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2 Marks questions
Unit 1
Fatigue of structures

1. What is meant by stress concentration? Explain how its value can be reduced.

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A stress concentration is a location in an object where stress is concentrated. An
object is strongest when force is evenly distributed over its area, so a reduction in area,
e.g. caused by a crack, results in a localized increase in stress. Fatigue cracks always start
at stress raisers, so removing such defects increases the fatigue strength.

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Internal force lines are denser near the hole
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2. How does one determine the endurance limit stress?

(i) Endurance limit stress related to hardness:

Se(Mpa) ≈ (0.25x6.897)xBHN for BHN ≤ 400, if BHN > 400, Se ≈ (100x6.897) Mpa,
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where BHN is the Brinell hardness number.

(ii) Endurance limit stress related to ultimate strength:
Se ≈ 0.5 x Su for Su ≤ (200x6.897) Mpa
If Su > (200x6.897)Mpa, Se ≈(100x6.897) Mpa
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The alternating stress level corresponding to a life of 1000 cycles. S 1000, be

estimated as 0.9 times the ultimate strength. The line connecting this and the
endurance limit is the estimate used for the S-N design line point as shown in figure.
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3. What is an SN curve? Explain the significant points in the curve.

S-N diagram, which is a plot of alternating stress, S, versus cycles to
failure, N.
Actual S-N line representing the mean of the data. Certain materials,

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primarily body-centered cubic (BCC) steels, have an endurance of fatigue limit,
Se, which is a stress level below which the material has an “infinite” life. For
engineering purposes, this “infinite” life is usually considered to be 1 million
cycles.

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4. What are the effects of notches and cutouts in the loaded structures?
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves or notches
and cutouts in a part increases the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate
vicinity of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its
effect must be accounted and normally a fatigue stress concentration factor Kf, is applied
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when designing against fatigue, even if the materials behaviour is ductile.
Fatigue stress concentration factor,
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5. Explain the terms:

(a) Endurance limit
(b) Endurance Strength

(a) Endurance limit

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The endurance limit, also known as fatigue limit, is a stress level below which a
material has an "infinite" life. Infinite life is commonly considered to be 1 million
cycles.
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Se(Mpa) ≈ (0.25x6.897)xBHN for BHN ≤ 400, if BHN > 400, Se ≈ (100x6.897) Mpa,
where BHN is the Brinell hardness number.
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(b) Endurance Strength

Endurance limit related to Ultimate Strngth
Se ≈ 0.5 x Su for Su ≤ (200x6.897) Mpa
If Su > (200x6.897)Mpa, Se ≈(100x6.897) Mpa

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6. What is fatigue according to ASTM standards?

The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes occurring ina
material subject to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses and strains at some
point or points and that may culminate in cracks of complete fracture after a sufficient
number of fluctuations.

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7. What are the various variables that affect the S-N curve?
Variables
Stress amplitude or Alternating stress
Fatigue strength
Yield tensile stress
Ultimate tensile stress

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Life to failure (N)
Factors
Material Composition
Heat treatment

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Operating Temperature
Grain size and grain direction
Welding
Surface condition
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8. Explain the term: Notch sensitivity.
Notch sensitivity „q‟ is defined by the equation,
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The values of q are between zero and unity. It is evident that if q=0 then Kf =1 and
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the material has no sensitivity to notches at all. On the other hand q=1, then Kf=Kt,
and the material has full notch sensitivity. In analysis or design work, find Kt first,
from geometry of the part. Then select or specify the material, find q and solve for Kf
from the equation
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9. Explain the methods of reducing stress concentrations.

Stress concentrations can arise at sharp corners and abrupt changes in section.
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Fillets should therefore be provided at re-entrant corners and cut-outs, such as

windows and access panels should be reinforced. Rivets should not be used in
areas of high stress and stiffness should be bonded to plates rather than attached
by rivets. In machined panels the material thickness should be increased around
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bolt holes, while holes in primary bolted joints should be reamed to improve
surface finish. Surface scratches and machine marks are sources of fatigue crack
initiation.

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10. Draw typical S-N curves for mild steel and aluminium and explain the
differences.

At higher stress, of course, the component has a short fatigue life. For mild steel,

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it is found that below the endurance limit σe material does not fail. However distinct
endurance limit is not observed for Aluminium (non ferrous materials).

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S-N curve for mild steel
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S-N curve for Aluminium

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11. What is limiting range of stress?

The greatest range of stress (mean stress zero) that a metal can withstand for an
indefinite number of cycles without failure. If exceeded, the metal fractures after a certain
no. of cycles which decreases as the range of stress increases. Also called endurance
range; half this range is the fatigue limit or endurance limit.

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12.What is Neuber‟s rule?
= states that the theoretical stress concentration the geometric
mean of the stress and strain concentration or the square root of the product of Kσ and Kε.
This seems intuitively reasonable since after yielding occurs, Kσ decreases while Kε
increases as shown in Fig. although this method was proven only for one notch geometry,

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it is assumed that this relationship holds true for most notch geometries. This versions of
equation termed Neuber‟s rule, are often used in the local strain approach to relate
nominal stresses and strains to local values.

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13.Define: Stress amplitude

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A test parameter of a dynamic fatigue test. One half the algebraic

difference between the maximum and minimum stress in one cycle.
Stress amplitude or Alternating stress
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14.Explain the term: Mean stress

Mean stress,

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15.Define the term: Stress range
Stress range is the difference between maximum stress and minimum stress.
Stress range,

16. Define the following term: Stress ratio

Stress ratio, is the minimum stress and maximum stress.

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17. Explain the following term: Amplitude ratio

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Amplitude ratio is the ratio between amplitude stress and mean stress
Amplitude stress,
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The R and A values corresponding to several n loading situation are:
Fully reversed: R=-1, A=∞
Zero to max: R=0, A=1
Zero to min: R=∞, A= -1
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Where R=Stress ratio

18. What is fluctuating stress?

Variable loading is often characterized by an amplitude component σa as ordinate
and a steady component σm as abscissa. Defined in terms of maximum stress σmax and
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minimum stress σmin the co-ordinate are as follows:

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The designer‟s fatigue diagram is depicted in fig.

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Se= The modified fatigue strength
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Sut=The ultimate tensile strength
Syt=The yield tensile strength
Nf=The factor of safety applicable the fatigue

19. What is repeated stress?

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More commonly seen in engineering applications than the reversed cycle, the
repeated stress cycle is a sine wave that is asymmetric about the x axis. The max. and
min. stresses are NOT equal and opposite in sign.

20. What is Soderberg line?

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If the point of the combined stress below the Soderberg line then the component will not
fail. To establish the factor of safety relative to the Soderberg criteria. This is a very
conservative criteria based on the material yield point Syt.
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21. Draw the notched S-N curve.

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Unit 2
Statistical Aspects of Fatigue Behaviour

1. What is Miner‟s cumulative rule?

Linear Damage rule is commonly known as Miner‟s rule. The following terminology will
be used in the discussion:

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Where n is the number of cycles at stress level S and N is the fatigue life in cycles at
stress level S.
The damage fraction, D, is defined as the fraction of life used up by an event or a
series of events. Failure in any of the cumulative damage theories is assumes to occur

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when the summation of damage fractions equals 1, or

i ≥1

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2. What do you understand by S-N approach and ε-N approach?
The stress-life (S-N) was the first approach used in an attempt to understand and
quantify metal fatigue. The S-N approach is still widely used in design applications
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where the applied stress is primarily within the elastic range of the material and the
resultant lives (cycles to failure) are long, such as power transmission shafts.
The strain life (ε-N) method is based on the observation that in many components the
response of the material in critical locations (notches) is strain or deformation dependent.
At high load levels, in the low cycle fatigue (LCF) region, the cyclic stress-strain
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response and the material behaviour are best modeled under strain-controlled conditions.

3. Define the term: „Cycle counting‟.

To predict the life of a component subjected to a variable load history, it is
necessary to reduce the complex history into a number of events which can be
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compared to the available constant amplitude test data. This process of reducing a
complex load history into a number of constant amplitude events involved. This is
termed as „cycle counting‟.

4. Define „Fatigue Damage‟.

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During the propagation portion of fatigue, damage can be related to crack

length. During propagation, damage can be related to an observable and
measurable. It has been used to great advantage in the aerospace industry.
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During the initiation phase, the mechanisms of fatigue damage are on the
microscopic level. Most damage summing methods for the initiation phase are
empirical in nature. It is equal to the formation of a small crack in a large
component or structure.
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5. With a sketch, explain low and high cycle fatigue.

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High cycle fatigue

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Low cycle fatigue

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A complete S-N curve may be divided into two regions, namely LCF& HCF.
There is no sharp dividing line between the two levels. We might arbitrarily say that 0-
above 103 or 104 cycles (LCF) and above 103 or 104-108 cycles (HCF). Most of the
existing fatigue results are for high stress only (HCF). It was realized that for pressure
vessels, pressurized fuselages, mechanisms for extending loading gears, controlling wing
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flaps, missiles, space ship launching equipment etc., only a low fatigue life was required.
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6. Draw a typical S-N curve and demarcate it with high cycle and low cycle fatigue.

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7. What is the need for cycle counting technique?
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To predict the life of a component subjected to a variable load
history, it is necessary to reduce the complex history into a number of events
which can be compared to the available constant amplitude test data. This process
of reducing a complex load history into a number of constant amplitude events
involved. This is termed as „cycle counting‟.
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8. Discuss the miner‟s cumulative damage theory.

Linear Damage rule is commonly known as Miner‟s rule. The following

terminology will be used in the discussion:
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Where n is the number of cycles at stress level S and N is the fatigue life in cycles at
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stress level S.
The damage fraction, D, is defined as the fraction of life used up by an event or a
series of events. Failure in any of the cumulative damage theories is assumes to occur
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when the summation of damage fractions equals 1, or

i ≥1

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9. What is the need to count the cycles?

To predict the life of a component subjected to a variable load history, it is

necessary to reduce the complex history into a number of events which can be
compared to the available constant amplitude test data. This process of reducing a
complex load history into a number of constant amplitude events involved. This is

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termed as „cycle counting‟.

10.Distinguish between low cycle and high cycle fatigue behaviour of structures.
A complete S-N curve may be divided into two regions, namely LCF& HCF.
There is no sharp dividing line between the two levels. We might arbitrarily say that 0-
above 103 or 104 cycles (LCF) and above 103 or 104-108 cycles (HCF). Most of the

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existing fatigue results are for high stress only (HCF). It was realized that for pressure
vessels, pressurized fuselages, mechanisms for extending loading gears, controlling wing
flaps, missiles, space ship launching equipment etc., only a low fatigue life was required.

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11. What are the transient behaviours of metals?
1. Cyclically harden
2. Cyclically soften
3. Be cyclically stable
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4. Have mixed behaviour (soften or harden depending on the strain range)

12. What are the early cycle counting procedures?

(i) Level-crossing counting
(ii) Peak counting
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(iii) Simple-range counting

13. What is material memory?

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Upon reloading after reaching point B, the material continues to point D along the
hysteresis path starting from point A, as though event cycle B-C had never occurred.
This behaviour of material “remembering” its prior state of deformation is known as
material memory.

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14. What is strain life relation?

By using the relation

The total strain can now be rewritten by using the equations

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and

We get the equation

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The above equation is the basis of the strain – life method and is termed the
strain-life relation.
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15. What is Rain flow counting? (Falling rain approach)
The first step in implementing this procedure is to draw the strain time
history so that the time axis is oriented vertically with increasing time downward.
Now imagine that the strain history forms a no. of „pagoda roofs‟. Cycles are then
defined by the manner in which rain is allowed to drip or fall down the roofs. A
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number of rules are imposed on the dripping rain so as to identify closed
hysteresis loops.

16. What is level crossing counting?

In this procedure the strain axis of the strain-time plot is divided into a number of
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increments. A count is then recorded each time a positively sloped portion of the
strain history crosses an increment located above the reference strain. Similarly
negatively sloped strain below the reference strain, a count is made. In addition,
crossings at the reference strain are also counted.
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17. Draw the strain-life curve?

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18. What is Peak counting?

The peak counting method is based on the identification of local maximum and
minimum strain values. To begin, the strain axis is divided into a number of
increments. The positions of all local maximum (peak) strain values above the
reference strain are tabulated, as are the positions of all local minimum (valley) strain
value below the reference strain.

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19. What is simple – range counting?
With this method the strain range between successive reversals is recorded. In
determining counts, if both positive ranges (valley followed by peaks) and
negative ranges (peaks followed by valleys) are included, each range is
considered to form one-half cycle. If just positive or negative ranges are recorded,

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each is considered to form one full cycle.

20. What is Non-linear damage theory?

Many nonlinear damage theories have been proposed which attempt to overcome the

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shortcomings of Miner‟s rule. The following is a general description of a nonlinear
damage approach which is currently of research interest and has some applications in
design. This method predicts the following relationship between damage fraction, D, and
cycle ratio, n/N:
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where the exponent, P, is a function of stress level. The value of P is considered to fall in
the range zero to 1, with the value increasing with stress level. When P=1 the method is
equivalent to Miner‟s rule.
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21. What are the applications of strain – life approach?
(i) Applications where plastic strains are significant. This may involves
situations where load or stress levels are high, such as root of a notch.
It involves material with low yield points such as low strength steels
and some stainless steels.
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(ii) High temperature applications such as gas turbine engine components

where fatigue-creep interaction is important.
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Unit 3
Physical Aspects of Fatigue
1. What is dislocation theory?
A dislocation is a crystallographic defect or irregularity, within a crystal structure.
The presence of dislocations strongly influences many of the properties of materials.
Some types of dislocations can be visualized as being caused by the termination of a

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plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal. In such a case, the surrounding planes are not
straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal
structure is perfectly ordered on either side.

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2. What are the different phases of a crack with respect to fatigue life?
The fatigue life of a component is made up of initiation and propagation stages.
At low strain amplitudes up to 90% of the life may be taken up with initiation,
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while at high amplitudes the majority of the fatigue life may be spent propagating a
crack. Fracture mechanics approaches are used to estimate the propagation life.
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3. What are “clam shell markings”?

Features of a fatigue fractures are Beach marks or clamshell marks may be seen in
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fatigue failures of materials that are used for a period of time, allowed to rest for an
equivalent time period and loaded again as in factory usage. Striations are thought to
be steps in crack propagation where the distance depends on the stress range. Beach
marks contain thousands of striations.
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Beachmarks or "clamshell pattern" associated with stress cycles that vary in magnitude
and time as in factory machinery

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4. What is fatigue crack growth?
The majority of fatigue life may be taken up in the propagation of a crack. By the use
of fracture mechanics principles it is possible to predict the no. of cycles spent in

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growing a crack to some specified length or to final failure.

5. What is inter-granular fracture?

Brittle fracture in crystalline metals can be classified into two broad groups,
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intergranular and transgranular. A crack of intergranular failure moves along the grain
boundaries as shown in fig.
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6. What is transgranular fracture?

Transgranular fracture occurs through fracture within grains. Within grain,
cleavage failure occurs along a weak crystallographic plane. Cleavage fracture is the
most brittle form of fracture and it hardly damages the fracture surfaces. Once the
cleavage crack reaches the grain boundary, it finds another favourable orientation in
the next grain.

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Transgranular brittle fracture

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7. What is brittle fracture?
Some materials are known as brittle because a crack moves easily through the
material. From a fractured surface of a brittle fracture, find that material is influenced
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to a very shallow depth. Rest of the material remains unaffected.

8. What is ductile fracture?

Ductile fracture causes a large amount of plastic deformation to a significant depth.
Ductile fracture growth occurs due to plastic deformation and creation of micro voids.
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The material deforms plastically due to micro-mechanisms such as nucleation and
motion of dislocations, formation of twins etc., Tiny voids are formed at the side of
these particles under the tensile field of the crack tip.

9. Define: Fatigue fracture surface

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Fatigue failures exhibits very small permanent visual deformation. So fatigue

failures are mistakenly often called as brittle failures. This term should however be
modified since substantial plastic deformation occurs in small local regions near the
fatigue crack tip and at crack initiation sights. Typical fatigue failures exibit the following
common aspects.
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(iii) Distinct crack initiation sight

(iv) Beach mark or clamshell marks indicative of crack growth
(v) Distinct final fracture region
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10. What is torsional fatigue surface?

In torsional fatigue failure the cracks appear on a 45˚inclination plane. This is the
plane of max. tensile stress which again indicates that fatigue cracks propagate
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primarily in the plane of max. tensile stress. A smooth semi-elliptical fatigue

crack shape is a very common fatigue surface. The final fracture region has a
fibrous appearance with radial lines essentially perpendicular to the perimeter of

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the elliptical fatigue crack. These radial river pattern are often seen on the final
fracture surfaces.

11. What are the three regions of crack growth curve?

Region II, the curve is essentially linear. Many structures operate in this region.
Finally, in region III, at high ΔK values, crack growth rates are extremely high

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and little fatigue life is involved.

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12. What is nucleation?
Nucleation is the extremely localized budding of a distinct thermodynamic
phase. Some examples of phases that may form via nucleation in liquids are
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gaseous bubbles, crystals or glassy regions. Creation of liquid droplets in
saturated vapor is also characterized by nucleation. Nucleation of crystalline,
amorphous and even vacancy clusters in solid materials is also important, for
example to the semiconductor industry. Most nucleation processes are physical,
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rather than chemical, but a few exceptions do exist. (e.g. electrochemical

nucleation).

13. What is edge dislocation?

An edge dislocation is a defect where an extra half-plane of atoms is
introduced mid way through the crystal, distorting nearby planes of atoms. When
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enough force is applied from one side of the crystal structure, this extra plane
passes through planes of atoms breaking and joining bonds with them until it
reaches the grain boundary. A simple schematic diagram of such atomic planes
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can be used to illustrate lattice defects such as dislocations.

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Edge dislocation
14. What is screw dislocation?
A screw dislocation is much harder to visualize. Imagine cutting a crystal

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along a plane and slipping one half across the other by a lattice vector, the halves
fitting back together without leaving a defect. If the cut only goes part way
through the crystal, and then slipped, the boundary of the cut is a screw

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dislocation.

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Screw dislocation

15. What is coalescence?

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Coalescence is the process by which two or more droplets, bubbles or

particles merge during contact to form a single daughter droplet, bubble or
particle. It can take place in many processes, ranging from meteorology to
astrophysics. For example, it is both involved in the formation of raindrops as
well as planetary and star formation.
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16.What are the factors influencing fatigue crack growth?

(i) Stress ratio effects

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(ii) Environmental effects

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(iii) Frequency of loading

(iv)Temperature effects

(v)Waveform of loading cycle

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17. What is crack closure?

Crack closure occurs as a result of crack tip plasticity that a plastic zone develops
around the crack tip as the yield stress of the material is exceeded. As the crack
grows, a wake of plastically deformed material is developed while the surrounding
body remains elastic. As the component is unloaded the practically “stretched”

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material causes the crack surfaces to contact each other before zero load is reached.

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Crack closure phenomenon
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18. What is the relationship between fatigue life and crack size?
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The fatigue life estimate is strongly dependent on the initial crack size, a i. Large
changes in the estimate of final crack size, af, result in only small changes in the life
estimate.

19. By using crack growth rate, how cycles to failure may be calculated?
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The fatigue crack growth rate can be related to the stress intensity factor range.
From this, cycles to failure may be calculated.
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20. Define: Fatigue crack growth.

Typical constant amplitude crack propagation data as shown in fig. The crack length,
a, is plotted versus the corresponding number of cycles, N, at which the crack was

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measured. As shown, most of the life of the component is spent while the crack
length is relatively small. In addition, the crack growth rate increases with increased
applied stress.

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Unit 4
Fracture Mechanics

1. Explain the fracture failure in terms of energy.

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When fracture failure occurs, two important quantities are invoked: (i) how much
energy is released when a crack advances and (ii) minimum energy required for the crack
the crack to advance in forming two new surfaces. The first quantity is measured with a
parameter, energy release rate, denoted by the symbol G. The energy release rate is
defined as energy release per unit increase in area during crack growth. Rate is defined
here with respect to change in crack area. The second quantity is the surface energy

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required to create two new surfaces.

2. What are the three modes of loading in fracture mechanics? Explain with neat
sketches.

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Three loading modes
There are generally three modes of loading, which involve different crack surface
displacements as shown in figure. The three modes are
Mode I : opening or tensile mode (the crack faces are pulled apart)
Mode II : sliding or in-plane shear (the crack surfaces slide over each other)
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Mode III: tearing or anti-plane shear (the surfaces move parallel to the leading edge of
the crack and to each other)

3. What are the disadvantages of using LEFM theory?

It must be noted that LEFM can be extended to cope with only limited crack tip
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plasticity. i.e. When the crack tip plastic zone is small compared to the crack size and the
cracked body still behaves in an elastic manner. If this is not the case the problem has to
be treated elasto plastically. However the concepts of EPFM (Elastic-plastic fracture
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Mechanics) are not nearly so well defined as LEFM.

4. Explain the fracture based approach to estimate the fatigue life.

The LEFM approach is the only method that deals directly with the propagation of
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fatigue cracks. It also provides a method to characterize final failure due to fracture of the
remaining cracked section.

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Since crack length gives a physical measure of damage, crack growth rates can be
incorporated with nondestructive inspection techniques to find the “safe life” of cracked
components.

5. What is meant by fracture toughness?

As the stress intensity factor reaches a critical value,Kc, unstable fracture

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occurs. This critical value of the stress intensity factor is known as the fracture
toughness of the material. The fracture toughness can be considered the limiting
value of stress intensity just as the yield stress might be considered the limiting
value of applied stress.

6. Explain the significance of J-integral.

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Like other parameters (G and K) J-integral is also a parameter to characterizing a
crack. In fact, G is a special case of J-integral: that is G is usually applied only to
linear elastic materials whereas J-integral is not only applicable to linear and non-
linear elastic materials but is found very useful to characterize materials exhibiting

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elastic-plastic behaviour near the crack tip.

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Path Γ around the crack tip with outward normal n

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7. What is stress intensity factor?

The stress intensity factor, K defines the magnitude of the local stresses around the
crack tip. This factor depend on loading crack size, crack shape and general form
given by
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σ = Remote stress applied to the component

a=crack length
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f (g)= correction factor that depends on specimen and crack geometry\

8. Explain: Plane stress and plane strain conditions.

In a thin body, the stress through the thickness (σz) cannot vary
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appreciably due to the thin section. Because there can be no stresses normal to
free surface, σz=0 throughout the section and a bi-axial state of stress results. This
is termed a plane stress condition.

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In a thick body, the material is constrained in the z direction due to the

thickness of the cross section Єz=0, resulting in a plane strain condition.

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9. What are the recommended specimens for plane strain fracture toughness testing?
(i) Three point Bend specimen
(ii) Four point bend specimen

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(iii) Compact tension specimen
(iv) C – specimen

10. Define: Chevron notch

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The specimens have to provide with a fatigue crack. In order to ensure that
cracking occurs at the right place, the specimens contain a starter notch. In thick
members, fatigue cracks starts at a corner such cracking behaviour results in an
irreproducible, curved crack front not suitable for a standard test. It can be avoided by
providing the specimens with a chevron notch. This notch forces initiation of crack in
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the centre, which enhance the probability of a relatively straight crack front. It has the
additional advantage that, the fatigue crack starts almost immediately upon fatigue
cycling.
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11. Define; Griffith‟s theory.

Griffith realized that a crack in a body will not extend unless in a body will not
extend unless energy is released in the process to overcome the energy needs of
forming two new surfaces one below and one above the crack plane. The surface

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energy of a material depends on the material properties.

12. What are the advantages of stress - life approach?

(i) The analysis and estimation of material constants necessary for this method
ore quite simple.
(ii) This method works well for designs involving long life, constant amplitude

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histories.

13. What are the disadvantages of stress –life approach?

(i) This method is completely empirical in nature and lacks the physical in rights

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into the mechanisms of fatigue given by the other methods.
(ii) The S-N approach does not distinguish between initiation and propagation.
This gives limited insights into the concept of damage.

(i)
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14. State the applications of stress-life approach.
The S-N method can be used in almost any situation to get a rough estimate of
life.
(ii) The best examples of application of this method are in the design of various
machine elements such as power transmission shafts, valve springs and gears.
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15. Explain the advantages of strain – life (Є-N) approach.
(i) Plastic strain, the mechanism that leads to crack initiation, is accurately
modeled. This method can be used in high strain/low cycle situations.
(ii) This method can be more easily extrapolated to situations involving
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complicated geometries.
(iii) This method can be used in high temp. applications where fatigue creep
interaction is critical.

16. Explain the disadvantages of strain – life (Є-N) approach.

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(i) This method involves more complicated level of analysis. The life calculation
involves numerical iterations which are best handled with computers.
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(ii) This method only accounts for initiation life and cannot be used to predict
propagation life.

17. Define: LEFM approach

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This method is the only method that deals directly with the propagation of fatigue
cracks. It also provides a method to characterize final failure due to fracture of the
remaining cracked section.

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18. What are the advantages of LEFM approach?

(i) Since crack length gives a physical measure of damage, crack growth rates
can be incorporated with non-destructive inspection techniques to find the safe
life of cracked components.
(ii) It provides a method to deal with non propagating cracks and crack arrest
behaviour due to over loads.

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(iii) State the applications of LEFM approach?
(i) To measure the crack growth from an assumed initial existing flaw. Examples
of applications are in the aerospace and nuclear reactor pressure vessel
industries, where the consequences of fatigue are significant.
(ii) To determine the life at components with sharp notches, where only a small
fraction of life involves initiation.

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19. Define: Energy release rate.
Energy release rate, denoted by the symbol G, which is defined as energy release
per unit increase in area during crack growth. In fracture mechanics rate is defined

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here with respect to change in crack area.

20. What is meant by „change in compliance approach‟?

In fracture mechanics, it is easier to deal with compliance which is inverse of
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stiffness. Thus compliance of a body increases with increase in the crack length.
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Unit5
Fatigue Design and Testing

1. What is Fretting Fatigue?

A surface wear phenomenon occurring between two contacting surfaces having
oscillatory relative motion of small amplitude. e.g. Riveted, bolted & pinned joints, lug

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fasteners, shrink fits and press fits, splines, keyways, clamps, universal joints,
bearings/housing/shafts interfaces, gear/shafts interfaces, oscillatory bearings, fittings,
leaf springs and wire ropes.
Fatigue corrosion is both material and atmospheric dependant.

2. Explain safe life design with examples.

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Safe life : The structure is designed to have a minimum life during which it is
known that no damage will occur. At the end of this life the structure must be
replaced even though there may be no detectable signs of fatigue.

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(e.g) Landing gear, major wing joints, wing-fuselage joints and hinges on all-
moving tail planes or on variable geometry wings.

3. Explain safe design with examples.

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Fail safe : The failure of a member in a redundant structure does not necessarily
lead to the collapse of the complete structure, provided that the remaining
members are able to carry the load shed by the failed members and can withstand
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further repeated loads until the presence of the failed member is discovered.
(e.g) Wing skins which are stiffened by stringers and fuselage skins which are
stiffened by frames and stringers; the stringers and frames prevent skin cracks.
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4. List down the factors that are to be considered while designing the components to
avoid fatigue failure.
(i) Choice of materials
(ii) Sharp corners
(iii) Cut outs
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(iv) Rivets should not be used.

(v) Stiffeners should be bonded not by rivets
(vi) Material thickness at bolt holes
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(vii) Holes in bolted joints should be reamed to get good surface finish.

5. Define: Infinite life design

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It requires design stresses to below the pertinent fatigue limit for parts subjected
to many millions of almost uniform cycles, like engine valve springs. This is still
a good design criteria.

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6. What is „Damage tolerant Design‟

This philosophy is a refinement of failsafe philosophy. It assumes that cracks will
exist caused either by processing (or) fatigue –uses fracture mechanics analysis and
tests whether such cracks will grow large enough to produce failure before they are
sure to be detected by periodical inspection. This philosophy looks for materials with

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slow crack growth and high fracture toughness. In pressure vessel design leak before
burst is an expression for this philosophy.

7. What are the factors affecting fatigue?

(i) Micro structure (Grain size, texture)
(ii) Processing ( Deformation, history, manufacturing)

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(iii) Local spectrum ( sign, magnitude, rate, history)
(iv) Geometry of component( Surface finish, notches, weld connection,
Thickness)

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(v) Environment ( Temperature, corrosive medium)

8. What are the required sequences for fatigue life prediction?

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(i) Load spectrum-Structural system-Stress and strain histories-prediction model-
Ni,Nf, da/dN.
(ii) Material selection- Monotonic and cyclic properties - prediction model-
Ni,Nf, da/dN.
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9. Write the procedures followed while designing against fatigue?
(i) Design to keep stress below the threshold of fatigue limit (infinite life
time concept)
(ii) Design for a fixed life after which the user is instructed to replace the
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part with a new one (safe life design)

(iii) Instruct the user to inspect the part periodically for cracks and replace
the part once a crack exceeds a critical length.(Damage tolerant
design)
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10. What is sonic fatigue?

One of the problems in super sonic transport (SST) is the sonic or acoustic
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fatigue. The extremely powerful engines that will be used on SST creates intense
level of sound. During take off and landing, the energy from the sound waves will be
reflected from the concrete runways on to the under surface of the wing and fuselage.
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These sound waves can set up very high frequency vibration in such surfaces causing
fatigue failure of the outer skin or in the case of honey comb panels the internal
structure. In order to obtain adequate fatigue life such structures exposed to high

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acoustic forces must be strengthened by thicker surfaces and properly positioned

interior members which can absorb and dampen the induced vibrational energies.

11. Define: „Effect of geometry in fatigue life‟.

The fatigue life of a notched component is generally less than that of an un notched

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one. While the surface roughness of a component could be improved by polishing,
notches cannot be avoided in most industrial components because of the functional
requirements.

12. What is the influence of grain size in fatigue life?

For most metals, smaller grains, yields longer fatigue lives.

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13. Define: „Effect of processing techniques in fatigue life‟.
Processing techniques such as forging, rolling and extrusion produce directional

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properties in material due to the grain orientation. Fatigue life is generally
enhanced in the oriented direction and is lower in the transverse direction.
Heat treatment, case hardening, cold and hot working, surface coating,
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plating, cladding etc., can all influence fatigue life. Manufacturing process could
produce residual stresses. Compressive residual stresses at the external surfaces
generally enhance fatigue life, while tensile ones are detrimental. Process such as
shot peening, cold rolling and static preloading are employed to induce
compressive residual stresses.
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14. What are the factors involved in the successful operation of the aircraft in the
severe environment?
To design and construct efficient fatigue resistant supersonic transport (SST) and
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subsonic transport structures reliable for 50,000 hrs in the severe environment
(particularly in Mach 3 condition) is a considerable challenge. The successful
operation of the aircraft in this severe environment generally depends on the
following factors.
Temp. variation of above -56˚C to 2000˚C.
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(i)
(ii) A combination of mechanical and thermal stresses
(iii) Up to 50000 hrs of operating life under the above conditions.
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15. Explain: „Designing against fatigue in aircraft‟

An estimation of the number of frequency and magnitude of the fluctuating loads ao
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aircraft encounters necessary.

During taxiing the aircraft may be manoeuvring over uneven ground with a full
payload so that wing stresses, for example are greater than in the static case. We shall
see experiences a greater number of gusts than during the cruise.

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16. Define: Step method.

First test a specimen at a stress level corresponding to a survival of about 70-90% of
the specimen survives the prescribed long life, say 107cycles, the stress is increased
about 5% of the estimated fatigue strength and test continues for further 10 7 cycles, if
the specimen does not fail. The stress is increased after each survival until the

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specimen fails. Specimens may be used in this method, single specimen. The estimate
of a fatigue strength from result of one specimen.

17. Define: Stair-case method

The first specimen is tested at the estimated fatigue strength (at say 107 cycles) for
the prescribed no. of cycles. If this specimen fails, the next specimen is tested at a

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stress level i.e. one increment below the first stress level. If the first specimen
does not fail, the second specimen is tested at a high stress level, i.e. one
increment above the first stress level. The third specimen is tested at a stress level

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higher (or) lower than the stress level for the second specimen, depending on
whether the second specimen survives or fails.
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18. What is limit load in aircraft?
The limit load, which is the maximum load that the aircraft is expected to experience
in normal operation.

19. What is proof load?

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The proof load, which is the product of the limit load and proof factor (1.0 to 1.25).

20. What is ultimate load?

The ultimate load, which is the product of the limit load and the ultimate factor
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(usually 1.5).

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