University of Alexandria Dept.

of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering

Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

CHAPTER 8 MOORING AND BUOY SYSTEMS

Offshore moorings provide temporary or permanent position keeping for ships as
well as for a wide range of floating structures such as oil drilling/production facilities,
offshore loading terminals, floating docks, etc. Station keeping for offshore vessels is
accomplished by mooring the vessel to the sea floor or by dynamic positioning (DP).

8.1 Buoy systems

Buoys are floating or submerged objects which are typically cylindrical, spherical,
disc or toroidal in shape and moored to the sea floor with some type of anchor and
mooring line. A major use of buoys is for aids to navigation that mark ship channels,
obstacles such as wrecks, or other underwater hazards, and port entrances. These
buoys are often equipped with bells, whistles, and lights and sometimes depend on
wave induced motion to produce the sounds. Buoys are also used for markers and
ship moorings. Marker buoys are used to locate and retrieve objects on the sea floor
such as anchors, lobster traps, sunken ships, and offshore pipelines. Large
cylindrical buoys are used to mark rig anchors for an offshore drilling platform
mooring. Also, very large buoy mooring systems are used to moor oil tankers while
transferring oil to the tanker for eventual transport to land.
Weather stations and oceanic platforms are another use for buoys. These measure
and report wind speed and direction, air temperature and pressure, wave conditions,
ocean currents, and visibility. Data may be stored internally or transmitted via
satellites and radio or underwater acoustical systems. Examples of buoy systems
are shown in Fig. 52.

Fig. 52

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Buoy Hull Forms

The basic hull forms for surface buoy systems are a disc (toroid or flat disc), sphere,
cone, boat hull and spar as shown in Fig. 53.

Fig. 53

8.2 Offshore Mooring Systems

Offshore mooring systems are generally classified as either single point moorings
(SPM) or multiple point moorings (i.e. multiple spread moorings, MSM).
SPM’s are designed to allow a vessel to weathervane into the prevailing weather
conditions, see Fig. 54. The vessel will tend to align itself with wind, waves and
current prevailing direction to minimize the exposed area and hence the mooring
load.

Fig. 54

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

MSM’s are designed to produce restoring forces when the vessel is moved laterally
and can use any combination of symmetrical or asymmetrical mooring patterns,
depending on the specific requirement or direction of prevailing environmental
conditions.

8.3.1 Single Point Moorings (SPM)

Loading buoys are anchored offshore and serve as a mooring point for tankers to
(off)load gas or fluid products. They are the link between the subsea manifold
connections and the weathervaning tanker. The main purpose of the buoy is to
transfer fluids between onshore or offshore facilities and the moored tanker. These
buoys are generally referred to as Single Point Mooring systems or (SPM’s). They
are also often referred to as Single Buoy Moorings or (SBM’s). Buoy moorings
normally offer a maximum of three main fluid paths.
There are various types of SPM systems, each type having its own characteristics
and fields of application. The most common are:
1- Buoy Mooring Systems:
-Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring (CALM) Buoy
-Catenary Anchor Leg Rigid Arm Mooring (CALRAM)
- Single Anchor Leg Mooring (SALM)
- Exposed Location Single Buoy Mooring (ELSBM)
- Single Anchor Leg Storage (SALS)
-SPAR
2-Turret Mooring Systems
- Internal turret mooring system
- External turret mooring system
3-Tower Mooring Systems
-Tower wishbone system
-Tower with hawser mooring system
-Submerged tower wishbone system
Single point moorings are generally more economical than multiple point moorings.
On the other hand, they require a large anchorage area to avoid interference with
other structures and moored vessels.

8.3.1.1 Buoy Mooring Systems

The main purpose of the buoy is to transfer fluids between onshore or offshore
facilities and the moored tanker. With the growth of the world trade in crude oil and
other fluid products, catenary anchor leg mooring (CALM) buoys will continue to be
used as one of the most efficient and economical solutions for mooring and
(off)loading tankers. CALM moorings are comprised of a buoy secured to the
seafloor by a number of anchor chain legs. CALM systems are so named for the
characteristic (catenary) curve of the anchor legs that hold the buoy in position.
CALM’s used in offshore oil industry applications incorporate oil transfer lines that
rise from the seafloor and terminate at the buoy. The vessel is attached to the CALM
buoy by means of a mooring line or hawser as shown in Fig. 55. CALM buoys can be
designed to berth any size tanker up to and including Ultra Large Crude Carriers
(ULCCs).

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 55

The buoy may be of the turntable or turret type. The turntable buoy is a buoy with a
geostatic fixed buoy body (moored to the seabed) and a rotating mooring table
(conventional design). The turret buoy is a buoy with a geostatic turret and a buoy
body, which is rotating around the turret. The main applications of a CALM system
are:
-Short term mooring: for import and export of fluids between onshore or offshore
facilities and a tanker
-Permanent Mooring: for production and storage systems
-Semi-permanent Mooring: permanent mooring with easy disconnect capability to
evacuate the facility in case of severe weather conditions.
The principle of a CALRAM buoy is similar to that of a CALM Buoy. The difference is
that a rigid arm (yoke) replaces the mooring hawser to connect the tanker to the
buoy, see Fig. 56. This type of buoy mooring can only be used for permanently
moored tankers. The rigid mooring arm eliminates the risk of breaking away and of a
collision between tanker and buoy.

Fig. 56

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

A single anchor leg mooring (SALM) consists of a relatively large buoy that is
attached by single anchor chain to a structural base located on the sea floor, see
Fig. 57. The anchor leg chain is connected to the mooring buoy and the fluid swivel
by means of a universal joint.

Fig. 57

The ELSBM was specially developed for the North Sea, where environmental
conditions are particularly hazardous. It is composed of two cylinders of different
diameters divided concentrically into two tubular compartments, see Fig. 58.

Fig. 58

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

The components of the ELSBM shown in Fig. 58 are : a- oil loading hose; b- mooring
hawser and loading hose pick up buoy; c- revolving loading arm; d- helicopter pad;
e- mooring hawser; f- fenders; g- buoy mooring chains; h- buoyancy compartments;
i- ballast compartments; j- oil transfer hose. The emerged part of an ELSBM carries
a turntable which carries a power supply unit, living quarters, a helicopter deck and
winches for hauling floating hoses or hawsers.
The single anchor leg storage (SALS) system is shown in Fig. 59 and consists of the
following components: a- riser base; b- jumper hose; c- tension and production
risers; d- buoyancy tank; e- yoke; f- tanker with production equipment and storage;
g- universal joint.

Fig. 59

The SPAR, Fig. 60, is similar to the ELSBM but incorporates oil storage capacity and
production facilities within the terminal. Ballasting is required since water has to
replace oil to keep the draft constant.

Fig. 60

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

8.3.1.2 Turret Mooring Systems

Concept of turret mooring has been adopted industry-wide as the major concept for
permanently mooring tankers such as Floating Production Storage and Offloading
(FPSO) units, see Fig. 61.
Turret mooring systems integrate all functions for mooring, gas-fluid and power
transfer in one system. No hawsers, floating hoses, active turret rotation systems or
propulsion systems are required. The turret concept can receive more than 50 risers
and associated umbilicals. Turrets can be designed and built for use either inside the
vessel hull or outside the hull where the turret is connected by a rigid structure to the
bow or stern of the vessel allowing the tanker to weathervane over 360 degrees. The
compact turret casing design moors the tanker to a fixed location and minimises hull
reinforcement, allowing the turret to be positioned close to the vessel’s bow
maximising overall vessel storage capacity. This design reduces deflections and
improves main bearing reliability.
A multi product swivel provides multiple paths for gas, water and crude, as well as
the associated paths for hydraulics, chemical injection, power, control and optical
signals.
Two basic types of turret mooring systems are distinguished:
-Internal turret mooring system
-External turret mooring system

Fig. 61

Internal Turrets

The exact configuration of a turret mooring system differs from application to

application depending on process requirements, vessel size, environmental
conditions etc.
An internal turret mooring system is the most frequently supplied turret mooring
system. It can be used in medium and deepwater applications. This type of mooring
system is widely used on FPSOs and FSOs and its design has been proven time
and time again in the harshest North Sea conditions.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

External Turrets

An external turret mooring system is similar to an internal turret mooring system,

however, the turret is located outside the ship’s hull. This may reduce the
modifications required to the ship’s hull and allows for integration quayside, while the
internal turret mooring system requires dry-docking of the vessel. However, it limits
the number of risers and therefore, the number of fluid paths that can be
accommodated. Another difference is that the chain table of an external turret
mooring system is usually located above water level while the internal mooring
system has a submerged chain table structure. This feature allows the system to be
used in shallow waters and because the effective depth of the mooring system
increases, the storage capacity of the hull can be maximised.
This system is primarily for use on smaller fields in shallow water.

8.3.3.3 Tower Mooring Systems

Tower mooring systems are rigid tower structures fixed to the seabed and serve as
an anchoring point for permanently moored tankers to (off)load gas or fluid products.
There are various types of tower mooring systems, each type having its own
characteristics and fields of application. The common tower mooring systems are:
-Tower Wishbone System
-Submerged Tower Wishbone System
-Tower Hawser System
A wishbone system: whereby a "soft yoke" connection is created by hanging the rigid
arm from the tanker using pendulums or chains.
The main feature of a tower mooring system is that the tanker itself is connected to
the tower via a permanent wishbone structure or a permanent or temporary hawser
arrangement. Tower mooring systems are suitable for applications in shallow and
medium range waterdepths with high currents. They can also accommodate multiple
gas or fluid paths together with electrical connections to the subsea piping.

Fig. 62

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

8.3.2 Multiple Spread Moorings (MSM)

Multiple (point) spread moorings are required when there is insufficient area for a
single point mooring or when operations at the mooring cannot tolerate large vessel
motions. Selection of a specific arrangement depends on site condition, available
anchorage area, and mooring use. MSM’s can be designed for extreme weather
conditions and relatively small vessel motions. The number of mooring lines (legs) is
variable and depends on operational and design conditions. Usually, 8 legs are used
on drilling vessels and 12 or more legs are used on floating production vessels
(FPS).
The following are the common types of spread mooring systems.
- Conventional Buoy Mooring (CBM), also called a Multi Buoy Mooring (MBM)
system for temporary tanker moorings, Fig. 63.
- Spread Mooring system for permanent mooring applications, Fig. 64.

The tanker moored to a CBM system is restricted from weathervaning. This system
is generally used in areas where the environmental conditions are moderate and the
frequency of offloading operations is limited, or for projects where smaller tankers
are received. Since this system does not allow the tanker to weathervane, it can
cause severe operational limitations. It typically consists of the following main
components, see Fig. 63:
- Multiple mooring buoys (usually 3)
- Anchor arrangement
- PLEM (PipeLine End Manifold), with submersible hose string, from the seabed to
the loading buoy.

Fig. 63

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 64

8.3 Mooring System Components

The principal components of offshore moorings include: anchors, sinkers, anchor

chains, buoys, mooring lines or hawsers, product transfer system, and auxiliary
components.

8.3.1 Anchors

Several anchor types are used in offshore moorings including drag-embedment

anchors, deadweight anchors, and pile anchors.
The important types of drag-embedment anchors are shown in Fig. 65. Fig. 66
shows a stockless anchor. The anchor shank is used to transfer the mooring load to
the anchor flukes which bear directly against the bottom. The leading edge of the
anchor fluke, called the fluke tip, is designed to penetrate into the seafloor on anchor
dragging. Drag-embedment anchors are designed to resist horizontal loading and
are incapable of resisting appreciable vertical loading. Sufficient mooring line scope
(ratio of mooring line length to water depth) is required.

Fig. 65

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 66

A deadweight anchor is a large mass of concrete or steel that resists both horizontal
and vertical loading. Deadweight anchor construction may vary from simple concrete
weights to specially designed concrete and steel anchors with shear keys, see Fig.
67.

Fig. 67

Pile anchors are designed to resist horizontal and vertical loading and usually consist
of simple shapes of structural steel fitted with a mooring line connection. Pile
anchors are well suited for short-scope moorings and are often used when seafloor
soil characteristics are unsuitable for drag anchors. Fig. 68 presents some example
pile anchor designs.

8.3.2 Sinkers

A sinker (clump weight) is a large weight, made of concrete or steel and placed on a
catenary mooring leg to: (1) ensure horizontal loading at the anchor, (2) enhance
mooring line energy absorption, or (3) affect mooring line pretension in a way that
can be useful in controlling vessel motions. A typical concrete sinker is shown in Fig.
69.

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 68

Fig. 69

8.3.3 Anchor Chains

A stud link chain is normally used in offshore moorings because the chain is strong,
highly durable, heavy and has good shock absorbing characteristics. Anchor chain
links have a center stud that is designed to hold the link in its original shape under
tension and prevent it from twisting. Examples of anchor chain arrangements are
shown in Fig. 70. These use common links, enlarged stud links, end links, kenter
shackles, standard and swivel shackles.

8.3.4 Buoys

The principal purpose of a buoy is to provide a convenient means for connection of

the ship’s hawser to the mooring. The buoy body serves to provide buoyancy and
stability to the unit and to accommodate various components. Buoys must have
enough buoyancy to support the weight of the subsurface mooring chains (and
sinkers).

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University of Alexandria Dept. of Naval Architecture & Marine Engineering
Faculty of Engineering Instructor: H. W. Leheta

Fig. 70

8.3.5 Mooring Lines or Hawsers

Anchor mooring lines connect the buoy to the seabed and a hawser arrangement
connects an (off)loading tanker to the buoy. Hawsers may consist of synthetic ropes,
wire ropes or chains.

8.3.6 Product Transfer System

A product swivel provides the interface between the geostatic (fixed on sea bed)
and weathervaning part of the buoy product piping.

8.3.7 Auxiliary components

These include: boat landing, lifting and handling equipment, fendering, navigation
aids and power provisions.

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