process for the
separatlon of two components whose equlllbnum relations are slmllar
but whose adsorption rates are qulte different Thls example IS shown
for the case of separatlon of oxygen and nltrogen by carbon molecular
sleve Carbon molecular sleves for thls concept were orlglnally shown
by Juntgen, Knoblauch and thelr colleagues (1973) and a PSA process
utlllzlng thls prlnclple for the product~onof oxygen and/or nltrogen
from alr was developed (Juntgen el a1 1973, Knoblauch, Relchenberger
and Juntgen, 1975 Later Takeda Chemlcal Co , Kuraray Chemlcal C o
and Calgon Corp developed slm~larcarbon molecular sleves for the
purpose of producing nitrogen from alr When alr IS introduced from
 Fig 1 1 19 Adsorption uptake of oxygen and nltrogen by carbon molecular
sleves (25OC l atm) Source Kuraray Catalogue

the bottom of the column packed wlth the carbon molecular sleves at
hlgh SV, only nltrogen appears at the exlt In the beglnnlng Then by
desorpt~on, oxygen-r~ch alr IS recovered from the blowdown and
regeneratlon gas
An example of oxygen and nltrogen uptake curves of the carbon
molecular sleve produced by Kuraray Chemlcal C o IS shown In
Fig 11 19
Control of the slze o f mlcropore of carbon molecular sleve 1s an
essent~alfactor In obtaln~nglarge differences In dlffus~vltlesof oxygen
and nltrogen Several t r ~ a l swere made to control mlcropore d~ffuslvlt~es
of carbon molecular sleves by the deposltlon of carbon produced by
thermal crack~ngof hydrocarbons (Moore and Tnmm, 1977, Chlhara
and Suzukl, 1979, 1982) Chlhara and S u z u k ~(1982) showed that by
.
start~ngfrom MFC 5A of Takeda Chem~calC o benzene crack~ngat
700'. 780" and 850°C In nltrogen carrler stream was effectlve for thls
purpose The amount of deposited carbon was followed by we~ght
change of the carbon molecular sleve sample by grav~tyequ~prnentand
adsorpt~onrates of oxygen and n~trogenwere measured by a constant
volume method The results are shown In Flg 1 1 20 By t h ~ smethod,
ratlo of dlffus~vlt~esof O2 and Nz reached as h ~ g has 45, as shown In
Fig 1 1 21
Numerical s~mulatlonof thls type of PSA has been done for oxygen
production (Chlhara and Suzukl, 1982) The prlnclple a almost the
same as that Introduced In the prevlous sectlon except that In thls case
the use of proper rate parameters IS necersary
 PSA Based on Dfirence o j Adsorptron Rates 273

Cdrbon depos~t~on( rng cdrbon,'p MSC)

Fig 1 1 20 Dcpcndcnce of adsorpt~onequll~br~um constant.; and mlcropore

diffusiv~t~es
of 0 2 and h 2 on carbon depos~t~on.
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 Adsorption for Energy Transport

Adsorption IS accompanied by evolution of heat Also the heat of

adsorptlon IS usually 30% to 100% hlgher than heat of vaporlzatlon
(condensat~on) of the adsorbate Thus, d a fresh adsorbent and
adsorbate In llquld form coexlst separately In a closed vessel, transport
of adsorbate from the llqu~dphase to the adsorbent occurs In the form
of vapor, slnce adsorptlon IS stronger than condensat~onto llquld phase
Durlng thls step, the temperature of the llquld phase becomes lower
whlle the adsorbent temperature rlses Alr condltlonlng and refngera-
tlon utlllze thls phenomenon.
The adsorptlon coollng system has drawn attention slnce ~t employs
no movlng parts and a may be posslble to utlllze low grade thermal
energy such as solar energy or waste heat from Industry for regeneration
of the adsorbent A demonstrat~onunlt of a refrigerator was first
commerc~al~zedby Tchernev (1978) by uslng zeollte-water system
Gu~llem~not (1980) suggested the feaslblllty of utlllzlng thls prlnclple In
an adsorption-coollng system from the vlew polnt of thermodynamics
The prlnclple of thls preocess as well as a model lnvestlgatlon IS
presented here
Another use of heat of adsorptlon IS In heat pump systems to produce
hlgh pressure steam from low-grade waste steam The prlnclple of thls
system 1s also discussed in thls chapter

12.1. Principle of Adsorption Coollng

The prlnclple of operation of the coollng system IS illustrated In
Flg 12 1 The system conslsts of an adsorbent bed, a condenser and an
evaporator A comb~natlonof adsorbent and adsorbate IS confined In a
closed system In the adsorption cycle shown In Fig 12 1 a, adsorptlon
takes place In the adsorbent bed, whlle evaporation of adsorbate occurs
In the evaporator, whlch absorbs heat from outslde of the system
Cooling can be achieved hy mak~nguse of t h ~ sheat absorption In the