UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD & TOBAGO

METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS

This section covers the description, principles of operation, specific construction features, care,
maintenance and usage of the following instruments:

1. Ordinary aneroid barometer;

2. Precision aneroid barometer;
3. Marine open-scale barograph;
4. Mason hygrometer in the marine (Stevenson) screen;
5. Whirling aspirated psychrometer;
6. Sea temperature apparatus including the sample bucket, engine room intake and distant-
reading thermometer (sensor method).

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 1

THE ANEROID BAROMETER
The word 'aneroid' means without liquid. An aneroid barometer is an instrument for measuring
the air pressure, which does not use any liquid, unlike the old fashioned mercury-in-glass
barometer.

An aneroid barometer consists of one (or more) thin metal capsules with round corrugated faces.
Most of the air has been sucked out of the capsule leaving a partial vacuum inside so that an
increase in the external air pressure will compress the faces towards each other. They are
prevented from collapsing together by a strong spring that is fixed to the instrument base. One
face of the capsule is fixed firmly so that the other side flexes in and out with small changes in air
pressure. This movement of one face is transmitted to a pointer by a system of levers and a chain
wound round a spindle.

Compared with the mercury-in-glass barometer, the aneroid barometer has the following
advantages:
a. absence of liquid
b. light weight
c. easily portable
d. may be easily adapted to give a recording trace.

The Ordinary Aneroid Barometer

The type of aneroid barometer most commonly seen is that which looks rather like a clock and is
found in the home and on board ships not issued with equipment by the Meteorological Office.

The barometer is made up of:

(1) the 'aneroid capsule' or 'sensitive element', which is a thin-walled disc with corrugated
faces. There is a partial vacuum inside, but some dry inert gas remains.

(2) a strong spring which prevents the capsule collapsing under the pressure of the
atmosphere.

(3) a long lever, which transmits the movement of the capsule face and the spring.

(4) a connecting lever that transmits this movement to turn the rocking arm (5).

(6) a projecting arm pulls on, or slackens off, the chain (8), which is wound around the pulley
(9) on the spindle. The pointer is attached to the end of the spindle.

(7) a hairspring, which takes up the slack in the chain when the projecting arm (6) moves
towards the spindle.

When the atmospheric pressure increases the upper face is pressed in and the spring is forced
down. This moves the lever arm down also and this movement is transmitted to a pull on the
chain. The chain turns the pulley, and thus the pointer, clockwise against the hairspring. The
pointer then points to a higher pressure.

When the atmospheric pressure decreases, the pressure on the face of the capsule decreases and
the spring is able to pull them further apart. This movement of the spring results in the arm (6)
moving towards the centre. The slack in the chain is taken up by the hairspring turning the pulley
anti-clockwise and the pointer then indicates a lower pressure.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 2

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 3
Care and Use
The barometer must be mounted in a place where it is not near local heat sources (radiators) or in
direct sunlight, or subject to heavy vibration. It should also be shielded from draughts and gusts.
It will not give a correct reading in a pressurised, air conditioned space.

Before reading the barometer it may be given a gentle tap to overcome any friction or stiffness in
the linkage or chain.

The descriptive terms such as 'Stormy' or 'Fair' found on the faces of some barometers are little
more than traditional and are of no real value in forecasting. The ordinary aneroid barometer is
not accurate enough for precise synoptic observations and a Precision Aneroid barometer should
be used for such observations.

Most barometers have a dumb pointer that is set over the pointer after reading. The observer can
see, at a glance, the barometric tendency since the last time the barometer was read and the dumb
pointer set.

Corrections and Errors

1. Errors due to parallax when reading. Read when facing square on to the barometer.

2. No temperature correction is required within the normal operating range due to the use of
a bimetallic link in the lever-system and by insertion of a calculated quantity of inert gas
into the capsule during manufacture.

3. Correction due to varying height. Reading must be reduced to sea level.

4. Errors due to gusts and draughts. The barometer must be suitably sighted to avoid sudden
increases in air pressure.

5. Correction due to calibration. With the passage of time and the many changes in pressure
it experiences, the capsule may not return to its original shape. This effect is known as
'hysteresis'. Because of this the barometer should be checked against a standard
barometer at regular intervals. If the calibration error becomes too large (over 5 millibars)
it may be reduced or even removed by means of the adjusting screw which may be found
at the back of the case.

Precision Aneroid Barometer

The ordinary aneroid barometer has many advantages over the mercury barometer. However it is
not accurate enough for precise observations.

The precision aneroid barometer has a stack of three capsules linked together along the line of
their axis. The use of 3 capsules produces a greater movement for a given change in pressure,
compared with the simple aneroid barometer, and further, no spring is required to prevent the
capsules collapsing. The movement of the capsules alters the position of a pivot bar carrying an
electrical contact. It does not drive any system of linkages, so that errors due to friction and
mechanical wear are eliminated. Reading is by means of a mechanically operated micrometer
screw that is rotated until a circuit is completed. The gearing of the micrometer is such as to allow
a precise reading of an expanded scale.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 4

The precision aneroid barometer is made of:

The stack of 3 capsules (1) containing a small amount of gas, the purpose of which is to
compensate for changes in temperature. The stack is rigidly fixed at one end to the inside of a
cast-metal chamber.

A contact arm (2) with a jewel pivot is kept against the other end of the stack (3) by a hair spring
(4). One end of the contact arm is fitted with a counter-balance (5) and the other end is fitted with
an electrical contact (6).

A micrometer screw (7) is turned by a handle (8) which projects through the casing of the
instrument. At the other end of the micrometer there is another electrical contact (9).

A digital counter (10) is driven from the micrometer screw. A cathode ray indicator (11) lights up
when the circuit is completed by the contacts (2) and (9) touching. A 1.5V battery powers the
circuit.

As the stack moves in and out with changes in pressure, the position of the contact arm will alter
as long as the micrometer is screwed out so that (2) and (9) are not in contact. As the micrometer
is screwed in the contact (9) moves to the left until contact is made with the end of the pivoting
arm, when the circuit is completed and the indicator lights up. Further movement of the
micrometer will pivot the arm further, (against the hair spring) so that it is no longer in contact
with the end of the stack (3). When the micrometer is screwed out again the cathode-ray indicator
will stay alight until the instant when the arm just touches the end of the stack and the contact is
broken, when the indicator 'thread' breaks. The position of the micrometer, at this instant, and so
the pressure, can be read off from the counter.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 5

Care and Use
The barometer should be mounted about 1.5 metres above the deck preferably on a fore-and-aft
bulkhead rather than on an athwartships bulkhead where the errors due to heavy rolling will be
greater.

The method of reading the barometer is as follows:-

1. Press, and keep pressed, the black switch button.

2. Turn the knurled knob so that

a. if the thread of light in the indicator is continuous, the pressure reading increases
until the thread just breaks.
b. if the thread of light in the indicator is broken, the pressure reading decreases
until the thread just becomes continuous.

3. Reverse and repeat the process in 2 above, taking care not to overshoot, and stop when
the thread of light just breaks.

4. Release the button and read off the pressure from the read-out. If the tenths reading is
equally between two figures, the odd number should be taken.

5. Any necessary corrections for height and index errors are applied. It is not necessary to
apply any corrections for temperature.

REMEMBER TO READ ON THE 'BREAK'

The only maintenance required is to change the battery at intervals of some 6 months or when the
thread becomes dim or difficult to read.

Errors and Corrections

1. Index error. The barometer will have been checked before issue and a calibration chart
drawn up. Therefore the barometer should be checked against another of known error as
opportunity affords, and at least every six months.

2. Error due to height above sea level. The barometer reading must be 'reduced' to sea level.
This error will vary with ship's draught.

3. No correction should be required for temperature.

4. Errors due to gusts and draughts. The capsules and other moving parts are mounted in a
chamber in the casing. This compartment is air-tight apart from an entry tube of small
diameter. This prevents sudden increases in air pressure caused by gusts affecting the
barometer.

A damping cap may be fitted to the entry tube. The damping cap greatly restricts the flow
of air into the chamber so that the barometer is not affected by rapid changes in pressure
as the ship rises and falls in a heavy sea.

The barometer should, of course, be mounted away from sources of heat, vibration, and so on.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 6

MARINE OPEN SCALE BAROGRAPH
The barograph is similar in principle to an aneroid barometer, but instead of a pointer moving
over a dial, the movement of the capsule moves a recording pen over a chart mounted on a
revolving drum. Further modifications are required to produce an instrument suitable for use at
sea. The purpose of the barograph is to produce a continuous, permanent record of the
atmospheric pressure between readings of the barometer and, more importantly, it enables the
observer to see the barometric pressure tendency at a glance.

The barographs originally used were found, when taken to sea, to have too-crowded a scale for
accurate observations. The instrument was therefore redesigned to give an open scale. This was
achieved by:

a. using either a bellows type capsule with an internal spring or a stack of some 5 capsules.
Both of these types will multiply the movement resulting from pressure changes.

b. having a pen arm as long as is conveniently possible.

c. the lever system between the capsule and the pen arm multiplying the capsule movement.

It was further found that the trace produced was widened out into a band covering several
millibars on the scale. This was the result of:

a. vibrations from the engines, etc.

b. short-lasting pressure changes due to gusts of wind.

c. oscillations in pressure as the ship rose and fell in heavy seas.

d. angular accelerations as the ship rolled and pitched.

These problems were largely (but not entirely) overcome by mounting the instrument on thick
foam rubber mountings and by the use of oil damping around the capsule.

Lever system of open scale barograph (capsules mounted in oil - not shown)

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 7

The barograph consists of two units, the aneroid capsule with the magnifying levers, and the drum
carrying the chart.

The capsule is mounted vertically in an oil-filled brass cylinder, and fixed firmly to the base. The
cylinder is sealed except for a small space around the rod from the capsule to the lever system.
Above this hole is a small reservoir, partly filled with more oil. Any change in air pressure will
cause oil to flow through the gap, but the oil used has a viscosity that will only let it flow slowly.
This smoothes out any sudden or short term changes in pressure and makes the barograph suitable
for use at sea. (Do not attempt to top up the oil in the reservoir.) If the barograph is to be moved,
screwing down a plug on the connecting rod can seal the reservoir. When the barograph is in use,
this plug should be screwed up the rod as far as possible.

The lever system causes the pen arm to rotate up and down about a horizontal axis. The radius of
the lines marking the hours on the trace is the same as the length of the pen arm. The modern type
of pen used in barographs is a 'felt tip’ that should last for a year.

The paper trace, or barogram, is fixed to a vertical brass cylinder that is driven round by
clockwork, revolving once every 7 days. The barograph scale is normally from 950mb to 1050mb
but it is possible to reset the instrument so that the central pressure on the scale is as low as
880mb. This operation may be necessary in Tropical Revolving Storms or in intense mid-latitude
depressions. Resetting is done by turning the milled knob on the gallows above the capsule.

Care and Use

The barograph should be installed horizontally on foam mountings on a rigid surface. It should be
protected from excessive vibration, direct sunlight, local heat sources and gusts.

The barograph is not meant to give an accurate measure of the atmospheric pressure. If the
reading of the pressure at one instant is required the instrument may be given a light tap but not
prior to an observation of pressure tendency.

The barogram should be marked each day at the same time e.g. 1200 GMT so that if the
barograph clock runs fast or slow the time scale may be adjusted if the record is studied further in
the Meteorological Office. There is a push button fitted which causes the pen to make a small blip
in the trace without the need for opening the case.

The clockwork unit needs to be wound weekly and the paper chart is replaced at the same time. It
is suggested that this be done at the same time each week (Monday mornings). When the case is
opened for this operation the pen arm is automatically lifted off the chart.

Once the new chart is secured by the two spring clips the pen is set at the correct day and GMT.

Care must be taken that:

a. the chart is tight around the drum.

b. the corresponding lines at the beginning and end of the trace overlap i.e. they are parallel
to the brass flange at the base of the drum.

c. the end of the chart overlaps the beginning or there is the danger that the pen will catch
and tear the chart if inadvertently the barograph is allowed to over-run.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 8

The drum is then replaced and the nut screwed up again. The drum is then rotated until the pen
points to a time slightly fast of the correct GMT. The drum is then rotated backwards until the
pen is at the correct GMT. This final movement in the opposite direction to the clockwork drive
avoids errors which might be caused by backlash in the clock gearing. Then the pen is lowered
onto the chart by the action of closing the case. The barograph should be compared with the
precision aneroid barometer and the error noted. If it is unacceptably large it may be removed by
the adjusting screw, a note of this being made.

The pivots in the lever mechanism should be lightly oiled with a single drop of clock oil annually.
The felt tip pen should be changed every 9 months or so.

Errors and Corrections

As the barograph is intended to provide only a record of the tendency, and not an absolute value,
of the atmospheric pressure over a relatively short period, great accuracy is not required.
Therefore no correction or adjustment need be made for it.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 9

THE MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY AT SEA
An instrument used for measuring the humidity of the air is called a hygrometer. The type that
uses the difference in temperature between two thermometers - the dry-bulb thermometer and the
wet-bulb thermometer - is known as a psychrometer. The kind of psychrometer usually found at
sea (Mason's Hygrometer) consists of two similar thermometers mounted in a Stevenson screen.

Mason's Hygrometer

This hygrometer consists of two mercury-in-glass thermometers mounted vertically in a marine

Stevenson screen, together with the associated reservoir for the wet bulb thermometer. The bulb
of the wet bulb thermometer is covered with a single thickness of thin, clean muslin or cambric
which is tied on with a few threads of darning cotton. The ends of the darning cotton act as a wick
drawing up the distilled water from the plastic reservoir by capillary action. This water keeps the
muslin cover moist and evaporation from the cover cools the wet bulb.

The purpose of the screen is to protect the thermometers from any heat radiation and yet allow
them to take up the true temperature of the air. The louvered sides of the screen keep out all
radiation, but air may flow freely, both laterally and vertically.

The evaporation of water from the muslin around the wet bulb requires a supply of heat - the
'latent heat of vaporization'. This heat is obtained from the water, the surrounding air and from the
thermometer, and its expenditure produces a fall in the temperature of the wet bulb. The lower the
humidity of the air, the greater will be the rate of evaporation, which in turn causes a greater
reduction in the temperature of the wet bulb.

At a given temperature, as the humidity of the air rises, the rate of evaporation decreases, and so
the cooling of the wet bulb thermometer decreases. When the air is saturated, no evaporation will
take place and the wet bulb temperature will be the same as the dry bulb temperature. Therefore
the amount by which the wet bulb temperature is lowered provides a measure of the humidity.
The difference between the readings of the two thermometers is known as the 'depression of the
wet bulb'.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 10

For a given dry bulb temperature, the greater the depression of the wet bulb, then the lower the
dew point of the air (and thus its absolute humidity).

The value of dew point temperature of the air is extracted from tables which are entered with the
dry bulb reading and the depression of the wet bulb.

The wet bulb reading, in normal circumstances, should always be less than the dry bulb reading.
If the air is saturated the readings will be the same.

Care and Use

The dry bulb thermometer should be kept dry and clean and in particular, free from salt. If the
thermometer has had to be washed or dried if found moist then an interval of 15 minutes must
elapse before taking a reading.

The wet bulb must also be kept free of contamination. The muslin cover should be changed
weekly at the same time as the reservoir is cleaned out and refilled with distilled water. Also this
operation must be done if there has been some likely contamination i.e. salt spray. Again a time
interval of 15 minutes must have elapsed before taking the reading.

The Stevenson screen must be hung to windward before reading and at a height of approximately
5 feet off the deck to allow an unrestricted airflow past it. Keep it well clear of all heat sources.
Allow 15 minutes if moved before reading.

If the dry bulb temperature is below 0oC

a. the wet bulb may be covered with super-cooled water. This water should be induced to
freeze by touching the bulb with a piece of ice, snow or fine pencil point. The wet bulb
temperature will rise to 0oC with the release of latent heat as the water turns to ice. The
temperature will then fall again and when it is steady the reading is taken.

b. the water in the reservoir will be frozen. There should be a thin layer of ice on the wet
bulb. If the muslin is dry because the ice there has evaporated, it is necessary to paint the
bulb with ice-cold water to produce a thin coating of ice. It will take about 10 or 15
minutes for the water to freeze and when the wet bulb temperature is below the dry bulb
temperature, and steady, the reading may be taken.

Errors and Corrections

There are no corrections to be applied to the readings, and most errors in the instruments cannot
be allowed for. The errors that may arise which can be removed are those due to contamination of
either bulb or the thermometers themselves may be faulty.

The Whirling Psychrometer

The Mason's hygrometer is intended for use where there is normal draught of 2 to 4 knots. It is
therefore unsuitable for use in holds or other confined spaces, or if the relative wind speed is low.
In such cases it is necessary to provide a draught mechanically, the instrument normally used in
such circumstances being the Whirling Psychrometer. The movement of the instrument through
the air provides the draught.

The whirling psychrometer should be used in the shade, if on deck. The instrument should be
rotated about 180 rpm until consecutive readings of both thermometers agree to 0.1oC. This

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 11

should take about 2 minutes. The wet bulb should be read first as its temperature will start to rise
as soon as the observer stops rotating the psychrometer.

The muslin wick should be changed regularly along with topping up the reservoir with distilled
water.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 12

SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE
As well as the requirement for obtaining the sea-surface temperature for inclusion in the reports
sent to the appropriate Met. Office, it is also required by the O.O.W. to enable him to make
decisions on ventilating and on the probability of fog and ice.

There are three common methods of measuring the temperature of the seawater at, or near the sea
surface and, as might be expected, each method has its advantages and disadvantages.

1. Bucket Method
In this method a sample of seawater is obtained in a special bucket, brought on deck and its
temperature measured by immersing a thermometer in the sample. This method is not without
problems, especially with the increased size and speed of modern ships. A double-walled canvas
bucket may still be used but a small-reinforced rubber bucket is now supplied to all British
Voluntary Reporting Ships.

After securing the end of the line to the rail, the bucket should be thrown into the water well clear
of the ship's side and forward of all discharges. The bucket should not be dragged along the
surface and filled with spray and foam for the sample would then have a temperature somewhere
between that of the sea and the air. It is therefore best to throw the bucket in a fashion similar to
heaving a lead line, and the bucket should then sink quickly. On recovery of the bucket, the
thermometer should be put into the water immediately and the sample taken into the shade so that
it is not warmed by sunlight. The thermometer should be immersed as deeply as possible, keeping
it clear of the sides and bottom, and it is held at the very top by the fingertips. The reading is
taken as soon as the temperature is steady i.e. after about 1 minute. As far as possible the bulb and
stem should be kept in the seawater sample whilst the temperature is being read.

Sources of Error:
(a) bucket not at temperature of sea;

(b) thermometer is not at same temperature as water;

(c) temperature of water may change in interval before reading;

(d) thermometer reading may change when recovering for reading;

(e) scale errors.

2. Engine Room Intake Method

This method is very convenient but it lacks accuracy. The temperature may be obtained by use of
a thermometer or a thermograph. A sample of water may be obtained from a tap attached to the
intake, the procedure thereafter being the same as in the bucket method. Alternatively a
thermometer may be fitted in a pocket inset into the inlet pipe, the good conducting properties of
the steel enabling the temperature of the seawater to be obtained.

Sources of Error:
(a) intake well below surface;

(b) thermometer may not be accurate as the one supplied by the Met. Office;

(c) incoming water heated on passage through the hot E/R;

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 13

(d) poor thermal conductivity between steel pocket and thermometer;

(e) parallax - position awkward of reading;

(f) mistake on relaying message to bridge.

3. Sensor Method
A small sensor unit is fitted to the inside of the hull below the water line, forward of all
discharges and in a compartment not subject to heating or cooling from shipboard sources. The
sensor is wired up to a read-out on the bridge.

Sources of Error:
(a) difference in temperature between outside and inside hull;

(b) changes in draft/trim will determine the depth of sensor, therefore not at sea surface;

(c) electrical fault.

Met. Instruments (MAR Rev.31/10/01) 14