Practices of Power System Management in India

Power Systems
J. Raja
P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj
S. Rajasekar
Practices
in Power System
Management in
India
Power Systems
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4622
J. Raja P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj
•
S. Rajasekar
Practices in Power System

Management in India
123
J. Raja S. Rajasekar
Ministry of Power India Power Grid Corporation of India Limited
National Power Training Institute Gurgaon
Faridabad India
India
P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj
Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
Pondicherry Engineering College
Puducherry
India
ISSN 1612-1287 ISSN 1860-4676 (electronic)

Power Systems
ISBN 978-981-10-2971-4 ISBN 978-981-10-2972-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2972-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018932182
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Preface
This book is recommended for the director, chief engineer, chief accounts officer,
superintendent engineer, executive engineer, and assistant engineer who work in
Indian distribution companies (DISCOMs).
The book broadly covers the following subjects.
1. In 2008 the government of India announced the Restructured Accelerated Power
Development and Reforms Programme (R-APDRP) scheme, a revised version
of the Accelerated Power Development Reforms Programme (APDRP).
The APDRP scheme was initiated in 2002–2003 as additional central assistance to
states in reducing the aggregate technical and commercial (AT&C) losses in the
power sector. Aggregate technical and commercial loss captures the total loss in
the distribution network. Technical loss may be due to ill-maintained equipment,
substations, and inadequate investment in infrastructure whereas commercial loss
may be due to low metering efficiency, faulty meter reading, theft and pilferage,
and improving the quality and reliability of power supply. This was to be
achieved by strengthening and upgrading the subtransmission and distribution
system of high-density load centers such as towns and industrial centers.
Under this scheme Power Finance Corporation (PFC) & Ministry of Power,
India (MoP) shortlisted research institutes (RI), and RI published material based
on the above area but to date there have been no books covering the basic
concept, latest available technology, and practical aspects of operation and
maintenance scheduling. This book aims to cover both basics, the latest tech-
nology used for distribution and the practical aspects of the operation and
maintenance (O&M) of a distribution network. At the end of the book we
provide the O&M of all the distribution components with case studies.
2. The Central Electricity Authority of India (CEA) has issued a gazette notifica-
tion dated September 20th, 2010, whereby they have made it mandatory that all
personnel engaged in the O&M of a thermal plant, hydro plant, combined cycle
gas plant, transmission system, and subtransmission and distribution system
have to be given mandatory training covering the syllabus prescribed by them in
this notification.
vii
viii Preface
Presently no study material is available covering the full contents of the syl-
labus. In order to provide proper training for O&M personnel, it is essential that
good study material be available. This book aims to achieve this objective and to
meet the requirements of the CEA gazette notification for O&M of the distri-
bution line.
3. A new feature of this book covers the check list of distribution equipment for the
O&M of distribution particularly suitable for the Indian power market.
Faridabad, India J. Raja

Puducherry, India P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj
Gurgaon, India S. Rajasekar
Acknowledgements
I am deeply indebted to my respected principal director and my business devel-

opment department members for their invaluable technical support in preparing this
book. Finally, I would like to thank my wife, daughters, and my parents for their
unconditional love and support. I would not have been able to complete this book
without their continuous love and encouragement.
Faridabad, India J. Raja
I would like to express my sincere thanks to the principal of Pondicherry

Engineering College, Dr. P. Dananjayan and the head of electrical and electronics
engineering, Pondicherry Engineering College, Dr. Alamelu Nachiappan, who have
held my hand during the process of learning to carry out this work. Finally, I thank
my wife, son, daughter, and my parents for being extremely patient with me in the
busy period.
Puducherry, India P. Ajay-D-Vimal Raj
I am thankful to my senior colleagues and fellow engineers at Power Grid

Corporation of India Limited for encouraging me to write down my experience
which helped me immensely in writing this book. I send my warm thanks to
my editors and their teams at Springer, who offered many good suggestions.
Finally, I wish to profoundly thank my parents, wife, and family members for all
their time, support, and patience.
The views expressed in this book are of the authors only and need not neces-
sarily be those of the organization to which they belong.
Gurgaon, India S. Rajasekar
ix
Contents
1 Overview of Power Sector Scenario in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Historical Background and Stages of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Major Players in the Indian Power Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 The Growth Story of the Indian Power Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 The Growth in Rural Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Growth in Generating Capacity Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Electricity Generation in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Thermal Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.2 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.3 Hydro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.4 Nuclear Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.7 Transmission and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Unbundling of Power Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.9 Private Participation in Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.10 Electricity Act and Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.10.1 Provisions in the Electricity Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.10.2 Impact of Electricity Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.11 Various Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.12 National Energy Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.13 Energy Demand: Efficiency and Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.14 Demand-Side Management (DSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.14.1 Demand-Side Management in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.14.2 Demand-Side Management and Power Quality . . . . . . . 20
1.14.3 DSM in the Agricultural Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 Distribution Planning and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 System Planning Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.1 Power Precondition Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.2 Futuristic System Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
xi
xii Contents
2.1.3 Temporary System Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.1.4 Coordination Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.5 Optimal Conductor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.6 Power Factor Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Central Electricity Authority of India (CEA) Guidelines
on Distribution Network Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 28
2.3 Operations Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 29
2.3.1 Operations Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 29
2.3.2 Operating Procedures (Preparation of Operation
Manual) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3 Routine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 System Disturbances or Outage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.1 Disturbance Categorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.5 Power Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6 Maintenance Planning and Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.1 Evolving World-Class Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6.2 Main Causes of Electrical Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.3 Breakdown Maintenance or Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6.4 Preventive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.6.5 Predictive Maintenance (PDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6.6 Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.7 Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6.8 Premonsoon Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7 New Technology in Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7.1 Ultrasonic Noise Analysis Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7.2 Incomplete Discharge Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7.3 Transformer Dissolved Gas Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7.4 Infrared Thermography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7.5 Hotline Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.8 Integrated Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.8.1 Case Study and International Practices
for Equipment Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 41
2.8.2 Understanding “As-Is” Scenario of Distribution
Network Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.8.3 Formulation of the CAPEX Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8.4 Typical Causes of Poor Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8.5 Basic Ways to Improve Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.9 Reliability Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.9.1 Utility Trend in Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9.2 Reliability Roadmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.10 International Benchmarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.11 Maintenance and Inspection Roadmap Recommendations . . . . . 50
2.12 Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Contents xiii
2.13 New Technologies in Power System Control Operation . . . . . . . 58

2.14 New Systems and IT Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Subtransmission
and Distribution Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
3.1 Description of Distribution Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63
3.2 Poles and Tower Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
3.2.1 Selection Criteria of PCC Poles per Requirement
of Electric Connection (REC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3 Line Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.1 Permissible Line Span per REC Standards . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4 Overhead Distribution Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4.1 Preventive Maintenance of Overhead Lines . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5 Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5.1 Preventive Maintenance of Underground Lines . . . . . . 72
3.6 Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Distribution
Substation Equipment and Auxiliaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1 Distribution Substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.2 Surge/Lightning Arresters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.3 Instrument Transformer (CT and PT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.1 Outdoor Type Instrument Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.2 CT Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.3 PT Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.4 Classification of Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5 Primitive Maintenance of Circuit Breaker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6 Isolators and Earth Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.6.1 Classification of Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.7 Capacitor Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.7.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.8 Control and Relay Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.8.1 Classification of Control and Relay Panels . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.8.2 Colors for Internal Wiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.9 Bus Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.10 Battery and Battery Charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.10.1 Classification of Battery Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.10.2 Common Causes of Fault and Best Practices
for Battery Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.10.3 Preventive Maintenance of Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
xiv Contents
4.11 Earth Grid and Earthing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

4.11.1 Types of Earthing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.11.2 Common Earth System for Low- and High-Voltage
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Transformers . . . 109
5.1 Power Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.1.2 Causes and Nature of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.1.3 Primitive Maintenance of Power Transformer . . . . . . . . 111
5.1.4 Visual Checking of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.1.5 Preventive Maintenance Schedule of Power
Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.1.6 Predictive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.1.7 Condition Monitoring of Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2 Distribution Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.2 Transformer Maintenance Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2.3 Causes of Failure of Distribution Transformers . . . . . . 117
5.2.4 Preventive Maintenance Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3 Operation and Maintenance of Transformers and Reactors . . . . . 120
5.3.1 Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.2 Testing of Transformers/Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.3 General Maintenance of Transformer/Reactor
Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3.4 Cooler Control Setting, Alarm, and Trip Test . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.5 Calibration of the Winding Temperature Indicator . . . . 126
5.3.6 Secondary Injection Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.7 Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI) Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.8 Checks on Buchholz Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.3.9 Checks on Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3.10 Cooling System—Fans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3.11 Cooling System—Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3.12 Operational Checks on OLTC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.3.13 Checks on Bushings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.4 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5 Maintenance of Insulating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.5.1 Tests for Dielectric Strength (BDV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Contents xv
6 International Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance

(Advanced Gadgets) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2 Reclosures/Auto Reclosures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.3 Sectionalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.4 Amorphous Core Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.5 Dry Type Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.5.1 Maintenance of Dry-Type Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.5.2 Visual Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.5.3 Dust Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.6 Ring Main Unit (RMU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.7 Packaged Unit Substation (PUS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.8 Fault Passage Indicator (FPI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.9 Automatic Power Factor Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.10 Transformer Load Analyzer (TLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.11 Advanced Tools for Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.11.1 Thermovision Camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.11.2 Tan-Delta Testing Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.11.3 Cable Fault Detector Kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.11.4 Insulation Resistance (IR) Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.11.5 Megger Insulation Tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.12 Gas Leakage Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.13 Crimping Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.14 Oil Filtration Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.14.1 Oil Purification Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.14.2 Different Techniques for Removal of Solid
Contaminants in Transformer Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.14.3 Different Techniques for Water Removal . . . . . . . . . . . 163
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7 Best Practices in Distribution Engineering and Automation . . . . . . 165
7.1 High-Voltage Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.1.1 Technical Advantage of HVDS Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.1.2 Critical Issues Frequently Faced on HVDS . . . . . . . . . 166
7.1.3 Three Single-Phase Versus Single Three-Phase
Transformer in Urban Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1.4 Restrictions Regarding LVDS and HVDS . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.1.5 Three-Phase HVDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.2 Aerial Bunch Conductor (ABC)—Based Distribution
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2.1 Constructing ABC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.2.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.2.4 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
xvi Contents
7.3 Consumer Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

7.4 Up-to-Date Asset Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.5 Distribution Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.6 DMS (Distribution Management System) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.7 Mobile Substation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
8 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance
of Energy Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.1 Metering Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.2 Indian Electricity Act 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.2.1 Electricity Act 2003 Section 55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.2.2 Central Electricity Authority Notification Dated
March 17th, 2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.3 Variety of Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.4 Location of Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.5 Meter Classification per Technology, Use, and Locations . . . . . 184
8.5.1 Interface Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.5.2 Consumer Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.5.3 Energy Accounting and Audit of Meters . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.6 Accuracy of Electromechanical Versus Electronic Energy
Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.7 Communication Facility in Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.8 Meter Calibration and Periodical Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.8.1 Interface Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.8.2 Consumer Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.8.3 Meter Energy Accounting and Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.9 Best Practices for Meter Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.10 Best Practices for Reliable Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8.11 Storage Methodology in Tri-vector Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.11.1 Types of Tri-vector Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.11.2 Storage Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8.12 Meter Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.12.1 Preinstallation Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.12.2 Onsite Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.12.3 Joint Inspection of Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.13 Meter Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.14 Latest Advanced Technology in Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.14.1 Meter Data Acquisition (MDA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.14.2 AMR Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.14.3 Prepaid Metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Percentage of installed capacity for different sources of power

(as of September 31st, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fig. 1.2 Growth in Indian power sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 1.3 Implementation of Electricity Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 2.1 World-class maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 2.2 Maintenance strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Fig. 2.3 Hot line maintenance work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 2.4 A representative figure displaying the integrated approach . . . . . 42
Fig. 3.1 Structure of distribution system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 3.2 Cable internal composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. 3.3 Different kinds of insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. 4.1 Current transformer and potential transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Fig. 4.2 Isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 4.3 Capacitor bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Fig. 4.4 Bus bar arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig. 4.5 Battery and battery charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 5.1 Power transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig. 5.2 Dielectric frequency domain spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fig. 6.1 Installation of reclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig. 6.2 Typical sectionalizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig. 6.3 Installation of sectionalizer in outdoor medium-voltage line . . . . 144
Fig. 6.4 Various advanced kinds of transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Fig. 6.5 Typical 11 kV network and RMU locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Fig. 6.6 RMU unit and cable termination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 6.7 MV Switch gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Fig. 6.8 Fault indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 6.9 Indicators in distribution network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 6.10 Vector diagram for power factor controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 6.11 Screenshot of XFORMER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Fig. 6.12 Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Fig. 6.13 Cable fault detector kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
xvii
xviii List of Figures
Fig. 6.14 Megger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Fig. 6.15 SF6 gas leakage detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 6.16 Crimping tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Fig. 6.17 Oil filtration machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Fig. 6.18 Centrifugal filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 6.19 Mechanical filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fig. 6.20 Magnetic filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 6.21 Electrostatic filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Fig. 7.1 HVDS used in rural electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Fig. 7.2 Mobile substation components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 7.3 Mobile substation in transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 8.1 Meter varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Fig. 8.2 Prepaid metering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
List of Tables
Table 1.1 Growth of electricity installed capacity in India . . . . . . . . . . .. 5

Table 1.2 PAN India power supply situation in FY 2016–2017 . . . . . . .. 5
Table 1.3 Sectorwise utility power generation capacity as of November
2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Table 1.4 Rural electrification status in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Table 1.5 Growth of installed generation capacity in India. . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Table 1.6 Impact of the Electricity Act 2003 in different segments
of electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 1.7 Electricity Act, objective and impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Table 2.1 Availability reliability index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 2.2 Number of failures versus maintenance quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Table 2.3 Condition-based maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Table 2.4 International practices, minimum oil CB inspections,
diagnostics, and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
Table 2.5 International practices, bulk oil CB inspections, diagnostics,
and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Table 2.6 International practices, SF6 CB inspections, diagnostics,
and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Table 2.7 International practices, vacuum CB inspections, diagnostics,
and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
Table 2.8 International practices, MV transformer inspections,
Table 2.9 International practices, station (power) transformer
inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
Table 2.10 International practices, distribution transformer inspections,
Table 2.11 International practices, instrument transformer inspections,
Table 2.12 International practices, capacitor bank inspections,
xix
xx List of Tables
Table 2.13 International practices, MV switchgear and control panel

inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Table 2.14 International practices, DC system: Batteries and battery
charger inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance . . . . . . . . .. 54
Table 2.15 International practices, feeder pillar inspections, diagnostics,
and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54
Table 2.16 International practices, ring main unit inspections,
diagnostics, and maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Table 3.1 Types of structure by function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 3.2 Type of PCC poles for angle and dead-end locations . . . . . . . . 66
Table 3.3 Permissible spans for 11 kV lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Table 3.4 Maximum permissible spans for three-phase LT lines . . . . . . . 68
Table 3.5 Overhead line maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 3.6 Preventive maintenance of underground lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Table 3.7 Preventive maintenance of insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 4.1 Preventive maintenance schedule of LAs/surge arresters . . . . . 80
Table 4.2 Preventive maintenance schedule of instrumentation
transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Table 4.3 Preventive maintenance schedule of circuit breakers. . . . . . . . . 87
Table 4.4 Preventive maintenance schedule of isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Table 4.5 Preventive maintenance schedule of capacitor bank . . . . . . . . . 93
Table 4.6 Types of identified faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Table 4.7 Major types of bus bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Table 4.8 Preventive maintenance schedule of bus bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Table 4.9 Different voltage levels of batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Table 4.10 Comparison between different types of batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Table 4.11 Preventative maintenance schedule of battery
and battery charger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 4.12 Preventive earth maintenance schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Table 5.1 Condition monitoring of transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Table 5.2 Gas color for finding affected material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Table 5.3 Interpretation of the faults according to the observed ratios
of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Table 5.4 Causes of DT failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Table 5.5 Transfer maintenance schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 5.6 Recommended maintenance schedule for transformers . . . . . . . 121
Table 5.7 Transformer/reactor health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 5.8 Moisture content in paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Table 6.1 No-load loss of conventional and amorphous transformers . . . . 144
Table 6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of thermoscanner . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Table 6.3 Recommended test DC voltage for an AC circuit
and IR value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Table 7.1 Function of automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 7.2 Assessment results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
List of Tables xxi
Table 7.3 Wireless communication technologies available to november

2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Table 8.1 Location of interface, consumer, energy accounting,
and audit meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Table 8.2 Comparison between electromechanical and electronic
energy meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Chapter 1
Overview of Power Sector Scenario
in India
1.1 Historical Background and Stages of Growth
The Indian power sector has experienced substantial growth after Independence.
The total power generating capacity in India was 1.4 GW at the time of
Independence, and as of September 2016 the currently installed capacity was about
306.36 GW (306,360 MW) of which thermal power is 213.22 GW (69.60%), and
hydro power 43.11 GW (14.07%); RE power is 44.23 GW (14.44%) and the fastest
growing sector among all the sources of power and nuclear power is 5.8 GW
(1.89%). Currently, across the globe India has secured the third position in power
generation, fourth in consumption, and fifth for installation capacity. The Indian
power industry has had significant growth in electricity generation over the decades
to 1107.8 BU in 2016, and witnessed 5.6% growth over the previous financial year.
In order to ensure continuous power to all the people, the Indian government has
recently announced the launch of the “Power for All” scheme, which emphasizes
continuous electricity supply to all domestic industry establishments by building
and upgrading necessary infrastructure. Electricity generation was 1091 billion
KWh during the year 2015–2016 but had a shortage of 24 billion KWh (lack of
−2.1%) against the anticipated −2.2%. The peak load that was generated was
149 GW with a shortfall requirement of 5 GW (lack of −3.3%) against the antic-
ipated −2.7%. In the total world population, nearly 1.4 billon people have no access
to electricity, 300 million people of whom are in India. The IEA (International
Energy Agency) has found that India has the capacity of adding new generation
units of 600–200 GW by 2050. Please see Fig. 1.1. As of September 30th, 2016,
nearly 98.5% of 6.0 Lakh villages in India had electricity. However, the supply was
intermittent and unreliable in these villages. The Indian government launched Deen
Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) as one of its top programs in July
2015, which aims to provide electricity to all rural areas around the clock. They
place importance on restructurings and improvement of rural electrification,
transmission line strengthening, and the development of distribution systems [1, 2].
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

J. Raja et al., Practices in Power System Management in India,
Power Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2972-1_1
2 1 Overview of Power Sector Scenario in India
Fig. 1.1 Percentage of installed capacity for different sources of power (as of September 31st,
2016)
The previous rural electrification scheme, Rajiv Gandhi Grameen

VidyutikaranYojana (RGGVY), was combined with the DDUGJY scheme.
As a democratic country India relies upon a federal structure. In India’s con-
stitution, electricity is a parallel subject: meaning thereby both central and state
governments (i.e., parliament and state legislatures) have the power to legislate. The
central government prevails over the state government except when the state enacts
legislation with presidential assent then (Article 254) State Act will prevail.
The first electric light was seen in India on July 24th, 1879 by a firm called P.W.
Fleury & Company at Kolkata, which was a London-based company [3]. After a
month, the company changed its name to Calcutta Electric Supply Corporation,
however, the control of said company transferred from London to Calcutta only in
the year 1970 [4]. After its successful business in Kolkata (Calcutta), it was
introduced in Mumbai in 1882 at Crawford market. Later, in 1905, the Bombay
Electric Supply & Tramways Company installed a power generating station to
provide electricity to tramways. In 1897, India’s first hydropower generation was
set up in India at Sidrapong by the Darjeeling municipality [5, 6]. In 1905 the first
electric street light was introduced in Bangalore.
1.1 Historical Background and Stages of Growth 3
The first electricity-related legislation was the Indian Electricity Act which inter
alia dealt with the basic framework of India’s electricity supply, growth, and
licenses. However, after Independence, the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 was
endorsed. This act has facilitated the mandate for establishment of state electricity
boards (SEBs) for overall electrification across the country. Furthermore, this 1948
act was amended at various stages [7].
The 1948 Electricity (Supply) Act permitted the formation of SEBs, and was
responsible for generation, and transmission & distribution (T & D) of power within the
state. Later the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) was established to administer the
planning and development of the power sector and guide SEBs. Electricity was placed
under the concurrent authority of central and state governments in the Indian constitution.
In 1975, revisions were made to enable the central government to set up and
maintain power plants. Consequently, the National Thermal Power Corporation
(NTPC) was formed which is the largest power generation company in India to date.
Subsequently, different power companies including NHPC (1975), NEEPCO (1976),
NPCIL (1987), and THDC (1988) were formed and owned by the central government
to deal with the generation of power mainly in the thermal, hydro, and nuclear sectors.
The summary of events is as follows.
• Year 1975: Incorporate provisions to enable generation in the central sector
(NTPC, NHPC, etc.). Incorporate provisions to facilitate state electricity boards
(SEBs) for earning minimum returns.
• Year 1991: Permit private sector participation in generation. Also formation of
regional load dispatch centers (RLDCs).
• Year 1998: Permit private sector participation in the transmission sector. Also
the establishment relating to State Transmission Utility (STU) and Central
Transmission Utility (CTU).
Apart from the above modifications in the earlier act, the major milestone was
the Electricity Regulatory Commission Act, 1998 which had significant facility for
setting up of a regulatory commission at central and state levels.
• In the power sector, the country was classified into five regions, namely: (i)
Northern Region (NR), (ii) Eastern Region (ER), (iii) Southern Region (SR),
(iv) Western Region (WR), and (v) North Eastern Region (NER). Each region
contains several states (or state utilities); for example: WR contains utilities of
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Dadara and Nagar Haveli,
Goa, and so on.
1.2 Major Players in the Indian Power Sector
(i) National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC): NTPC produces the

highest amount of power in India, with installed plant capacity of 47 GW
including joint ventures. In the near future, NTPC aims to reach 126 GW of
power generation capacity.
(ii) TATA Power: The largest integrated power company in India is TATA
Power, with a substantial presence in the renewable energy sector. The
company owns more than half the private sector total power generation. It
had 10 GW generating capacities in fiscal year 2016. Over the next six
years the company plans 18 GW generation units and also wants to increase
its distribution network by 4 GW and energy sources by 25 million tons per
year.
(iii) Reliance Power: The company has about 35 GW of power capacity,
including operational (6 GW) and proposed.
(iv) CESC Limited: CESC Limited works in coal mining and generation, as
well as the distribution sector of the power system. With complete control
of three coal-based power plants together they generate 1.3 GW.
(v) NHPC: It is the biggest hydroelectric utility in India, with a production
capacity of 6.5 GW; it added 6.7 GW of power in 2017. NHPC is con-
structing nine projects, aggregating an installed capacity of 4.2 GW.
(vi) Power Finance Corporation Limited (PFC): PFC provides financial
support to power utility companies for their power project developments.
Their major services include assisting short-term loans, project-term loads,
financing, and consultancies.
(vii) Adani Power: The total power generation capacity of Adani Power in 2016
was 10.5 GW and by 2020 they plan to increase their generation capacity to
20 GW. Now they are one of the largest thermal power producers and their
thermal power plant in Mundra, Gujarat is considered the world’s largest
thermal power plant.
(viii) PGCIL: The Power Grid Corporation of India Limited is one of the world’s
largest transmission utility companies. They are accountable for planning
interstate transmission systems, co-ordination, and implementing new
transmission networks in India. In their twelfth five-year plan PGCIL aims
to build 72.25 GW capacity transmission networking; in 2016 their network
capacity was 47.45 GW.
(ix) DVC: Damodar Valley Corporation is responsible for developing the power
sector in irrigation and flood control systems.
(x) SJVNL: SJVNL is a joint venture between the government of India and the
government of Himachal Pradesh; their main focus is to develop hydro-
power generation in India. Now they are expanding their focus area on wind
power projects.
1.3 The Growth Story of the Indian Power Sector
India is the third largest producer of electricity in the world. Generating capacity has
grown from 1.4 GW in 1947 to 306 GW in 2016 (Tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3). Overall
generation in India has increased from 301 billion units (BUs) during 1992–1993 to
1107.8 BUs in 2015–2016. The country saw 5.64% growth over the year 2015–2016.
1.3 The Growth Story of the Indian Power Sector 5
Table 1.1 Growth of electricity installed capacity in India

As of/during financial year ending Installed capacity Per capita consumption
with (MW) (kWh)
31-Dec-1947 1362 16.8
31-Dec-1950 1713 18.2
31-Mar-1956 2886 30.9
31-Mar-1961 4653 45.9
31-Mar-1966 9027 73.9
31-Mar-1969 12,957 97.9
31-Mar-1974 16,664 126.2
31-Mar-1979 26,680 171.6
31-Mar-1980 28,448 172.4
31-Mar-1985 42,585 228.7
31-Mar-1990 63,636 329.2
31-Mar-1992 69,065 347.5
31-Mar-1997 85,795 464.6
31-Mar-2002 105,046 559.2
31-Mar-2007 132,329 671.9
31-Mar-2008 143,061 717.1
31-Mar-2009 147,965 733.5
31-Mar-2010 159,398 778.6
31-Mar-2011 173,626 813.3
31-Mar-2012 199,877 883.6
31-Mar-2015 271,722 1010.0
31-Mar-2016 301,965 1250.2
30-Nov-2016 306,360 1265.3
Table 1.2 PAN India power Energy

supply situation in FY 2016–
Region Requirement (MU) Availability (MU)
2017
Northern 3,57,459 3,51,009
Western 3,79,087 4,05,370
Southern 3,10,564 3,20,944
Eastern 1,51,336 1,35,713
Northeastern 16,197 14,858
During fiscal years 2010–2016, India’s electricity generation grew at the compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.21%. The twelfth five-year plan predicts a domestic
energy generation of 669.6 MTOE (million tons of oil equivalent) rise to 844 MTOE
by the year 2021–2022.
Table 1.3 Sectorwise utility power generation capacity as of November 2016

Central State Private All India %
Thermal (MW) Coal 51390.00 64210.50 70992.38 186592.88 61.06
Gas 7490.83 7210.70 10355.60 25057.13 8.20
Diesel 0.0 363.93 554.96 918.89 0.03
Subtotal thermal 58880.83 71785.13 81902.94 212568.90 69.56
Nuclear 5780.00 0.0 0.0 5780.00 1.89
Renewable Hydro 11651.43 28197.00 3120.00 42968.43 14.06
(MW) Other renewable 0.0 1963.80 42273.12 44236.92 14.47
Subtotal 11651.43 30055.81 44236.92 87205.35 28.54
renewable
Total (MW) 76312.26 101945.93 127296.06 305554.25 100
1.4 The Growth in Rural Electrification
During Independence more than 80% of the population lived in rural India. Actual
development of the country can only be possible with the development of the rural
sector. The government has introduced various plans to improve the standard of
living in villages with the focus on rural electrification (Table 1.4). As of September
30th, 2016, nearly 98.5% of 6.0 Lakh villages in India were electrified.
1.5 Growth in Generating Capacity Addition
Table 1.5 shows the addition in generating capabilities of the post-Independence

power sector in India.
Table 1.4 Rural electrification status in India

States and Union Territory Number Rural
States and UT electrification
rates (%)
Andra Pradesh, Haryana, Kerala, Goa, Maharashtra, 16 100
Punjab, Sikkim, T. Nadu, Telengana, Chandigarh, Dadra,
Delhi, Damman and Diu, Lakshadweep, Puducherry
Karnataka, UttaraKhand, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya 5 99
Pradesh, West Bengal
Bihar, Rajesthan, Chhattisgargh, Jammu and Kashmir, 6 95
Tripura, Uttar Pradesh
Jharkhand, Odisha, Nagaland, Mizoram 5 80
Arunachal Pradesh 1 Under 80
1.6 Electricity Generation in India 7
Table 1.5 Growth of installed generation capacity in India

As of/during Hydro Thermal Total Nuclear RES* Total
financial year Coal/ Gas Diesel Thermal
ending lignite
31-Dec-1947 508 756 0 98 854 0 0 1362
31-Dec-1950 560 1004 0 149 1153 0 0 1713
31-Mar-1956 1061 1597 0 228 1825 0 0 2886
31-Mar-1961 1917 2436 0 300 2736 0 0 4653
31-Mar-1966 4124 4417 134 352 4903 0 0 9027
31-Mar-1969 5907 6640 134 276 7050 0 0 12,957
31-Mar-1974 6966 8652 165 241 9058 640 0 16,664
31-Mar-1979 10,833 14,875 168 164 15,207 640 0 26,680
31-Mar-1980 11,384 15,991 268 165 16,424 640 0 28,448
31-Mar-1985 14,460 26,311 542 177 27,030 1095 0 42,585
31-Mar-1990 18,307 41,236 2343 165 43,744 1565 0 63,616
31-Mar-1992 19,194 44,791 3095 168 48,054 1785 32 69,065
31-Mar-1997 21,658 54,154 6562 294 61,010 2225 902 85,795
31-Mar-2002 26,269 62,131 11,163 1135 74,429 2720 1628 105,046
31-Mar-2007 34,654 71,121 13,692 1202 86,015 3900 7760 132,329
31-Mar-2008 35,909 76,049 14,656 1202 91,907 4120 11,125 143,061
31-Mar-2009 36,846 77,649 14,876 1200 93,725 4120 13,242 147,933
31-Mar-2010 36,863 84,198 17,056 1200 102,454 4560 15,521 159,398
31-Mar-2011 37,567 93,918 17,706 1200 112,824 4780 18,455 173,626
31-Mar-2012 38,990 112,022 18,381 1200 131,603 4780 24,504 199,877
31-Mar-2013 39,491 130,221 20,110 1200 151,531 4780 27,542 223,344
31-Mar-2014 40,532 145,273 21,782 1200 168,255 4780 31,692 245,259
31-Mar-2015 41,267 164,636 23,062 1200 188,898 5780 35,777 271,722
*Renewable energy sources also include hydro capacity of 25.0 MW and below as reported by
MNRE
1.6 Electricity Generation in India
During the early years after Independence, India’s electricity generation was very
low compared to other developed nations. But after 1990, faster growth was
recorded in the electricity generation sector. For example, electricity generation
increased from 179 to 1279 TW-hr in 1985 and 2015, respectively. The contri-
bution of coal-fired plants and nonconventional energy sources are major compo-
nents of the total energy generation growth; however, the contribution of fossil fuels
and hydro has significantly decreased in the period 2011–2016. During the fiscal
year 2016–2017, India has as its target the generatation of 1173 billion kWh which
excludes all types of renewables, compared to the equivalent generation of 1.1
thousand billion kWh.
1.6.1 Thermal Power
In India coal power contributes about 70% of the total electricity produced in the
country. The Indian government has mandated the use of coal with ash content less
than 34% in plants near urban and biologically sensitive areas. For this reason, the
coal support industry has grown significantly, with a current capacity of 90 MT. As
per the latest emission norms the investment of INR 12.5 million per MW is
required for installation of pollution control devices in a thermal power plant.
Coal Supply Constraint
Indian coal reserves have low carbon content, low calorific value, and negligible
toxic traces. The natural fuel value of Indian coal is very poor and consumes about
700 gms of coal per p1 kWh with a gross calorific value (GCV) of 4550 kcal/kg,
but the quality of coal from other parts of the world is much better. The Indian
thermal power plant sector imports nearly 95 metric ton of high steam-grade coal
which contributes nearly 29% of the cumulative consumption in India to meet the
demand in steel production and other thermal power plants.
Oil and Gas
The policy debate for oil and gas is usually made jointly due to various
co-relationships such as the carbon-to-heat ratio content and the easy, low cost
accessibility of gas. At present the global shares of oil and gas contributing to
energy consumption are 31 and 22%, respectively; per the IEA’s prediction they
would be 25% by 2035. Oil share demand is slowly coming down whereas gas
demand is increasing. Meanwhile in 2016, the global LNG has been dipping rad-
ically because of excess production but the landed costs are inexpensive for
coal-based electricity generation, due to the lack of adequate degasification capacity
of LNG.
Changing Old Thermal Power Plants
Most of the thermal power plants existing in India are inefficient and need to adapt
the latest technology in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Each of the
existing thermal power plants in India emits nearly 50–120% higher pollutants as
compared to thermal plants existing in developed countries. To reduce higher
emissions the Indian government invested nearly 70,000 crore to shut down nearly
11 GW existing facilities and replace them with the latest supercritical technology
totaling more than 20 GW. Furthermore, over 100 outdated plants will be replaced
by 30 supercritical plants of 660 MW to 800 MW, thus saving Rs. 40,000 crore.
1.6.2 Renewable Energy
As of March 2017, India had a generation capacity of approximately 60 GW based

on renewable technologies, constituting about 15.5%, and exceeding the total
hydroelectric power capacity of India. Due to global warming, the government is
1.6 Electricity Generation in India 9
promoting the use of RE energies; also the recent maturity of RE technologies and
cost reduction motivates RE adoption at a faster pace. By 2022 a renewable energy
system addition in the power system network is targeted at 175 GW and in 2040 it
is likely to be 624–850 GW. This will translate into 50–60% installed capacity and
31–41% RE generation by 2030, in place of 13 and 7%, respectively, in 2014–
2015.
1.6.3 Hydro
In 1898 and 1902 at Darjeeling and Shivana samudra some hydropower plants were
established. India is blessed with hydro potential of about 84,000 MW at 60% load
factor. Further to this, 6740 MW from small, mini, and micro schemes have been
estimated and 94 GW capacities and 56 sites for pumped storage schemes have
been identified.
1.6.4 Nuclear Power
Up until April 2016, India had 5.78 GW; in other words 1.91% of total power
generation capacity and an ambitious plan is underway to ramp up this source by
2022 with six reactors under construction having a cumulative capacity of
4300 MWe, and six more planned with a capacity of 4800 MWe. Once the above
capacities are realized, India’s installed capacity for nuclear power is likely to go up
substantially. Additionally, seven sites have received in principle approval for
building new reactors. The above capacity enhancement agenda will give a solid
foundation to this sustainable source of electricity in India’s power development.
1.7 Transmission and Distribution
The length of India’s HV transmission lines (700,000 km) is comparable to that of

the United States, however, with far less capacity. As of March 31st, 2015 the total
length of 400 V lines (excluding 220 V) was around 10.56 106 km distance. The
400 V transmission lines can form a square matrix with an area 37 km2 of the
country and the peak loading should not exceed more than 153 GW capacity; thus
far the peak load was met around 148 GW. The achieved maximum demand factor
of each substation does not exceed 60% at the 200 kV level and the aggregate
technical & commercial losses (AT&C) are around 27%. The government has fixed
the national AT&C loss target at around 24% for the year 2011 and further,
reducing them to around 17.1% by 2017 and to 14.1% by 2022.
1.8 Unbundling of Power Sector
The planning of the transmission system in India is linked with new generation
projects as part of the evacuation system. The central sector generators such as
NTPC and NHPC built their own transmission networks for the transmission of
power to different parts of India. Later, the government integrated the central and
state transmission systems and formed a national power grid to facilitate trans-
mission of central sector power generation. These efforts led to the incorporation of
a separate entity known as the National Power Transmission Corporation in 1989
which was later renamed POWERGRID. This new company POWERGRID was
born with the amalgamation of total transmission assets and personnel of various
generating companies including NTPC, NHPC, NJPC, NEEPCO, NLC, and
THDC. Thus, with this a new era began where a separate company, POWERGRID,
started its business of interstate transmission of power by the central sector power
generating companies. Please see Fig. 1.2.
The central sector transmission system was separated from generation as an
outcome of power sector reforms and a strong central transmission network of
96,000 circuit kms with around 160 substations (EHVAC/HVDC) having a con-
version capacity of 138,673 MVA and interregional power transfer capacity of
28,000 MW was created within a span of two decades by POWERGRID which is
also discharging its role as a central transmission utility (CTU).
The CTU is essential in interstate transmission network planning, co-ordination,
and expansion at the local as well as national level. Eleven high-capacity trans-
mission corridors mainly comprising state-of-the-art 765 DC and ±800 kV
Fig. 1.2 Growth in Indian power sector

1.8 Unbundling of Power Sector 11
6000 MW have been developed in the national grid to enhance transmission line
capacity to facilitate bulk-load centers. Furthermore, to encourage the additional
capacity program, the CTU is providing connectivity, medium-term open access
(MTOA), and long-term access (LTOA) to various generation developers as per
CERC regulations. In view of the need for defensible growth, the CTU is focused
towards developing technologies such as UHVAC, high-voltage DC, FACTS,
smart grids, and the like in transmission development, which is unique in the world.
The Indian power system is growing manifold along with complexity in trans-
mission system operation, posing challenges in maintaining grid security, reliabil-
ity, and stability. To address these issues, it is prudent to introduce transmission
intelligence through smart grid applications. In this direction, POWERGRID, the
CTU, has undertaken full-scale implementation of state-of-the-art synchrophasor
technology using phasor measurement units (PMU) at all 400 kV and above sub-
stations and 220 kV generation switchyards in the country for a wide area
measurement/monitoring system (WAMS) of the power network integrating state
and central grids in a unified manner. During the operation stage, the CTU carries
the finance of ISTS transmission costs in addition to signing TSA and RSA.
Tariff-based competitive bidding (TBCB) has been in effect from January 6th, 2011
for transmission projects and is also valid for the CTU. In this emerging environ-
ment of competition, POWERGRID has successfully forayed into the competitive
scenario by bagging both transmission projects floated under the TBCB route.
1.9 Private Participation in Transmission
(i) Joint Ventures:

Due to its capital-intensive nature, huge investments are required in the transmis-
sion sector to keep pace with the power sector growth as it meets the ever-growing
demand for power. Presently transmission is primarily owned by the public sector
and public funds are not sufficient to meet this requirement. Therefore large
investments are also required from the private sector for additional funds to sup-
plement public resources in order to keep pace with the power sector expansion. To
attract private investment, the Indian government has provided various regulatory
and legal frameworks. The enactment of the Electricity Laws (Amendment) Act
1998 and Electricity Regulatory Commission Act 1998 has facilitated the formation
of the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), State Electricity
Regulatory Commissions (SERCs), Central Transmission Utility (CTU), and State
Transmission Utilities (STUs) and has also paved the way for entry of private sector
participation in the transmission business as “transmission licensees.” In order to
infuse resources from the private sector, the Indian Ministry of Power introduced
guidelines for private sector participation in the transmission sector (vide ref No. 9/
3//98-PG dated 31.1.2000). These courses of action provide two different options
for private sector participation in transmission.
(i) A joint venture (JV) should be selected through the competitive bidding
process called the JV route. The CTU/STU should contribute a minimum of
26% equity and the balance contributed by the JV partner.
(ii) The responsibility of the CTU/STU will identify permitted transmission to be
implemented by the private entity, also facilitate infusion of resources from the
private sector. The Independent Power Transmission company (IPTC) is an
implementing agency where their 100% equity is owned by the private sector.
From the above, it can be seen that suitable policy exists to promote private
sector participation in transmission. A number of independent power producers can
establish their own projects in various parts of the country. They need to inject part
and/or all of the power generated to the national grid owned by POWERGRID. For
injecting power generated from their generating project to the POWERGRID
national grid, a dedicated transmission system is required to be constructed con-
necting the generating project to this national grid. Per the Electricity Act, 2003
(Sect. 10), it is the duty of the generating company to establish a dedicated
transmission system. Because many generating companies do not have the expertise
to establish a transmission system, they make a request to POWERGRID to become
a 26% equity partner in a JV company to implement such dedicated transmission
systems. Note that the tariffs for JVs are computed on a cost-plus basis and guided
by CERC tariff regulations issued by them from time to time.
(ii) IPTC Route:
The second route for private sector participation is through IPTC, wherein a private
entity owns 100%. Many transmission systems in the past have been routed through
the IPTC process and finally the government of India issued an order regarding
development of interstate transmission systems on the tariff bidding route from
January 5th, 2011 to encourage competition. Earlier the transmission projects were
executed on the cost-plus basis. With the advent of private players and more
complexity in the sector, it was necessary to introduce tariff-based competitive
bidding. These guidelines allow private players to enter the transmission sector
through broader contributions in providing transmission services, thereby facili-
tating competition. It helps in transparently awarding the project based on the
formalized tariff.
1.10 Electricity Act and Policy
It is a multifaceted or complex Act purporting to combine the laws relating to the

generation, transmission, distribution, trading, and use of electrical energy and for
conducive measures for the development of the power industry. It replaces the three
previous pieces of legislation:
1.10 Electricity Act and Policy 13
(i) The Indian Electricity Act, 1910

(ii) The Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948
(iii) The Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998.
The main aim of this act was electricity supply to all areas, consumer protection,
electricity tariff realization, transparent policy regarding subsidies, promoting effi-
cient and environmentally benign policies, and the constitution of the CEA, CERC,
and SERCs and establishment of an appellate tribunal [8]. Provisions for open
access in transmission have also been considered wherein the transmission systems
of a transmission licensee are to be made available for nondiscriminatory open
access. On the policy front, the central government has been made responsible for
preparing, publishing, and revising the national electricity policy (NEP) and tariff
policy in consultation with the states. The tariff policy has always been a matter of
concern and has led to many litigation cases and chaos [9, 10]. With new
amendments in the act the responsibility of formulating tariff policy falls on the
central government and CERC.
1.10.1 Provisions in the Electricity Act
The Electricity Act 2003 (Fig. 1.3) covers all the branches relating to the power
sector. Some of its key areas and the points they cover are:
• Generation:
(a) De-licensing
(b) Liberal provisions in captive generation
(c) Rural generation freed from licensing
Fig. 1.3 Implementation of Electricity Act

• Transmission and Distribution:

(a) Open access in transmission/distribution systems
(b) Envisages unbundling of transmission and distribution
(c) Rural distribution freed from licensing
(d) Provision for issuing more than one license for distribution within the same
area
• Trading and Markets:
(a) Trading in electricity permitted
(b) Regulatory commissions to develop electricity markets.
• Other Features:
(a) Expanded role for the regulatory commissions
(b) Provision for setting up an appellate tribunal for disposal of appeals against
CERC/SERC
(c) Provisions for preventing and eliminating power theft and stringent penal-
ties for the latter.
A new industry structure has evolved after the implementation of the Electricity
Act 2003, which can be summarized as the following.
1.10.2 Impact of Electricity Act
It can thus be seen that the Electricity Act 2003 (Tables 1.6 and 1.7) has been a very
important instrument in the power sector wherein each and every aspect has been
considered and the proper direction for each matter has been tried to be addressed.
In this background, the details of various acts that had underlain the power sector in
India till now are described below.
Table 1.6 Impact of the Electricity Act 2003 in different segments of electricity
Segment Objective Impact
Generation ∙ De-licensing the ∙ More companies motivated towards
generation units generation
∙ Liberalization in the ∙ Captive power increases
captive power generation
policy
Transmission ∙ Fair access to T and D ∙ Customer can select by their own choice/
lines competition amongst DISCOMs leads to
efficient transfer of power
Distribution ∙ Fair access in phase ∙ Choice for buyer to choose supplier
manner ∙ Loss reduction
∙ Strict punishments for ∙ Equal benefit to all
power theft
∙ Lucid subsidy
management
1.10 Electricity Act and Policy 15
Table 1.7 Electricity Act, objective and impact

Laws/Policies Objective Impact
The Electricity Infrastructural framework for Attracted private capital
Act, 1910 supply of electricity
The Electricity Mandated creation of SEBs Ownership in the hands of SEBs
Act, 1948
IIP Process, 1991 Private investment in power Generated projects from private
generation players
The Electricity Making transmission a separate Central transmission utility and
(Amendment) activity state transmission utilities set up
Act, 1998
Mega power Setting up of ultra mega power Mega power plants benefit
policy, 1995 plants
The Regulatory Provision for setting up of central/ Independent regulatory
Commission Act, state electricity regulatory mechanism
1998 commission
National Competition and protection of More players influenced to invest
Electricity Policy consumer and more efficient consumer
service
Electricity Act, Providing reliable and quality Investment in capacity addition
2003 power to consumers at reasonable
rate
National tariff Tariff structuring Attractive tariff for players
policy
• Generation:
(a), (b) Liberal provisions in captive generation
(c) Rural generation freed from licensing
• Transmission and Distribution:
(a) Open access in transmission/distribution systems
(b) Envisages unbundling of transmission and distribution
(c) Rural distribution freed from licensing
(d) Provision for issuing more than one license for distribution within the same
area.
1.11 Various Policies
(i) National Electricity Policy (NEP) and National Tariff Policy (NTP)
Part II of the Electricity Act mandates that the central government prepare the
NEP and NTP with the state governments of India, and other authorities responsible
for the growth of power system fossil resources, hydro, and renewable sources of
energy.
(ii) National Electricity Policy (NEP)

The National Electricity Policy has been developed in discussion with and taking
into consideration state governments, the central electricity regulatory commission
(CERC), central electricity authority (CEA), and other stakeholders [11, 12]. The
key objective of NEP is specifying guidelines for speedy development of the power
sector.
(iii) Aims and Objectives
– Provide electricity to all families in the forthcoming five years.
– Aim to meet the power demand and have reasonable reserve available.
– Provide reliable high-quality power at nominal rates.
– Aim to increase per capita electricity.
– Financial turnaround and commercial feasibility of electricity sector.
– Protection of consumers’ interests.
(iv) National Electricity Plan
The CEA is responsible for short-term planning, whereas NEP would be for a
short-term framework of five years while giving a 15-year viewpoint and would
include:
– Collects demand forecasts for different regions in short- and long-term
perspectives
– Recommends capacity addition in view of generation and transmission,
regarding economics, system losses, requirement of load centers, grid stability,
supply security, power quality including voltage, frequency profile, and the like,
and environmental considerations including rehabilitation and resettlement
– Integration of such possible locations with T & D of national grid including
requirement of redundancies.
(v) Issues Addressed in the NEP
– Rural electrification and power generation
– Transmission and distribution
– Recovery of cost of services and targeted subsidies
– Technology development and research and development (R&D)
– Consumer benefits from competition
– Financing power sector program including private sector participation
– Energy conservation and other environmental issues
– Training and HR development
– Cogeneration and NCES.
(vi) National Tariff Policy, 2006
In compliance with Section 3 of the Electricity Act, the central government noted
the tariff policy subsequent to the NEP. The new tariff policy is for ideal growth of
the electricity transmission network to endorse effective consumption of generation
and transmission resources in the country and appealing for needed investments in
1.11 Various Policies 17
the said sector with satisfactory returns. A new policy also ensures the availability
of power at nominal rates and addresses viability and attracts investments.
(vii) Objectives of the Implementation of the NEP and Tariff Policy
– Optimal development of the transmission network.
– A suitable transmission tariff framework for encouraging effective utilization of
assets and aiming for faster growth of new transmission networks.
– Transmission charges are on the basis of MW/circuit/km, on the zonal postage
stamp basis, and/or some other realistic variant.
– To share the total transmission cost in proportion to respective utilization of the
transmission system.
– In view of the method directed by the NEP, prior agreement with the legatees
would not be a precondition for network expansion.
– In a period of one year, the CERC is to establish standards for capital and
operating costs, operating standards, and performance indicators for different
types of transmission lines.
– The tariff of the projects to be developed by the CTU/STU would also be
determined on the basis of competitive bidding after five years or when the
regulatory commission is satisfied that the situation is right to introduce such
competition.
– Transactions are charged on the basis of average losses after appropriately
considering the distance and sensitivity (directional), as applicable to the rele-
vant voltage level.
– The loss compensation to be reasonable and linked to applicable technical loss
benchmarks.
– The CERC should permit satisfactory capital investments in new assets for
upgrading the transmission system.
1.12 National Energy Policy
The key objectives of Indian energy policies are (i) energy access at a reasonable
price, (ii) improved security, (iii) greater security, and (iv) economic growth.
(i) Energy access at reasonable price:
It is essential to provide energy access at reasonable cost particularly for the rural
population in India. Nearly 304 million people do not have access to electricity for
daily needs. 30% of the Indian population is housed and are still dependent upon
biomass. By 2022, the government of India (GoI) has targeted the electrification of
every household as per budget planning for 2015–2016.
(ii) Improved security:

The policy also includes providing energy security by decreasing reliance on
conventional energy resources. Presently, India greatly relies on oil and coal
imports while also importing some gas. Energy security could be compromised in
the case of any interruption of imports, and therefore the focus on domestic energy
production is increased to meet the demand [13]. To complement the diversification
of energy resources, the GoI is also planning to make agreements regarding import
supplies.
(iii) Greater security:
The influence of climate change and deterioration of air quality owing to fossil fuel
consumption has changed the perception of sustainability goals [14]. As sustain-
ability is also dependent on energy security, the current scenario of importing 90%
of the energy supply has to be adapted to focus on renewable energy production.
(iv) Economic growth:
Sustainable and fast economic growth is the energy policy objective of India. By
promoting growth through efficient energy resources, there are two benefits.
1. Energy is identified as the key factor of economic development and its avail-
ability at affordable cost is important to energy-intense infrastructure.
2. Because energy production is itself identified as a huge market, its growth will
have an impact on overall economic growth.
Energy is identified as a critical resource to improve the living standards of
societies across the country based on the correlation between energy consumption
and the human development index (HDI). Inasmuch as the overall interest of the
Indian government is to eradicate poverty, to achieve it the country has revised its
energy policies over the years to increase per capita electricity consumption. With
India accommodating 30% of the world population and almost 304 million without
access to energy and relying on solid biomass for household needs, it is a challenge.
India is attempting to realize a two-digit growth rate with respect to its national
income, and energy being an important sector, producing clean energy to all
households has to be a major factor of the poverty eradication program.
To fulfill GoI proposal plans on energy development, the national energy policy
will draft their policies. The top priority goal of GoI is to electrify all villages that
don’t have electricity access by 2022. The carbon footprint is targeted to be reduced
by 35% in 2030; this could be achieved by promoting renewable energy power
generation. Accordingly the NEP creates the energy policy for the country’s energy
usage and development plans.
1.13 Energy Demand: Efficiency and Conservation 19
1.13 Energy Demand: Efficiency and Conservation
India’s share of the world population is 17%; conversely the shares in the world
fossil reserves are only 1.5% combined. There is high dependence on fossil fuel
imports even at such a low level of consumption. Recent economizing policy has
focused on demand-side interventions on energy usage. One of the said interven-
tions is behavioral change that results in reducing the demand for energy-based
service, called energy conservation; the second intervention is greater energy effi-
ciency [15, 16]. To expound energy conservation let’s take a case of people shifting
to fans from HVAC and for better energy efficiency shifting to LED bulbs from
incandescent bulbs.
1.14 Demand-Side Management (DSM)
The concept of DSM is to able to manage power consumption at the consumers’

side to meet their current and future requirements. These concepts could be pro-
moted via a utility-sponsored program or through market segregator intermediaries
such as ESCOs. Initially, DSM aims to create awareness programs such as customer
or vendor rebates for efficient equipment and the like, and then later include
time-of-use tariffs, interruptible tariffs, direct load control, and so on. Instead of
building new power plants, promoting the use of energy reduction during peak
demand periods can augment electricity capacity at a fraction of the cost. The cost
of saved energy may be 10% of the added capacity for some systems. In addition to
avoiding capacity costs and promoting energy efficiency at the customers’ end, a
utility can be brought closer to clients resulting in better customer service and a
more efficient planning process. Demand-side management helps industries to be
more energy efficient and competitive in this digital era.
1.14.1 Demand-Side Management in India
The reasons for the problems of the Indian power sector are (i) high T & D losses,
(ii) commercial losses due to energy theft, and (iii) low-efficiency equipment in the
agricultural sector. Now, due to the extensive agreement, the restoration of finances
in the power sector can be started by the demand side. A power sector company
may be under DSM due to (a) outstripping demands to be provided by supply,
(b) improving the revenues of the distribution companies, (c) improving the quality
of power, and (d) mitigating the rise in tariffs.
1.14.2 Demand-Side Management and Power Quality
The link between power quality and its reliability is pretty self-evident. The usage
of different power supplies in the system will reduce its efficiency. Voltage stabi-
lizers, battery-run inverters, and irrigation pump sets employed by power con-
sumers at low efficiency lead to coping strategies. Quality improvements have
several positive implications and evidence shows that consumers are ready to pay
higher prices if power quality and reliability are improved.
1.14.3 DSM in the Agricultural Sector
Irrigation system efficiency is about 20–50% in India. Therefore, the agricultural

sector is highly inefficient with high water wastage. Over 27% of the total power
consumption is used by the agricultural sector whereas revenue wise, the sector
amounts to only 5–10% of all revenues because of the flat-rate pricing system for
agricultural consumers.
Hence, the low tariff and old inefficient technology are the reasons for this water
loss, and unsustainable exploitation of groundwater reserves and the high energy
losses in irrigation.
References
1. Ramachandran V, Shankar V, Shevgaonkar RK Transmission lines. Tata McGraw Hill, New

Delhi
2. Modern trends and practices in power sub-transmission and distribution systems, vol-I.
Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi
3. Modern trends and practices in power sub-transmission and distribution systems. vol-II.
Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi
4. Gonen T (1988) Electric power transmission system engineering-analysis and design.
A Wiley-Interscience Publication, Wiley
5. Gonen T (1986) Electric power distribution engineering. A Wiley-Interscience Publication,
Wiley
6. Fischi R, Ountel WR (1972) Efficient method for computing electric power transmission
network services. IEE Power Engg Soc Winter Power Mee Pap. C72 167
7. Electric Power Research Institute (1968) EHV transmission line reference book. EEI, New
York
8. Electric Power Research Institute (1978) EHV transmission line reference book: 115–138 kV
compact line design. EPRI Palo Alto, California
9. Electric Power Research Institute (1979) EHV transmission line reference book: HVDC to
600kV. EPRI Palo Alto, California
10. Uhalmann E (1975) Power transmission by DC. Springer-Verlag, Berlin
References 21
11. Deweese FC (1945) Transmission lines: design, construction and performance. McGraw Hill,
New York
12. Rural Electrification Administration (1972) Transmission line manual. REA Bull. No. 62-1,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
13. Dwight HB (1954) Electrical elements of power transmission lines. MacMillan, New York
14. Edison Electric Institute (1968) EHV transmission line reference book. EEI, New York
15. Anderson PM (1973) Analysis of faulted power systems. Iowa State Univ. Press, Ames
16. Weedy BM (1980) Underground transmission of electric power. Wiley
17. Ash DO et al (1979) Conductor systems for overhead lines. Proc I.E.E. 126:333–339
18. Kimbark EW (1972) DC transmission, vol 1. Wiley, New York
Chapter 2
Distribution Planning and Optimization
2.1 System Planning Studies
Distribution planning is an important study for expansion of the power system

network under load growth at the least cost. The main aim is to improve system
performance, utilizing power in an optimal way and reducing the system operating
costs, and also provide information to ensure an ample power supply and unin-
terrupted service [1]. Distribution planning must now include reliability/cost
tradeoffs explicitly [2].
It is to be conducted periodically and it also provides the important character-
istics of the power system, such as voltage and current profiles, losses, peak
demand, annual usage, and load factor. It also helps the system engineer to manage
system expansion and improve the performance of the system. In addition to the
above the following studies are required for power system planning.
(a) Power precondition study
(b) Futuristic system planning
(c) Temporary system planning
(d) Coordination study
(e) Optimal conductor design
(f) Power factor improvements.
2.1.1 Power Precondition Study
Historical data such as total peak demand, yearly demand, consumption of yearly
energy and procurement of energy include a minimum of the last five years’ details
collected in order to perform a power requirement study to forecast load growth.
Using these data by plotting the graph gives a clear indication of upcoming

24 2 Distribution Planning and Optimization
demand; it also shows current, past, and future annual losses and load factors yearly
and monthly [3, 4].
2.1.2 Futuristic System Planning
Futuristic system planning is essential and guides the utility in an economical and
orderly expansion of the distribution network also ensuring an adequate supply at
the lowest cost to the consumer. It also provides information on system growth and
helps utility management by identifying economically sound solutions in terms of
building cost, existing facilities, system losses, and prevention of standard invest-
ments [5]. Understanding the map will help the system engineer and not affect the
development of the general plant in making certain modifications in transmission
lines or power substations. This study will provide a number of valuable benefits:
• Help the system engineer develop reliable and economical solutions.
• Increase system reliability and reduce the cost effectively.
• Determine the location and size of new substations and tie lines.
• Consider planned future investment for distribution automation such as
SCADA, AMR, OMS, and GIS.
The following are required for detailed planning.
• Latest distribution map
• Major load locations
• Voltage and current investigation results
• Data relevant to present and forthcoming loads
• Power necessities study
• Summary of latest outage with details of indices (SAIFI, SAIDI)
• Current transmission facilities
• Availability of power in the future
System modeling is then done which will find:
• The ability of the system to supply power to cover maximum area, and voltage
drop should not exceed more 6%.
• The total cost to be invested for the construction of a substation with all facilities
including protection devices and lateral feeder circuits; the charge is based per
square mile.
• Total losses are calculated based on planning load and associated cost for losses.
• The prospective level of system reliability indices (SAIFI, SAIDI).
• The total expenditure for the plan, including substation feeds, distribution fee-
der, and cost involved for system total losses.
• Cost-benefit analysis of the network reconfiguration.
2.1 System Planning Studies 25
The reliability level of the network can be planned as per the design. Depending
upon the importance and location of the substation, line, and transformer, planning
can be done either at the (N − 1), (N − 2), or (N − 3) level [6]. Typically for any
distribution level network (N – 3) planning may not be required. Table 2.1 indi-
cates the reliability level of a network that can be planned. Generally planners take
into consideration the four nines (99.99) level network which means each consumer
connected to the network may face on average 53 min of interruption during a year.
Systems having substation automation with DMS and SCADA may reach a design
level of five nines (99.999) which means an average of 5.3 min/year interruption to
each consumer connected to the network.
There are a number of guidelines used for measurement, but the three most
common and easiest measurements are SAIFI, SAIDI, and CAIDI as defined in
IEEE Standard 1366.
(a) System Average Interruption Index (SAIDI)
This provides information about the average time customers face interruption and is
normally calculated as the total number of customer interruption durations divided
by the total number of customers served in the affected area; the unit for SAIDI is
minutes or hours.
P
Customer Interruption Durations
SAIDI ¼ ð2:1Þ
Total Number of Customer Served
(b) System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)

The average of the occurrence of sustained interruptions in power per customer
over a predefined area is called SAIFI. It is defined as the ratio between the sum of
the total number of customers interrupted divided by the total number of customers
served; the unit for SAIFI is a simple number.
P
Total Number of Customer Interruption
SAIFI ¼ ð2:2Þ
Total Number of Customer Served
Table 2.1 Availability reliability index

Availability (%) reliability index Nines Annual interruption time
90 1 36.5 days
99 2 3.7 days
99.9 3 8.8 h
99.99 4 52.6 min
99.999 5 5.3 min
99.9999 6 31.5 s
99.99999 7 3.2 s
99.999999 8 0.3 s
99.9999999 9 1.9 cycles
(c) Consumer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)

This is the average time needed to reinstate power services to the average customer
per sustained interruption. It is the sum of customer interruption durations divided
by the sum of the total numbers of interrupted customers.
SAIDI
CAIDI ¼ ð2:3Þ
SAIFI
2.1.3 Temporary System Planning
Temporary system planning plays a vital role in completing the systematic growth
of the system and also fulfilling the requirement of load growth for the entire
distribution system [7].
(a) Voltage Drop Study
Temporary systems study is achieved by the performance of the voltage drop
study. This study helps to uncover strong and weak points of load voltages at
different load points.
(b) Voltage Drop Factors
The study discovers voltage drops at various load points with different con-
ductor sizes.
2.1.4 Coordination Study
The coordination study analyzes all or part of the distribution system commonly
called a sectionalizing study. The purpose of this study is to find the ability to place
a sectionalizing device and its selection choice is on the basis of fault current. The
combination of the coordination study along with the voltage drop and reliability
study is used to integrate major system changes in load or system configuration.
This main objectives of this study are as follows.
• Help to reduce the per customer power outage per year and also indirectly
reduce the service restoration cost after the outage.
• Reduce the frequent failure of apparatus and in turn increase the lifetime of the
power equipment.
• Reduce the probability of unsafe voltage on objects grounded with the neutral
system.
The above objectives are achieved by the use of proper selection and location of
sectionalizing devices on the distribution system. By the proper selection of sec-
tionalizing devices, the hazardously adverse line operating characteristics can be
2.1 System Planning Studies 27
minimized to an acceptable range but the outages, equipment damage restoration

expenditure, and unsafe voltage can never be completely eliminated. In terms of
paperwork and measurements, in modern power systems computational techniques
using digital computers for the calculation of load and fault currents and thus
the performance of the coordination study have been radically simplified.
A coordination study is performed through the following four steps.
(a) Accrue and process data.
(b) Test sectionalizing for coordination and correct ratings.
(c) Alter sectionalizing to correct inadequacies that would correct the reliability of
the network to desired level.
(d) Document findings as required.
Steps (a) and (b) are executed with the help of digital computers and (b) and
(c) are repeated as and when required. These actions are periodic tasks that do not
require any engineering judgment. Procedure (c) could be executed using digital
computers with prompt software; it would be hard to duplicate sectionalizing sit-
uations. Final documentation calls for the engineer’s communication skills. The
necessary data essential to complete a coordination study are:
(a) Correct system model with types of device and location of each sectionalizing
point.
(b) Sectionalize point peak load current.
(c) Each point maximum/minimum fault current.
(d) All devices with their rating and time current characteristic curves.
System mapping shows the system configuration, consumer location, and existing
sectionalizing points. For the calculations of load and fault current, this model must
display the data’s information including line loading in a particular section, with its
distance and phasing. It is suggested that the line and its fault current values be
added to the sectionalizing study map to assist sectionalizing point evaluations.
The final document should include a system map with locations of sectionalizing
points for communication and it is mandated to monitor and verify the computer
results. The customized system circuit diagram will be sufficient for computer-aided
study to incorporate sectionalizing device locations. For this study it is necessary to
use all the system voltage, continuous and interrupting current, minimum pickup
ratings, and time current characteristics. These data are constant and permanently
stored on computer, because the data are useful and necessary for all studies, except
for addition of devices. When a proper coordination study is implemented in
association with a structure work plan it will save time and expense significantly.
Ample data are necessary for a coordination study to perform a construction work
plan. To decide if system sectionalizing is sufficient, the device at each sectional-
izing point should be tested for accurate voltage, interrupting current, continuous
current, pickup current ratings, and also synchronization with adjacent devices.
2.1.5 Optimal Conductor Design
The purpose of an optimal conductor design is to reduce energy losses to the lowest
possible level. While designing the primary lines for an electrical distribution system,
electrically conductive adhesive (ECA) minimize the cost, and more important, the
specified conductor size should be adequate from a voltage drop standpoint. A shortened
technique of economic comparison can be developed using data and methods that result
in a graphic depiction of the total cost to own and operate a variety of lines at various
load levels [8]. The following data are necessary to carry out the economic analysis.
(a) Three-phase conductor cost with various sizes from manufacturer
(b) Electrical system fixed costs including O&M expenditure, represented as a
percentage of plant value
(c) System load factor
(d) Amount of energy required and demand for the system
Dissimilar conductors’ cost of energy losses and their savings (in energy losses) are
calculated at different load levels. Finally, a graph should be drawn in comparison
indicative of the most economical conductor size required for each particular load
level.
2.1.6 Power Factor Improvement
The power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power or the
rate of useful working current to the total current in the line and is calculated by the
formula:
kW
Power Factor ¼
kVA
When the PF is below 90%, a penalty is imposed by the supplier/DISCOM to the

consumer because under these circumstances loss in energy is too high. Capacitors
are installed in online strategic locations for correcting the PF. The installed
capacitor establishes power factor improvement, energy loss reduction, system
voltage rise, service reliability, and prevention of expensive line conversion cost.
2.2 Central Electricity Authority of India

(CEA) Guidelines on Distribution Network Planning
Insufficient network planning is one of the causes for disorganized scientific

development of the distribution system. The DISCOMs should plan and expand the
network according to demand forecasting on a medium- and long-term basis and for
determining the need for system extension and enhancement to meet the load
2.2 CEA Guidelines on Distribution Network Planning 29
growth. The utility should prepare a prospective network plan for a 10-year period.
This should become part of the conditional criteria for sanction of grants under
various programs.
2.3 Operations Overview
The functions of a distribution network are to transform and distribute electricity

throughout the DISCOMs network. This system should include necessary electrical
equipment to obtain the required power and convert the different voltage levels and
to manage and distribute the power to the various electrical load levels. Attention
must be focused on O&M and planning of the distribution system for the various
short- and long-term needs.
2.3.1 Operations Management
Electrical distribution is a unique system, thus each DISCOM has separate adequate
operating procedures that are particular to a given site and the system of concern.
2.3.2 Operating Procedures (Preparation of Operation

Manual)
A separate manual is provided for the operating procedure of each electrical dis-
tribution system component. It should contain instructions for sequence switching
of the main and feeder switching devices. Often operating manuals labeling the
details of various portions of the system for complex systems are required. The
manual should contain up-to-date information about:
• Equipment details used in the network.
• Reflection of the operating modes used.
• Explain sequence procedure to energize the whole system from the incoming
point of connection to the lowest utilization voltage level.
• Must have drawings, figures, tables, and equipment drawings so that additional
documents should not be needed for operation.
• Contain information about the distribution system functions.
• Describe the electrical distribution functions and operation capability/limitations
of various components involved in the electrical distribution system.
• Include emergency ratings of all the distribution components involved in the
particular system such as transformers, distribution panel, motor control center,
feeder cable, and switchgear.
• Contain the information relating to distribution system operating modes under a

collection of system configurations and describe the sequential procedure nec-
essary to energize the whole system and sequential procedure necessary to alter
the configuration of the system.
• Explain the purpose of various alarm, trouble, fault detection, and equipment
shutdown systems provided.
• Describe the analysis of various annunciator, alarm, protective relay, and
equipment shutdown systems, together with various checklists, as necessary, to
point out likely causes of the trouble indication.
• Indication with effect on system operation in trouble and explain the ways of
service restoration of the fault-affected area and contain an optional course of
action.
• Contain latest single line diagram (SLD) of the whole distribution network with
each equipment size and ratings and indicate the normal operating position of
circuit switching devices that may be used to modify system operating con-
figurations showing positions of all bus tie breakers and switches, circuit sec-
tionalizing devices, and incoming breakers from multiple sources if all sources
are not energized concurrently.
• When equipment is replaced or modified, the system drawing must be revised
indicating changes in the drawing made accordingly. Subsequently the operating
manual should be revised supposing the alteration may affect the system
operation modes.
2.3.3 Routine Operation
With the introduction of automated devices in the network a system can be operated
automatically; moreover, well-designed distribution equipment does not require
frequent operating changes [9]. Data collection of major parameters such as voltage,
current, energy, and power factors at pertinent points of the system can be helpful in
the repetitive operation of the system as well as future planning exercises. In
modern days load flow studies are analyzed with the help of faster rate inexpensive
computers, which is very useful in determining the optimum operating configura-
tions of the distribution system.
2.4 System Disturbances or Outage
Frequent changes in the distribution system and occurrence of fault or overload that
result in outage or disturbance can be surge, impulse, noise, and phase shift and sag,
among others. Based on previous studies, only one phase of a three-phase system
2.4 System Disturbances or Outage 31
subjected to frequent fault and the occurrence rate is around 80–85%; almost 90%
of the disturbances are less than one second. Disturbances are categorized based on
their time duration; when it is over one minute it is usually classified as an outage.
2.4.1 Disturbance Categorizations
• One Second to One Minute: The effect of these disturbances is 50–100% of

voltage loss on a single phase or more than one phase in the distribution system.
These are categorized as severe faults.
• 10 to 40 Cycles: These faults are grouped as sag or surge. Due to the slow speed
of switching devices, operation delay in tap changers on the transformer, voltage
regulator, and starting of motor delay, these disturbances occur in the distri-
bution system.
• 0 to 8 Cycles: These disturbances are classified as surge or sag, because of
high-speed switching devices and sensitive fuses. In a three-phase, a
single-phase load may cause a surge on the unloaded phases or remaining
phases while causing sag on the loaded phase.
• 0.001 to 1 Cycles: These disturbances are typically stimulated in the distribution
system due to capacitor switching, short duration fault, and surge arrester
operation.
• Less than 0.001 Cycle: These are most severe disturbances caused by lightning,
switching of nearby loads, and electrostatic discharge, and normally known as
impulse.
The utility supplying power to the customer rarely obtains power quality and
continuity; the effect of fluctuation in supply can be reduced to a tolerable level by
adopting the following modifications in (i) design of utilization equipment,
(ii) ensuring the distribution system is well suited to the utilization equipment, and
(iii) both system and equipment standard should be accurate with each other.
A buffer circuit should be created between the prime source and utilization
equipment to interrupt the continuous supply system. The buffer circuit acts as an
external source of disturbances, but could raise the magnitude of load-induced
disturbances.
Filters, power conditioners, surge arresters, capacitors, solid-state motor starters,
adjustable frequency motor drives, uninterruptible power supply systems, isolating
transformers, and revisions to grounding systems are the most commonly used
solutions to suppress electrical disturbances. Disturbances are classified by their
time duration (not less than a second), and according to the disturbance the systems
are designed and have installed proper protective devices so that these devices
operate automatically without operator intervention to identify and clear faults.
An automatic alarm should be integrated with protection devices to indicate the
occurrence of a fault to the operation or maintenance personnel. This will help
maintenance personnel restore electrical devices in an affected area more quickly.

The maintenance personnel should follow the systematic procedure and maintain
the records as follows.
(a) Maintain the document, listing the problem and reason for outage.
(b) Modify configuration of the system and restore the service, as per the
requirement.
(c) Prepare the timetable for repairs, if necessary, and arrange suitable repairs or
equipment replacements.
(d) Make sure the system is in normal operational configuration after the
restoration.
The above procedure should be completed in an appropriate and safe method. After
the occurrence of a fault a detailed investigation should be made to find the cause of
failure; accordingly the operator should remove the faulty equipment from service.
After the complete system safety procedure is followed, power is once again
restored, including inspection of the suspected fault location, inspection of possible
damage to equipment, and ensuring OFF position of switch devices, so that the
unanticipated reversal of power from some of the equipment will not cause harm to
the workforce or apparatus. All of these steps must be part of the operating pro-
cedures manual.
2.5 Power Quality
This is defined as the grid’s ability to supply stable and reliable power. In other
words, the grid should maintain a standard frequency and voltage or within the
tolerance [10].
• Voltage Regulation: It can be improved by use of off-load as well as on-load
tap changers, installations of capacitors, and PF correcting devices.
• Harmonics: With the help of the latest technology in solid-state switching
devices implemented in distribution equipment, harmonics problems are
reduced significantly and maintain the total harmonic distortion (THD) within
prescribed limits, and other quality parameters are properly maintained with the
help of variable frequency drives, rectifier power supplies, high- frequency
power supplies, uninterruptible power systems, and arc discharge lamps.
• Frequency: The difference in generation and demand on the system causes
frequency variation in the network, and it must maintain the standard value as
closely as possible.
• Voltage Imbalance: Uneven distribution of single-phase loads on each phase
will cause voltage imbalance in the system; it is normally limited to a maximum
of 3%. For balancing the voltage, essential efforts should adopt the single-phase
loads that should evenly distribute all three phases [11].
2.6 Maintenance Planning and Implementation 33
2.6 Maintenance Planning and Implementation
Maintenance is a regular action in response to disturbances, failures, and other

unfortunate events and is normally carried out by maintenance personnel. It is a
kind of method that may be severe and even failure of a relatively small component
may affect the overall capacity when a plant is under operation or when there is
construction of a new line and power plant assembly [12]. Preventive maintenance
action ensures operation continuity and lowers the risk of accidental outages.
Preplanned shutdown for maintenance takes place during the period when the
system is in least usage or inactive. As a result, earlier stage detection of problems
and accordingly proper action can be taken before any damage occurs. Table 2.2
shows the number of failures against maintenance quality for all equipment classes
as per the IEEE Industrial Commercial Power Systems Committee.
The effectiveness of the maintenance survey indicates almost 33% of all
maintenance cost is wasted for improper maintenance. The main reason is lack of
actual data to quantify the actual need for maintenance of plant machinery,
equipment, and systems.
2.6.1 Evolving World-Class Maintenance
The path to maturity is developing all over the world in the stages shown in
Fig. 2.1.
The main aim of an electric utility is to improve system reliability; to reduce
O&M costs are the top priorities. Electrical maintenance varies from time to time as
a result of competition and costs, and equipment difficulties are increasing as well
as regulatory approval for O&M. Figure 2.2 shows maintenance themes; in general
maintenance is either scheduled or unexpected.
Corrective maintenance is an unexpected approach and is carried out after the
fault occurrence. The aim is to reinstate an item such that it can carry out the regular
required function in the system. Depending upon the nature of maintenance, it can
be categorized into two groups: preventive or scheduled maintenance or regular
maintenance. Under this category there are four basic tasks:
Table 2.2 Number of failures versus maintenance quality

S. Maintenance All Insufficient Failure due to inadequate
No. quality causes maintenance maintenance (%)
1. Excellent 311 36 11.6
2. Fair 853 154 18.1
3. Poor 67 22 32.8
Total 1231 212 17.2
Fig. 2.1 World-class maintenance
Un-planned Planned
Maintenance
Strategies
Reactive Pro-active
Scheduled Predictive
Condition
Corrective Preventive Monitoring
Time Failure Condition Run to

Directed Finding Directed Failure
Fig. 2.2 Maintenance strategies
1. Time Directed: Involves number of operations, operating hours, or seasonal

change
2. Failure Finding: Used to protect the equipment; able to find equipment failure
3. Condition Directed: Used to prevent incipient failure from becoming a real
failure when sustained acceptable operation cannot be ensured
4. Run to Failure: Optional task that can be selected only in the event a techni-
cally correct and cost-effective task cannot be identified.
2.6.2 Main Causes of Electrical Failure
An effective maintenance aims to minimize the failures in the electrical system. The
accumulation of dust, dirt, or moisture can be reduced by keeping the apparatus in
clean and dry condition; similarly, loose connections and friction of moving parts
can be minimized by keeping contacts stable and supplying proper lubricant oil in
moving parts particularly where friction occurs.
Dust and Dirt Accumulation
Degradation of insulation and flashover may happen in the system due to accu-
mulation of chemical dust, lint, and the deposit of oil mist; the particles become
conductive when combined with moisture on insulation. Accumulation of dirt
builds on transformer coils, and relay lines will reduce the air flow, in turn
increasing the operating temperature leading to equipment failure or reducing the
lifetime of the equipment. Similarly, dust accumulation in the case of outdoor
insulators of overhead lines and substation equipment can meet flashovers.
Contamination cannot be avoided in coastal areas and some industrial areas but
with the help of periodically scheduled equipment cleaning these contaminations
are definitely reduced.
Presence of Moisture
Condensed moisture can lead to oxidation, degradation of insulation, and failure in
electrical equipment. Free condensation produced by high humidity may lead to
short-circuits and failure of the electrical equipment. Rarely does electrical equip-
ment operate in the dry atmospheric condition which is, however, the ideal case. To
minimize moisture, proper enclosure and space heaters can be used.
Loose Connections
Connections should be tight and torque to the manufacturer’s suggested values.
Joint failure usually happens due to creep/cold flow by load cycles. The most
common areas of loose connections are cable connections, fuse clips with circuit
breakers, and contactors; all these areas must be regularly checked.
Friction
Friction can affect the free movement of electrical devices; for example, in circuit
breaker (CB) friction can reduce the operating speed, and it is of prime importance
in circuit breakers. Furthermore, dirt accumulation on parts can cause scratches and
arcing or burning may occur. All devices should be properly lubricated with
specific type and grades, unless proscribed by the manufacturer. Insulation is
attacked by dust and other contaminants on oil and grease. Checking the
mechanical operation of devices and manually or electrically operating any device
that seldom operates should be standard practice.
2.6.3 Breakdown Maintenance or Repair
It is also termed the “run to failure” maintenance technique. Even today, many
utilities follow the “run it until it breaks” philosophy. All too often we hear
statements such as, “We can’t take that out of service,” or “We’ve never had a
problem so why bother to perform maintenance.” The cost involved for failure
includes outage and its repair cost is definitely less than the preventive maintenance
cost. Surprisingly, breakdown maintenance employs minimal preventive mainte-
nance techniques, however, action is taken only when urgently and immediately
required. The following shows some common data items and how they are put to
use in a breakdown maintenance approach.
• Load Current: Transformer or other equipment replaced at first outage
• Voltage: Tap changers adjusted, if provided
• Temperature: Symptomatic treatment such as checking the cooling system or
adding fans
Breakdown maintenance may not involve any datapoint analysis; it will be cost
effective until no disastrous failures occur. Such an approach leaves the system
open to major disasters because no precautions are taken to avert them. Perilous
conditions may exist with no way to predict them.
2.6.4 Preventive Maintenance
The most commonly accepted approach to maintain electrical equipment is no

doubt preventive maintenance. Time-based complete routine tests are applied to
offline equipment. The insulation resistance (IR) test, protective device calibration
checks, power factor test, and time travel analysis for circuit breakers are used to
evaluate present system conditions.
With an example, the following briefly explains how preventive maintenance is
used.
• Insulation resistance: Resistance values are calculated and checked as per
industry norms. Doubtful insulation is scheduled for retest and bad insulation is
replaced immediately.
• Insulation power factor: Treated in a similar manner as above.
• Protective devices settings: Equipment is also cleaned and adjusted mechani-
cally to meet calibration settings provided by engineers.
• CB time/travel analysis: Breakers are adjusted to manufacturer’s specifications.
The two major changes between preventive and breakdown maintenance programs
in terms of the way the collected data are used are:
• Data are usually collected during both online and offline times. Offline times are
intentionally scheduled for the implementation of preventive maintenance
procedures.
• The equipment that requires repair is scheduled for outages and to implement
the said repairs.
The principal problems with preventive maintenance programs can only be sta-
tistically evaluated and cannot be economically evaluated. The cost expenditure is
directly compared between maintenance and expenditure for outage. However, the
cost of expenditure cannot be calculated except when an unplanned outage occurs.
2.6.5 Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
As proved, PDM is better and cost effective. For example, regarding the dissolved
gas analysis in oil, practical experience has set empirical bounds for the rate of
change and amount of combustible gases in the insulating oil. Based on extensive
analysis, we know that if the amount of acetylene rises above a predefined standard
concentration or if the rate of production of said gas increases beyond a certain
value then arcing will undoubtedly occur in a transformer. Thus we can safely
predict the occurrence of arcing if the analysis shows an exceeded amount of
acetylene is found. On further analysis, prediction of the transformer life can be
calculated. An emergency outage can be scheduled for the faulty transformer; then
the cause can be isolated and repaired. PDM is not a general systemwide strategy
but an equipment-specific type of approach; that is, most companies and agencies
do not use predictive techniques throughout the system. To perform predictive
procedures, these companies use equipment or specialty vendors on their critical
transformers. Infrared scans are performed on whole systems. The common types of
PDM procedures employed in current power systems are summarized below.
• Dissolved Gas Content: A comparison of industry standards and gas content and
percentage increase are computed. If equipment exceeds these standards it is
scheduled for offline repair.
• Thermographic Scan Temperatures: Temperature rise scans are associated with
industry norms.
Suppose the equipment exceeds offline repair scheduled norms. It shows the
maintenance engineer how such programs work. The procedure for a PDM program
is summarized below:
• Important parameters are measured and analyzed.
• It gives a clear idea about general standards of a particular component with
respect to potential problems associated with the equipment.
• Equipment that fails the standards is strategically planned for repair or retesting.
PDM methods are commonly part of a preventive maintenance program itself.

Hence, no sudden outage occurs, repairs are scheduled, and major failures are
dodged; that is why this is one of the best cost-attractive maintenance programs.
2.6.6 Condition-Based Maintenance (CBM)
Condition-based maintenance (CBM) is almost similar to PDM. In CBM, the

collected data through certain intervals are compared to statistical norms, both
arithmetic mean and logical trends; it uses both online and offline test data, thus it is
more comprehensive than PDM. The main advantage of CBM is the manner of data
analysis [13]. Table 2.3 illustrates these principles. Future maintenance procedures
on the equipment are determined by the results obtained from data.
The first column of Table 2.3 lists the most important differences between CBM
and other types of maintenance. The next schedules the maintenance of the
equipment cycle that may be skipped, provided the equipment is in strangely good
condition as directed by the test. Then the overall maintenance effort is reduced
significantly, because only a portion of the system equipment will show problems in
the test results at any one interval, possibly as little as 20% of pre-CBM levels. Such
reductions are only possible because the equipment which is shown, by test data, to
need additional servicing would be watched for in the next maintenance cycle.
Equipment that has been tested once in two years may now need attention and only
need a check every five to ten years.
2.6.7 Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)
RCM is an algorithm that helps the DISCOMs to regulate the optimal preventive
maintenance tasks necessary to report critical equipment failures without compro-
mising service reliability. It is the combination of corrective, predictive, and pre-
ventive maintenance, and utilized on these approaches where suitable, based on the
Table 2.3 Condition-based maintenance

Results within standards Reasonable deviation Severe deviation
Short-term service Perform more in-depth Scheduling of interim tests before
checks procedures during this the next routine maintenance cycle
interval
Completely skip the Include as usual in next Removal of online equipment for
next scheduled maintenance interval disassembly and rebuilding
maintenance
significance and frequency of equipment failures. Therefore, optimization of the

maintenance program is economical and reliable. It mainly aims to prevent most
severe faults in the system. PDM and RCM analysis balance each other; their
performances are parallel for optimization of the power system. It ranks the oper-
ation of critically based equipment, the interruption cost in revenue and customer
loss, safety, cost of repair, and so on. Data measurements used in PDM and RCM
are the same but require more training to save extra maintenance resources by
spending less effort on lesser critical machinery.
2.6.8 Premonsoon Maintenance
Because most of the distribution network is overhead/overground in nature, it is

susceptible to various faults due to storms, lightning strikes, heavy rains, and
floods. Indoor and underground cables are also subjected to tough times but to a
comparatively lesser extent. It is therefore a general practice followed by most
distribution utilities to plan and carry out thorough maintenance of the distribution
network components of lines and substations. A snapshot of maintenance carried on
different equipment is as below.
Distribution transformer
Check oil level and leakages and rectify.
Check silica gel breather and replenish with blue colored gel.
Check and tighten all current-carrying clamps and connectors (tighten or replace if
need be).
Measure dielectric strength of the transformer oil and carry out filtering if need be.
Check all earthing connections for tightness and continuity (measure and bring
value below 5 X).
Check LA connections and tighten.
Check working of primary and secondary side protections and rectify if need be.
Provide fresh crimping to low tension (LT) cable connections to bushings.
Overhead lines
Straighten the bent poles and replace cracked PSC poles.
Tighten stays.
Check and provide ant-climbing devices and caution notices.
Check insulators for cracks.
Redo the binding of pin insulators (if damaged).
Check and rectify earthing of poles and all metallic fittings on it.
Redo muffing if damaged.
Check jump ring clamps, connectors for health.
Check multiple neutral earthing for LT lines and neutral continuity.
Ensure tree-cutting is done as per norms (vegetation management).
Substation equipment (33/11 or 66/11 kV)

Maintenance of the equipment in the substations is to be carried out routinely as per
schedule inasmuch as breakdown on such equipment may result in overly long
duration interruptions affecting a bigger geographical area and/or more consumers.
Before a monsoon it is necessary to ensure that the maintenance has been carried out
per the time schedule. The remarks in the history cards maintained for such equip-
ment are to be attended to for any remedial action before the onset of monsoon.
2.7 New Technology in Maintenance
Today many technologies are being examined and used to control the electrical
equipment’s condition, helping in condition-based maintenance. A few tools and
techniques are as follows.
2.7.1 Ultrasonic Noise Analysis Technique
The prolonged sound in the equipment may be a sign of air, gas, or steam leaks and
can also be a result of friction between moving parts.
2.7.2 Incomplete Discharge Detection
Sensors used in the power system detect initial insulation breakdown in any
equipment; they are also used to detect emerging failure so that in future no sig-
nificant damage occurs.
2.7.3 Transformer Dissolved Gas Analysis
This analysis is one of the methods used to detect the amount of dissolved gas
content in transformer oil or any other any abnormalities. A gas-level indicator
shows the maintenance engineer the state of the transformer essential for mainte-
nance or potential failure.
2.7.4 Infrared Thermography
Infrared cameras are used in thermography surveys to detect hotspots at various

clamps and connectors in distribution substations and lines. They show the
real-time measurement of the four key gases—carbon monoxide, hydrogen, acet-
ylene, and ethylene—which are known for fault currents in the transformer.
2.7 New Technology in Maintenance 41
2.7.5 Hotline Maintenance
This is the process of maintenance at transmission or distribution lines in live

condition without necessitating any shutdown (Fig. 2.3). Sufficient insulation has
been provided by the technology during maintenance. This is very high-risk
technology to be executed only by properly trained and experienced personnel.
Furthermore, an extra sensor is deployed to detect the moisture level in transmission
lines; as a result it may reduce the dielectric strength and failures. These sensors are
used to measure transformer loading, recording the development of gas and
moisture content as a function of load. With the moisture sensor and load current
monitor, an accurate criterion for transformer loading under stressful conditions can
be developed rather than depending upon conservative ratings.
2.8 Integrated Approach
DISCOMs fail to integrate and process expediently a quick evaluation of the large
amount of data collected, thus leading to delayed O&M recommendations, and
thereby adding cost for data collection and still failing to provide cost benefit from
effective maintenance. RCM and PDM analyses balance each other, and excellent
optimization is achieved when they are performed simultaneously.
A comprehensive approach for T&D systems ensuring a constant and reliable
supply should include the substation and equipment. Please see Fig. 2.4.
2.8.1 Case Study and International Practices for Equipment

Maintenance
In India, since the initiation of power sector reforms many vertically integrated
utilities/state electricity boards (SEBs) have been unbundled. The role of newly
Fig. 2.3 Hot line

maintenance work
Fig. 2.4 A representative figure displaying the integrated approach
formed distribution utilities has become more focused on meeting the needs of retail
consumers. These companies have inherited very old and weak networks facing
frequent breakdowns of lines, cables, and transformers. Most of the DISCOMs are
faced with challenges of fulfilling growing consumer expectations in the area of
providing a continuous and good quality power supply. This is to be achieved by
upgrading and toning the distribution network and adopting best practices in the
area of network augmentation plans and adapting to the best distribution and
maintenance standard practices.
A power distribution company in its journey towards “Service Excellence to
Consumers” needs to set a corporate target to be achieved by a predefined horizon
year (may be in a span of four to six years) that relates to improving the service
delivery mechanism to consumers. This necessitates formulation of a strategic
reliability and maintenance roadmap.
The activity starts with performing an assessment of existing reliability and
maintenance practices within the utility and identifying a desired future state based
on benchmarking with best-in-class utility practices. The roadmap is prepared with
an implementation schedule covering details of a year-on-year plan of activities,
expenses, and achievements until the horizon year is reached.
2.8.2 Understanding “As-Is” Scenario of Distribution

Network Assets
At the beginning of the activity it is necessary to know the present health of the
various network components of the detailed equipment audit to arrive at a decision
of run as it is, repair and then run, or replace [14, 15]. Such a network audit is
conducted through OEMs (original equipment manufacturers) and deploys teams of
in-house engineers. This covers the details of 66 or 33 kV substation equipment
2.8 Integrated Approach 43
such as power transformers, circuit breakers, isolators, capacitor banks, battery and
chargers, and the like, as well as overhead and underground HV and LV feeders,
distribution transformer substations with control gears, service cables, and meters.
2.8.3 Formulation of the CAPEX Plan
Deciding on the goals to be achieved at the end of the horizon year includes in the
area of AT&C loss reduction, reliability improvement, and catering to consumer
growth by adequate interventions of IT enabling systems and distribution
automation with SCADA. Having frozen the yearly activity, expenses, and
achievement phasing program the utility can now go ahead with formulation of
reliability and maintenance roadmaps based on international best practices.
2.8.4 Typical Causes of Poor Reliability
• Unavailability of power as required

• Delay in postfault rectification
• Equipment failure
• Trees coming in contact with overhead lines
• Lightning
• Animals (reptiles and birds)
• Overloads
• Traffic accidents
• Digging instances
2.8.5 Basic Ways to Improve Reliability
Prevent failure from occurring.

• Tree-trimming program
• Use of ABC (aerial bunched cables)
• Infrared feeder inspection program
• Conductor/cable replacement program
• Increased lightning protection
• Transformer load management programs
Reduce the number of affected consumers.
• Fuses on laterals
• Reclosures on main trunk
• Automatic sectionalizers on taps

• System reconfiguration
After fault occurs restore supply to more consumers by quick alternate switching.
• Use of normally closed and open switches on the feeders.
• Adhere to feeder and substation automation.
Locate fault quickly.
Install OMS (Outage Management System) which can have the following
features.
Real-time circuit topology, automated trouble call processing, automatic interrup-
tion and outage data capture, integrated crew dispatch, fault passage indicators,
links to SCADA, infer fault location based on fault magnitude, prefault current and
feeder circuit model, greater accuracy using clearing times TCC (time current
characteristics) curves.
Repair fault more quickly.
Mobile crew arrangement.
Performance management.
Summary:
• Reliability can be substantially improved at low cost.
• Use of rigor and discipline is required.
• Use an integrated approach.
• Need not focus obsessively on reliability indices.
• Start collecting good data.
Traditionally a utility mindset focuses on keeping the cost within approved regulatory
provisions and maximizing performance without taking any risks. This can be
attributed to the ageing infrastructure, increased regulatory oversight, and pressure to
improve reliability, reduce costs, and increase earnings. There is a need to shift from
this mindset to a new approach that envisages minimizing cost to achieve prudent
performance by managing risks. The motives that drive this would be:
• Identification of efficiency gains
• Improvement of asset replacement technique
• Life extension program for assets
• Reducing negative surprises.
2.9 Reliability Data
Many utilities still perform their reliability analysis based on manually prepared
paper reports as part of the data collection of planned outages, interruptions,
breakdowns, and load shedding. To avoid the complexity of data collection, today
2.9 Reliability Data 45
all DISCOMs have installed an outage management system (OMS) that tracks the
data and consumer interruptions as they occur. Thus knowledge of reliability
indices such as SAIDI and SAIFI is more accurate. This requires GIS mapping of
all network assets until consumer indexing. With the R-APDRP part A and B
projects funding many utilities can avail themselves of this facility. Effective reli-
ability management requires good asset data. This can be maintained through
installation of ERP (enterprise resource planning) software. Otherwise such detailed
inspection, maintenance, and failure history for equipment is stored in a comput-
erized maintenance management system (CMMS).
2.9.1 Utility Trend in Reliability
– Increasing consumer sensitivity where consumers’ expectations on reduction in

interruptions are increasing
– Tougher regulatory targets of reliability prescribed while deciding tariffs on
ARR submissions
– Increasing use of SAIFI and SAIDI in deciding employee incentives
– Increasing pressure by regulators to improve worst performing feeders
– Increased role of OMS so there is no chance of data manipulation
– Increasing pressure for reducing O&M cost
– Increasing focus for changeover from time-based maintenance towards
condition-based and reliability-centered maintenance
– Increasing use of auto-reclosures and line sectionalizers on feeders
– Increasing use of automation
– Increasing use of cost-benefit analysis
– Increasing tendency to take more risks
Based on these trends and considering the activities planned in the CAPEX plan a
typical roadmap for reliability improvement from its present status to the desired
state is prepared.
2.9.2 Reliability Roadmap
It should address the following major goals to reach the desired future state.
– Dramatically improve overall reliability as measured by SAIDI and SAIFI.
– Demonstrate to all stakeholders that the expenditure incurred is in tune with the
benefits received and maintain the tariff at a reasonable level.
– Establish business systems that would be able to achieve global benchmarks.
2.10 International Benchmarking
This section contains a comparison of maintenance and inspection processes and

frequencies for high-voltage substation equipment from a number of utilities
worldwide. The utilities that are represented in this section represent best-in-class
utilities in Europe, North America, and the Middle East. International best practices
for utility T&D substations for a variety of equipment types are contained in
Tables 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13, 2.14, 2.15 and 2.16.
Differences in operating conditions, equipment condition, and the impact of
failure of certain equipment or equipment types will always account for some
differences. The challenge for the utility is to continue to maintain all its equipment
and systems in a systematic manner and one that maximizes equipment reliability
and availability. The utility has the goal to migrate from a time-based to a
reliability-centered maintenance program.
Table 2.4 International practices, minimum oil CB inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance
S. No. Inspections Frequency
1. General visual inspection (looking for obvious defects) Once per month
2. Visual check for leaks/contamination/moisture/loose Once every six
connections months
3. Visual check of terminations Once every six
months
4. Functional test Annually
5. Infrared scan Annually
S. No. Diagnostics Frequency
1. Measurement of contact resistance Once every three
years
2. Measurement of switching time and simultaneity of the Once every three
phases. Lubricate moving parts at this time years
3. Measure spring charging time for spring-operated breakers Once every three
years
4. Random check (−10%) of the condition of the oil per station Once every six years
(moisture, color, breakdown voltage)
5. Partial discharge measurements Once every six years
S. No. Maintenance Frequency
1. Revision of breaker chamber: a. Replace contacts, b. Clean After a short-circuit
the chamber, c. Replace oil
2. Cleaning of bushings Once every three to
five years, also
frequent cleaning is
required for worst
ambient conditions
2.10 International Benchmarking 47
Table 2.5 International practices, bulk oil CB inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance
connections months
months
1. Measurement of contact resistance Once every three
years
2. Measurement of switching time and simultaneity of the Once every three
phases Lubricate moving parts at this time years
3. Measure spring charging time for spring-operated Once every three
breakers years
4. Random check (−10%) of the condition of the oil per Once every six years
station (moisture, color, breakdown voltage)
1. Visual check of contacts After a short-circuit
2. Check of oil color After a short-circuit
Table 2.6 International practices, SF6 CB inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance

1. General visual inspection (looking for obvious Once per month
defects)
2. Visual check for leaks/contamination/moisture/ Once every six months
loose connections
3. Visual check of terminations Once every six months
5. Check to trace SF6 leaks Annually
6. Check foundations, grounds, and paint Once every five years
1. Measurement of contact resistance Once even, three–five years
2. Measurement of switching time and simultaneity Once every three years
of the phases. Lubricate moving parts at this time
3. Measure spring charging time for spring-operated Once every three years
breakers
4. Partial discharge measurements on the cable Once every six years
terminations
5. Power factor insulation test Once every five years
6. Moisture test on gas Once every five years
(continued)
Table 2.6 (continued)

7. Validate operation and calibration of Once every five years
temperature, pressure switches, and gauges
8. Check heater operation, tightness of terminal, Once every five years
linkages, screws, bolts
9. Latch, linkage, and operating mechanism Once every five years
adjustments
10. Overhaul breaker with new seals, contacts, and Once every 10th to 15th year
nozzles or 4000 to 10,000 operations
11. Overhaul disconnect, grounding, and breaking Once every 15 years or 5000
switches to 10,000 operations
Table 2.7 International practices, vacuum CB inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance

connections months to annually
months
5. Record meter readings, check temperature, pressure switch Annually
operation, and calibrate gauges
6. Check foundations, grounds, paint Annually
1. Measurement of contact resistance Annually to once
every three years
2. Measurement of switching time and simultaneity of the Annually to once
phases. Lubricate moving parts at this time every three years
3. Measure spring charging time for spring-operated breakers Once every three
years
5. Vacuum tests in order to determine dielectric properties Once every six years
6. Power factor, AC high potential Once every five
years
1. Lube, clean, adjust, align control mechanisms Annually
2.10 International Benchmarking 49
Table 2.8 International practices, MV transformer inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance

1. General visual inspections (looking for obvious defects) Monthly
2. Contamination on bushings/fan (grates) Monthly
3. Corrosion fans (ONAF)/secondary equipment cabinet/ Monthly
transformer
4. Oil leaks Monthly
5. Condition of silica gel desiccant Monthly
6. Check for loose connections Monthly
7. Visual inspection of HV and LV cable end boxes for oil leaks Monthly
8. Monitor transformer temperatures (top oil, thermal image), Continuously
load, and ambient temperature, and check for unusual (online)
coherence between these factors
9. Infrared inspection Annually
1. Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA) Annually to once
every three years
2. Oil quality tests. Includes: Once every four
a. Breakdown voltage to six years
b. Neutralization value
c. Dielectric dissipation factor
d. Interfacial tension
3. Insulation resistance test Once every eight
years
4. Insulation power factor test Once every eight
years
5. Winding excitation test Once every eight
years
6. Bushing power factor test Once every eight
years
7. Turns ratio test Once every eight
years
1. Dust cleaning Annually
2. Functional tests of all protection and instrumentation, for Annually
example:
a. Bucholz relay
b. Thermal image (indication winding temp)
c. Level indicators
d. Indicators (needle) and contacts (needle activates contact
reaching certain threshold)
e. Fans (functional and timing)
f. Pressure relay
(continued)

3. Off load test—complete range tap changer in order to clean At least during
the contacts scheduled
a. In the case of an existing transformer: only OLTC (on load shutdowns
tap changer), do not operate DETC (de-energized tap changer)
due to possibility of failure (cause: carbon on contacts)
b. In the case of a new transformer: both OLTC and DETC,
but it should be done every year
4. Inspect the diverter switch Every 40,000
operations
(typically).
Number of
operations
depends on LTC
manufacturer
2.11 Maintenance and Inspection Roadmap

Recommendations
Maintenance is the largest internally controllable cost. At the same time, mainte-
nance is a key process in effective asset management [16]. The utility is in the
process of improving its maintenance program and is investigating options to
establish an effective maintenance program in a time- desired frame. A maintenance
optimization roadmap is recommended based on traditional reliability-centered
maintenance with elements of modern asset management (AM) and
performance-based maintenance (PBM). Traditional RCM is focused on balancing
the cost of maintenance and PBM reinforces the need for establishing processes for
effective performance management through a “living” maintenance optimization
program. This is a data-driven process and a suggested roadmap addresses the need
for data management and support through a computerized maintenance manage-
ment system.
The maintenance optimization roadmap would suggest number of individual
steps in establishing effective maintenance consistent with modern asset and sup-
port reliability management as part of overall company performance management.
The roadmap is organized in sections addressing the need for strategic decisions
and suggesting project organization, planning, and prioritization. It includes pilot
projects, technology transfer, and RCM studies. Once a maintenance plan is
developed, the roadmap requires effective plan execution through proper work
management and prioritization, resource optimization, and performance manage-
ment. Steps to ensure effective data collection, management, and analysis are
suggested together with installation of effective IT infrastructure.
The roadmap proposes maintenance optimization through the optimized use of
internal resources in combination with external support to ensure cost-effective
2.11 Maintenance and Inspection Roadmap Recommendations 51
Table 2.9 International practices, station (power) transformer inspections, diagnostics, and
maintenance
1. Overall visual inspections of connections, Monthly
corrosion, oil levels, and so on
2. Visual check of cable end boxes Monthly
3. Visual check of breather; replacement if broken Monthly
4. Visual check of silica gel desiccant; replacement if Monthly
applicable
5. Infrared inspections Annually
6. Heat exchanger inspections Annually
7. Conservator and bladder inspections Annually
1. Dissolved gas-in-oil analysis (DGA) Annually to once every three
years
2. Oil quality tests. Includes: Once every four to six years
a. Breakdown voltage
b. Neutralization value
c. Dielectric dissipation factor
d. Interfacial tension
3. Insulation resistance test Once every eight years
4. Insulation power factor test Once every eight years
5. Winding excitation test Once every eight years
6. Bushing power factor test Once every eight years
7. Turns ratio test Once every eight years
2. Functional tests of all protection and Annually
instrumentation, for example:
a. Bucholz relay
b. Thermal image (indication winding temp)
c. Level indicators
d. Indicators (needle) and contacts (needle activates
contact reaching certain threshold)
e. Fans (functional and timing)
f. Pressure relay
3. Off load test—complete range tap changer in order During scheduled
to clean the contacts shutdowns, but at least
a. In the case of an existing transformer: only
OLTC (on load tap changer), do not operate
DETC (de-energized tap changer) due to
possibility of failure (cause: carbon on contacts)
b. In the case of a new transformer: both OLTC and
DETC, but it should be done every year
4. Inspect the diverter switch Every 40,000 operations
(typically). Number of
operations depends on LTC
manufacturer
Table 2.10 International practices, distribution transformer inspections, diagnostics, and

maintenance
1. Overall visual inspections of connections, Annually
corrosion, oil levels, and so on
2. Inspection for physical damage Annually
3. Visual check cable end boxes Annually
4. Visual check of breather; replacement if broken Annually
5. Visual check silica gel, replacement if applicable Annually
1. Oil sampling = Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) Once every two years.
The DGA should be
performed only on the
critical transformers
(important customers) or in
the case of an indication of a
possible fault
2. Partial discharges, when discharges are detected oil Once every six years
samples (DGA) should be taken in order to
determine the composition of key cases and
localize the cause of the problem. In the case of
abnormal situations the oil should be monitored on
a regular basis in order to analyze a possible trend
and determine further actions. In the case of a
short-circuit current the transformer should also be
measured to cheek for abnormalities.
Thermographic measurement should be undertaken
Table 2.11 International practices, instrument transformer inspections, diagnostics, and

maintenance
1. Visual inspection Annually
2. Infrared scan Annually
1. Power factor test Once every five years
2. Burden measurements Once even, five years
implementation and technology transfer with high quality of deliverables. The

proposed implementation of computerized maintenance management and upgrade
of IT infrastructure is the highest “hard” cost of the project. For the reason of cost
and ROI management and because the same infrastructure should be used for
companywide asset management and overall performance (including reliability)
management the roadmap suggests a two-step, companywide approach in investing
Table 2.12 International practices, capacitor bank inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance
1. Visual inspection Monthly
2. Detailed visual inspection. Check for oil leaks, bulging of the Annually
capacitors, signs of overheating, arcing point, and terminations
3. Measure temperature (summertime, representative temperatures) in Annually
order to verify whether the temperature is exceeding the limit of the
rated temperature class. If the temperature class is exceeded,
possibilities for (natural) cooling should be examined
1. Capacitance measurement of complete bank Annually
2. Upon deviation, measure value of each unit Annually
3. At deviation from manufacturer tolerances, replacement of individual Annually
unit(s)
4. Partial discharge measurements Annually
5. Thermographic measurements Annually
Table 2.13 International practices, MV switchgear and control panel inspections, diagnostics,
and maintenance
1. General visual inspection; in the case of digital relay check El n0 Monthly
and ET i z 0 if applicable (indication of status of current and
voltage transformer and wiring)
2. Electromechanical and static relays: functional check and Annually
primary/secondary injection; replacement if applicable
3. Check parameter adjustment (mainly caused by capacitors) Annually
1. Digital relays, due to self-check ability of relay: functional check Once every
and primary/secondary injection; replacement if applicable three years
in infrastructure upgrade with the first step being detailed specification and
requirements development taking into account companywide asset and performance
management needs.
Maintenance and Inspection Roadmap Conclusions
A utility has a very good opportunity to achieve desired reliability transformations.
This goal is achievable through a coordinated strategy at the corporate level and
continued enthusiastic support from top management. Maintenance improvement,
as discussed in the maintenance optimization roadmap, is an initiative that needs
companywide coordination. Investment in a maintenance optimization project is an
investment in the company’s overall performance improvement, including
reliability.
Table 2.14 International practices, DC system: Batteries and battery charger inspections,
diagnostics, and maintenance
Battery
1 General visual inspection Monthly
2 Check liquid level and refill if applicable Monthly
1 In the case of open batteries check PH value Annually
2 Voltage measurement Annually
3 No break test, cell replacement if applicable Once every two
years
1 Check tightness and oxidation of connections and maintain if Once every two
applicable years
Rectifier
1 Visual inspection Once every two
years
2 Check functionality of the current rectifier, both float and boost Once every two
positions, if applicable years
3 Check indication lights Once every two
years
4 Check for contamination, cracks, and arcing points Once every two
years
5 Check indicators (voltage, current) Once every two
years
Table 2.15 International practices, feeder pillar inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance
1. Inspection for physical damage; repair or painting if Annually
applicable
1. Check maximum current indicator and compare it with Annually
ratings
2. Infrared measurement Once every three years
Normal Environmental High Contamination
Conditions Areas
1. Cleaning Once every three years Once every three years
2. Tightening of loose Once every three years Once every three years
connections
Table 2.16 International practices, ring main unit inspections, diagnostics, and maintenance
1. Visual check of cable terminations Every six months
2. Check operating mechanism for Annually
corrosion and/or contamination. Clean
and lubricate if applicable
3. Inspect for physical damage/corrosion Annually
4. Infrared measurement Every three years
5. Cleaning Every three months; only for aggressive
environmental conditions (high
contamination areas)
Maintenance is the largest internally controllable cost and is a key process in

effective asset management. It is recommended to have a maintenance optimization
roadmap based on traditional reliability-centered maintenance in combination with
elements of modern asset management and performance-based maintenance.
Traditional RCM is focused on balancing the cost of maintenance and reliability.
The PBM reinforces the need for establishing processes for effective performance
management through a “living” maintenance optimization program. As stated
above, this is a data-driven process and the suggested roadmap addresses the need
for data management and supporting IT infrastructure through a computerized
maintenance management system.
The important element in considering cost and benefit of the project is to realize
that most of the work could be done using internal resources. This is important not
just from the cost-saving perspective, but is also a good and effective way of
technology transfer. This approach helps to mobilize internal resources from the
beginning of the project, and is an effective way to minimize implementation time
and ensure internal ownership of the project.
Cost of the investment in performance management infrastructure, data stan-
dardization, and data collection should be considered a companywide cost and a
project of long-term significance with wide-ranging benefits.
If managed properly, investment in the maintenance optimization project, pro-
cesses, and infrastructure suggested in the roadmap will take full advantage of
industry best practices and “lessons learned” and turn the existing utility’s position
of “being late” into the advantage of “being ahead” through effective implemen-
tation of the latest concepts and tools without being held down by old historical
processes and infrastructure [17].
The recommendations related to the maintenance optimization roadmap provide
a scenario of full implementation as the desired goal for transformation from
time-based to maintenance to RCM. The goal of a predefined period in essence is
achieved in the proposed roadmap through the implementation of the most critical
RCM projects within the desired timeframe and continuous RCM implementation
across less critical components. If required, a shorter implementation schedule is

possible by assigning high-priority status to the project, shortening the imple-
mentation cycle through accelerated installation of required infrastructure, and
allocation of a higher percentage of available internal labor resources to the project
technology development and implementation.
2.12 Maintenance Management
A proper maintenance program is formulated for all distribution systems because

they are distinct in their configuration, load, and types of installed equipment. The
present trend is to move ahead from traditional preventive maintenance methods to
PDM using CBM (condition-based monitoring tools) and finally targeting RCM.
Need for Maintenance Program
Electrical equipment deterioration begins when new equipment is installed in a
system; it occurs at a standard rate, however, equipment failure is not predictable.
When the equipment is not properly maintained or unchecked, equipment perfor-
mance decay may occur, leading to fault or failure of the equipment, particularly a
performance decay rate increase in a hostile environment condition, overload, or
severe duty cycle. Apart from the ageing factor, other reasons for failure of
equipment may be monitored and corrected through such a program. At the time of
scheduling the program for maintenance, the following issues should be taken into
consideration.
• Worker safety
• Equipment loss
• Production economics
The vital elements of a thriving maintenance program are:
• Deploying qualified personnel and responsibilities
• Detailed electrical equipment survey and analysis for maintenance
• Necessities and importance
• Preplanned repetitive inspections and tests
• Exact investigation of inspection and test reports can lead to proper corrective
action
• Complete and concise records
Emergency Procedure
Step-by-step procedures should be adopted in the event of an emergency, including
secure stoppage or startup of equipment and systems. Well-maintained safety
equipment is critical and necessary when working on or near live electrical
equipment.
2.12 Maintenance Management 57
Identification of Critical Equipment

After the fault, failure equipment is considered critical, even when the equipment
under complete control during normal operation may be a serious risk to mainte-
nance personnel, property, or the product. The criticality of a machine can be
determined based on the previous experience and knowledge of maintenance per-
sonnel. An intact system may be critical by its very nature. Examples of critical
systems are:
(a) Emergency lighting and power
(b) Fire alarm and pumps
(c) Certain communication systems
Several parts of a system may also be critical because of the role of the utilization
equipment and the related hardware.
Scheduling
The scheduled checkups and tests are the essential part of an effective maintenance
program. Maintenance reveals the condition of equipment, and tells us what kinds
of maintenance are required and whether the equipment will continue to operate
properly until the next schedule. Factors to be taken care of are:
– Surroundings where the electrical equipment is located
– Condition of load
– Equipment history
– Frequency of inspection
Effective Maintenance Program Methods and Procedures
These must include the connections between individual components. Neglecting
the system’s interconnections and operation together may result in unexpected
problems. The system procedures should contain:
(a) An assortment of forms for use in the plant and the field.
(b) Each piece of equipment should have a set of procedures detailing the special
tools, materials, and necessary equipment as well as an estimation of the time to
perform the work, references to suitable technical manuals, documentation of
preceding work performed, items of particular consideration, precautions,
uncommon events, and so on.
(c) Safety procedures to be inculcated.
(d) The operating personnel should follow the schedule for plant inspection as per
frequencies of schedule, accessibility, readiness of auxiliary equipment, shut-
downs as per schedule, projected inspections and tests, readiness of standby
parts, and special test equipment.
(e) Record maintenance to assess results.
(f) Emergency procedures that include training in emergency situations.
2.13 New Technologies in Power System Control

Operation
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Since the inception of digital computer use for applications apart from data pro-
cessing in offices SCADA systems have been used in various industries for many
years. The introduction of microprocessor technology has extended the relevance of
SCADA technology through the more sophisticated concept of the distributed
control system (DCS).
SCADA Systems History: The SCADA system is mostly used to control and
monitor the generating station output and the HV transmission systems. In recent
years, the SCADA system is more cost effective to monitor and control electrical
distribution systems particularly when the system voltage is less than 15 kV.
SCADA System for Electrical Distribution: The financial validation for a devoted
SCADA system is frequently tricky. The attention of datapoints is typically rela-
tively low. The configuration at any one site is unique. The SCADA system is
mainly used to monitor voltage, current, power flow of major circuits, and the
monitoring and control of circuit breakers and generation units. The configuration
of an electrical system can be altered remotely by the closing or opening of CB and
switches. Faults on the system are detected right away, and alarm conditions and
operation of protective devices are reported to a central location. The SCADA
system stores and accumulates the necessary information for load shedding and
energy conservation, and is readily obtainable for the management of engineering
personnel. Accumulation of data can ease maintenance, troubleshooting, and sup-
port emergency planning.
Typical SCADA System Configuration: Modern SCADA systems consist of a
minimum of three or over a hundred central stations; each central station normally
has one or more computer consoles and two or more central computers are in
surplus configuration. Each central station contains the computer, communications
equipment, and power supplies; integral or separate data and alarm printers; and
configuration-dependent terminal strips (IED-intelligent electronic devices). These
are essential for communicating with remote equipment. The IEDs used in the
digitalization of distribution substations include security, automation, control, and
communications. They gather and generate significant analytical data by monitoring
the devices and surroundings that the IEDs protect. Each main device of a sub-
station has at least one associated IED receiving voltage, current, status, and other
signals that are put to use to make precise diagnoses in real-time.
The IEC 61850 standard establishes the functionality of the vertical and hori-
zontal communication protocols, enabling interoperability between the systems and
quick exchange of multiple types of messages among the protection, control,
supervision, and measurement system equipment of the substations (the IEDs).
Power distribution substations designed to use IEC 61850 can be optimized by
2.13 New Technologies in Power System Control Operation 59
using messages designed for SCADA, realtime data exchange, and collection of
equipment monitoring information, significantly reducing equipment used for
protection, control, measurement, and automation. The computer consoles have one
or more cathode ray tube (CRT) display devices, with the facility of operator
communication: a touchtype keyboard, a touchscreen, or a light wand. The actual
CRT displays are generated by specially written computer software consisting of
schematic multicolor representations of a variety of operating systems.
Electrical power systems are frequently represented in a one-line diagram with
some geographical or physical orientation of assorted equipment. The system
operating buses are displayed in diverse colors to reflect the dissimilar operating
voltages. CB status is indicated by red or green lights according to their closed or
open status, respectively. Bus power flows, voltages, and currents are displayed
next to the bus identification information. Transformers, circuit breakers, disconnect
switches, major circuits, and major utilization equipment are usually illustrated on
the display. The display may be broken down into supplementary detailed screens
to exemplify the particulars of a complex system. The control conditions for gen-
erating units if any should be displayed. A suitable communication network is
placed between the central control room and remote stations (PLCC, optical fiber
cable, etc.).
Control Circuits and Devices
Microprocessor controls are one of the latest technologies to be applied to the
electrical distribution system. Microprocessors are being put to use for applications
as follows.
(a) Protective relaying and tripping functions in circuit breakers and fuse like
switching devices
(b) Electronic meters that provide all of the voltage: current, power, energy con-
sumption, demand, power factor, frequency
Microprocessor-based protection modules are being installed in molded case circuit
breakers and low voltage power circuit breakers. This aids in controlling the
operation of the direct acting trip units. These trip units are used to provide long
time, short time, instantaneous, and ground fault over current protection. They also
take care of under-voltage protection. Furthermore, microprocessor-based protec-
tive relays are also put to use for replacing traditional electromechanical protective
relays generally used for low and medium voltage switchgear installations. The
novel devices proffer better protection of equipment by allowing more precise
protection settings paralleling equipment needs. The latest devices also present
improved troubleshooting diagnostics, online test features, and communication
capabilities. This leads to remote trouble reporting. These protective devices are
being outfitted with metering capabilities that may allow removal of separate
voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters, which are frequently used on feeder circuits
and utilization circuits for providing operating load information. Electronic
metering devices are now obtainable in one package to substitute all independent
meters.
2.14 New Systems and IT Interventions
With the introduction of IT-enabled systems in distribution business operations,

many new types of software have been introduced. To name a few of them:
• GIS mapping and engineering
• Metering, billing, and collection
• Trouble call management (call center)
• Project management
• ERP
Today these may be working in silos. A need has therefore arisen to have EAI
(enterprise application integration) in place so all activities of the distribution utility
are carried out in a harmonious way.
Operating Responsibilities and Organizational Relationships
A detailed work breakdown structure is required to be drawn to divide the
responsibilities across various divisional units and personnel working there, such as
• Planning and project
• Engineering and procurement
• Operation and maintenance
• Protection, metering, and testing.
References
1. Belighter Charles S et al (1982) Foundation of optimization, Prentice-Hall of India, New

Delhi
2. Masu dEnver (1974) An interactive procedure for sizing and timing of distribution substation
using optimization techniques. IEEE Trans 93:1281–1286, Sept–Oct
3. Renationalization of Primary Distribution Network, Technical Report No.137, CPRI
Bangalore, May 1996
4. Electric Power International (1981) ERA technology, London, pp. A-19–A-21
5. Pabla AS (1984) Average power distribution system, Proceeding of Power India Tech. in
Transition Conference, NPC, New Delhi, March 7–8
6. Standard Handbook on Electrical Engineering, 12th Edition (1987) pp. 17/3–7
7. Petterson L (1990) Estimation of the remaining service life of power transformer and their
insulation. Electrica, CIGRA, 133:65–71, Dec 1990
8. Kothari DP, Dhillon JS (2004) Power system optimization. Prentice-Hall of India, New delhi
9. Jennings Bench B, Richard D, Miller & James E, Wheeler (1982) Distribution system
integrated voltage & reactive power control. IEEE Trans PAS-101, Feb, pp 284–286
10. Lynn P (2004) Power system load flow analysis. TATA McGraw Hill, New York
11. Wallach Y (1986) Calculations and programs for power system networks. Prentice-Hall, New
Jersey
12. Central (2007) Electricity Authority (Grid Connectivity Regulations), New Delhi
References 61
13. Lee WH (1997) Power distribution planning. Reference Book Marcell Dekker Inc, New York,
p 209
14. Stall HG (1989) Least-cost electric utility. Willey, New York, p 74
15. Geographic Information System Planning for power system planning, United Nation
Publication, June 1997
16. Grisby LL (1998) The electric power engineering, Handbook, pp 6–60, 13-4
17. National Electricity Plan 2004, CEA, New Delhi (Chap. 7)
Chapter 3
Best Practices in Operation
and Maintenance of Subtransmission
and Distribution Lines
3.1 Description of Distribution Network
In a power system the distribution network is the final stage, which includes car-
rying electricity from the transmission system and also delivering the electricity to
the end users (Fig. 3.1). The components of this network are power lines (medium
voltage below 66 kV), substations, distribution transformers, meters, and
low-voltage distribution wings (below 1 kV). It begins with the primary circuit
leaving the substation and ends as the secondary service enters the customer’s meter
socket [1]. The voltage varies from 33 kV to 230 V depending on the utility
standards, distance, and load to be served.
Distribution system conductors are carried on overhead poles; in high-density
areas underground cables are used. Three-phase four-wire systems are used to serve
electricity for urban and suburban area load customers, whereas for rural areas
single-phase systems are used. Generally, a distribution transformer is used to feed
domestic customers. The distribution transformer reduces the voltage to the rela-
tively low level used by lightning and the interior wiring system. Large commercial
customers are fed directly from distribution voltages.
The transformer can be set up in two ways: either pole-mounted or also mounted
on the ground in a protective covering. A pole-mounted transformer can serve only
one transformer in the case of rural areas, and in builtup areas, more than one
customer may also be connected. A secondary network, in which many trans-
formers feed into a common bus at utilization voltage, may be formed in very dense
city areas. Every customer has electrical service or a service drop connection and a
meter for billing purposes. (A few small loads such as yard lights are too small for a
meter and are billed only at a monthly rate.)
For the customer’s system and equipment owned by the utility, a ground con-
nection to local earth is normally provided. The customer’s system is connected to
the ground in order to limit the voltage that can increase when high-voltage con-
ductors fall on lower-voltage conductors, or even in case of failure within the

64 3 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Subtransmission …
Fig. 3.1 Structure of distribution system
distribution transformer. The risk of electric shock can be minimized when all
conductive objects are connected together to a common earth grounding system.
But the presence of multiple connections between utility ground and customer
ground may lead to stray voltage problems such as customer piping, swimming
pools, or any other equipment that may develop objectionable voltages [2, 3].
Because problems often develop from places separated from the customer’s pre-
mises, these are difficult to solve.
Generally, a distribution network contains the following tools.
3.2 Poles and Tower Structures
The tower can be supported by narrow-based lattice towers with a fully galvanized
structure according to the requirements. Poles are used for 33, 11 kV, and low
transmission lines (below 500 V). There are many kinds of poles such as precast
concrete (PCC), prestressed cement concrete (PSCC), rolled steel joist, rail, or
tubular steel (Table 3.1). The standards confirmed by the poles should be IS 785, IS
1322, IS 1678, IS 2713. Cement poles are favored in plain areas. In designing poles
and towers in hilly areas, appropriate snow or ice loading should be taken into
consideration.
Specially designed poles/lattice towers are used in locations involving long
spans or higher clearances owing to the crossing of power or communication lines
or railway line crossings. If the angle of deviation is more than 10°, double-pole
structures are used. The factors that should be considered for determining the height
3.2 Poles and Tower Structures 65
Table 3.1 Types of structure by function

Wood pylons: A straight trunk impregnated with tar is usually
used with conductor cables on the top and carries one or more
crossbeams for support pylons. Anchor pylons require higher force
thus constructions looking like V or A are used. Wood pylons are
used only for LV lines generally and height of pylons is also
limited because of restricted height of trees available
Concrete poles: An electricity pole made from reinforced concrete

is manufactured at the factory and put up at the powerline’s right
of way. These are prefabricated and used up to 60 m in height
Steel rail: These pole structures are high-tension carrying

structures and are normally used at corners or turning points.
Generally these rail prefabricated structures are installed with
concreting at ground
Steel tube: This pole is normally used for street light connections
and is manufactured from steel tubes. They are normally
assembled at the factory and set up on the powerline’s right of way
with a crane
Lattice steel pole: This electricity structure consists of a steel

framework construction and is used for powerlines of all voltages.
They are normally assembled from individual parts at the place
where it is to be erected
of the pole above ground level, length of the pole below ground level, and load are
wind zone, terrain, topography, and statutory clearances required to be maintained.
All these factors are required to be confirmed by Indian standards (IS) [4].
Depending on the type of line there can be a variety of shapes for the structure of
overhead lines. A simple structure is made up of wood poles straight in the earth
that carry one or more cross-arm beams in order to carry the conductors. It can also
be constructed as an “armless” design with conductors reinforced on insulators on

the sides of the poles. In urban areas, tubular steel poles are generally used.
Lattice-type steel towers or pylons are used to carry high-voltage lines. In remote
areas, aluminum towers are used and sometimes concrete poles may be used. Due to
higher costs, poles made of reinforced plastics are restricted in use.
Each structure must be designed for the loads imposed on it such as conductors,
wind, ice, and so on; however, this is a well-known design that answers to specific
local and national regulation. A large transmission line project can have various
kinds of towers such as one with “tangent” (suspension or line) towers meant for
various locations and more heavily built towers used for turning the line on an angle
or dead-ending (terminating) which can either be a line or important river/road
intersection (Table 3.2). There are semiflexible types of structures that can rely on
the weight of conductors to be balanced on either side of each tower and these
depend on the design criteria for the particular line. There are more rigid structures
that are made so they remain standing even when conductors are broken. There may
be cascading tower failures and their scale can be limited by installing such
structures at gaps in power lines.
Table 3.2 Type of PCC poles for angle and dead-end locations
S. No. Location and type of Suitability of different PCC pole designs in Western part (WP) zones
support
50 kg/m2 75 kg/m2 (using 75 kg/m2 (using 100 kg/
140 kg WL poles in 200 kg WL poles in m2
normal location) normal location)
1 Straight runs (tangent A A B B
locations): single-pole
arrangement
2 0°–10° angle location: A A B B
single-pole arrangement
double-pole arrangement
5 30°–60° angle location: A–A A–A B–B B–B
four-pole arrangement
(H-type)
double-pole arrangement
8 Dead-end location: A A B B
double- pole arrangement
(H-type)
9 Distribution transformer C C D D
location: double-pole
arrangement
3.2 Poles and Tower Structures 67
3.2.1 Selection Criteria of PCC Poles per Requirement

of Electric Connection (REC)
See (Table 3.2).
3.3 Line Span
In overhead lines the conductors are supported by towers/poles (Tables 3.3 and
3.4). The conductors are pulled and stringing effected [5]. When supported this way
a conductor will dip under its own weight called “sag.” The distance between
adjunct supporting structures is called the “span.” The conductor’s mechanical
loading is due to its own weight, weight of ice, wind load, and so on. Under varying
weather conditions of ambient temperature, the conductor’s tension should not
Table 3.3 Permissible spans for 11 kV lines

Conductor Working load of supports (Kg) Max. permissible span on a wind
pressure zone
50 kg/m2 75 kg/m2 100 kg/m2
1 2 3 4 5
11 kV line, cross country, on 7.5 m supports—conductor formation and clearance, per REC
construction start A-4
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 140 107 107 NR
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 200 NR 107 107
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 140 107 90 NR
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 200 NR 107 97.5
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 140 107 69 NR
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 200 NR 106 75
11 kV line, cross country, on 8.0 m supports—conductor formation and clearance, per REC
construction start A-5
Earth-wire 4 mm (550–900 MPa quality)
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 140 107 91 NR
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 200 NR 107 99.5
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 140 107 76.5 NR
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 200 NR 107 83
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 140 99 60.5 NR
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 200 NR 93.5 66
11 kV line, cross country, on 8.0 m supports—without earth-wire, conductor formation, and
clearance per REC construction standard A-5 (excluding earth-wire)
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 140 107 107 NR
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 200 NR 107 107
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 140 107 87.5 NR
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 200 NR 107 95
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 140 107 67.5 NR
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 200 NR 104 73.5
Table 3.4 Maximum permissible spans for three-phase LT lines

Conductor Working load of supports (Kg) Max. permissible span on a wind
pressure zone
50 kg/m2 75 kg/m2 100 kg/m2
1 2 3 4 5
415/240 V lines, cross country, on 7.5 M support—conductor formation and clearance per
REC construction standard B-12 (s-phase, four-wire horizontal)
AAC 7/2.11 mm 140 81 73 NR
AAC7/2.11 mm 200 NR 73 66
ACSR 7/3.10 mm 140 80 61 NR
ACSR 7/3.10 mm 200 NR 74.5 66
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 140 107 83 Nr
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 200 NR 107 90.5
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 140 107 71 NR
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 200 NR 107 77
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 140 93 57.5 NR
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 200 NR 88 62.5
415/240 V lines, cross country, on 8 M support—conductor formation and clearance per REC
construction standard B-13 (three-phase, four-wire horizontal)
AAC 7/2.21 mm 140 81 73 NR
AAC 7/2.21 mm 200 NR 73 66
AAC 7/3.10 mm 140 80 61 NR
AAC 7/3.10 mm 200 NR 74.5 66
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 140 107 83 NR
ACSR 7/2.11 mm 200 NR 107 90.5
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 140 107 71 NR
ACSR 7/2.59 mm 200 NR 107 77
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 140 93 57.5 NR
ACSR 7/3.35 mm 200 NR 88 62.5
exceed the permissible limit, that is, breaking strength of the conductor/safety factor
(2.0–2.5). Knowledge of the maximum sag/line span calculation is essential for
designing lines with adequate ground clearance. The line span is decided by taking
into account factors such as topography, wind pressure, kind of support, conductor
configuration, and ultimate tensile strength.
The span range is designated by IS-5613.
There should be a uniform span that is to be maintained between two successive pole
structures as soon as possible. A pole should be placed on the roadside if a road is
intersected at midspan when the line is built. When another power line is crossed, the
lower voltage line should be below specified. The lower line should be crossed in the
midspan of the upper line [6, 7]. In order to maintain the proper ground clearance at the
middle of the span, shorter poles can be made when poles are placed at high places.
Normally, placement of poles should be avoided along the edges, cuts, or embankments
of creeks and streams.
3.3 Line Span 69
3.3.1 Permissible Line Span per REC Standards
See (Table 3.4).
3.4 Overhead Distribution Lines
In terms of functions, transmission lines and overhead distribution lines may be similar
but these two may differ in terms of their construction. In terms of voltage and distance,
transmission lines are made to carry high voltages traveling longer distances, but
overhead distribution lines are constructed to carry medium voltages traveling distances
that depend on the size of its extent or on the utility’s discretion [8].
Electrical power starts at the power distribution substation and goes to different
areas with the help of distribution lines in the system. Distribution lines connected
to the high-voltage side of the distribution transformer are referred to as primary
distribution lines or primaries. The secondaries, connected on the low-voltage side
of the distribution transformer, are known as secondary distribution lines.
3.4.1 Preventive Maintenance of Overhead Lines
See (Table 3.5).
3.5 Cables
Cables are nothing but conductors covered with a layer of insulation (Fig. 3.2).
Cables can have either one conductor or multiple conductors and may be of indi-
vidually insulated type. There may also be multiple conductor cables with an
external insulating outer covering or sheath. The materials used for making the
conductor are electrolytic-grade high-conductivity annealed copper or aluminum.
All cables generally have aluminum/copper as conductor materials and control
cables have copper.
Conductor Shield
The conductor has a nonmetallic semiconducting shield that ensures a perfectly
smooth profile and avoids stress concentration.
Insulation There is generally a specified system voltage for which cable insulation
should be designed. The purpose of the manufacturing process is to ensure that
insulation is free from voids. The insulation should also hold out against
mechanical and thermal stress under steady- state as well as transient operating
conditions.
Table 3.5 Overhead line maintenance

S. No. Type of Particulars of inspection Maintenance
Inspection
1 Line patrolling 1. RC poles are broken Replace the broken poles as a
priority
2. RS joist/rail poles, cross- arms Clean the rusted poles or
are rusted cross-arms by wire brush and paint
with two coats of rustproof red
oxide and two coats of synthetic
enamel paint
3. Stay set uprooted from ground/ Excavate the pit, place the stay set
stay wire broken properly and provide mass
concreting up to ground level.
Replace the broken stay wire with
new one. Ensure the stay wire is in
tension
4. Coping of RS joints/rail poles Provide proper cement coping
near the ground is damaged with cement concrete
5. Cattle rubbing on the pole at the Provide barbed wire up to 1.5 m
ground high on each pole to prevent cattle
from rubbing against poles and
also ensuring that unauthorized
persons do not climb the live poles
6. Kites and loose threads hanging Remove the kites, burn the
on the overhead lines threads, and clean the lines
2 Conditions 1. Cobwebs, bird’s nests, paper Remove cobwebs, bird’s nests,
of kites, and loose threads and threads; clean the insulators.
insulators surrounding the insulators Replace the damaged insulator
2. Insulator found cracked/broken with new insulator
3 Conditions Clamps are loose. Bolts and nuts Replace the missing bolts and
of clamp/ are missing. Fixtures are hanging nuts. Tighten the clamps; firmly
fixtures loose and permanently refix the fixtures
by providing new clamps and
bolts, nuts, and washers
4 Tree Tree branches are falling or Cut/remove such branches that are
clearance spreading on the overhead lines, pressing the overhead lines.
bushes and shrubs thickly Remove the brushes and shrubs
surrounding the poles at ground and keep the area near each pole
level clean
5 Inspection Earth wires loosely hanging at the Provide permanent connection.
of earthing bottom of pole, earth- wire Replace missing or broken lugs
connection near the bottom of pole and make the earth connections
has come out. Earth lug found near the poles permanent by
missing proper bolts, nuts, and washers
6 General Megger used to test the overhead Check for any leakages and if
testing lines between phase-to-neutral, found, patrol the line; check for
phase-to-earth and between faulty or broken insulators and
neutral-to-earth replace them
7
(continued)
3.5 Cables 71

S. No. Type of Particulars of inspection Maintenance
Inspection
Condition Guard wires loosely hanging on String the wire and fix the cradles
of ground poles and guard cradles loosely permanently
wire hanging
8 Logbook All above observations,
rectifications, measurements, and
so on to be recorded in logbook
Fig. 3.2 Cable internal composition
Armoring In single-core cables armoring is applied over the core insulation and in
the case of multicore cable it is applied over the inner sheath. Depending upon the
application, these cables can be armored or unarmored. The armor consists of
galvanized round steel wire. In single-core cables to be used in an AC system,
armoring with nonmagnetic material is desired [9]. For single- core cable to be used
in a DC system, the cable should be armored with galvanized steel wire/strip.
Sheath
Inner Sheath In the case of cables consisting of two or more cores an inner sheath
suitable to withstand the site conditions and the desired temperature is provided on
the individual core and then surrounded by a common covering applied either by
extrusion or wrapping of a filling material containing thermoplastic material.
A PVC sheath should be extruded. The circularity of the cable should be maintained
[10].
Outer Sheath This is extruded over the armor for armored cables and covers the
inner sheath for unarmored cables. It is specially formulated heat-resistant black
PVC extruded to form the outer sheath. The cable should also offer a specially
formulated flame-retardant low smoke compound (FRLS) for the outer sheath. All
must be given anti-termite treatment.
3.5.1 Preventive Maintenance of Underground Lines
Table 3.6 shows underground line preventive maintenance.
3.6 Insulators
An insulator (Fig. 3.3) in the true sense is a material that completely resists the flow
of electric charge and does not respond to the electric field. But, practically, a
perfect insulator does not exist [11, 12]. Therefore dielectric materials having very
high dielectric constants are regarded as insulators. In the atoms of insulating
materials, electrons are strongly bonded. These are used as insulators or insulation
in electrical equipment and perform the function of supporting or separating elec-
trical conductors and do not allow current through them. The insulating supports
used to attach electric power transmission wires to utility poles/pylons are also
referred to by this term.
Table 3.6 Preventive maintenance of underground lines

Maintenance for underground cables
S. Particulars Type of Inspection particulars Inspection
No. installation frequency
1 Cables of all grades: Buried in Verification of conduction of cable Once
i.e., 1.1, 11, and 33 kV trenches, every
ducts half-year
2 Cables of all grades: In soil Whether there is water stagnation Rainy
i.e., 1.1, 11, and 33 kV near the cable location season
3 Cable termination for Open Routine checks of condition Once
1.1 kV grade cables yearly
4 Cable terminations for Open Routine checks of condition Once
11 kV and above yearly
grade cables
5 Cable glands, lugs, and Open For loose joints, broken and Once
connections missing glands, missing lugs, and every
loose connections. 3 months
3.6 Insulators 73
Fig. 3.3 Different kinds of insulators
Glass, paper, or Teflon are some materials that are very good examples of elec-
trical insulators because these materials may have lower bulk resistivity. However, a
larger class of materials is “good enough” in insulating electrical wiring and cables.
Some examples of such materials are rubberlike polymers and most kinds of plastics.
For low to moderate voltages (hundreds, or even thousands, of volts), these materials
are safe and practical insulators to use. Electric power transmission wires suspended
in nature are generally bare and are insulated by only air. But when these wires enter
a building, they aren’t bare. Insulators are required at the points where they are
supported by utility poles or pylons and where the wire enters buildings or electrical
devices such as a transformer, circuit breaker, and the like. The hollow conductors
that hold conductors in them are known as bushings [13]. It is necessary to use an
insulating link by cranes working near such wires because of dangers produced by
cranes that touch bare electric power transmission wires.
Excessive voltage can cause electrical breakdown of an insulator. This can take
place in two ways:
• Puncture voltage: When the insulator is installed in its normal manner there is a
voltage appearing across the insulator known as puncture voltage. This voltage
causes breakdown and conduction of electricity inside the insulator. A puncture
arc causes heat that can damage the insulator irreparably.
• Flashover voltage: Voltage that causes the air around the surface of the insu-
lator to conduct electricity causes a “flashover” arc throughout the outside of the
insulator. Usually these are designed to confront this without any damage.
In order to avoid damage, generally insulators are constructed with flashover
voltage lower than puncture voltage. This will cause insulators to flash before they
do damage.
Table 3.7 Preventive maintenance of insulator

Insulator maintenance schedule
Inspection Items to be Inspection notes Action required for
frequency inspected unsatisfactory
conditions
Quarterly Cleaning Either offline or online cleaning of insulator
of insulator should be done. In a dusty environment it is
essential to clean at short intervals
Annually Infrared Scanning to be done at least once a year to Replace with new
scan detect the health of the insulators one
Check String health to be checked physically Replace the portion
health of not in compliance
the string
Flashovers and leakage currents can be caused by the presence of dirt, pollution,
salt, and water in particular, which can create a conductive path across it. The
magnitude of flashover voltage depends upon the presence of water and is reduced
to more than 50% when the insulator is wet. In order to minimize the leakage
current, the leakage path along the surface from one end to another is maximized
and this path is also known as creep age length. These high-voltage insulators for
outdoor purposes are designed to maximize creep age length. The surface is framed
into a series of corrugations or concentric disk shapes so that the leakage path can
be maximized. These generally contain one or more sheds which are nothing but
cup-shaped surfaces facing downward, acting as umbrellas to ensure the surface
leakage path under the cup also remains dry in wet weather. Safe or minimum creep
age distances lie in the range 20–25 mm/KV and it should be increased in airborne
sea-salt or high pollution areas. Please see Table 3.7.
References
1. Power Sub-Transmission and Distribution systems-prevailing practices No. 198. New Delhi,
December, pp 75–79
2. IS: 5613 (Part Iand II) Design installation and maintenance of lines up to and including
220 kV
3. Jones GR et al. (1993) Electrical engineer’s reference book, 15th edn. Newness, Oxford, pp
22/1–22/18
4. Manual on Transmission Criteria, CEA (1985, May) p 15
5. Modern trends and practices in power sub-transmission and distribution systems, vol. 1.
CBIP, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi
6. Brain F, Thornley J (1992) Lighting by design: a technical guide. Focal Press, Oxford
7. Wiring R, AS/NZS 3000:2000, Standards Australia, 2000, pp 132–143
8. Lerch E, Aggarwal RK (1995) Importance of system studies for industrial power system
networks. In: Siemens Circuits, pp 12–19
References 75
9. Steward WE, Stubbs TA (1995) Modern wiring practice—design and installation. Newness,
U.K.
10. Tripathy SC (1991) Electric energy utilization and conservation. Tata McGraw Hill, New
Delhi, pp 73–105
11. IS: 10028, Code for practice for selection, installation and maintenance of transformers
12. IS: 5613, code of practice for design, installation and maintenance of over head power lines
13. IS: 6711-1972, Code for practice for maintenance of wooden poles for overhead power and
telecommunication lines
Chapter 4
and Maintenance of Distribution
Substation Equipment and Auxiliaries
4.1 Distribution Substation
A power distribution substation is the heart of an electrical distribution network. Its

prime objective is to step down power at the 66 or 33 kV level and distribute it in
an 11 kV subdistribution network [1]. Normally these kinds of substations are
located near load centers at the outskirts of cities. The maximum capacity of any 33/
11 kV substation will be 60 MVA, either indoor or outdoor type, and also either air
insulated (AIS) or gas insulated (GIS). These substations are constructed per the
Indian standard, and other rules and regulations as per the latest amendment issues
by the Central Electricity Authority of India (CEA). A 33/11 kV substation will
have less than two transformers and at least two incoming feeders preferably from
two different sources. Where both feeders are from the same source, each feeder
will supply independent sections of the 33/11 kV substation, with these two sec-
tions isolated from each other by a bus coupler or isolator. All substations should
have independent circuit breaker control of 33 kV incoming feeders, transformers,
and 11 kV transformers. In general the following are the some of the important
equipment/auxiliaries in a distribution substation.
1. Surge/lightning arrester
2. Instrument transformer (current transformer (CT) and potential transformer
(PT))
3. Circuit breaker
4. Isolator and earth switch
5. Capacitor bank
6. Control and relay panels
7. Bus bar
8. Battery and battery charger
9. Earth grid and earthing system
10. Transformer

78 4 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Distribution …
4.2 Surge/Lightning Arresters
Description
A lightning arrester (LA) protects substation equipment by discharging lightning
and switching voltages over to earth. It consists of a series of spark gaps and several
nonlinear resistances including thyrite and metrosil among others [2]. A nonlinear
resister is one whose resistance is not constant but inversely proportional to the
applied voltage and decreases rapidly as the voltage across it is increased [3]. The
high surge voltage appears and allows the flow of heavy currents on the order of
thousands of amperes, dissipates energy quickly and recovers again, and presents a
high resistance value to the normal line voltage as soon as the surge has disap-
peared, so that any tendency of the arc to continue is immediately suppressed. In a
system that has its neutral solidly earthed, the rated voltage of the arrester is usually
taken as 80% of its maximum line-to-line voltage. In an unearthed system it is taken
as 100% of line-to-line voltage because under fault conditions when one line is
earthed, the arrester connected to the other two lines would be subjected to full
line–line potential.
A 33 kV, 10 kA discharge current rating of LA should be installed for protection of
switchgear, transformers, associated equipment, and 33 kV lines. Station class,
heavy duty, gapless metal oxide (ZnO)-type surge diverters in general will be
provided on the buses, high-voltage and voltage side of all transformers, and on the
incoming terminations of 33 kV lines. The arresters will conform to IS 3070.
The RMS voltage of LA will be 9 kV and the coefficient of earth not exceeding
80% as per IS: 4004, with all the transformer neutrals directly earthed.
1. Types of Surge Arresters and Their Construction Details
The development of surge arresters has taken place during from 1940 to the 1980s
in the following stages.
1. 1940s—Surge arresters with rod gap
2. 1950s—Surge arresters with SiC discs
3. 1960s—Surge arresters with SiC discs and active gap
4. 1970s—Surge arresters with magnetically blown gaps for EHV-AC systems
5. 1975s—Surge arresters with rod gap and with metal oxide discs for EHV-AC
systems.
6. 1979s—Gapless metal oxide arresters for HVDC
7. 1980s—Gapless SiC arresters with SF6 insulation
8. 1980s—Gapless ZnO arresters for various application
At present the following arresters are used.
1. Gapped silicon carbide surge arresters are used, also known as valve type or
conventional gapped arresters.
2. Zinc oxide gapless arresters are used, also known as a ZnO arrester or metal
oxide arrester. These are gapless and consist of a zinc oxide disc in series and
have superior V/I characteristics and a high energy absorption level.
4.2 Surge/Lightning Arresters 79
1. LA Testing
1. Routine test
2. Type test
(i) Routine test
(a) Sealing test
(b) Measurement of reference voltage
(c) Residual voltage test
(d) Internal insolation test
(ii) Type test
(a) Insulation withstand test on the arrester housing
(b) Residual voltage test
(c) Long duration current impulse test
(d) Operation duty test
(e) Short-circuit test
(f) Polluted housing test
(g) Internal partial discharge test
(h) Bending moment
(i) Environmental test
(j) Seal leak test
(k) Radio inference test
1. Maintenance of Surge Arresters
The following are the usual causes for the failure of a surge arrester.
1. POWERGRID case histories show about 40 LAs failed due to moisture entry.
2. Approximately 50 LAs have been removed based on third harmonic resistive
current measurements. During investigations, moisture entry was found to be the
main reason for THDC violations.
3. Mostly during the switching operation 80 LAs have failed.
4. During PIR removal field studies, LAs have not conducted even on a single
occasion in worst conditions (1.95–2.05 PU) indicating switching surge current
less than 70–80 A.
5. During failure investigation with manufacturers in 2003/2004, most LA failures
have occurred due to moisture entry and not due to ageing/conduction.
6. For transformer/reactor LAs, TOV requirements are fewer compared to line LAs
and hence rating may be different for both LAs. Moreover, in most cases, for
transformers only the residual surge travels to the transformer.
1. Causes and Nature of Failure
The surge/lightening arrester responds to overvoltages without any time delay.
According to system requirements the rated voltage, continuous operating voltage,
energy handling capability, nominal discharge current, and other characteristics of the
LA arrester will be chosen [4, 5]. Normally LA rarely fails, however, it has been
designed for a particular number of operations. The same has to be properly checked
during selection of a LA. The number of the discharge cycle counter should be
checked on a daily basis and when the counter is in the “RED” zone it should have
changed with immediate effect. If the surge arrester is being used at abnormal service
conditions such as excessive deposits of smoke, dirt, salt spray, or other conducting
material, the surge can be bypassed and the arrester stop failure of the equipment.
2. Primitive Maintenance of LA
In general primitive maintenance of a lightning arrester doesn’t occur. Once it fails
it has to be replaced. However, during puncture the porcelain insulator needs to be
replaced. The failure of nonlinear resistance in LA will have to be fixed. Hence in
the case of this failure, the LA has to be replaced as a whole. It is important to
choose the appropriate class and rating of the LA during selection, especially
considering environmental conditions. Please see Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Preventive maintenance schedule of LAs/surge arresters

frequency inspected unsatisfactory conditions
Weekly Reading of The reading to be noted on –
leakage current weekly basis. However, after
heavy lightning it should be
checked. If current shoots in red
zone, then that particular LA is to
be replaced as early as possible
Visual inspection Visual inspection of insulator to Replacement of LA
be made at least once a week. In
case of any physical damage, it
has to be replaced
Monthly Connection The tightness of each individual Necessary nuts, bolts, and
tightness connection has to be assured on a washer may be replaced in the
monthly basis case of proper connectivity
Checking IR The LA earth connectivity has to Failure to get the desired value
values be checked. Resistivity between will cause check in
stack to stack and between each connectivity, earth pit, and LA
stack to earth by suitable Megger contact
Surge counter Apply 230 V AC supply across Replacement of counter
test the counter and check pointer
movement in clockwise direction
Half-yearly Insulator The insulators should be cleaned Cleaning may be done using
cleaning with a clean smooth cloth. Care detergent or replacement may
should be taken so that no scratch be done
appears over the insulation
Yearly Measurement of The reference voltage is the sum –
reference voltage of all the individual reference
(V-ref) voltages. The peak voltage is
independent of power frequency
voltage, and the current of the
arrester is divided by √2 measured
at the reference current
(continued)
4.2 Surge/Lightning Arresters 81

Power and On the complete arrester at the –
frequency reference current measured at the
reference voltage bottom of the arrester. The
measurement measured value will be within the
range specified by the
manufacturer. For multiunit
arresters the value may deviate
from the reference voltage of the
arrester
Partial discharge For the partial discharge test the –
test power frequency voltage applied
to the complete arrester, along
with its end fittings, will be
increased up to its rated voltage
and within 10 s decreased to 1.05
times its continuous operating
voltage. At that voltage the partial
discharge level according to IS
6209 will be measured
3. Predictive Maintenance
After collecting performance records of the surge diverter on a regular basis, when
it is found that the counter goes to the red zone it is necessary to replace the arrester
at the earliest.
4.3 Instrument Transformer (CT and PT)
Description: The instrument transformer is used to step down high voltage or

current from a transmission/distribution system into a low value for metering and
protection purposes. These transformers reduce the high current or high voltage
connected to their primary windings to the standard low values in the secondary.
They are expected to be maintenance-free during their service life. They are of
minimum oil type and hermetically sealed and from the application point of view,
they are divided into three main categories.
Metering Type
The specified performance of CT is to be maintained in the range normally 5–120%
of the rated current. The CT cores should be such that they saturate at the instru-
ment security factor (ISF) for safeguarding the instrument from getting damaged
under fault conditions [6, 7]. The PT designed for metering is required to perform as
specified within the voltage range near the normal rated voltage of 80–120%.
Protection Type
The main performance requirement of protection class CTs is that its cores
should not get saturated below its accuracy limiting factor (ALF) up to which
the primary current should be faithfully transformed to the secondary, main-
taining the specified accuracy. During fault conditions, the CT primary carries a
very high current and first few cycle have DC component, which may saturate
the core. Behavior of the cores in such condition should be such as to avoid
becoming magnetized and to return to normalcy (demagnetized stage) soon after
clearing the fault.
Load Survey Type
This is a mixture of the above two categories and is usually used for economic
management of industrial loads. The output of this CT is connected with various
distribution management systems.
4.3.1 Outdoor Type Instrument Transformer
These are normally used in power substations (Fig. 4.1). While designing, the
following factors are taken into consideration.
1. Effect of atmosphere environment.
2. Insulation to withstand network fluctuation.
3. To avoid ingression of moisture these are oil filled.
(a) Current Transformer(CT) (b) Potential Transformer (PT)
Fig. 4.1 Current transformer and potential transformer

4.3 Instrument Transformer (CT and PT) 83
4.3.2 CT Type
1. Window CT: It has no primary winding construction and is installed near the
primary conductor.
2. Bushing CT: Window CT is not accessible because it is built near bushing.
3. Bar CT: A window CT but has a permanent bar installed as a primary
conductor.
4. Wound CT: Like a normal transformer, the wound CT features primary and
secondary winding. This CT is mostly used for lower conversion ratio of current
and is generally applicable in matching various CT summing ratios to com-
pensate lower current in CT secondary circuits or to separate similar CT circuits.
The instrument transformer is supposed to be maintenance-free and hence there
is no scope of filtering or change of oil during its life. This makes it essential to
hermetically seal the transformer to avoid breathing atmospheric air.
5. Accuracy Limit Factor (ALF): It is the ratio of the largest current value to CT
rated current up to which the CT must retain the specified accuracy. Example:
–CT –5P20, 5 VA, ALF = 20.
6. CT Core Identification per Class:
1. Class—0.2 s, 0.5 s, and 1.0 s: Metering core
2. Class—5P10, 5P20, etc.: Backup protection core (O/C and E/F protection)
3. Class—PS: Primary protection core (differential, distance, REF, etc.)
In general all this equipment is maintenance-free throughout its lifespan. However,
this instrument fails due to the following factors. Some of these devices are outdoor
types and are designed to withstand environmental conditions. Porcelain insulators
are being used for external isolation between live and ground. They provide an
outer casing for all atmospheric conditions including rain, dust, chemical contam-
ination, wind, sun, and so on. However, loose connections between the insulator
and tank, breakage of washers between them, and oil leakages from the tank are
common. It is necessary to maintain this equipment periodically.
In a power system a frequent number of power surges are generated due to
switching, sparking, and other network disturbances in the system. These envi-
ronmental causes make core saturation which ultimately damages the equipment by
disturbing measurement accuracy [8]. Due to these power surges the insulation
between the primary and secondary circuits becomes damaged and ultimately
damages the equipment.
2. Primitive Maintenance of Instrument Transformers
For a smooth and reliable power system it is important to keep all the equipment
healthy throughout the lifecycle. Hence as soon as the equipment fails it has to be
replaced. However, Table 4.2 shows the measures that should be taken for pre-
venting failure of this equipment.
Table 4.2 Preventive maintenance schedule of instrumentation transformer

Inspection Items to be inspected Inspection notes Action required for
frequency unsatisfactory conditions
Weekly Physical verification To be carried out once a week for Corrective action should
and cleaning of checking secondary connection, be taken immediately
bushing oil leakage, crack in porcelain,
and so on. The bushing has to be
cleaned
Monthly Oil level and oil For outdoor type CT/PT units oil Refill with transformer oil.
leakage level and oil leakage have to be For oil leakage
checked immediately check or
replace the unit
Power connection All connecting points to be Replace nuts, bolts, or
tightness checked for tightness washers as required for
proper tightness
Proper earthing of Proper earthing of body to be –
body connection and checked and maintained
CT secondary core
star point
Yearly Insulation resistance All the insulation resistance (i.e., Wherever required,
checking resistance between primary and change insulation or
secondary, as well with earth has regain insulation level
to be measured)
Sealing with metallic The movement of metallic –
bellows bellow has to be checked
Sealing with nitrogen The pressure for nitrogen gas and –
cushion sealing to be checked
3. Preventive Maintenance of Instrument Transformer

4. CT Testing
1. IR Testing:
(a) Primary to earth by 5 kV Megger
(b) Secondary each core to earth by 500 V Megger
(c) Primary to secondary by 5 kV Megger
(d) Secondary core to core by 500 V Megger
2 Polarity Test: For carrying out this test, we require one 1.5 V cell, DC analog
ammeter. This ammeter has to be connected across S1 and S2 and 1.5 V DC is
given across the terminal. By making the above connection, if there is positive
deflection of the ammeter, then polarity is confirmed.
3 Ratio Test: Inject current in primary winding and measure the induced sec-
ondary current for different current readings and verify with CT ratio.
4 Knee Point Check for PS Class Core: Inject 230 V variable AC voltages in
secondary core with ammeter in series. At a certain stage, with 10% increase in
voltage, the current shoots up almost 50% and it is called knee point voltage.
4.3 Instrument Transformer (CT and PT) 85
After carrying out this test the CT is demagnetized by the gradual reduction of
voltage to zero.
5 Winding Resistance Test: Measure secondary winding resistance by micro
ohm meter.
4.3.3 PT Testing
1. IR Testing:
(a) Primary to earth by 5 kV Megger
(b) Secondary each core to earth by 500 V Megger
(c) Primary to secondary by 5 kV Megger
(d) Secondary core to core by 500 V Megger
2. Ratio Test: Inject AC variable voltage in primary winding and measure induced
secondary voltage at different voltages and verify the same with PTR.
3 Predictive Maintenance: Instrument transformers are used for measurement
and protection purposes. Accuracy of operation of this equipment is very
essential. In order to operate with high accuracy predictive maintenance is
necessary. If during testing and calibration it is found that the equipment is
going to cross the accuracy level in the near future due to ageing, saturation,
decay in winding, and so on, immediate measures should be taken in order to
avoid disturbances and have reliable operation.
1. Circuit Breaker
Description: The circuit breaker is used to close or isolate the circuit in normal
and abnormal conditions and to protect the electrical equipment against the fault.
Circuit breaker classifications follow.
4.4 Classification of Circuit Breaker
Circuit breakers can be classified according to their arc quenching medium,

application, and use in sites. Based on the use of the breaker it can be classified as
follows.
1. Outdoor-type breaker: In breakers the earth quenching mechanism is present
at the switch yard. Only the circuit breaker control mechanism is present inside
the control room.
2. Indoor-type breaker: In these varieties the earth quenching mechanism is
placed inside the control room. HV circuits are routed to the circuit breaker
operating chamber inside the control room.
However, based on different arc quenching mechanisms, circuit breakers are

classified as follows.
1. Bulk oil circuit breaker: Contacts are separated inside a steel tank filled with
transformer oil used for arc quenching.
2. Minimum oil circuit breaker: Contacts are separated in an insulated housing
(interrupter) filled with transformer oil used for arc quenching.
3. Air blast circuit breaker: It utilizes high-pressure compressed air for arc
extinction.
4. SF6 gas circuit breaker: Sulphur–hexafluoride gas is used for arc extinction in
this breaker. The SF6 breaker has an advantage that the rate of restricting
voltage is zero and hence the burning of male/female contacts is less [9]. The
operating mechanism is of two types:
1. Movement of contacts is controlled by a spring mechanism (spring
operated).
2. Movement of contacts is controlled by air pressure (pneumatic operated).
5. Vacuum Circuit Breaker: In this breaker, the contacts are housed inside a
permanently sealed vacuum interrupter. The arc is quenched as the contacts are
separated in high vacuum.
During normal operating conditions, circuit breakers can be opened or closed by an
operator for the purpose of switching and maintenance. During abnormal or faulty
conditions the relay senses the faults and closes the trip circuit of the breaker;
thereafter the circuit breaker opens the circuit. As the relay contacts close the trip
circuit, the operating mechanism of the circuit breaker opens the contacts and an arc
is drawn between them. The arc is extinguished at some natural current zero of the
AC wave. The process of current interruption is complete when the arc is extin-
guished and the current reaches final zero value.
However, in the process carbon is deposited over the arcing contacts, main
contacts, and auxiliary interlocking contacts. This ultimately causes delay in fault
clearing time as delay in execution of the trip command.
The contacts are burnt/worn out or incur excessive roughness due to regular use.
In these conditions contacts need to be replaced with new ones. With regular use,
the spring becomes staggered due to continuous compression or expansion causing
delay in the operating mechanism. This needs to be checked and updated.
Necessary lubrication at all moving contacts should be used for smooth nonsluggish
movement.
In the circuit breaker a numbers of nuts, bolts, and washers are used. Due to high
accelerated movement with huge force, these washers and nuts may loosen, causing
displacement of the equipment from its original trajectory. In order to have smooth
and accurate movement these need to be tightened. The circuit breaker carries a
huge discharging current. For safe operation and long life of the equipment earth
connections need to be checked at regular intervals.
4.5 Primitive Maintenance of Circuit Breaker 87
4.5 Primitive Maintenance of Circuit Breaker
Oil, SF6 gas, and air blast circuits require a specified quantity and pressure of
quenching medium for reliable and smooth operation. Quantity and pressure should
be maintained at regular intervals [10]. Indicator monitoring of these parameters
should be recorded on a regular basis. Breakdown or bends in the circuit breaker
contacts need to be attained in immediate effect. The contact force needs to be
measured in the case of the vacuum circuit breaker on a regular basis and necessary
correction taken.
1. Preventive Maintenance of Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker is the most important protective device on the power distribution
network. Its preventive maintenance is to be carried out at highest priority
(Table 4.3).
Table 4.3 Preventive maintenance schedule of circuit breakers

Inspection Items to be inspected Inspection notes Action required
frequency for unsatisfactory
conditions
Monthly Tightness of control wire, Tightness needs to be checked on a Replace
power connection, nuts, monthly basis and corrected wherever
bolts, and washer required
Gas pressure check In SF6 types of breaker gas pressure Leakage needs to
needs to be checked at regular be filled in
intervals
Air pressure check Air pressure needs to be checked in Leakage needs to
pneumatic operated breaker be filled in
Half-yearly Mechanical operation Mechanical operation needs to be Fault to be
checked by making false trip analyzed and
command. Duration of operation rectified instantly
needs to be recorded
Insulation resistance Checking of insulation resistance of –
each pole and to ground across
terminals
Cleaning and lubrication Cleaning and lubrication of contract Replace the
parts burnt-in/worn out
contacts
Yearly Dielectric strength of oil In oil circuit breaker this has to be Replace with
carried out at least on a yearly basis new transformer
oil
Porcelain insulator Cleaning and checking for the Replace if any
isolators failure found
Overhauling of breaker Tightness of nuts, bolts, and washer –
needs to be checked and done
(continued)

conditions
Checking pole Checking controls, interlocks, and Necessary
discrepancy protections such as checking pole correction in
discrepancy system (i.e., whether all setting to be done
three poles are getting ON–OFF at the
same time)
Operating time The circuit breaker needs to be Necessary
checked for the time required for correction in
actual close relay setting to be
done
Each circuit breaker has a counter recording the number of operations done with the
breaker. In the manufacturer’s user manual it is clearly mentioned that after a
certain number of operations the arc quenching medium needs to be replaced. The
necessary guidelines given in the manufacturer’s user manual are to be followed
strictly. The delay in time from the fault recording and circuit break needs to be
checked properly. For higher delay time relay settings and operating time need to be
checked and corrected.
4.6 Isolators and Earth Switch
4.6.1 Classification of Isolators
The isolator (Fig. 4.2) is the device that makes and breaks circuits in no-load
condition. The isolators provided in the substation are for disconnecting the line and
equipment from the bus bar or from incoming/outgoing lines [11]. These are
off-load switches and not used as load break switches.
The various types of isolators are as follows.
(a) Center Break Rotating Type Isolator: This type of isolator is used for bus
bars and incoming lines. In this type both side insulators rotate and the break is
achieved at the center.
(b) Double Break Rotating Type Isolator: This type of isolator is used for
connecting or disconnecting the bus bar and equipment or connecting or dis-
connecting the line from the substation. In this type, the center insulator rotates
and the copper tube or blade is the moving contact. The other two side insu-
lators are fixed and they carry fixed contacts. The center insulator rotates
affording double break operation on opening the switch.
4.6 Isolators and Earth Switch 89
Fig. 4.2 Isolator
(c) Pantograph Type Isolator: In this type of isolator a break is vertical. The
isolator touches a bus bar when it is in the ON position and it comes down
vertically when it is OFF, disconnecting the bus bar connection. These types of
isolators are in use in our system at various 400 kV substations.
(d) Earthing Isolators: The earthing isolators are required to earth the line when it
is switched OFF, to discharge the line to earth capacitive voltage. This is very
important when people are working on the lines for maintenance purposes. The
earthing blades are attached to incoming or outgoing feeder isolators and they
can be made ON only when the line isolator is OFF. Such type of interlocks is
very necessary to avoid earthing of a live line.
Isolators are off-load switches and in normal operation heavy current flows through
them. However, a small gap in the contacts of the isolator causes heavy sparks and
burning of isolator contacts.
In general the male/female contact of the isolator develops erosion and burnout
ultimately causing heavy sparks and breaking of the isolator moving contact. As the
handle, rotating rod, and moving mechanism are all outdoor mechanical devices
they decay with the age of the isolator [12, 13]. This will cause loosening in the
contacts, nuts, bolts, and the like.
2. Primitive Maintenance of Isolators
Isolators can be maintained after reporting a fault in any of their parts. It is essential
to keep the contacts healthy and proper at all times. After establishing a burning
mark or corrosion on an isolator contact it is essential to clean the contacts on a
regular basis or change the corroded contacts for smoother operations.
During isolator operation (manual as well as motorized) the moving part dete-
riorates causing loosening in contacts, improper alignment, and so on. This can be
corrected on a regular basis by tightening nuts, bolts, and washers. Lubrication of
all the moving parts on a regular basis will also reduce the deterioration effect.
A preventive maintenance schedule for isolators is shown in Table 4.4.
After getting a poor result during Meggering of earth resistance from the isolator,
it is essential to check for the loose path of earth. All the nuts, bolts, and connectors
need to be corrected and healthy. In the process of regular scheduled maintenance
whenever improper contacts are found it is essential to replace them with a new
matching component. This will ultimately nullify the gap during the closed con-
dition and a spark will be isolated.
Table 4.4 Preventive maintenance schedule of isolators

conditions
Weekly External particle Cobwebs, bird’s nests, paper kites, loose –
over isolator threads surrounding the insulators to be
removed and cleaned at the earliest
Crack in Cracks or broken insulator on isolator base to Immediate
insulator be replaced immediately replacement
Monthly Checking of the Male/female contacts should be checked once Replacement of
male/female a month. The burn marks, rust, and other contact
contacts external particles removed
Lubrication All moving parts should be lubricated on a –
regular basis for smooth movement
Panel indicator The panel indicator (i.e., semaphores and –
and control bulbs, etc.) should be checked at regular
wiring intervals. The wiring for motorized isolator
also has to be monitored
Half-yearly Alignment of The alignment of the male/female contact –
moving contact should be checked and corrected
Cleaning of Insulators should be cleaned with a clean and Replacement of
insulator smooth cloth insulator
Yearly Tightening of Earthing connection should be checked at –
earthing least once a year by Meggering the resistance
connection level. The same should be recorded and
preventive steps taken
Interlock check Isolators are normally interlocked with earth –
switch and circuit breaker. This has to be
checked for clear operating mechanism
4.7 Capacitor Bank 91
4.7 Capacitor Bank
4.7.1 Description
In any power utility, maintaining a stable power supply at the proper voltage is
always a problem. Due to lot of inductive load, the reactive power flow takes place
in the system, resulting in the lowering of system voltage and an increase in
transmission and distribution losses [14]. The HT capacitor provides an interim
solution in improving power system stability, voltage, and the power factor.
The HT capacitor bank also compensates the losses occurring in the transmission
lines. The capacitor unit has one steel container, two bushings, and several capacitor
elements enclosed in the unit. A single HV capacitor may have a capacitance of 5
KVAr–200 KVAr. Several identical units are mounted on insulator racks and
connected in series parallel combination to obtain a high-voltage capacitor bank
(Fig. 4.3).
Before commissioning, Megger the capacitor bank between phases and earth.
The Megger reading for an individual capacitor should not be less than 50 MΩ. For
more than one unit in parallel, the minimum acceptable Megger value can be
derived by dividing 50 MΩ by the number of units connected in parallel. Before
switching on the capacitor, bus voltage, system incoming load current, and power
factor can be noted. After energizing, check that the capacitor draws almost a
balanced current in all three phases and is near its rated value. Note the change in
bus voltage, load current, and system power factor. Normally after capacitors are
energized, there will be a little rise in bus voltage and some reduction in system
load current and improvement in power factor. In the case where load current
increases instead of reducing, it shows that the connected capacitors are more than
Fig. 4.3 Capacitor bank

required for the load and in this case the power factor will be leading. When the
residual voltage factor (RVT) is used for imbalance protection, measure open delta
voltage, which should be negligible. In the case where capacitors are connected in
double star with neutral CT, the current on the secondary side of neutral CT can be
measured, which should also be negligible.
A fuse is provided for each capacitor in the bank. The fuses will be external type for
an 11 kV capacitor bank. Sufficient clearance is maintained between bodies to the
line terminal by the proper choice of capacitor unit with an external fuse used to
avoid bird faults. When the voltage level in the capacitor bank is more than 11 kV it
is provided with an internal fuse type. In the case of fault, the faulty element will
automatically go out of circuit.
Discharge resisters are provided within the capacitor unit to ensure safety after
de-energizing of the capacitor (within or less than 5 min, the rated voltage of 50 V
is achieved by decreasing the residual voltage from crest value). The power loss in
these resisters is negligible. Each capacitor bank is protected against lightning by a
gapless zinc oxide arrester. The capacitor protection equipment includes overcur-
rent, earth leakage, and protection to detect imbalance loading due to abnormal
conditions.
2. Primitive Maintenance of Capacitor Bank
A capacitor bank is normally provided at the 11 kV side of a 33/11 kV substation.
Due to the internal chemical effect the bushing/leads of the capacitor bank erode.
An erosive lead causes poor conductivity and ultimately breaks the flow. In this
regard its bushing and leads need to be checked and cleaned at a regular intervals
for long use. The capacitor bank consists of several units of small capacitors
connected in series/shunt. Each unit should contain its separate fuse set either
internally or externally. During fault conditions the fuse blows out and isolates the
capacitor from faulty conditions. However, after restoration of the fault before
going for normal use these fuses have to be restored for smooth operation. On the
eve of failure of an individual capacitor unit it has to be replaced with a healthy unit
before the whole bank is put in operation. A preventive maintenance schedule is
given in Table 4.5.
Whenever the capacitance of the whole bank shows unexpected results, the exact
failure of the device is to be identified and should be replaced and the final result
restored.
4.8 Control and Relay Panels 93
Table 4.5 Preventive maintenance schedule of capacitor bank

conditions
Weekly Cleaning of bushing/ The terminals need to be cleaned at If not cleanable,
leads regular intervals at least once a week terminals should
be changed
Check for leakage Capacitor needs to be checked for any –
kind of leakage
Tightness of all These need to be checked at regular Correct as soon as
connections and intervals. Earth connection needs to be identified
earth connection checked. However, all equipment should
connect as per the schema
Quarterly Charging discharge It is important to complete capacitor bank –
cycle discharge once a quarter. During
discharging never short the terminals. It
has to be discharged with proper
procedure
Checking value of It needs to be checked at regular intervals Replace if fails to
capacitance and to determine its health give the value
discharge resister
Oil break down Oil BDV needs to be checked for series –
voltage reactor and NCT/RVT
Yearly Protection devices Connection with all protection devices –
needs to be verified to avoid any damage
in abnormal conditions
4.8 Control and Relay Panels
4.8.1 Classification of Control and Relay Panels
Control or relay boards are built up by using the requisite number of self-contained
sheet steel cubicles, comprising a front panel to carry the control apparatus.
Depending upon the size of the substation the control and relay board may incor-
porate the following.
1. Simplex type: The hinged or removable back cover gives access to interior
wiring and cable termination.
2. Duplex panels: Panels are arranged back to back in corridor formation, and a
door is then fitted at each end.
A mimic diagram representing main circuit connections is incorporated on the
front panel. It is a single-line diagram incorporated on the front side of the control
panel [15]. This diagram represents the actual physical position of various HT
electrical equipment in the substation yard along with status of equipment and ON
and OFF positions of various breakers and isolators through semaphore or lamp
indication. The circuit breaker control switch is fitted on front. Normally the switch
is in normal (center) position. The handle is moved to the right or left to initiate
close or trip operations.
Indication lamps mounted for various purposes follow a standard color code.
Red: CB or switch CLOSED
Green: CB or switch OPEN
White: Trip circuit healthy
Amber: Alarm indication (i.e., CBs tripped on fault).
4.8.2 Colors for Internal Wiring
1. Red: Phase connection, either directly connected to the primary or secondary

circuit of CT and PT
2. Yellow: Phase connection, either directly connected to primary or secondary
3. Blue: Phase connection, either directly connected to the primary or secondary
4. Black: AC neutral connection, star point connections of secondary circuit of CT
and PT, and connections in AC and DC circuit
5. Green: Connections to earth
6. Grey: Connections in DC circuit
Each wire should have a letter to denote its function. DC supply from +ve source
should bear an odd number and from −ve source should bear an even number.
CT Secondary Terminal: S2 of all protection and metering cores are shorted in
the CT junction box. Only one common S2 wire along with S1 wires of all three
phases of CTs are brought to the control relay panel. Earthing of S2 wires is done at
one end (preferably at the CRP end).
Common Ferrule Numbers Used in Wiring
1. CT secondary connection for primary protection such as differential, distance,
REF relay). Small “a” is used for PT secondary connection in PT terminal box.
2. Bus bar protection (CT secondary connection). B for B phase indication.
3. Backup protection (CT secondary connection for O/C and E/F relay).
4. Metering (CT secondary connection).
5. Metering and protection (PT secondary connection).
6. AC connection.
7. DC connection (before fuse).
8. DC connection for control (after fuse).
9. DC connection for indication (after fuse).
10. Motor supply (spring charging motor in circuit breaker).
11. RTCC (tap changer) connection. Also for denoting AC neutral connection.
4.8 Control and Relay Panels 95
12. PT primary connection and DC circuit of bus bar protection scheme.

13. R phase indication.
14. CT secondary connection in terminal box.
15. Circuit breaker auxiliary contacts.
16. TB numbering.
17. Y phase indication.
Various controlling and protective devices are placed in these panels. Physically
large numbers of connecting wires are linked with the control panel. It is important
to have proper identification of each control cable with the connected devices.
Hence ferruling plays an important role in failure cause analysis of the control
panel. However, the control panel seldom fails; the devices connected with the
control and relay panel fail. The power supply to the panel is normally given from
the adjunct DC supply system [16]. Control and relay equipment sometimes fail due
to failure of a quality power supply. Some types of faults are shown in Table 4.6.
Table 4.6 Types of identified faults

S. Types of identified faults Works to be attended
No.
A CT Circuit
1 Noise in CT Open circuit of CT secondary circuit
Loose connection in CT secondary circuit
Ammeter switch fault causing CT secondary open circuit
Loose stampings of CT
In case CT is provided with a surge diverter in primary
winding, this might have been disconnected
2 Ammeter not recording properly Ammeter may be faulty
B PT circuit
1 Voltmeter not showing properly Check fuses on HV and LV sides of PT
If above is OK, voltmeter may be faulty
Loose connection in PT circuit
2 Energy meter recording less Same as above
3 Energy meters not recording If beyond adjustment, energy meter may be faulty
properly
C DC protection circuit
1 Nonworking of trip healthy Fuse of bulb or bulb may be loose
indication Loose connection
Resistance may be open circuit
Alignment of auxiliary contacts of circuit breaker
disturbed
Trip coil open
DC fuse may be loose or blown off
DC link may be loosely fitted
Pushbutton may not be making good contact after pressing
(continued)

No.
2 Nontripping of breaker Either loose fitting of fuse and link or blowing of control
fuse
Loose connection
Open circuit of trip coil or trip coil might have been burnt
disturbed
No free movement of plunger in trip coil assembly
Mechanical trouble in breaker
The local/remote switch may be in local position while
tripping breaker from remote
Trip switch or pushbutton may be faulty
3 Nonclosing of breaker Either loose fitting of fuse link or blowing of control fuse
Loose connection
Open circuit of closing coil or closing coil might have
been burnt
disturbed
No free movement of plunger in closing coil assembly
Spring might have been charged
Nonresetting of trip/master relay
Nonclosing from remote end, if local/remote switch may
be on local position
Closing switch or pushbutton may be faulty
In case of capacitor breaker, auxiliary relay in the timer
circuit might not have reset as per the time setting given to
timer
4 Tripping of breaker without Due to short in DC positive
indication Leakage of DC
Due to low pressure
5 Closing of air blast circuit breaker Due to short in DC positive
without indication Leakage of DC
Due to low pressure
6 Spring charging motor doesn’t Either loose fitting of fuse and link or blowing of fuse
start Failure of AC supply
Failure of limit switch CB
Defective motor
7 Flashover and damage of winding Failure of insulation
Short circuit due to lizards/rats, etc.
D Annunciation circuit
1 Nonworking of bell Alarm DC fuse and link might have been fitted loosely or
fuse might have blown off
(continued)
4.9 Bus Bar 97

No.
Loose connection
Disturbing of bell adjustment
Burning of bell coil
Auxiliary relay provided for bell circuit may not be
working properly
Sealing (hold on) supply getting to the aug. relay through
“accept” pushbutton might have disconnected due to
faulty accept pushbutton
2 Continuous ringing of bell DC leakage
Adjustment of auxiliary relay contact is disturbed
3 Nonresetting of bell Accept pushbutton faulty
DC leakage
Auxiliary relay faulty
4 Flasher working on without fault DC leakage
5 Nonresetting of indication DC leakage
Reset pushbutton faulty
E Indication circuit
1 Indication lamp not indicating for Loose fitting of fuse and link provided for indicating
breaker ON/OFF position circuit or this fuse might have blown off
Lamp may be loosely fitted or fused
Loose connection
Auxiliary switch may be defective
2 Semaphore not working Loose fitting of fuse and link provided for indicating
circuit or this fuse might have blown off
Loose connection
Defect in auxiliary switch of breaker or isolator
Semaphore coil burnt
Nonavailability of auxiliary contact of isolator
F Relays
1 Bad operation of relay Relay defective, needs calibration
2 Flag not resetting Mechanical defect in flag mechanism
4.9 Bus Bar
In an electric power system, bus bars are considered as the source of electric power.
They are composed of aluminum or copper conductor material, where all the loads
are interconnected via insulators. The bus bar is mainly deployed in the electrical
substation to tie the incoming and outgoing lines of the transformer and trans-
mission system; it also connects the generator and transformer in power-producing
stations [17]. For industrial applications, aluminum smelter-type bus bars are used
Fig. 4.4 Bus bar arrangement
to carry large amounts of current for their electrolytic processes. Bus bar size is an
important parameter that determines the capacity of the maximum amount of cur-
rent flow. The cross-sectional area of the bus bar varies depending on the appli-
cation; for example, a 10 mm2 cross-sectional bus bar is used for small current flow
applications, whereas a 1000 mm2 or more cross-sectional bus bar is used for
electrical substations.
A bus bar structure may be completely surrounded by insulation or supported by
insulation. The bus bar shown in Fig. 4.4 is sheltered by a metal enclosure or by
elevation out and a neutral bus bar is also insulated to avoid accidental contact.
Earth bus bars are directly bolted into metal chassis for their protection. The bus bar
structure may be covered in the busducts, segregated phase busducts, isolated phase
busducts, and so on.
Clamps or bolts are used to connect bus bars with other electrical appliances.
A silver-plated surface is done in high current bus joints to minimize contact
resistance. For extra-high voltage above 300 kV, connection fittings are intended to
reduce corona which may be a source of electromagnetic interference with nearby
connections. The major types of bus bars are shown in Table 4.7 and a preventive
maintenance schedule in Table 4.8.
The rigid bus bar has a porcelain insulator, the strain bus bar is flexible, and a
stranded conductor is used to connect between the substation metal frame structures
by suspension type insulators. Generally bus bars consist of aluminum or copper
materials. The insulated phase bus bar is surrounded by a grounded metal shield and
supported with an insulator; this approach helps in eliminating short-circuits among
adjacent phases. A sulphur hexafluoride-insulated bus bar is a big metal tube filled
with high-pressure sulphur hexafluoride gas.
4.10 Battery and Battery Charger 99
Table 4.7 Major types of bus bars

S. No. Type of bus bar Usage
1 Rigid bus bars Low, medium, and high voltage
2 Strain bus bars Mainly for high voltage
3 Insulated-phase bus bars Medium voltage
4 Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)-insulated bus Medium- and high-voltage
bars systems
Table 4.8 Preventive maintenance schedule of bus bar

conditions
Weekly Physical Visual inspection of health. All the –
Inspection joints are proper collected
Burnt mark, During visual inspection joints on Spark may be
color of bus the bus bar to be checked checked on bus bar
bar
Quarterly Earthing Meggering to be done for –
measurement measuring the connectivity between
devices
Inspection of Inspection of all jointing equipment –
joints and check joints
4.10 Battery and Battery Charger
4.10.1 Classification of Battery Types
The battery is used to transform chemical energy into electrical energy by elec-
trochemical reaction. The cell is the basic component in the battery, where cells are
connected in series or parallel to form the battery unit.
The battery and battery charger are small but important pieces of equipment in
electrical substations (Fig. 4.5). In lieu of a more reliable power supply source, a
DC supply is used in place of the normal AC supply. If there is a blackout, AC
power will not be available and the electrical protection devices will not operate. To
avoid any such situation, a DC supply is used [18]. The DC supply is provided by
the batteries and the charger is used to keep the batteries healthy by charging the
batteries in float/boost mode as required.
In a substation, the battery is commonly used to power the supply relay and
breaker tripping mechanism. These monitoring device operations are ensured by a
trustworthy battery power supply, leading to successful operation of that device.
Thus it is essential to maintain a reliable battery power supply by proper inspection
for proper operation of the monitoring device. In general terms, the capacity of a
cell/battery is the amount of charge available expressed in amp-hours.
Fig. 4.5 Battery and battery charger
Battery cell ability is estimated based on the discharge of the battery at a constant
current rate and is multiplied by the time required to reach its terminal voltage of
1.75 V. In a substation 33/11 and 66/11 kV rating system, the standard battery
voltage rating of 30, 110, or 220 volts is deployed for storage usage. Those batteries
usually have a rating of 45 Ah (min), 24 V to meet the load requirement of the
substation. Table 4.9 gives the cell voltage of different voltage level batteries and
Table 4.10 compares the different types of batteries.
The types of batteries used in distribution substations are as follows.
1. Flooded lead–acid
2. Flooded nickel–cadmium
3. AGM type lead–acid VRLA
4. Gel type lead–acid VRLA
Table 4.9 Different voltage levels of batteries

S. Nominal Nominal Float Number Permissible End of
No. voltage single cell cell of cells DC voltage discharge
rating of voltage voltage variation cell voltage
batteries (V) (V) (V) (V) (min) (V)
1. 24 1.2 1.4– 19 21.7–27 1.14
1.42
2. 30 1.2 1.4– 23 26.2–32.7 1.14
1.42
3. 110 1.2 1.4– 87 99.2–123.5 1.14
1.42
4. 220 1.2 1.4– 170 193.8– 1.14
1.42 241.4
Table 4.10 Comparison between different types of batteries

S. Flooded Lead–Acid Flooded Nickel–Cadmium VRLA batteries
No.
1. Battery technology is more An excellent battery for Low initial investment cost
reliable for motionless floating, cycling and engine
application (i.e., substation in
transmission and distribution
network)
2. Expensive Starting applications No need for spill containment
especially in extreme
temperature environments
3. Need maintenance: no good Environmental concern Smaller floor requirements
without proactive regarding cadmium toxicity
maintenance battery
performance
4. Need ventilated and High initial investment, poor Higher power density
temperature-controlled room lifecycle leads to high cost
5. Need spill containment, Ni–Cd battery works in harsh No need for separate room
occupy large footprint temperature environment and and safer for maintenance
has lesser lifecycle cost
compared to lead–acid
batteries
6. Not the best choice for – Poor lifecycle due to
distribution substations technology limitation such as
corrosion, negative
polarization, thermal
run-away, and dry out
7. – – Require
temperature-controlled
environment
8. – – Require extensive
maintenance and monitoring
9. – – Very sensitive to improper
charging
5. Nickel–cadmium VRLA
6. NB: VRLA (valve regulated lead–acid) batteries.
4.10.2 Common Causes of Fault and Best Practices

for Battery Maintenance
1. Matching the Charger to Battery Requirements: Poor battery charging

practice makes its life shorter, and as the cost of the battery is expensive it
should be preserved carefully. A good choice of charging practice will lead to
longer and healthier battery life. The conditions to be taken care of in the battery
are how many hours it should be charged, how it should be discharged, tem-
perature limits in battery operation, and the required number of cells maintained
depending on the application.
2. Constant Voltage Charging: In the battery charging process the
constant-voltage region mode is the event where the charging battery is in
constant input voltage irrespective of battery state of charge. There is more
initial current to the battery during this event because of the superior potential
difference between the battery and charger. This approach helps the battery to
charge at a faster pace.
3. Avoiding Overdischarge: When the battery is fully discharged it is removed
from the serving load; it would increase the lead–acid batteries. The typical
cutoff voltage of a lead–acid battery is 1.75 V; this voltage is a critical parameter
related to battery operating temperature and discharge rate. However, overdis-
charging may affect battery life as well as the recharging process. Also,
overdischarging may cause lead to be precipitated in the separator and cause a
short in the cell or between cells.
4. Cleaning: Cleanliness means being clean and dirt-free, which is applicable for
maintaining the long lifetime of the battery. This would reduce expenses of
battery repair due to corrosion and dirt. Generally dry dirt is deposited in the
battery during its normal operation; it may cause blow-off or explosion because
this dirt makes stay current a conductor.
5. Avoiding High Temperature: Temperature is a harmful parameter of the
battery, which is to be maintained in a low range of 55 °C. The corrosion rates,
metal component, chemical catalyst process, and self-discharges in the battery
will increase its temperature.
6. Safety Precautions: Safe precautions should be maintained in lead–acid bat-
teries because they may expel hazardous sulfuric acid; release of hydrogen and
oxygen would cause a severe explosion and may also cause generation of toxic
gases such as arsine and stibine. These problems are conquered by proper
adoption of precautions such as wearing a face mask, aprons, and gloves when
working with battery acid components. If battery acid accidentally gets into the
eyes, it is highly recommended to flush the affected area with clean water
followed by proper medical intervention.
Table 4.11 Preventative maintenance schedule of battery and battery charger

Weekly Battery voltage Battery voltage will be –
recorded for each battery set
from the corresponding charger
with switch ON battery
position
Electrolyte level Check the float level indicator If electrolyte is below the level,
top up the cell with pure
distilled water by using plastic
funnel
Exhaust fan Exhaust fans should be If any fan is out of order, it is
adequate and in running to be repaired/replaced if
condition necessary
Voltage of pilot Voltage will be recorded with Pilot cells should be selected in
cells the help of voltmeter keeping such a manner that all cells of
the flat charger in ON position the set are checked within a
week
General Battery sets, stands, and –
cleanliness general battery room is
properly clean and dry. No
extra material should be kept in
battery room
Monthly Cell voltage Voltage of all cells recorded Replacement of contact
with voltmeter keeping the
charger in ON position and in
FLOAT condition, not on
BOOST charge
Specific gravity Specific gravity measured with –
hydrometer
Ventilation plug Check that filling plugs are not –
blocked in any cell
Connection Check connections for Old jelly to be replaced after
tightness and corrosion thorough cleaning
Leakage Visually check cells for If cracks or leakage, replace
electrolyte leakage and crack cell
Indication and Check battery chargers for –
fuses healthy fuses and indications.
(1) Carry out equalizing
charging of battery. (2) Check
operation of DC emergency
light. (3) Check there is no
switch in the battery room that
can cause a spark and so on
Half-yearly Condition of cable Check sand in cable trenches Provide sand and rubber
trenches and rubber packing where packing if required
cables are passing through
trench cover
(continued)

Light and heaters Check the light and heaters Replace if damaged or
inside the charger defective
Yearly Charger Earthing connection should be –
cleanliness checked at least once a year by
Meggering the resistance level.
The same should be recorded
and preventive steps should be
taken
Condition Check all connections in the Tighten loose connections and
battery charger for tightness of provide insulation where
insulators and so on required by insulating tape
Charger Clean charger from inside with –
cleanliness vacuum cleaner to ensure
complete removal of dust,
cobwebs, and so on
Condition of Visually check physical Replace damaged insulators
insulation condition of cell stand
insulators
Condition of Check battery stands for Repair stands if necessary.
battery stands physical condition of rubber Replace damaged rubber pads/
leads, discs, rubber pads, leads, and discs required lead discs and also repaint the
pad, and so on for leveling of cells. Also check stands with acid -proof black
condition of paint paint if required
Conditions of Check physical condition of the If damaged replace the same
protective clothing apron, rubber gloves, and so on
Condition of acid - Visually check condition of Repaint if required
proof painting acid-proof paint inside battery
room
Standardization of Check hydrometer for If there is difference, replace
hydrometer standardization by comparing the hydrometer
its reading with threading of
same cell with a new/standard
hydrometer
Exhaust room Check condition of exhaust Overhaul the exhaust fans and
fans replace those defective/
damaged
Lighting in battery Check the light fittings of Replace if damaged or
room battery room defective
4.10.3 Preventive Maintenance of Battery
A preventive maintenance schedule is shown in Table 4.11.
4.11 Earth Grid and Earthing System
One of the important aspects in the operation of protective equipment is proper

earthing. Earthing is the process of increasing reliability of the power supply; it also
helps to provide a stable voltage profile and prevent voltage fluctuations during a
fault event. For an outdoor substation, a main earthing ring should be provided
around the substation which should be connected to all earth electrodes [19]. The
ring should be laid so as to have the shortest connection from transformers, circuit
breakers, and the like.
4.11.1 Types of Earthing
It can be divided into neutral and equipment earthing.

1. Neutral earthing deals with the earthing of the system being neutral to ensure
that neutral points are held at earth potential and a return path is available to the
neutral current. Points to be earthed are: the transformer neutral is to be earthed
to two separate and distinct earth electrodes interconnected with the substation
earth mat.
2. Equipment earthing deals with earthing of noncurrent-carrying parts of equip-
ment to ensure safety to personnel and protection against lightning. Points to be
earthed are: All noncurrent-carrying metallic parts of equipment, structures,
enclosures, overhead shielding wires, bushing flanges, transformer cores, cable
sheaths, earthed screens, pipes, portable appliances, fences, doors, and screens.
4.11.2 Common Earth System for Low- and High-Voltage

Systems
In a substation a common earth bus is used for both high as well as low-voltage
systems. If the low- voltage neutral is not connected to the common earth system
but has a separate earth bus, there will be a difference of potential between the high-
and low-voltage neutrals and a dangerous potential gradient across the earth surface
can exist that can endanger life [20]. With a low-resistance earth bus and the
neutrals connected to a common earth system, there will be no danger to the
Table 4.12 Preventive earth maintenance schedule

Weekly Cleaning of Earth pit needs to be cleaned –
earth pit and free from garbage
Water in earth Salt or plain water to be poured –
pit in earth pit at least once a week
Monthly Check Connectivity between earth In case of failure to get
connectivity electrode and earth grid to be the connection it has to
between checked be replaced with new
electrodes part
Physical Physical condition of earth Electrode needs to be
health check electrode has to be checked and replaced if found broken
of earth corrected if required
electrode
Half-yearly Measurement It is important to measure the –
of earth earth resistance at regular
resistance intervals. If found to be poor it
should be corrected by
replacing the same or adding
new pits
low-voltage system and keeping everything in the station at a common potential

above earth will outweigh the disadvantages. Table 4.12 gives a maintenance
schedule for the system.
1. LA Earthing: The earthing lead for any LA will not pass through any iron or
steel pipe, but will be taken as directly as possible from the LA to a separate
earth electrode interconnected with the substation earth mat. Individual earth
electrodes should be provided for each station-type lightning arrester, whereas
for a distribution type lightning arrester, one electrode may be provided for a set
of lightning arresters.
2. Coupling Capacitor Earthing: A separate earth electrode, generally a driven
rod or pipe, should be provided immediately adjacent to the structure supporting
the coupling capacitors of carrier current equipment. This earth should only be
used for high-frequency equipment.
1. Overhead Line Earthing: (i) Line conductors and insulators by ensuring the
operation of the protective control gear under such conditions; (ii) to dis-
charge lightning strikes to earth. (iii) to minimize inductive interference with
the communication circuits. One or more earth GI wires are run along the
power line (above the conductors).
References 107
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including 33 kV
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361
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No. 182
Chapter 5
and Maintenance of Transformers
5.1 Power Transformer
5.1.1 Description
The transformer (Fig. 5.1) is static and is one of the most important devices in a
power system network. It does step-up or step-down of the voltage and transfers
power from one circuit to other AC circuits without any change in frequency. The
transformer has primary and secondary windings housed in the main tank [1]. The
transformer capacity is expressed in volt–ampere (kVA or MVA).
The transformers comply with IS0: 2026; fittings and accessories comply with IS
3639. A transformer of 33/11 kV rating should have a delta star winding connec-
tion. The favored ratings for 33/11 kV transformers should be 6.3, 8, 10, 16,
20 MVA for urban areas and 1, 1.6, 3.15, 5, 6.3 MVA for rural areas. Any standard
ratings other than stated above may also be chosen depending upon technical and
economic considerations.
The transformer ventilation can be of dry type, epoxy cast dry-type, or oil-filled
depending on whether transformer installation is indoor or outdoor. The cooling
should be ONAN or ONAF. The core is usually constructed with high-grade rolled
grain-oriented steel. Transformers should withstand combined voltage, frequency,
and fluctuations without injurious heating and produce over-fluxing conditions such
as 125% for 1 min and 140% for 5 s. The tolerable increase in temperature rise of
winding and oil should be 35 and 40 °C, respectively, over an ambient temperature
of 50 °C.
The transformers should be provided with relays such as oil and gas actuated
relays connected with trip contacts and alarm, if applicable. The tap changing
switch is placed at a well-suited position for easy operation of the switch from
ground level. For locking the switch, the handle equipped with locking is set up
along with the tap position indication. For better voltage control of transformers of

110 5 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Transformers
Fig. 5.1 Power transformer
3.15 MVA and above, the tap changing device in the onload circuit should be
provided. Transformers with an onload tap changing device should have taps in
steps of 2.5% ranging from (+)5% to (−)15% voltage variation on the 33 kV
transformer winding [2].
5.1.2 Causes and Nature of Failure
In normal operation the power transformer is protected from various kinds of relays
and protective devices. However, during analysis the reasons for failure of a power
transformer mainly concentrate on the following.
• Oil degradation/leakage in the transformer tank
• Neutral shifting/disturbance due to failure of earthing or imbalance of the
phasewise current
• Internal short-circuit due to failure of insulation inside transformer
• Increase in winding temperature due to internal short-circuit
• Failure of protective devices including temperature indicator, relay settings, and
the like
• Overloading of power transformer without proper fuses/protective devices to cut
down the load
• Fluctuation of voltage at incomer side
• Loose contact between live parts of the distribution system.
5.1 Power Transformer 111
5.1.3 Primitive Maintenance of Power Transformer
Primitive maintenance to be taken depends upon the size of the transformer,

operation of the protection relay, whether tripping of the relay makes a loud noise,
smoke, or discharge of oil from the transformer, and so on. Visually inspect a
transformer’s physical condition for any type of damage to the bushings. Check the
temperature of oil and oil level in the conservator tank. Use Megger for taking
readings between the primary and secondary of the transformer and also of the
individual side of windings to earth. If everything goes right, proceed as follows.
The failure may possibly be caused by sudden and heavy overload, or
short-circuit. Check if its ampere rating is right or the fuse has dropped out; if
wrongly placed, replace by the right size and energize the transformer, after
switching off the load. If everything seems right, close the secondary circuit; if the
fuse blows up again, the fault is surely in the outgoing lines, which should be
mapped and rectified if possible. On the other hand, if the primary circuit fuse
blows up, even when the load is not connected, an internal fault is indicated. This
condition also applies, but only if an overcurrent relay has operated and tripped the
circuit breaker.
When a transformer is first switched on and if a differential relay operates, it may
be due to a switching surge. Check the harmonic control circuit and settings.
However, if the relay operates when the transformer is in operation, it is surely
because of an internal fault.
Any kind of tripping of the Buchholz relay requires careful examination. If the
upper assembly of the relay has operated due to slow evolution of gas it is necessary
to find its composition before jumping to conclusions. If, on the other hand, the
lower relay assembly has tripped due to sudden release of a large quantity of gas, a
major internal fault is to be surmised especially if differential or overcurrent or earth
fault relay has operated. If it is only air, there is no reason for worry, as air can enter
the transformer in many ways.
Thorough checking is necessary if there is an evolution of smoke or oil, or the
earth fault relay has tripped or not, and also PRV has operated in the case of a large
transformer. In such cases, reclosing the circuit breaker should not be permitted as it
may cause further damage. Detailed testing of the transformer is to be carried out
and the results compared with test certificate figures and the manufacturer con-
sulted. In most cases, the cause of the fault can be found if the condition of the
windings is carefully observed by lifting the core and coil assembly. The following
explanations will help to detect the cause.
Lightning discharge or overvoltage: The occurrence of breakdown happens at
the coil end turn near the line terminal. Also it has the possibility of appearing as a
breakdown or flashing in the turn of the oil or lead end terminal and close-earthed
part whereas the rest of the coil is healthy.
Sustained overloads: The sign of excessive heating present in one of the
windings or all the phases would lead to weak insulation and it may lose its physical
property.
Interturn short: As in sustained overloads similar signs can be observed, but

this would appear on only one coil and rest is integral.
Dead short-circuit: The wrong coil displacement is distinguished in the dead
short-circuit. The coil is twisted in loose fashion and also may cause an explosion
under tension conditions.
5.1.4 Visual Checking of Transformer
• Check the silica gel color. If it is pink, reactivate or replace it. Also ensure
proper quantity of oil in breather oil cup.
• Check oil level in conservator of main tank and OLTC. It should be >½ level
marking.
• Check oil level in bushings.
• Check for any oil leakage and arrest if any.
• Check the working of Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI) and Winding
Temperature Indicator (WTI) by taking hourly temperature readings. There
should be changes in readings as per loading of transformer and atmospheric
conditions.
• Check the cooling system by manually operating fans/pumps.
• Check the tap position of remote tap changer control (RTCC) and on-load tap
changer (OLTC) panels. It should have the same position number.
• Check the humming noise and vibration of the transformer. If any abnormality is
found, it is to be referred to the manufacturer concerned.
5.1.5 Preventive Maintenance Schedule of Power

Transformer
The following three factors directly affect the life of the distribution transformer.
Excess heat: Excess heat, on account of overloading, loose connections, low oil
level, blocking in oil circulation, and so on.
Moisture: The oil dielectric strength is reduced once moisture enters the
transformer through the breather and contaminates the transformer oil.
Oxygen in the air: It oxidizes the oil to form sludge and acids that attack the
insulation and make it brittle; it corrodes the surface of the inner and conservator
tanks.
Maintenance work on the distribution transformer is intended to take care of the
above three factors. The periodic maintenance checks to be carried out are given in
Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Condition monitoring of transformer

S. Components Test results Condition evaluation Remarks and required
No. action
1. Paper • Recovery voltage Whether paper The following test will
insulation on meter (moisture insulation is dry or detect whether drying
windings content) wet out is necessary
• Tan-delta value Internal checkup is
• DGA (violation of required or not
standard value of
different gases)
• Insulation resistance
value
• Furan content
2. Transformer • DGA test Quality of oil is good If it is bad, then
oil • Moisture content in or not replacement is
oil required
• Color
3. Winding FRA test vibration to Mechanical integrity Any repair is possible
mechanical be assessed of winding is or not
integrity satisfactory. Clamping
pressure and core
tightness of winding is
normal or not
4. Transformer • DGA test Transformer core, core Any repair or
core • FRA test insulation, and core replacement is
• Vibration assessment tightness are good or required or not
ratio test not
5. Bushings • HV bushing Whether the bushings If not healthy,
tan-delta value are healthy or not capacitance and tan
• LV bushing tan-delta delta test is to be
value performed again using
the automatic test kit
6. OLTC • Winding resistance Whether it is healthy If found unhealthy.
at each tap or not this is to be repaired
• Ratio test for rectification
• Oil color check
• Operation check
7. Other • PRD fine and fit All are healthy or not If radiator bank is not
components • OTI or WTI fine in good shape, it is
calibration better to replace the
• Radiator banks: no bank. If PRD is not
blocking, multiple found healthy,
point leakages modified kit is to be
• Buchholz: healthy put on PRD to avert
• Values: healthy, no possible false tripping
leakages due to ingress of
moisture
(continued)

S. Components Test results Condition evaluation Remarks and required
No. action
• Main gasket of Damaged gaskets and
transformer: in good cracked cables are
shape usually replaced with
• Gasket of MBS: in the new one
bad shape
• Turrets: healthy
• Cabling: some cables
are cracked
8. General • Painting: check for Whether the general The unsatisfactory
appearance repainting appearance is good cases are to be
• Oil leakages: check reanalyzed
for multiple leakage
• Terminal
connection:
analyzed by
thermovision
scanning All
foundations are
checked properly.
Analysis is also done
to check if there are
any requirements for
oil pit cleaning
5.1.6 Predictive Maintenance
Buchholz Relay: This relay is designed to detect a transformer internal fault in the
initial stage to avoid major breakdown. An internal fault in the transformer gen-
erates gases by decomposition of oil due to heat and spark inside the tank. These
gases pass towards the conservator tank, trapped in relay, and thereby causing the
oil level to fall. The upper float rotates and the switches’ contacts close, thereby
giving an alarm signal. In the case of a serious fault, there is more gas generation,
which causes operation of the lower float and trips the circuit breaker. The gas can
be collected from a small valve fitted at the top of the relay for dissolved gas
analysis (DGA).
Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA): The transformer, in operation, is subjected to
various thermal and electrical stresses, resulting in liberation of gases from the oil
used as insulation media and coolant. The solid insulating materials such as paper,
wooden support, and pressboard cause degradation and form different gases, which
are dissolved in the oil. The most significant gases generated are hydrogen (H2),
methane (CH4), ethylene (C2H4), acetylene (C2H2), propane (C3H8), propylene
(C3H6), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and ethane (C2H6). The gas
connected in the relay will help to identify the nature of the fault. The greater the
rate of gas collection, the more severe is the nature of the developing fault.
5.1.7 Condition Monitoring of Transformer
Based on the assessment of various test results, the health of the various compo-
nents is encapsulated as shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.2.
5.2 Distribution Transformer
5.2.1 Description
The transformer should be in conformance with IS-1180, IS 2026, and IS-11171.

Distribution transformers can be 33/0.4 kV, 22/0.4 kV, or 11/0.4 kV. The 33/
0.4 kV distribution transformers generally have standard ratings of 500, 630, 1000,
1250, 1600, or 2000 kVA depending on necessities. In rural and urban areas where
the population is not large lower rating transformers can be employed [3]. The usual
standard ratings of 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers are given as 6.3, 10, 16, 25,
50, 63, 100, 250, 315, 400, 500, 630, and 1000 kVA.
The efficiency of 11/0.4 kV distribution transformers of 100 kVA and below
should not be less than 98% at both 50 and 100% loading. The efficiency of 11/
0.4 kV distribution transformers above 100 kVA should not be less than 98.8% at
both 50 and 100% loading. The efficiency of 33/0.4 kV distribution transformers
should not be less than 99% at both 50 and 100% loading.
The transformer can be classified as oil-filled or dry-type based on the
requirements. Materials such as high-grade cold rolled grain-oriented (CRGO) steel
and amorphous material are employed in the construction of energy-efficient and
energy-saving types of instruments. The scrap CRGO materials are not incorporated
in the construction of the transformer. Low-capacity transformers of rating
100 kVA and less should normally be used. The higher capacity transformers of
rating larger than 100 kVA should be used where there are space constraints such as
concentrated loads or areas with a high density of load.
Table 5.2 Gas color for finding affected material

S. No. Color Identification
1. White Decomposed paper and cloth insulation
2. Yellow Decomposed wood insulation
3. Grey Overheated oil due to burning of iron portion
4. Black Decomposed oil due to electric arc
Table 5.3 Interpretation of the faults according to the observed ratios of gases
S. Characteristic Ration code Diagnosis
No. Fault C2H2/ CH4/ C2H4/
C2H4 H2 C2H6
1. No fault 0 0 0 Regular ageing
2. Partial discharge 0 1 0 Discharge in gas-filled cavities due to
of low-energy incomplete impregnation
density gas
3. Partial discharge 1 1 0 As above but leading to tracking or
of high-energy perforation of solid insulation
density gas
4. Discharge of 1–2 0 1–2 • Continued sparking in oil between bad
low-energy gas connections of different potential or to
floating potential
• Breakdown of solid material
5. Discharge of 1 0 2 Discharge of power followthrough arcing.
high-energy gas Breakdown of oil between winding or
between coil to earth
6. Thermal fault of 0 0 1 General insulated conductor overheating
low temp less than
150 °C
7. Thermal fault temp 0 2 0 Flux influence causes overheating of core,
150–300 °C increases hot spot; pyrolitic carbon
8. Thermal fault temp 0 2 1 deposition makes joints bad contacts and
300–700 °C circulation of current over tanks
9. Thermal fault 0 2 2
>700 °C
Depending on the type of supply transformer there can be three phases or a

single phase. The ONAN cooling method is used for oil-filled transformers. Based
upon technical and economic considerations, any standard rating other than the
above could also be chosen.
Faults are shown in Table 5.3.
5.2.2 Transformer Maintenance Management
The major types of fault causing transformer failure are as follows.

• Insulation failure
• Design/material/workmanship
• Oil contamination
• Overloading
• Line surge
• Improper maintenance/operation
5.2 Distribution Transformer 117
• Loose connection
• Lightning/flood
• Moisture.
5.2.3 Causes of Failure of Distribution Transformers
Table 5.4 lists some of the causes of failures of transformers in service and probable
corrective measures have been highlighted to reduce the rate of failure, which are
primitive alarming signals in current modern-day distribution transformer networks
across the country [4, 5].
Table 5.4 Causes of DT failure

S. No. Reason on account of Probable cause Preventive action
user
1. Prolonged overloading Selection of higher rating • Frequent measurement
fuses of peak load currents
through tongue tester
and fixing the correct
rating of fuses on both
HT and LT side. If
overloading is 20%
during peak load and
persistence, then
propose new
transformer/
augmentation
• Use correct size of fuse
wire. Utilities should
make the fuse wires
available. Avoid using
two wires in the fuse
2. Unbalanced loading Single-phase loading or • Avoid single-phase
additional heat on loading and unbalanced
account of unbalanced loading of distribution
current center. Measure and
record the neutral
current at regular
intervals in distribution
center history card
• If neutral current
exceeds 10% of load
current, remedial
measures should be
taken to bring the
neutral current down to
within acceptable limits
(continued)

S. No. Reason on account of Probable cause Preventive action
user
3. Faulty terminations Once spark strikes the Use proper termination
cable terminal because of connectors at both HV
loose connections it and LV sides by bimetal
causes damage to busing strips per ISS and REC
sealing gaskets resulting standards
in oil leakage on bushing
top and causing failure of
distribution transformer
due to low oil level
4. Power theft and Results in overload/ • Meter the DTC to
hooking unbalanced load and may identify the pilferage
cause failure in due • Regular energy audits,
course surprise raids, use of
ABC conductor
5. Wrong earth High resistance will Solid earth is extremely
connections delay fault clearance essential. Earth at two
diagonally opposite
points of tank. Ensure
that nut bolts are not
painted at earthing
6. Prolong short-circuit If the fault persists for Necessary protection
longer duration will devices may be installed
result in melting, brazing, properly such as OCB on
or brining of winding HV and ACB on LV
side; appropriate rating of
HRC fuses for small
transformers
7. Less or no maintenance – Line workers should
prepare their own
maintenance charts as per
the criticality (i.e.,
transformer rating,
connected loads, type of
installation, and place)
8. Poor quality of LT PVC insulation causing –
cables and hanging dead short-circuit in the
against the terminal transformer. Also, its
bushings without any weight pulls the terminal
support down which may affect
the leakage oil from the
sealing gaskets of the
bushing
9. Improper installation of No adequate clearance, Necessary precaution
distribution center missing breather, tree during replacement/
branches near terminals, installation of
explosion vent transformer
diaphragm, dielectric oil
value of oil, and so on
5.2 Distribution Transformer 119
5.2.4 Preventive Maintenance Schedule
The schedule is shown in Table 5.5.
Table 5.5 Transfer maintenance schedule

S. No. Inspection Items to be Inspection checkpoint Action required for
conditions
1. Monthly • Ambient • Note ambient –
temperature temperature regularly
• Oil level in • Check against • If transformer oil
transformer transformer oil level level is low refill
the oil and
examine
transformer
• Relief • Check physical • Replace if cracked
diaphragm condition or broken
• Dehydrating • Check that air passages • If silica gel is pink,
breather are free. Check color change by share
of active agent change. The old
gel may be
reactivated for
reuse
2. Quarterly • Bushing • Examine for cracks • Clean and replace
and dirt deposits
• Load • Check against rated • Shut down the
(amp) and figures transformer and
voltage investigate if
current and voltage
are higher than the
normal value
• Oil and • Check temperature rise • Shut down the
winding is reasonable transformer and
temperature investigate if the
temperature is
higher than the
normal value
• Oil in • Check for dielectric • Take suitable
transformer strength and water action
content
• Cooler fan • Lubricate bearing. • Replace burnt or
bearings, Check gear boxes. worn contact or
motors, and Examine contacts. other parts
operating Check manual control
mechanism and interlocks
• OLTC • Check oil in OLTC –
driving mechanism
(continued)

S. No. Inspection Items to be Inspection checkpoint Action required for
conditions
3. Half-yearly • Earth • Measure earth • Replace with new
resistance resistance and record earthing
• IR value of • Measure insulation • Change lightning
lightning resistance of lightning arresters
arrester arrester immediately
4. Yearly • Oil in • Check for acidity and • Filter or replace
transformer sludge
• Oil-filled • Test oil • Filter or replace
bushing
• Gasket – • Tighten bolts
joints evenly to avoid
uneven pressure
• Cable boxes • Check for sealing • Replace gasket, if
arrangements for leaking
filling holes
• Surge • Examine for cracks • Clean and replace
diverter and and dirt deposits
gaps
• Relay, • Examine relays and • Clean the
alarms, and alarm contacts, their component and
control operation, fuse, and so replace contracts
circuits on. Test relays and fuses if
required
• AB switch • Check the operation of • Grease and check
AB switch the operation
5. Two yearly Sampling and Take the sample and test Replace transformer
testing of for dielectric strength oil
acidity of oil
6. Three Filtering of Take the sample and test Replace transformer
yearly oil (Class B for dielectric strength oil
or mixture of
Class A and
B)
7. Five yearly Overhaul of Replacement every
transformer fifth year
5.3 Operation and Maintenance of Transformers

and Reactors
5.3.1 Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors
Power transformers and reactors are critical components of the modern electrical
power system. To provide reliable, extensive, and continuous services, it is very
crucial that regular operation and maintenance of transformers/reactors and their
5.3 Operation and Maintenance of Transformers and Reactors 121
parts are well planned and carried out. The frequency of O&M is dependent on
environment, climate, service condition, and so on. A rigid preventive maintenance
ensures the long life of transformers/reactors, as well as trouble-free service and low
maintenance cost [6]. Table 5.6 lists the maintenance schedule of transformers/
reactors and maintenance consists of regular inspection, testing, and reconditioning
where necessary.
Table 5.6 Recommended maintenance schedule for transformers

S. Inspection Items to be inspected Action required in case of
No. frequency undesired condition
1 Hourly • Ambient temperature • To be compared with designed
• Winding temperature value
• Oil temperature • Refer to OEM in case of
• Load (amperes) violation persistently higher
• Voltage than normal
• Tap position of tap changed
2 Monthly • Oil level in bushing, • Bushing needs to be replaced in
conservator, and OLTC case of oil leak to avoid any
conservator failure. In case of low oil level
• Manual starting of oil pumps in main conservator or OLTC
and fans conservator, top up with dry oil
• Checking of oil leak at the earliest opportunity
• Oil level in breather oil seal cup • In the case of oil leak, check
• Condition of silica gel tightness of bolts, cracks, and
• Changeover of supply in MB (to damage to oil sealing gaskets.
be checked manually if two In the case of a damaged gasket,
parallel AC supplies are gasket needs to be replaced
provided for auxiliary) • Regenerate or replace the silica
gel if it is saturated/moist
3 Half- • Dissolved gas analysis of oil • In case of violation of fault
Yearly • Oil parameter for BDV, PPM, gases or oil parameter beyond
tan-delta, resistivity, IFT the specified limit, monitoring
• Operational checks on OLTC in schedule can be changed in
charged but offload condition consultation with OEM or
for all tap positions based on the criticality of the
transformer/reactor
4 Yearly • Auto starting of fan and pumps • If any problem is encountered in
• Measurement of BDV of OLTC OLTC such as OLTC balancing,
oil problem in driving mechanism,
• External cleaning of radiators, same needs to be rectified per
bushings, Buchholz, and gas the procedure or as
collecting device, and so on recommended by OEM
• Maintenance of OLTC, driving
mechanism, transformer MB
• Online moisture measurement
• Rust, damage, and repairing
(if required)
• Core insulation test
• Bushing capacitance and
tan-delta
(continued)

S. Inspection Items to be inspected Action required in case of
No. frequency undesired condition
5 Two • OTI and WTI setting checks –
yearly • Alarm and trip test of WTI,OTI,
PRD, Buchholz, MOG, and
SPR
• Earth pit resistance
6 Four • Winding capacitance and
yearly tan-delta
• Calibration of OTI and WTI
7 Ten yearly • OLTC overhauling
8 SOS All LV tests including Test results to be compared with
• Winding resistance test/results of transformer before
measurement of winding its commissioning. Previous
• Magnetic balance test results to be used in case of major
• Magnetizing current test deviation
• Voltage ratio at all taps
• Frequency response analysis
• Measurement of PI and DAI
• Short-circuit impedance test
• NGR winding and bushing
capacitance and tan-delta
• Vibration measurement for
reactors
• Furan measurement
9 25 Years • Residual life assessment of –
transformer/reactor
5.3.2 Testing of Transformers/Reactors
Testing is shown in Table 5.7.
5.3.3 General Maintenance of Transformer/Reactor

Accessories
Silica Gel Breather Check: Breathers should be examined to ascertain if the silica
gel requires changing. For better results it is advised to change the silica gel when
half to two-thirds of the silica gel has become saturated [7]. The silica gel can be
collapsed into a shallow tray or reactivated at the same time as in its charge con-
tainer. Heating of the gel should be done in a well-ventilated oven at 110–130 °C for
8 to 10 h or 150–200 °C for 2 to 3 h and can be used again. Saturation of silica gel
charge must occur from the bottom. In the case of silica gel desiccant saturated from
Table 5.7 Transformer/reactor health

S. No. Name of test/checkpoint Purpose of test/check
1. Core insulation tests Allows for investigating accidental grounds that
result in circulating currents if there is more than
one connection between the core and ground
2. Earth pit resistance To check the resistance of earth pit provided for
measurement transformer. Proper treatment is to be given if the
resistance of earth is more
3. Insulation resistance Test result shows insulation strength, degree of
(IR) measurement paper insulation degradation, chemical adulteration
in the oil, and damage inside the transformer tank
4. Capacitance and tan-delta Measurement of C1 and C2 capacitance and
measurement of bushings tan-delta in UST mode. Any change in value of
normal insulator capacitance indicates nonstandard
conditions such as open circuits or short-circuits in
the capacitance network, presence of moisture layer
5. Capacitance and tan-delta With the measurement of loss/dissipation factor
measurement of windings and capacitance of winding the usual condition of
the ground and interwinding insulation can be
detected
6. Turns ratio (voltage ratio) Measurement used to recognize any abnormal
measurement conditions in tapping changer or in shorted or open
turns and so on
7. Vector group and polarity To determine the phase relationship and polarity of
transformers
8. Magnetic balance test This test confirms any sort of variance in the
magnetic circuit and is applicable only on
three-phase transformers
9. Floating neutral point This test is conducted to ascertain possibility of
measurement short-circuit in a winding
10. Measurement of This test is used to identify winding movement that
short-circuit impedance usually occurs due to heavy fault current or
mechanical damage during transportation or
installation since dispatch from the factory
11. Exciting/magnetizing Measurement used for shifting of windings,
current measurement locating any fault in magnetic core structure,
problems in tap changers, or failures in turn-to-turn
insulation
12. Operational checks on To ensure smooth and trouble-free operation of
OLTCs OLTC
13. Tests/checks on bushing To ascertain the health of bushing current
current transformers (BCTs) transformer at the time of erection
14. Operational checks on Operational checks on cooler bank (pumps and
protection system fans), breathers (silica-gel or drycol), MOG,
temperature gauges (WTI/OTI), gas actuated relays
(Buchholz, PRD, SPR, etc.), and simulation test of
protection system
(continued)

S. No. Name of test/checkpoint Purpose of test/check
15. Stability of differential, REF This test is performed to check the proper operation
of transformer/reactor of differential and REF protection of transformer
and reactor by simulating actual conditions. Any
problem in CT connection, wrong cabling, or relay
setting can be detected by this test
16. Frequency response Before commissioning, this test is required to make
Analysis sure the transformer’s active part has not suffered
(FRA) measurement any severe impact/twitch during transport of
transformer
17. Winding resistance To verify any broken strings and high contact
measurement resistance, loose connections in tapping change
devices
18. Vibration test (for reactors To check any abnormal vibration of shunt reactor
only) during operation
19. Dissolved gas analysis Oil sample for DGA to be drawn from transformer
(DGA) of oil sample main tank before commissioning for base data and
after 24 h of charging subsequently to ensure no
fault gas developed after first charging. DGA of oil
sample helps in concluding the generation of gas
and materials involved in the urgency of righteous
measures to be taken by the operator
the top, proper tightening of the breather to the connecting pipe and condition of
gasket is to be ensured.
Visual Check for Conservator’s Oil Level: The transformer conservator
consists of a magnetic oil-level gauge (MOG); each transformer conservator of the
main tank is fitted with one MOG to indicate when the oil inside the conservator
tank reaches minimum or maximum. The MOG dial has a scale from empty to full;
it also has some intermediate divisions such as 1/4, 1/1, and 3/4. During full load
condition, the temperature of the insulating oil increases accordingly, insulating
expanded oil and the oil level goes up. After the full load, when the transformer
load decreases the oil temperature reduces in turn reducing the volume of oil. But it
is very essential to maintain the minimum oil level in the transformer conservator
tank even at the lowest possible temperature. The entire transformer top of the
conservator tank is fitted with a MOG. A lightweight hollow ball is floated on the
insulation oil inside the conservator tank. The float arm is attached with bevel gear
and the float goes up and down depending upon the oil level and consequently the
float arm alignment changes. The MOG is float operated through the tank wall with
the magnetically coupled float mechanism to the dial indicator. The float rotates a
magnet inside the tank as the level increases beyond a certain level with the increase
in level. The oil level indicated by the MOG and top oil temperature should be
observed. The top oil temperature reading should be used to correct the oil-level
gauge reading. The corrected oil level should be in the position corresponding to
normal as mentioned in the OEM instruction manual (35 °C) range. If the level of
oil is standard, there is no need to take extra action, but adding the oil and removal
of oil from the conservator tank should be done if it is below or above the normal
level, respectively.
Checks on Temperature Gauges: Oil temperature and hotspot temperature
gauges are important for proper operation of the transformer. These gauges not only
indicate temperature but also operate the fans and coolers by means of microswitches
(mercury) that can be adjusted for various temperature settings. These gauges should
be calibrated on a regular basis onsite with portable devices or in the laboratory.
Winding Temperature Indicator (WTI) Test: WTI is used to indicate the
temperature of the winding based on the manufacturer heat run test. It does not have
the temperature-sensing device which is fixed in the winding hotspot; as it gives
only an approximate value of the temperature of the hotspot winding, it should not
be an accurate value. But it can be used to activate the cooling system as well as the
top oil thermometer. Winding temperature thermometers are placed near the top of
the tank; it is similar to topping the oil thermometer which has a separate ther-
mometer well without the bulb [8].
A wire is wrapped between the thermometer and temperature-sensitive bulb or a
heater coil can be inserted into the thermometer in same way. A current transformer
(CT) as in certain transformers has three leads of windings and gives current in
proportion to the winding current directly to the heater coil. In other transformers,
the CT gives current to the heater coil via an autotransformer. The bulb is slightly
heated by the heater and the temperature is shown at the indicating dial although the
value shown is not the true temperature of the hottest spot. Based on measured
temperature rises, or data from tests of a thermally duplicate transformer, bias
current to the heating coil of the winding temperature indicator is factory adjusted to
simulate the same gradient in degrees Celsius over the top oil rise as will be
experienced by the hottest spot in the transformer windings. The manufacturer
makes adjustments in these devices by altering the taps on the autotransformer or
CT, or by altering the calibration resistors in the control cabinet.
WTI normally cannot be field tested or calibrated other than testing the ther-
mometer. Current in the heater circuit is adjusted by the transformer manufacturer;
the magnitude of this current should be known to allow calibration of the unit to be
verified. The calibration resisters can be adjusted in the field if the calibration
curves of the heater current versus hottest spot gradient for the transformer available
with the manufacturer are provided to user.
5.3.4 Cooler Control Setting, Alarm, and Trip Test
• Make sure transformer equipment is isolated, properly de-energized, and

earthed.
• Temperature setting should be per standards. Only indicative values are fur-
nished below. These values are to be taken seriously and confirmed with the
instruction manual provided by the manufacturer.
• Use the local winding temperature indicator and move its pointer slowly to the
first level of cooling value (say 65 °C).
• The cooler’s fans which are set to the first level need to be checked in operation.
• Continue rotating the pointer to the second level cooling value (say 80 °C).
• Fans/pumps of those coolers which are set to the second stage need to be
checked in operation.
• Continue rotating the pointer to the alarm preset value (say 100 °C).
• Check the alarm signal received in the control room is trustworthy.
• Set the tripping value (say 110 °C) by changing the indicating pointer.
• Whether trip signal has been received in the control room should be checked.
5.3.5 Calibration of the Winding Temperature Indicator
• The winding temperature indicator bulb needs to be removed from the trans-
former pocket placed in the tank cover.
• The bulb is inserted into a calibrated temperature-controlled bath.
• The temperature of the bath is raised in 5 °C steps and the response of the
winding temperature indicator verified in a 10-min cycle up to a maximum
temperature of 130 °C. The tolerance for the temperature indication is ±3 °C.
• Now the temperature of the bath is lowered by 5 °C steps and the response of
the winding temperature indicator in the 10-min cycle is checked. In parallel
verify the transducer output; the allowable tolerance limit is ±3 °C.
• Verify alarm and trip switch configuration by changing pointer to set temper-
ature. Use a multimeter to indicate these settings and record the operational
values.
• After completing return the bulb to the pocket in the transformer cover. Care
should be taken for matching levels between temperature indicator and pointer.
5.3.6 Secondary Injection Tests
ONAN Rating
• Validate isolated cooler supply is in switched OFF state.
• Keeping constant temperature of 50 °C, change the winding temperature indi-
cator bulb in the calibrated temperature-controlled bath.
• The rated current is injected into the winding terminal, a temperature indicator
test kit is used for verification, and the result noted where the obtained result is
same as the ONAN rating.
OFAF Rating
• A running pump is required to carry out these tests.
• Set the cooler isolator at ON position.
• Set the cooler switch to fans and pumps position.
• Ensure that pump is running.
• Turn on the heater coil and check the gradient for OFAF rating.
• Disconnect and set the cooler control switch to AUTO.
5.3.7 Oil Temperature Indicator (OTI) Tests
The thermometer consists of a cylindrical sensing body with a flange, capillary

tube, and thermometer housing with dial and contact device. The measuring system
is filled with a liquid that changes its volume at temperature variations and affects
springy bellows [9]. The movements of the bellows are transferred to the pointer
and signal contacts via a link system. The thermometer is provided with four
microswitch-type signal contacts. The contacts can be set independently of each
other. As to control and adjustment of the thermometer, see the instruction manual
supplied by the manufacturer. This manual also gives settings recommended for the
signal and start of the cooling equipment, respectively.
(a) Calibration of Top Oil Temperature Gauge
• Remove the OTI bulb and insert calibrated temperature-controlled oil bath
from the pocket on the transformer lid.
• Increase the temperature of the oil from 0 to 120 °C step by step; increases
in temperature should preferably be 5 °C or 10 °C intervals. Note the OTI,
reading again the oil temperature range with tolerance ±3 °C.
• Note the oil temperature and instruct the alarm indicator (i.e., 95 °C) and the
trip value pointer to 110 °C and check if they are operating using a multi-
meter across the said switches.
Interpretation: If the temperature difference between the reference temperature
and dial indicator is more than 5 °C, it is suggested that it should be replaced with a
healthy one. If it is impossible to replace the temperature gauge with a new one, or
send the gauge for repair, put a temperature adjustment factor on the gauge to
correct the error (addition or subtraction to the dial reading) to get the correct
temperature reading.
Once the alarm lower turning on the settings of pump by the same correction
factor mentioned above. These are pressurized systems and if out of calibration the
indicator will read low. During field testing of the RLA it was observed that some
of these gauges read 10–15 °C lower than normal temperature. The transformer gets
in dangerous conditions as it allows continuous running in hotter than intended
temperatures due to late activation of alarms and cooling. Transformer life may be
shortened to failure if the thermometers are not properly tested and errors are
corrected.
Checks on Gas Pressure Relay
There are two types of gas pressure relays commonly used in the transformer/
reactor. The most common type is mounted under the oil and a similar type is
mounted in the gas space. Internal arcing in liquid-filled electrical power equipment
produces extreme gas pressure; it can severely damage the transformer and also
pose severe danger to line personnel. The gas pressure relay is used to reduce the
degree of damage by quickly activating the transformer protection system. The
manufacturer’s recommendations should be referred to for adjustment, repair, or
replacement of an improperly operating device.
Pressure Relief Devices (PRDs): After the pressure release, the PRDs are
spring-loaded valves that automatically reclose. When the PRD does not operate
properly, the pressure inside the transformer is not relieved adequately. As a result,
within a few seconds catastrophic rupturing of the tank occurs, spreading flaming
oil over a wide area. Once a year, or as soon as possible after the internal fault,
inspect PRDs and test the working condition. Switch the alarm circuits ON and
make sure whether the correct communication point is activated.
Note: During operation if the PRD operates, then do not try to re-energize the
transformer. All LV tests may be required to be carried out before re-energization
and the oil sample sent for testing at DGA.
Sudden Pressure Relays (SPRs): A sudden pressure increase by arcing can be
detected by SPR. The operating time is very fast and designed to operate before the
PRD operation. Pressure is exerted at the bottom of the transformer tank; when a
sudden excessive pressure develops this would move the spring operating pin. This
operates like a switch generating further alarms and a breaker trip signal is gen-
erated. Once the relay responds successfully, the relay cap must be detached and the
switch reset to normal by resetting the button.
Note: If this relay operates, then do not try re-energizing the transformer until the
exact cause of operation is determined and corrective action taken.
5.3.8 Checks on Buchholz Relay
(a) Alarm Checks

• Connect the tubes of the “bomb” to the copper pipe from the relay test cock
(top of the relay) and foot pump.
• Charge the Buchholz pressure bottle with the foot pump to a pressure of
4 bar (60 psi). Measure the volume of gas trapped inside the window and
mark.
• Keep the valve on the tank side closed. Open the relay test cock.
Alternatively open the drain valve/plug of the relay.
• Very slowly release the valve of the Buchholz pressure bottle to allow air
into the relay.
• Check the control room to ensure that the gas alarm has indicated once a
sufficient amount of air has entered the relay.
• Check for correct operation using a multimeter (continuity of alarm con-
tacts) connected across the alarm contacts in the relay.
• Close the relay test cock. Close the valve on the Buchholz pressure bottle.
• Vent all air from the gas and oil relay; close when a steady stream of oil is
discharged into the bucket.
(b) Trip Check
• Charge the Buchholz pressure bottle to a pressure of 2 bar (30 psi).
• Keep the valve on the tank side closed.
• Open the relay test cock.
• Open the drain valve/plug of the relay.
• Quickly open the valve on the Buchholz pressure bottle to allow a full surge
of air to enter the relay.
• Check the control room to ensure the surge trip relay flag has operated.
• Check correct operation of relay trip switch contacts using a multimeter
(continuity of trip contacts) connected across the trip terminals.
(c) Gas and Oil Relay Surge at Pump Activation
Check the status and conditions of the alarm and trip contacts of the Buchholz relay
as soon as the oil pump starts. This check is carried out manually and automatically
so that any spurious alarms and trips do not result in a faulty condition.
(d) Results
If the relay operates correctly close the bomb valve, disconnect from copper pipe
work, and vent all air from the relay petcock. If the relay fails to operate repeat the
alarm check at successive incremental pressures of 0.25 bar (3.5 psi) up to 4 bar
(60 psi) until the relay operates. Operating pressure is to be recorded.
If the relay fails to operate, isolate the relay from the expansion vessel and the
tank using the valve (see the concerned valve on the general arrangement drawing).
Drain the oil from the relay mechanism.
Blank off each open flange while investigating the relay fault to ensure that no
contamination enters the system. If the switches in the relay are faulty replace them.
Alternatively, if the relay mechanism is faulty replace that. Refit the relay into the
pipe work using new gasket material. Vent all air from the relay. Open the relay test
petcock and vent all air from the system after completion of test.
5.3.9 Checks on Cooling System
Large power transformers are fitted with some type of cooling system. Cooling
systems generally consist of combinations of radiators, pumps, and fans. The
cooling surfaces should be inspected regularly and cleaned of foreign particulates.
This is especially important in the case of fan cooling. The cleaning should be
performed with high-pressure water flushing and proper safety measures such as by
covering the fan motor, so that the high-pressure water does not enter it [10].
During flushing, it is likely that the radiator fins get bent. They should be
straightened immediately after cleaning. Finally dry cloth and cleaning solutions are
used in the cleaning process. Normally, no measures are necessary for keeping the
internal cooling surfaces clean as long as the oil is in good condition. If, however,
sludge formation has set in, the sludge may deposit on horizontal surfaces in
radiators and coolers. If that occurs, the radiators and coolers should be internally
flushed by new clean oil in connection with the oil exchange.
The cooler bank should be inspected regularly. Cleaning of coolers is carried out
by pulling off the tube packets and making them accessible for cleaning. This
activity is to be carried out in consultation with the manufacturer. Generally all the
fan motors have permanent lubrication in their bearings and also have dual sealing
rings. The motor bearings are axially clamped with spring washers. If the noise
level of the fan increases, all mounting supports should first be retightened.
5.3.10 Cooling System—Fans
(a) Visual inspection should be done when the transfer is onload to ensure fans are
operated at the rated speed and their airways are not barren, thus saving the
blades from damage. Any fan that is running at less than its design speed will
be obvious to the naked eye. For more precise measurements, a tachometer may
be used.
(b) The rotation of the fan blades should be observed to ensure that the air flow is
in the proper direction for the type of device involved. The observation may be
facilitated if it is performed at a lower than normal speed either during startup
or immediately after switching off. Corrections to rotation should be made as
indicated by inspection.
(c) All fans that are not running at design speed should be replaced.
After stopping fans, any obstructions to air flow should be removed and any
damaged fan guards or blades should be replaced or repaired.
(d) If the motor is fitted with heaters they should be switched on whenever the
motor is standing. Check for buildup of moisture in the motor. Drain holes are
provided at the lowest part of the motor and are fitted with plugs on totally
enclosed motors (wherever applicable). These plugs should be removed to
allow any moisture to drain away.
(e) Regular greasing of the bearings should be carried out and as a general guide,
one or two shots from a grease gun should be sufficient at intervals of 1000
running hours. It will only be necessary to maintain the grease in the bearings.
(f) It is recommended that at least every two years the bearings and housings be
flushed out in white spirit and inspected for wear. Worn parts should be
replaced where necessary and repacked with grease.
Cooling Fan Controls: The cooling fan manual and automatic control system
can be operated; however, automatic operation is associated with the load and
energization.
Manual Control: This turns ON for a brief period to ensure that each stage has
sufficient voltage to operate. Fan operation should be observed and the oil pumps’
operation and their flow gauges checked. Refer to the manufacturers’ recommen-
dations for any malfunctions.
Temperature Control: Remove the temperature bulb from its well on the top of
the transformer; put the master control in automatic position. Using a calibration
instrument slowly raise the temperature of the bulb and observe for proper
calibration/operation.
Load Control: Verify the CT controlling secondary current operation. Remove
the secondary lead after shorting out the CT secondary (if the transformer is
energized); further current should then be injected in the control circuit and its level
varied to observe proper operation.
Caution: Extreme care should be observed when performing operations with the
secondary of an energized CT; otherwise if the CT secondary is left open by
mistake, catastrophic results may occur without warning.
5.3.11 Cooling System—Pumps
(a) Cooling pumps are generally centrifugal-type pumps and as such will pump
some oil regardless of their direction. The pump has a direction and flow gauge/
indicator fitted on the top of the pump. The pumps should be manually turned
ON and OFF and the action of each pump’s flow gauge should be observed
while the pump is coming ON. The oil flow should cease or be at a bare
minimum before energizing the circuit.
(b) If the movement of the flow gauge flag is sluggish where 3-ph motors are used,
there is an indication of reverse rotation. Reverse any two electrical leads
supplying the suspect pump and re-energize. The movement of the flow gauge
flag should now be more prompt.
(c) To determine excessive bearing wear remove the pump for visual inspection.
After removing the pump from the system, the end play of the shaft should be
measured. The impeller and impeller housing should be examined for any wear.
The manufacturer’s guide should be consulted to determine if excessive bearing
wear exists as indicated by the amount of shaft end-play observed. Any
indication of wear on the impeller and impeller housing is indicative of

excessive thrust-bearing wear.
(d) Partially shorted motor windings and other electrical problems with the pump
motor will cause generation of combustible gases in the transformer oil DGA
because oil directly flows through the pump motor during normal operation.
Routinely or after detecting an abnormal level of combustible gas in the
transformer oil DGA, the current flowing in each electrical terminal of each
pump motor should be accurately measured at the running condition of the
pump.
(e) The oil flow gauge shows only whether there is oil flowing through the pump. It
is not indicative of the velocity of the oil or the condition of the pump. After
making sure that the oil cooling pumps are ON, the flow gauge should be
observed for indication of flow. If the pump is ON and no flow is indicated, the
sensing unit may be defective. If the pump is turned OFF and the flow gauge
continues to indicate, the gauge is probably stuck in the flow position and the
sending unit or the entire gauge may need to be replaced. It is normal for a
gauge to continue to indicate flow for a brief period before indicating OFF (no
flow), following the turning off of a pump. This is due to conservation of
momentum with respect to oil.
5.3.12 Operational Checks on OLTC
Tap Changer Handle Operation: Move the tap changer handle up as well as down
over its entire range; check the operation before trying to attempt electrical oper-
ation. Also keep in mind that while the handle is inserted, the interlock switch of the
said handle will not allow electrical operation. In addition to this, check tap posi-
tions for the single-phase tap changers and make sure that they reached together at
the motor drive unit head. Continuity and discontinuity of the tap-changing oper-
ation is verified by connecting a multimeter across the high- and low-voltage sides
and changing the position from minimum to maximum.
Maintaining Circuit: The correct sequence of the maintaining circuit needs to
be checked by hand, winding the units to halfway through a tap and then removing
the handle. Power up the drive motor and also make sure that the motor runs to
drive the tap changer handle in the same direction.
Limit Switches: Limit switches’ operation needs to be thoroughly checked at
both ends.
Drive Motor: Put tap changer in the middle position and verify the rotational
direction. Measure the starting and running currents in both the higher and lower
modes of operation and also measure and record these values. Set the motor’s
overload to 10% above normal running current.
Raise and Lower Control: (1) Step-by-step relay operation; (2) move tap
changer one tap at a time.
Out of Step Relay: Shift the first tap changer in a three-phase bank to be one
position out of step with respect to the other two phases. Check the alarm’s con-
dition to ensure it is activated properly. In the same way repeat this process for the
other two tap changers.
• First check the suitable operation of the local/remote switch.
• Using local control, raise and lower the tap changer over its full operational
range.
• Repeat the above using the remote raising and lowering facility over the full
range.
• Check that neither the local nor remote switches can operate the tap changer
when it is in the other mode and vice versa.
• Hold the raise and lower pushbuttons in following a tap change to ensure it only
moves one tap at a time hence checking the step-by-step relay.
Tap Change Position Indicator: Check the mechanical position indicator to
ensure accurate indication in all positions. Also check that the remote instrument
operates in the same sequence to the same accuracy. With the remote instrument
unconnected, operate the tap changer and measure the output from each binary
coded matrix.
Tap Change Incomplete Alarm: Check whether the operation of the tap
changer is incomplete by keeping the winding unit on hand halfway through a tap
changing, including alarm working, flag relay, and also monitoring if their opera-
tion is right as well as time of operation.
Operation Counter: Ensure that the tap changer counter operates and reads
correctly.
Remote Indication: Check the remote indication switch and control facility to
prove that the output terminals of the said arranging kiosk are working fine.
Tap Changer Protective Relay: Verify the tripping characteristics of the relay
by opening the cover and pressing the “Trip” button to check the operation of the
transformer CB; ensure proper working function and then close the cover. The
following checkpoints/guidelines for inspection and maintenance should be
addressed and the manufacturer’s service engineer should be consulted for details
of maintenance/overhauling activity to ensure the absence of problems and ensure
proper operation in the future.
The following checks are to be carried out on OLTC.
(a) Manual operation on all taps and handle interlock switch.
(b) Local and remote operation and L/R switch.
(c) Matching of tap changer positions and tap position indicator.
(d) Check the working order of the tap selector handle; exchange the selector and
arcing transfer switches.
(e) Drive operations.
(f) Counter, position indicator, and its co-ordination with mechanism operations.
(g) Limit switch operation.
(h) Mechanical blocks integration.

(i) Proper movement of the hand-crank and its interlock switch.
(j) Physical wear and tear of tap selector.
(k) Free movement of the external shaft assembly.
(l) Extent of arc erosion on motionless and variable arcing contacts.
(m) Inspect the end boards for tracking and cracking the faults.
(n) After filling with oil, manually crank during entire range.
(o) Oil BDV and moisture content (PPM) to be recorded and measured to a
minimum BDV of 40 kV and moisture content of 10 PPM.
5.3.13 Checks on Bushings
After one month of service and on a yearly basis, make sure that the porcelain
bushings are free of dust and dirt; otherwise proper cleaning is required. Particularly
in the areas where there is high air pollution, salt regions, cement dust, or chemical
substances, cleaning is required regularly at short intervals. If the bushing is
damaged/highly polluted, it causes excessive leakage current and a visible mark
appears as treeing (carbon tracking) on the surface of the bushing and may cause
flashovers if the bushings are not cleaned and replaced properly.
By looking in the oil-sight glass, check the oil level in the bushings because the
level does not change with varying temperature. Stuck oil gauge pointers coherent
with an oil leak can cause a collapse in the bushing and possible damage in the
transformer and switchyard equipment. If the oil level is low, and the external
leakage not visible, there might be internal leakage around the lower seal of its tank.
In that case refill the bushing with the same oil as per the standard. An old bushing
is replaced when it has more than 25% of bushing oil capacity; the bushing is sent
for repair or it may be completely scrapped, if unrepairable at the site.
Inspect the bushing using an infrared camera regularly after one month of service
and on a yearly basis. In the case where any of the phases shows an eccentrically
high temperature, there is a possibility of poor connection; line personnel have to
verify the top connection first, however, a poor connection inside the transformer
tank leads to higher temperatures at the top also. Furthermore these faulty con-
nections should be detected by finding the hot metal gases such as the ethane and
ethylene ratio in the DGA.
Caution: When the temperature is high don’t open the oil fill plug of any
bushing because pressurized hot oil gush may result in a burn injury. Generally a
safe temperature range is between 15 and 35 °C. Some bushings may have gases
such as nitrogen in the form of a blanket on top of the oil layer which pressurizes it
as the oil expands due to temperature. Check with the manufacturer while topping
up oil or opening the bushing. Also see the directions in the special information
documents about bushings that are included in the transformer instruction manuals
at delivery.
5.4 Connectors 135
5.4 Connectors
In order to avoid extreme temperature rises at the electrical connections of the

transformer, check screw joints and retighten the screws according to the manu-
facturer’s manual. For transformers in service, a thermovision camera may be used.
5.5 Maintenance of Insulating Oil
Mineral oil is used as an insulating fluid in transformers/reactors. In addition to

acting as an insulating fluid, it also acts as a heat transfer medium to carry off excess
heat generated by the losses of power transformers. Tests cover the determination of
certain quantities, primarily degradation constituents in in-service transformers and
the diagnosis of these results wrt the power transformer condition [11, 12].
A sampling technique should ensure that the specimen taken is representative of
the insulating oil contained within the equipment. Natural contaminants exist within
the body of sampling valves; therefore valves should be flushed before extraction is
performed in order to ensure that sample integrity is maintained. A sufficiently large
sample should be withdrawn to cover all tests as listed below. Typically 1 L oil is
enough for carrying out the following tests to ascertain continued serviceability of
any insulating oil filled in the transformer/shunt reactor or any other electrical
apparatus. The tests explained above are carried out at specific time intervals.
However, for carrying out DGA, syringe sampling is recommended.
• Dielectric strength sampling
• Water content sampling
• Specific resistance sampling
• Dielectric dissipation factor
• Flashpoint sampling and recoding
• Total acidity sampling
• Interfacial tension sampling
• Sludge content (for aged oils only)
The following tests are generally performed to determine the various properties of
oil meeting certain conditions.
• Kinematic viscosity
• Pour point sampling
• Carbon type composition
• Oxidative ageing
• PCB content and density
• Oxidation stability and SK value
The diagnosis of the equipment containing oil is evaluated with the following
tests; they do not check the quality of the oil.
• Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)
• Furfur-aldehyde analysis (FFA)
Give special attention to diagnostic tests, for the oil-filled equipment, and not the oil
itself. The DGA evaluates the composition of gases dissolved in transformer oil and
estimates most probable incipient faults in the transformer using various interpre-
tation techniques per standards such as IS9434, IEC 60599, IEC 60567, and IEEE
C57.104. The furfur-aldehyde analysis is generally for checking the health of the
paper insulation in the windings by measuring the 2-furfur-aldehyde released in the
oil when the insulation paper degrades. It is to be understood that these two tests are
diagnostic and trend related and not analyzed on absolute values of results.
Normally insulation oil is checked against dielectric and moisture content in an
onsite test to determine the transformer oil condition.
5.5.1 Tests for Dielectric Strength (BDV)
To do the BDV test, a 2.5-mm gap is maintained between the electrodes; a further
six tests are performed on the oil to check its breakdown voltage. The six-digit
value in the result is taken into account to check the acceptance condition for
70 kV. Refer to IS-6792 or IEC-60156 for the detailed testing procedure.
Tests for Moisture Content (Measured in ppm): Inject a sample of the oil in
an automatic moisture content test kit. Depending on the type of test kit, the
moisture may be measured by lg H2O and the measured figure could be divided by
weight of the injected oil sample in grams, thus giving parts per million units.
Generally moisture content would be maintained less than 10 ppm when the
transformer is in service condition [13, 14]. As this test is highly operator- and
kit-maintenance dependent, it is advisable to send the sample to an authorized
laboratory only.
Note: DGA frequency for new equipment under commissioning should be just
before charging, after 24 h of charging, 7 days, 15 days, one month, and three
months after charging; thereafter six monthly DGA to be followed. The frequency
of sampling can be changed depending on test results.
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA): The FRA test is conducted on trans-
formers and reactors to determine the frequency response of windings. The refer-
ence frequency responses obtained during laboratory testing serve as “fingerprints”
to monitor the condition of the transformer or reactor during service.
The frequency response of an electrical winding is obtained by application of
sweep frequency (sinusoidal). The winding will have a characteristic frequency
response for the applied signal at different frequencies. The response is uniquely
determined by the winding arrangement involved and any winding movement or
5.5 Maintenance of Insulating Oil 137
other fault will modify the frequency response due to changes in inductance and
capacitance. The sweep frequency voltage is applied through network analyzers.
The frequency response of the winding is determined between the frequency ranges
of 10 Hz to 2 MHz.
The FRA test is performed on one winding of the electrical equipment at a time.
The transformer/reactor should be electrically isolated from any other electrical
connections or systems, including earth connections during the FRA test. The two
end terminals of each winding should be made available for measuring the fre-
quency response across the winding.
• For star-connected winding, the response should be measured across the ter-
minal and neutral.
• For delta-connected winding, the response should be measured across two line
terminals and in the case of open-delta, across individual winding.
• For autoconnected winding, the response of series and common windings
should be measured separately.
For a transformer, it is normal practice to earth one end of every winding that is not
being tested, leaving the other end open. Alternatively, all other windings may be
left unconnected from each other and from earth. In every case, the termination of
each winding for each test should be recorded. The frequency response of the
winding is determined by plotting the ratio of the output from the winding to the
input in the frequency range of 10 Hz to 2 MHz.
Alternatively frequency ranges specified by the customer can be selected. The
test is normally conducted at maximum, mean, and minimum taps, in the case of
windings having tapping. While making measurements at mean tap, care should
taken to move the tap from higher voltage taps for proper comparison of FRA
results of different phases of the same or different transformers.
The FRA results are analyzed for:
• Changes in response of the winding
• Significant difference between the FRA records of different phases of the same
transformer
• Significant difference between same phase of identical transformers
The FRA test is primarily a condition assessment test and can be used in con-
junction with other diagnostic tests for detailed analysis and interpretation of the
transformer.
Dielectric Frequency Domain Spectroscopy (FDS): In frequency domain
spectroscopy (FDS), the frequency sweep measures the dissipation factor of the
insulation components. The frequency versus tangent delta measurements method is
called frequency domain spectroscopy. In this method, the frequency range is much
enhanced, especially to low frequencies.
Figure 5.2 shows the S-shaped curve where the dissipation factor is plotted in
the y-axis and the frequency is in the x-axis. The temperature and ageing curve
move towards the higher frequency scale when the moisture content increases.
Fig. 5.2 Dielectric frequency domain spectroscopy
Table 5.8 Moisture content in paper

S. Insulation condition Source: IEEE standard 62-1995
No. % Moisture by dry % Saturation
weight in paper of water in
(Wp) oil
1. Dry (at commissioning) 0.5–1.0 <5
2. Moderate to wet (lower number indicates <2 6–20
fairly dry whereas large number indicates
moderately wet insulation)
3. Wet 2–4 21–30
4. Extremely wet >4.5 >30
Source CIGRE DOC. No. 227. Life Management Technique for Power Transformer
Moisture content has greater influence in the lower and higher frequency ranges; the
steep gradient shows oil conductivity in the midrange of the curve. The “hump” left
side of the steep gradient curve data helps to calculate moisture content.
Table 5.8 may be considered for determining the level of wetness and taking
necessary action for dryout.
Partial Discharge Measurement: PD techniques for detection and location are
important for diagnostics, as they not only help to identify the inception of damage
caused, but also assist in monitoring the evolving and deteriorating situation
affected by the various stress factors existing in the service condition. There can be
various reasons for PD inception. It can be the result of electrical stress caused by
5.5 Maintenance of Insulating Oil 139
mechanical deformation, overheating of an insulated conductor, or can even be the

result of inherent defect. The PD detection at the site can be done by various
techniques such as
• Dissolved gas analysis
• Conventional IEC 60270
• Acoustic measurement
• RFI measurement
• UHF measurement
All these techniques have their strengths and weaknesses in terms of sensitivity and
accuracy. The sensitivity and effectiveness of these techniques depends upon the
type of defect and location of the fault.
References
1. Franklin AC, Franklin DP A practical technology of the power transformer, 11th edn. J&P
Books
2. Transformers. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Bhopal. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Limited, New Delhi
3. Rabins L (1956) Transformer reactance calculations with digital computers, communication
and electricals. 75:261
4. Sealey WC Equivalent ambient temperature for loading transformers. Allis Chalmers (USA)
5. Indian Standards Related to Power Transformers:(a) Specifications: i. IS 1885 (Part
XXXVIII)-1977 Electrotechnical vocabulary, part XXXVIII Transformers (first revision);
ii. IS 2026 (Part IV)-1977 Power Transformers: Part IV Terminal marking, tapping and
connections (first revision); iii. IS: 11171-1985 Dry Type Power Transformers, (b) Selection,
Installation, Operation and Maintenance: i. IS: 1866-1967 Code of practice for maintenance
and supervision of insulating oil in service; ii. IS: 1886-1967 Code for practicing for
insulation and maintenance of Transformers; iii. IS: 5216-1969 Guide for safety procedures
and practice in electrical work; iv. IS: 5728-1970 Guide for short-circuit calculations; v. IS:
6132 Shackles, Part-1: 1971 General Requirements, Part-2: 1972 Dimensions of D-Shackles;
vi. IS: 6600-1972 Guider for Over-Loading of Power Transformers; vi. IS: 8478-1977
Application Guide for On-Load tapchangers, (c) Transformer Oil and Oil Testing: i. IS:
335-1983- New insulating oils for transformers and switchgears; ii. IS: 1866-1978-Code for
practice for maintenance and supervision of insulating oil in service; iii. IS: 6792-1972
Method for determination of electric strength insulating oils, (d) High Voltage Testing: i. IS:
8690-1977 Application guide for measuring devices for high voltage testing; ii. IS: 2165-1977
Insulation coordination, (e) IEC Publications: i. 76-1 (1976) “Power Transformers”; ii.
214 (1976) “on-Load tapchangers”; iii. 606 (1978) “Application guide for power
transformers”
6. Transformer engineering, A treatise on theory, operation and application of transformers by
GE (USA)
7. Transformers for electric power industry by Westinghouse (USA)
8. IS: 2026: Specification for power transformers
9. IS: 6600: Guide for loading of power transformers
10. IEC loading guide for oil immersed transformers. IEC publication 354
11. Reynolds PH (1975) Partial discharge measuring techniques. In: International HV sympo-
sium, Zurich, September 1975
12. Condition Monitoring, IPG International Generation, January 1993, pp 33–42
13. Studies of insulator pollution under industrial contaminated conditions. Technical report,
CPRI, Bengaluru
14. Proceeding of seminar on “Distribution transformer failures”, CBIP, New Delhi, February
1997, pp 1–36
Chapter 6
International Best Practices
in Operation and Maintenance
(Advanced Gadgets)
6.1 Introduction
Aiming to track every unit of energy injected into the system, power utilities are
increasingly being attracted towards reliable and smart technology driven by dis-
tribution system tools and tackles [1]. These devices came into existence with a
promise to improve reliability of the power system by identifying the difficulties in
operation and maintenance in power distribution systems. Using such equipment
will improve the power supply quality along with reliability. Hence technical loss
will be reduced and the system can be stabilized as a whole.
To increase the efficiency of the staff who are already working in DISCOMs
improves building operational practices, and reduces utility costs; it is a necessary
and emerging trend to create training/awareness programs on best practices in
operation and maintenance (O&M) programs. The government of India facilitating
these programs with the help of nodal agencies including MoP, PFC, NPTI, and
IITs, empaneled power training institutes (PTI) and resource institutes (RI) for the
development of material and the like. Power utilities worldwide have adopted the
use of new techniques in tools and equipment for precise measurement of required
parameters and timely saving of manpower. Failure of equipment such as trans-
formers and circuit breakers incurs considerable cost and to avoid such failure the
latest technology is incorporated in tools and equipment. The implementation of
best practice in an O&M program can reduce energy usage by 5–20% without any
substantial capital investment.
6.2 Reclosures/Auto Reclosures
In a transmission overhead line 80–90% of the faults are transient in nature; they
most commonly occur in overhead lines due to lightning or temporary contact with
a foreign object. Normally the distribution feeders are radial feeders protected by

142 6 International Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance …
timelag over current relays with instantaneous and delayed tripping functions. The
circuit breaker is equipped with a switch mechanism that can automatically close
the breaker after the occurrence of a fault and is called a recloser or auto closer.
It is located on the distribution feeder network (as shown in Fig. 6.1) to detect
and interrupt transient/momentary faults. These reclosures of suitable size (i.e., load
current and fault current) operate instantaneously to clear the fault followed by one
or two reclosing shots with predetermined delays. In the case of a permanent fault,
the reclosure remains tripped off until manually commanded. The result is increased
availability of supply. It has faster single- phase reclosing and automated loop
capabilities and is mainly used in radial feeders. The reclosing structure depends
upon the dead time, reclaim time, and number of shots. The dead time setting
mainly depends on system stability, load, circuit breaker characteristics, fault path
ionization time, and protection reset time.
A recloser is designed in such a way that when the circuit breaker is reclosed on
a permanent fault, the recovery time is sufficient for the protection relay’s operation.
Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) or definite time over current and earth fault
relays and spring winding are most commonly used to protect high voltage
(HV) lines. The operating time can vary from 10 to 30 s, depending upon fault
level. In the case of definite time protection the setting can be 3–10 s. It is common
practice to keep a setting of 30 s on a HV autoreclosure scheme [2].
One or two shots are generally used in a distribution network. It depends on the
frequency of the transient faults and the system conditions. However, three or more
shots do not imply any significant improvement but substantially increase the stress
on the breaker and other network apparatus.
Fig. 6.1 Installation of

reclosure
6.3 Sectionalizer 143
6.3 Sectionalizer
The sectionalizer (Fig. 6.2) is an efficient and effective electronic device and is very
useful for an outdoor medium-voltage distribution network in combination with
automatic circuit reclosure protection (Fig. 6.3). The function of this device is to
count the number of fault occur on the medium-voltage line and open it active when
the line is de-energized. The interrupting device is either upstream reclosure or a
circuit breaker in the section. Because the fault currents are high, it is only used to
save the fuse. Therefore for this device the current rating or time current rating in
co-ordination with load- or sourceside fuses is absolutely not required.
If the fault was not cleared by a loadside protective device such as fuses or
reclosures, then the sectionalizer must control the fault. The electronic device will
actuate when the current in excess of the threshold is typically 300 mA or more, but
as soon as the actuating current reduces, it stops counting/sensing the load current,
assuming that the loadside fuse or reclosure has cleared the fault. In the event of an
actuating current, if the electronic sectionalizer does not sense a 300-mA current, it
will assume that the sourceside reclosing device cleared the fault, and the sec-
tionalizer will increase the count. These selections are not co-ordinated with the
associated source of the loadside protection device and have no direct communi-
cation. The above- mentioned conditions are based on the current measurements at
the sectionalizer locations.
A typical installation on a double-pole structure is shown in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3.
The sectionalizer is a SF6 insulated outdoor pole-mounted double- break family for
overhead lines and designed for a modern remote-controlled distribution system. It
offers maintenance-free operation in climatic conditions such as a salt-laden
atmosphere, corrosive industrial pollution, and snow and ice. The device can be
operated by electrical or remote control. For electrical control, a motor device and
electrical control cabinet are required and for remote control, communication
protocols and communication media are required.
Fig. 6.2 Typical

sectionalizer
Fig. 6.3 Installation of sectionalizer in outdoor medium-voltage line
6.4 Amorphous Core Transformer
Amorphous core distribution transformers of 11 kV and up to 500 kVA are

available in India. Table 6.1 highlights the comparison of the losses of conventional
and amorphous distribution transformers [3].
On the basis of technocommercial comparisons, utilities have initiated the sep-
arate procurement of amorphous core transformers. Although post procurement,
repairing and maintenance have been the challenge, for evaluations of performance
utilities need to compare the performance based on the total owning cost (TOC) for
the predefined period.
6.5 Dry Type Transformer
The trend of using noninflammatory transformers is increasing day by day on

account of high land cost, environment-friendly requirements, and stringent safety
norms for public works and utilities such as big residential and business buildings,
commercial malls, industries, medical and sports facilities, museums, theaters, art
galleries, special industries such as mining, chemical oil and gas industry trans-
portation industries such as ships, metro systems/trains, tunnels, and so on.
Table 6.1 No-load loss of conventional and amorphous transformers

Rating Conventional transformer Amorphous transformers
kVA No load loss Full load loss No load loss Full load loss
(Watt) (Watt) (Watt) (Watt)
25 100 685 68 466
63 180 1235 123 844
100 260 1760 176 1192
6.5 Dry Type Transformer 145
An O&M engineer should have thorough knowledge regarding the maintenance

of these transformers; it is important and should be top priority. The maintenance of
the said transformers is similar to oil-filled transformers but requires separate
coverage. These are classified as ventilated, nonventilated, and sealed unit trans-
formers (Fig. 6.4). The key aspects of maintenance for each of the above trans-
former types are essential considering the significant differences among the three.
• A ventilated dry-type transformer is designed for indoor and outdoor applica-
tions. It is just like an oil-filled transformer; the air or gas serves as an insulating
medium and also dissipates the heat from the windings.
• A nonventilated transformer is totally closed and it is suitable where the
atmosphere contains conductive, corrosive, or combustible material that might
damage the transformer or lint and dust which might block the ventilation
passage.
• A sealed transformer is like a nonventilated transformer in preventing entry of
any surrounding air. An inert gas is filled at positive pressure in the said
transformers.
Similar to oil-filled transformers, dry-type transformers require routine inspections
and periodic checks. The periodic inspections depend on transformer capacity,
classification, environment, and load conditions. Nonsealed transformers especially
require more periodical checkups; because the transformer is in contact with
atmospheric air, any dust particle or vapors it carries can contaminate the internal
workings and increase electrical stress on the components. Thus the ventilated
transformer requires more periodic maintenance than sealed transformers.
6.5.1 Maintenance of Dry-Type Transformer
The greatest advantages of this type of transformer are that they require less
maintenance; nevertheless, it is necessary to ensure dust does not accumulate, as it
Ventilated Dry Type Non-Ventilated Sealed

Transformer Transformer Transformer
Fig. 6.4 Various advanced kinds of transformers

causes a loss of cooling efficiency and hence subsequent loss of power; there should
be inspection for any connections and structure deformation.
(a) Routine checks and resultant maintenance
A transformer operational record should be separately maintained. A complete
checklist with essential observations and readings should be developed for each
transformer and properly maintained in the records in the event of an extraordinary
occurrence that could affect the performance of the related transformer and even
every event related or not with the operation of the electric system. It is recom-
mended to monitor the transformer with daily or weekly readings of the tempera-
ture, load, and voltages of the transformer. Ventilated and nonventilated dry-type
transformers have indicating devices including temperature, liquid level, and
pressure. Thus, routine checks are subject to human observation as they involve
visual and auditory observations. Also sealed dry-type transformers have pressure
gauges in them and they should also be routinely checked.
6.5.2 Visual Inspections
Visual inspections should cover:

(i) Due to poor contacts, overheating occurs at the HV- and LV-side terminals.
If that happens, the O&M engineer should clean the areas of contact and
tighten the bolts and nuts.
(ii) Due to overload, insufficient calculation of cooling air and temperature of the
cooling air above the predicted level causes overheating of the transformer. If
that happens, the O&M engineer should reduce the load, increase the cool-
ing, clean the cooling air chamber, check the circulating ducts, and ensure
proper opening of the ducts.
(iii) When the voltage is higher than the predicted voltage and the transformer not
evenly sealed, resonance with other surfaces around the equipment causes
excessive noise from the transformers. If it happens, the O&M engineer
should select the most suitable voltage and adjust it to the most suitable
tap. The engineer also has to check loose metallic surfaces such as panels,
closets, ducts, doors, and the like to reduce the noise. The resonance engineer
has to install a flexible element between the terminals and the installed
cables.
6.5.3 Dust Accumulation
One of the most critical factors for efficient operation of the said type of transformer
is to keep it dust-free in order to prevent any degradation in its important features. If
6.5 Dry Type Transformer 147
dust accumulation is excessive, first for safety reasons the transformer should
de-energize and its side panels be removed. With the help of a dry cloth, duster, or
vacuum cleaner remove all the dust accumulated on the transformer. Subsequently,
compressed clean air can be used in the ventilation channels of the coil and,
between the core and coil, the compressed air’s pressure should be less than 5 atm.
With the help of a cloth immersed in benzene, core, ironwork, and coil impurities
can be removed, and the cleaning process repeated with a clean and dry cloth.
6.6 Ring Main Unit (RMU)
The ring main unit (RMU; Figs. 6.5 and 6.6) consists of medium-voltage switch-
gear and can house the fuse-switch disconnections. The medium-voltage switch-
gears generally include both the preconfigured and fully configured gas insulated
solutions. While using the tested equipment a high level of personal safety should
be ensured.
6.7 Packaged Unit Substation (PUS)
The packaged unit substation (PUS) is an enclosed construction; it avoids bird hits,
human/animal contacts that may lead to fatal accidents, disruption of supply, and
power loss as may happen in open execution. The PUS is built as a product in line
with the thinking of the architects who are quite concerned with aesthetics, safety,
and ease of installation [4].
The space to install a PUS is typically 10′ 10′ which is approximately the
space required for a car park. A saving of floor space to the tune of 80–85% can be
achieved by installing unitised sub-station (USS) as compared to that required for
conventional installation. A PUS can be installed with a tariff (TOD) meter. The
current transformers (CTs) and potential transformers (PTs) for the TOD meter are
housed in a separate cubicle with a tamperproof sealing arrangement (Fig. 6.7).
Fig. 6.5 Typical 11 kV network and RMU locations

Fig. 6.6 RMU unit and cable

termination
(a) RMU
(b) Cable Termination
A PUS mainly consists of the following equipment.

The PUS can be supplied via a preinstalled distribution-type transformer. The
possibility of moving the substations depends on the type and the transformer size.
The PUS is supplied with internal cables/terminations:
• Medium-voltage cables from medium-voltage switchgear to the distribution
transformer
• Low-voltage cables/bus bars from low-voltage switchboards to the distribution
transformer
6.7 Packaged Unit Substation (PUS) 149
Fig. 6.7 MV Switch gear
SF6 gas-insulated medium-voltage switchgear is connected using elbow connec-

tions. The transformer cable termination is through regular cable adapters or, if
required, by the elbow connections. The necessary termination is provided in
low-voltage cable/bus bars that are used between the distribution transformer and
the switchboard. In accordance with standard norms and regulations, the PUS is
designed to house various low-voltage solutions and individual requirements. The
product range includes various types of fuse-switches and disconnectors, including
molded-case circuit breakers. Other equipment can be supplied as per requirements.
6.8 Fault Passage Indicator (FPI)
Fault passage indicators (FPIs; Fig. 6.9) are used by distribution utilities. FPIs
consist of current sensors with a light-emitting diode (LED). Indicators are strate-
gically placed in the distribution network to identify a faulty network, as shown in
Fig. 6.8. The FPI detects the fault when an appropriate threshold has been achieved
[5]. The resulting sensor value output is periodically compared to the threshold.
When an overcurrent situation occurs, a timing process is initiated to decide the
activation of the indicator.
This system requires patrolling by the tripped main feeder or downstream CB on
the faulted line; the said fault is mostly located between the last and the first
nonflashing FPI/substation. FPIs are key in reducing the outage time on the
network.
Fig. 6.8 Fault indicator
Fig. 6.9 Indicators in distribution network
FPIs are divided into two types:

• Simple current criterion
• Simple directional criterion
6.9 Automatic Power Factor Controller 151
6.9 Automatic Power Factor Controller
A power system has varying power demand on the supply system; accordingly the
power factor also varies as a function of the load demands [6, 7]. It is very difficult
to maintain a consistent power factor by the use of conventional methods (i.e., fixed
capacitors and reactors). As a result, in overvoltage and saturation of transformers,
penalties are incurred by electric supply authorities. The automatic power factor
controller (Fig. 6.10) is a device that can automatically adjust the power factors
without manual intervention and suit the power factor by load variation.
It is normally installed on the receiving facilities and power distribution at large
consumers such apartment buildings and industries to enable full use of electrical
infrastructure. It automatically detects reactive power requirements and accordingly
controls the connection of power condensers to attain the ideal power factor. It has
several capacitors grouped in several steps, and is also connected to suitable
switching devices coupled with inrush current-limiting devices provided for each
step. Normally the power factor sensed by the current transformer in the line side,
and the KVAr required to achieve the target power factor are computed by the
microprocessor-based automatic power factor controller relay.
6.10 Transformer Load Analyzer (TLA)
Sizing of the transformers is based on expected consumer load. The rating of the
transformers is equal to greater than consumer load for a given period of time and
the details of consumer particulars are taken from the DISCOM billing data.
Figure 6.11 shows the data obtained from the analyzer.
To understand the better utilization of power distribution equipment, manpower,
and materials efficiency, transformer load management plays a key role. The capital
cost of the transformer can be viewed as a function of load capacity. Higher KVA
capacity of the transformer is most suitable and economical to serve large con-
sumers; similarly, an overloaded (or low ratings in connection with load capacity)
transformer would be suitable for serving lesser loads to improve the power dis-
tribution equipment’s life. The TLA has load analysis algorithms that model the
thermal behavior and insulation ageing of the transformer, allowing the inherent
overload ability of distribution transformers to be exploited.
To perform analyses such as transformer owning cost software (TOCS) and the
TLA, much software is available. These types of tools can perform transformer
Fig. 6.10 Vector diagram for

power factor controller
Fig. 6.11 Screenshot of XFORMER
loading analysis on a seasonal basis, with hourly daily demand and ambient tem-
perature curves representing the transformer behavior for all days in each of the four
seasons in a year.
6.11 Advanced Tools for Operation and Maintenance
6.11.1 Thermovision Camera
Principle of Thermal Imaging: All materials emit infrared energy when the
temperature of the material is above 0° kelvin. The emitted infrared energy is then
converted into an electrical signal with the help of an imaging sensor, then dis-
played on a monitor as a color or monochrome image [8]. Thermoscanner
advantages and disadvantages are shown in Table 6.2.
6.11 Advanced Tools for Operation and Maintenance 153
Table 6.2 Advantages and disadvantages of thermoscanner

S. Advantages Disadvantages
No.
1 It helps to prevent problems prior to The cameras cost a lot
their occurrence
2 It can be used to observe areas For getting accurate temperatures,
inaccessible or hazardous for other emissivity must be determined correctly
methods
3 It can be used to find defects in shafts, Most cameras have ±2% accuracy or worse
pipes, and other metal or plastic parts and are not as accurate as contact methods
4 It can be used to see better in darker or Thermography is only able to directly detect
completely dark environments surface temperatures
5 It makes catching moving targets in –
realtime easy
6 It is a nondestructive test method –
(a) Infrared Radiation

Infrared radiation (Fig. 6.12) is electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves,
microwaves, ultraviolet rays, visible light, X-rays, and gamma rays. The wave-
length of the infrared radiation “band” is 0.78–1000 lm (micrometers).
6.11.2 Tan-Delta Testing Kit
Electrical properties of any insulating system change by ageing and continuous

stresses. The insulation failure of any HV equipment is the principal contributor to
the unexpected breakdowns. Insulating material in all the other materials in the
equipment is most prone to stresses including thermal, electrical, mechanical, and
environmental stress.
Fig. 6.12 Spectrum of

electromagnetic radiation
To try obviating the unexpected operational breakdown, periodic measuring of

the electrical properties such as capacitance and tan-delta is necessary [9]. One of
the most powerful nondestructive offline diagnostic tools to monitor the condition
of solid insulation is the dissipation factor (tan-delta).
Capacitance and tan-delta values obtained on new insulation are treated as
benchmark readings. Then periodic measurement and analysis of the readings with
the benchmark readings can help to determine the rate of deterioration of the
insulation’s health.
Software Requirement
Windows based software for measurement, data storage, transfer and analysis
Expert diagnostic / expert guidelines software shall be provided for analysis of

the data
Shall measure Tan delta and power factor of all impedances (capacitive,
resistive and inductive)
Automatic time and date recording
Digital display of all parameters Test voltage, Current, Tan delta, Power factor,
Watts, Inductance, Capacitance, Resistance, Power loss, Frequency
Real-time display of Power, Voltage, and Current.
All dedicated software shall be supplied in original in CDs
6.11.3 Cable Fault Detector Kit
The main purpose of this kit (Fig. 6.13) is to find the fault in the length of
underground cable from the base station in kilometers. The underground cable
system is commonly used in low- and medium-voltage distribution lines. The
advantages lie in its immunity from weather conditions such as pollution, rain,
storm, snow, and ice. When a fault occurs, particularly for repairing underground
cable, finding the fault location is a tedious process. The purpose is to find the exact
location of the fault. The possibility of determining the gamut of faults with dif-
ferent fault characteristics rests on suitable measuring equipment and the operator’s
skills. The right combination enables reducing the critical fault outage time.
6.11 Advanced Tools for Operation and Maintenance 155
Fig. 6.13 Cable fault

detector kit
6.11.4 Insulation Resistance (IR) Measurement
One of the important tests is finding the insulation resistance of the electrical
equipment for safety operations. Specifications of insulation resistance are dis-
played in connecting cables, motors, generators, protection devices, and the like, in
order to limit the current flow outside the device or the conductors. The lifetime or
the IR quality may change over a period of time due to electrical stress linked with
under-/overvoltages, mechanical stress due to starting and stopping of electrical
equipment, for the case of a motor/generator balancing problem, chemical stress,
temperature variation, environmental contamination, and so on. The above causes
reduce the resistivity of insulation and thus a leakage current increase in the circuit/
equipment which may lead to serious safety problems. These tests help to deduct
ageing and premature weakening of the insulating properties before reaching the
incident described above.
An IR test applies a smaller amplitude of DC voltage (typically, 250 V DC,
500 V DC for LV equipment, and for HV equipment <600 V DC are used)
compared to the amplitude of DC voltage used for the dielectric strength test and it
measures the insulation resistance in kΩ, MΩ, GΩ, or TΩ when the phase and
neutral are short-circuited together. These measured values indicate the resistance
conditions; the higher the resistance values are, the better the condition of the
insulation. Normally for ideal conditions the IR value should be infinite; practically
it is not possible due to small leakage of the current.
Testing Methods
(a) Short-Time or Instantaneous Measurement
This is the simplest method, but its main disadvantage is the measured values are
influenced by the temperature and humidity, possibly causing this measurement to
be inaccurate. Therefore the measurement should be standardized at a specific
temperature and the humidity level should be noted for comparison with previous
measurements. It involves applying the DC test voltage for 30 or 60 s duration for
noting the IR at the moment.
(b) Polarization Index (PI)
The successive IR values are calculated at specific intervals, 1 and 10 min dura-
tions, respectively. The ratio of the 10 min IR value over the 1 min IR value is
called the polarization index; this value is mainly used to assess the quality of
insulation. The advantage of this measurement method is that these values are not
influenced by temperature as long as the equipment is not significantly subject to
temperature variation during the test. The IEEE 43-2000 recommendation for
rotating machines suggests that when the PI is less than 2, there is a problem in
insulation; if the PI value lies between 2 and 4 the machine insulation is in fairly
good condition and when the PI value is greater than 4, the machine has very good/
excellent IR value.
(c) Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR)
The DAR is defined as the ratio of the 60 s IR value over the 30 s IR value. When
the DAR value is less than 1.25, there is a problem and insufficient insulation; if the
DAR value is less than 1.6 the machine insulation is in fairly good condition and if
the DAR value is greater than 1.6, the machine has very good/excellent IR value.
6.11.5 Megger Insulation Tester
The Megger Company was the oldest IR test equipment manufacturer over
100 years ago (Fig. 6.14). This tester helps to find the IR value, which helps to
verify the electrical insulation. The minimum values for the IR test vary; depending
on the equipment type and the nominal voltage, it may vary according to inter-
national standards. Some standards will define the minimum IR test values for
general electrical insulation. For example, for low-voltage insulation in the IEC
world, IEC 60364 gives the minimum IR values, and recommended test voltage.
Please see Table 6.3.
6.12 Gas Leakage Detector
The gas detection technique has a wide range of potential uses in electrical dis-
tribution and chemical industries. A gas leak detector (Fig. 6.15) has various sen-
sors by which it detects and identifies potentially hazardous gas leaks by means of
an audible alarm to alert people. Sensors used today include infrared point sensors
(IPS), ultrasonic gas detectors (UGD), electrochemical gas detectors, and some
6.12 Gas Leakage Detector 157
Fig. 6.14 Megger
Table 6.3 Recommended test DC voltage for an AC circuit and IR value

S. Rated circuit Recommended test dc Minimum value of recommended IR
No. voltage voltage (V) value in MΩ
1. Low-Voltage 250 0.5
Circuit
2. Up to 500 V 500 1.0
3. Above 500 V 1000 1.0
other semiconductor sensors. These sensors are used for a range of applications in
power plants, industrial plants, refineries, and wastewater treatment facilities. SF6
gas is 24,000 times more environmentally dangerous than CO2.
6.13 Crimping Machine
Crimping tools are used to connect two pieces of metal or other adjustable material
by cutting, stripping, bending, and deforming one or both of them to hold the other
electrical and metal components. Crimping was developed as a high-quality,
low-cost replacement for soldered termination [10]. It is recommended where
soldering has been estimated as too expensive, complex, or time consuming to
install. There is overall less processing, and the connection will be durable due to
strain relief. It is essential to choose the right type of sleeve for the crimping tool.
There are three common crimp sleeve types used in practice:
• Round section sleeve: It is made of brass and is used for making knots.
• Oval section sleeve: It is the most widely used type of sleeve, available in brass,
copper alloys, and aluminum material.
• Double barrel sleeve: It is available in copper, brass, and aluminum material; it
is very durable but most expensive.
Fig. 6.15 SF6 gas leakage detector
The following types of crimping tools are used in the power sector (Fig. 6.16).
• Hydraulic crimping tool: It is hand operated and pumps hydraulic fluid into the
device to compress the die. Crimping effort is significantly less as compared to
other hand-driven manual crimpers.
• Pneumatic crimping tool: Air-filled crimp tools provide an easy and flexible
crimping solution. These crimpers are fastened to an air supply, and perhaps an
operational switch. Using these tools crimping can be done at a faster rate with
high accuracy and efficiency, approximately 600 connections per hour.
• Battery-powered crimping tool: It has a motor controlled by an microcon-
troller unit (MCU), and powered by Li-ion batteries with a high-pressure
hydraulic system and is extensively used on electrical construction sites.
Pneumatic crimping machine Battery powered crimping
Hydraulic crimping tool
Fig. 6.16 Crimping tools

6.14 Oil Filtration Machine 159
6.14 Oil Filtration Machine
The oil filtration machine (Fig. 6.17) enables a process to remove oil contamina-
tion, sludge, dissolved moisture, and gases from the transformer oil. This process
improves the insulation property; better insulation leads to longer life of the
transformer and lessens the breakdown of the transformer. As a result there is a
good return on investment of the transformer. Oil filtration machines are designed
and manufactured per BIS, NEMA, IEEE, IEE, ASTM, and IEC standards.
6.14.1 Oil Purification Procedure
The transformer is the most important property in an electrical power system; its life
mainly depends on the oil quality. A good oil purification process delivers filtered
oil with parameters as per standards. However, oil purification is based on the
unprocessed oil standard. If unprocessed oil does not match the standards, then the
oil purification process efforts are wasted.
(a) Step 1: The oil temperature is raised up to 65 °C. This assistance gives the oil
latent heat which later aids in separating the moisture and gases from the oil in
the degassing chamber. Also the oil viscosity drops to a certain level which
helps for better filtration to some extent. The heating system is protected against
overpressure buildup and excess temperature rise.
Fig. 6.17 Oil filtration

machine
(b) Step 2: Removal of sludge and dirt from the oil. There are two methods used
for removal of sludge: filter candles and centrifuging action.
(i) Filter candles: Filter candles are the cartridge-type filtration in the oil
purification machine and can be further classified into two categories:
• Using classical edge filter
• Using the depth-type filter
The edge filter cartridge or depth-type can be cleaned and reused at least three or
four times, but cleaning and fitting involve considerable time and human effort. It is
difficult to handle a large quantity of sludge. In order to remove the contamination
in an edge or depth filter cartridge reverse-pressurized dry air or nitrogen flow used.
(ii) Centrifugal action: This is the second alternate method to remove the sludge.
It is used for the separation of dirt from the oil and can be slow- speed-type
centrifuges that do not additionally require an electric motor to spin the
centrifugal cone at high speed. This method can remove the dirt at more than
the 10-micron level; at less than 10 microns this method is not
recommendable.
(c) Step 3: Dehydration and degasification of transformer oil are processes of
dehumidification of the transformer oil and removal of gases is executed in the
designing chamber. This dissolved water–oil separation or dissolved gas–oil
separation is possible at reduced pressure, that is, vacuum, due to differences
of the boiling point of water, gas, and transformer oil. In the process of
separation of gases from the oil it becomes important that the aromatic
hydrocarbons remain so that the original properties of the oil are retained.
When the water level in the oil is above saturation level of the transformer oil,
oil is observed in free water. Removal of free water can be done by
power-driven centrifugal force or by the coalescing principle, where the latter
is more effective and economical in practice.
6.14.2 Different Techniques for Removal of Solid

Contaminants in Transformer Oil
Centrifugal Filter
Operating principles: This filter (Fig. 6.18) accelerates the oil at very high speed.
As a result centrifugal force throws the solid particles on the rotor wall and it is easy
to remove the mass.
Limitations: This only removes the solid contamination up to 10 lm. The
efficiency of this filter is low when it involves removal of solid contaminants in
dissolved water, maintenance costs, high power demand, and capital.
Fig. 6.18 Centrifugal filter
Fig. 6.19 Mechanical filter
Mechanical Filter
Operating principles: A filtration element for suspended contaminants made up of
layers of media is used (Fig. 6.19).
Limitations: These filters can remove particles of 3 lm; however, they need
periodic replacement or cleaning of their media.
Magnetic Filter
Operating principles: Geometrically arranged magnets produce nonuniform flux
field zones that collect magnetic iron and steel particles (Fig. 6.20).
Limitations: They can only remove ferromagnetic particles larger than 1 lm
and are not suitable for water removal in free or dissolved forms.
Electrostatic Filter
Operating principles: They use electrostatic principles to draw contaminants out of
oil and trap them on the collector surface, including tars and varnishes (Fig. 6.21).
Fig. 6.20 Magnetic filter
Fig. 6.21 Electrostatic filter

Advanced electrostatic filters can easily remove submicron solid particles and some
soft contaminants.
Limitations: They have slow operation and loss in effectiveness with high
moisture content and HV operating is needed.
6.14.3 Different Techniques for Water Removal
(i) Centrifugal Separator

The working principle is the same as the centrifugal filter and can remove free and
some of the emulsified water but is inefficient with dissolved water.
(ii) Coalescer Separator
The coalescer separates water droplets from the fluid stream by arresting them on a
filter’s surface by fusing droplets together to a size that allows them to fall into the
vessel where they can be extracted. This technique does not allow separating dis-
solved water and a fine upstream filtration of any particulate contamination.
(iii) Absorbent Filter
It is suitable to remove free and emulsified water by superabsorbent polymers
impregnated in the filter matrix.
Vacuum Dehydration
In a partial vacuum dry hydraulic oils and lubricants are exposed where the con-
centration gradient is utilized between the fluid and the evacuated air to evaporate
the water from the fluid.
There are main techniques: flash distillation vacuum dehydration and mass
transfer vacuum dehydration. The main drawback of the first is that the high
temperature and vacuum employed can lead to loss of lower boiling base stock
fractions and volatile additives and can result in thermo‐oxidative oil degradation.
The mass transfer dehydration removes all free water. However, up to 30% of
dissolved water remains in the oil.
References
1. Steward WE, Stubbs TA (1995) Modern wiring practice-design and installation. Newness, U.K.
2. Tripathy SC (1991) Electric energy utilizations and conservations. Tata McGraw Hill, New
Delhi, pp 73–105
3. IEEE Standard 446-1987, IEEE Recommended Practices for Emergency and Standby Power
Systems for Industrial and Commercial Applications (IEEE Orange Book) (ANSI)
4. IEEE Standard 525-1987, IEEE Guide for the design and installation of cable systems in
substations (ANSI)
5. IEEE Std 242-1986 (Reaff 1991), IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power systems (IEEE Buff Book) (ANSI),
Chapter-4
6. ANSI/NFPA 70-1993, National Electrical Code
7. ANSI/NFPA 110-1993, Emergency and Standby Power Systems
8. ANSI/UL 508-1988, Safety Standards for Industrial Control Equipment
9. Beeman DL, (ed) (1995) Industrial power systems handbook. Tata McGraw Hill, New York,
Chapter-2
10. IEEE Std 979-1984, IEEE Guide for Substation Fire Protection (ANSI)
Chapter 7
Best Practices in Distribution
Engineering and Automation
7.1 High-Voltage Distribution System
For losses in the distribution system and for quality improvement of the supply
high-voltage distribution system (HVDS) system it is recommended to erect a 5 kV,
10 kV, or 16 kV small-size single-phase transformer with 11 kV lines nearer to the
load and release the supply at least to the LT line. Aerial bunched cables
(ABC) cover short LT lengths.
7.1.1 Technical Advantage of HVDS Lines
Figure 7.1 shows a HVDS rural electrification.

• Improves voltage profile.
• Reduces losses.
• Avoids frequent fuse blowouts.
• Fewer percentages of transformer failures.
• Uses smaller conductor size.
• Quick replacement.
• Due to distribution transformer failure affects few consumers.
• Improves power factor (normally >0.95) initiating reactive power control.
• Normally LT lines are insulated and length is small thus it avoids unauthorized
hooking of loads.
• Each DTR contains few pumps connected to it and the consumers conclude
ownership and liability.
• Enhances power quality and experiences consumer satisfaction.

166 7 Best Practices in Distribution Engineering and Automation
Fig. 7.1 HVDS used in rural

electrification
7.1.2 Critical Issues Frequently Faced on HVDS
• Is HVDS meant to electrify future areas or for converting existing LVDS?

• Do HVDS and LVDS exist together in the same region?
• What is the connection between load density and kind of distribution system?
• Economics and payback period.
• Guidelines on acquiring single-phase transformers.
If three-phase pump sets are used, HVDS can be applied by converting existing LT
lines for 11 kV and three smaller size single-phase transformers can be used to
provide three-phase LT supply capacity. Using one or two bushings, Single phase
transformers 6.3 kV/233 V can be constructed. HVs are used to connect three
single-phase transformers in star or delta [1, 2].
Linkage with Current Density
• High-load density area where the load capacity exceeds 20 MW/km2 such as
metro areas due to increase in multistoried complexes; in practice LT alone is
not able to carry much load.
• In smaller urban areas, three single-phase transformers are employed in place of
a three-phase transformer. Loads on a limb can be distributed to the other two
limbs in the event of failure of one limb. Also a failed transformer can be easily
transported and erected.
• The entire unit should be replaced in the case of three-phase large capacity
transformers, and downtime is high.
7.1 High-Voltage Distribution System 167
• In rural areas, one or three single-phase transformers can be employed without

any doubt.
• Loads in rural areas and even village habitat portions are too low and generally
single phase.
• In villages, the load densities are confined to be very low and thus are electrified
afresh.
Economics
The cost of a three-phase transformer is 1.3 times the cost of three single-phase
transformers and the capacity of a three-phase transformer is equal to the capacity of
three single-phase transformers [3]. Also no-load to full-load losses are almost the
same. However, as compared to LT, current from the same capacity is too low at
11 kV. Current is 5 amps at 11 kV and 140 amps at LT for a 100 KVA line. Reduction
line losses are in the ratio 52:1402 (25:19,600). Thus, it is very inexpensive.
7.1.3 Three Single-Phase Versus Single Three-Phase

Transformer in Urban Area
The national energy policy government of India targets “A lamp for each house”
under the scheme of Kutir Jyothi for all rural areas. To implement this scheme high
capacity transformers are normally not needed. In light-load areas even the use of
single-phase transformers with capacities of 5 MVA, 10 MVA, 15 MVA, or
16 MVA are more advantageous as follows.
(i) Single-phase loads can be connected on individual transformers suitably
dividing them. For an extreme case, 4 kW or above capacity loads can be
connected with the smaller capacity of a three-phase transformer. If loads are
very low, they cannot contribute and create high imbalance.
(ii) Loads can be distributed to the other two limbs in case of failure of one limb.
(iii) Transport and replacement are very easy and can be done much faster. In fact
a rolling stock of 4% can be maintained at each distribution section office for
faster replacement.
7.1.4 Restrictions Regarding LVDS and HVDS
• Domestic customers constitute 99.99% of existing customers. Their operating

voltage is 415/240 volts. Hence, the key to customer services is nothing but
operational performance of the LV network.
• In the Indian power system T and D are generally more than 20%. In particular,
the LV system is responsible for high losses; per the study, LV line losses are six
times the target limit and three times the maximum tolerable limit. Switchover to
HVDS alone can bring losses to international norms.
• The ratio of power loss for transmitting an equal load in LVDS (415 V) and
HVDS (11,000 V) lines is 13:1.
• Voltage drop between distribution substations and the customer region should
not be allowed more than 10%. Hence, in accordance with IEC Rule 56 on
voltage drop, it is complex and very costly in LVDS whereas in HVDS, it
becomes very easy.
• While investigating typical LV feeders in LVDS, it was indicated that 75% of
LV feeders have a volt drop above 5% which causes high losses. But in HVDS
losses on the LV line are negligible.
• Existing conductors in LVDS are loaded above economic loading limits because
the current for distribution of the same power in LVDS is high. It can be avoided
with a switchover to HVDS.
• The number of feeders to be monitored in LVDS and HVDS are in the ratio of
60:1. Therefore the monitoring of feeders in LVDS is much more burdensome
compared to HVDS.
• In LV lines, unofficial tapping is easy and uncontrolled in LVDS whereas it is
very difficult in HVDS.
• The cables are locally available and are manufactured with tough insulation by
ABC cables.
7.1.5 Three-Phase HVDS
Under a restructuring distribution scheme, the existing low-voltage lines are con-
verted to single-phase two-wire HV lines. Three-phase distribution transformers
with small capacity single-phase transformers are also replaced [4].
Advantages of HVDS System
• The feeling of ownership by listed customers would boost them to take
responsibility. As a result they would not allow others to meddle with the LT
network.
• Unofficial loads are anticipated by the consumers themselves inasmuch as
loading beyond capacity may cause the distribution transformer to fail.
• Underloading and no tapping of LT lines will minimize the failure.
• Equipment failure only affects two or three customers instead of 25–30 cus-
tomers in the original system.
• No voltage drop leads to high quality of supply.
• Good voltage and less fluctuation lead to less burnout of motors.
• Saves power purchase cost because of reduction in losses.
• Less loss leads to supplying more loads without any further investment on
infrastructure.
• The breaker trips at the substation as the line is at 11 kV potential; hence it leads
to reduction of accidents due to touching of snapped conductors.
7.2 Aerial Bunch Conductor (ABC)—Based Distribution System 169
7.2 Aerial Bunch Conductor (ABC)—Based Distribution

System
For an overhead power distribution network, aerial bunched cables are a new concept
compared to the conventional bare conductor. They are used to provide safer and more
reliable operation of the system [5]. The economics of the overall system as power
losses are reduced and the costs of maintenance and operation are also reduced. This
kind of system is very beneficial for installation at difficult locations such as hilly,
forest, and coastal areas, and it is ideal for rural distribution. For power distribution in
urban congested areas with small lanes, ABC can be considered the best choice. ABC
is a better choice in developing an urban complex owing to its flexibility for diversion
because demands keep changing in an urban development plan.
7.2.1 Constructing ABC
Power conductors are made up of aluminum (neutral conductor and street lighting
conductor if and when necessary), insulated with XLPE/HDPE. These power
conductors are twisted around high tensile standard and galvanized steel (aluminum
alloy may be used) in either insulated or bare messenger wire in order to make the
aerial bunched cable. This assembly is hung directly to the distribution pole/towers
with the help of standard hardware available on the market but it should be taken
into consideration that the restored messenger wire is completely insulated in case
of HT ABC from earthing at any point of distribution. The insulation of XLPE
(cross-linked polyethylene) is black in color. Due to exposure to direct sunlight and
ultraviolet radiation, insulation needs to be stabilized against deterioration; thus
insulation is black in color. XLPE is made thermoset by special formulation from a
base polymer of thermoplastic low-density polyethylene. It is a low-density poly-
ethylene that is cross-linkable. XLPE merges the best electrical properties of LPDE
along with superior thermomechanical properties.
7.2.2 Components
• Aluminum conductors abide by IS:8130 (Class-II).

• Standard high-tensile galvanized steel messenger wire obeys IS:398 (Part—2).
But alloy messenger wire obeys IS:398 (Part—4).
• XLPE insulation specifies IS:7098 (Parts—I and II) and HDPE insulation of
power conductors specifies IS:6474, respectively.
• With the introduction of messenger wire, the tension from the current-carrying
conductor is totally removed and the operating temperature of the conductor is
lowered from 90 to 75 °C of the bare conductor of the same size.
7.2.3 Applications
Uses for ABC

• As a substitute for uncovered and unprotected transmission lines in places such
as in rural areas, in woods, and in other localities and narrow streets where there
is limited space.
• As a substitute for bare transmission lines where reliability is most important.
• As a substitute for bare lines where a high degree of stability of supply voltage is
required.
• Where the cost of a joint of overhead lines and underground cables becomes
very high such as in hilly terrains.
• As augmentation of the present system without actually increasing voltage.
• In many temporary supplies.
7.2.4 Advantages
• Less fault rate because of superior protection against both line and ground fault
caused by high winds, falling trees, and birds mainly in hilly areas and forests as
seen in rural distribution networks.
• High resistance between conductors and between conductor to earth in all
seasons and even in polluted atmospheres.
• Low losses and negligible leakage currents.
• Power and telephone cables may be wound in the same set of poles or any other
support such as walls.
• Better flexibility to run parallel with existing overhead bare conductor system
without any intrusion.
• Impedance of the line is low because of high capacitance and low inductance of
lines.
• Lower voltage drop, higher current capacities.
• Better voltage regulation, much safer than bare conductors, easy maintenance,
and cost of lines is reduced.
7.3 Consumer Indexing
In a large area in a highly populated country like India, the distribution and utility
network is complex [6, 7]. It is also vast and scattered over a large area that is
divided into manageable administrative boundaries. With growth in the overall area,
it becomes more complex and grows faster over time. Because there is no managed
and updated database, service connections and consumer data are not documented
properly and become very difficult to locate. Surveys have shown there is no need
to find illicit connections.
7.3 Consumer Indexing 171
There is a requirement of proper documentation of distributed networks over a

geographic base map for the effective management of the vast distributed network
with huge assets. Mapping for the number of assets and consumers is done through
surveys and indexing. In accordance with distribution network criteria and stan-
dards, there is also a requirement in order to verify the electrical documentation. In
its true sense, this can be used to comprehend a simple drawing over a geographical
information system (GIS) platform and electrical network documentation. To meet
the need of GIS documentation and consumer indexing in electricity transmission
and distribution network, integrated software with features and functionalities for
power utilities is necessary. These transmission and distribution networks contain
substations, switching stations, HT/LT feeder/branch, power and distribution
transformers, towers/poles, junction box/pillar box, and many other electrical ele-
ments that jointly constitute the power system.
Geographical co-ordinates are used to plot an object over a geographical base
map ensuring its location. Either manual plotting or capturing the GPS co-ordinates
is used to achieve this. The requirements include documentation of consumers,
different voltage level connections, and meters along with their association within
the network. Core modules of this software include GIS and single-line diagram
(SLD) documentation, consumer mapping, and indexing. There is also an optional
feature offered by the software comprising mapping of consumer plots in the form
of parcels. The product allows deployment in many areas as it has the potential to
integrate with a third party with the help of an exposed B2B interface. As the base
product becomes easy to customize, the software would be able to meet the needs of
specific customers.
The documentation that would meet the standards for electricity transmission
and distribution networks is ensured by the software which gives on-draw valida-
tion. Presentation supports a layerwise view. The indexing format can be adapted to
specific definitions and can also be redefined and regenerated in order to make the
indexing format fully flexible and user customizable.
7.4 Up-to-Date Asset Register
Energy companies own and operate the infrastructure and assets that are in a
constant state of flux. Network assets can be continuously added, moved, or
replaced and this can be done either directly by the utility or by subcontractors or
other agencies. This work is generally planned but it can also be done in order to
maintain system integrity in response to an emergency [8, 9].
It is essential for each utility to record up-to-date assets. For the purpose of
tracking assets use of GIS technology will be beneficial.
GIS-based asset mapping is a methodology in which a satellite image is digitized
for the area of interest. The same map is loaded over portable GIS survey equip-
ment (such as a palmtop). A surveyor with that base map visits each asset and
records details of the asset along with its GIS coordinates. After the survey it is
uploaded to the database and a list of assets/asset register is prepared. It is essential

to update the asset register on a regular basis at least once a month.
There are various benefits for maintaining such records:
• List of total assets of the utility, ageing, costs, and so on can be calculated.
Based on this, a future maintenance/augmentation schedule can be planned.
• In the case of some faults it is easier to locate the actual fault position and
impact. However, attending faults will be easier.
• Based on this record the network flow can be traced. Energy/technical loss can
be calculated. Distribution automation can be implemented based on this
information.
7.5 Distribution Automation
Nonavailability of distribution network topological information and current status

of the equipment such as distribution transformers, capacitors, switches, and feeders
hampers the O&M of a distribution system [10, 11]. Operational as well as future
network expansion planning cannot be done concurrently. Delayed fault detection,
isolation, and service restoration are common features of a weak distribution net-
work. All these lead to increased system losses, poor quality and reliability of the
power supply, in addition to the increased peak demand and poor return of revenue.
The situation can be corrected by intervention of IT initiatives, GIS mapping, and
adhering to DA (distribution automation).
Automation refers to doing a particular task automatically and at a faster rate in a
sequential manner. This can be achieved by use of a microprocessor in co-ordination
with a communication network and some relevant software programming.
Application of automation at the distribution power system level can be defined
as automatically monitoring, protecting, and controlling switching operations
through intelligent electronic devices (IED) to restore power service during a fault
by sequential events and maintaining better operating conditions back to normal
operations. Recently, due to advancements in communications technology, a dis-
tribution automation system (DAS) is not just the remote control and operation of
substation and feeder equipment but results in a highly reliable, self-healing power
system that responds rapidly to realtime events with appropriate actions. Hence,
automation does not just replace manual procedures; it permits the power system to
operate in the best optimal way, based on accurate information provided in a timely
manner to the decision-making applications and devices.
Summary of DAS Primary Aims
• To optimize the operational and energy efficiency of distribution networks, and
improve the quality and reliability of the power supply.
• To form an integral part of the evolving smart grid by deploying intelligent
distribution network elements and devices that can communicate with each
7.5 Distribution Automation 173
other, and with other downstream and upstream elements, thus furthering the
smart grid objectives of flexible, responsive, and efficient management of the
power supply in line with demand.
Distribution utilities in their effort to automate existing substations and other
components of a distribution network should focus on two aspects—economical
and technical—that influence the optimum control of the power system manage-
ment business.
Economic
• Cost reduction in operation: Faster fault location, clearance, and shorter supply
interruption through better co-ordinated network control can lead to personnel
and other related cost reductions.
• Cost reduction in maintenance: Reduction in maintenance cost of primary net-
work components by changing from presently followed preventive, (time-based)
maintenance to predictive and RCM (reliability-centered maintenance).
• Installation cost reduction: By adhering to retrofitting of existing equipment to
make it automation compatible, savings in cost can be achieved. Space saving
and control room building cost saving can be achieved for substations.
Technical
• Online information of system parameters and consumer loads would be useful
for online monitoring of system stability.
• Documentation of such data would be useful in future and timely planning and
engineering exercise.
• New functionalities can be added to the existing equipment.
• Setting and co-ordination of relays can be done online.
Thus in addition to the tangible benefits of improving reliability and efficiency
within network operations, DA upgrades have another important attribute: they
have the potential to deliver a strong return on investment without requiring
intensive consumer engagement or behavior change. DA technologies begin to
grasp the demand response capability of conservation voltage control (CVR) and
the energy management possibilities of dynamic load distribution, once it is sus-
tained with relatively simple remote control of field-based switches having the main
goal of increasing reliability.
Apart from a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and distribution
management system (DMS), implementation of a geographical information system
(GIS), automated meter reading (AMR) system, outage management system,
communication system, billing and business process automation, and a SAP-based
enterprise resource planning (ERP) system are possible.
In order to meet the requirements to transform conventional static grids into
modern and dynamic smart grids, distribution networks are under very high pres-
sure. This trend is influenced by the increasing occurrence of decentralized gen-
eration (DER) particularly and apart from that, the need to improve the quality and
reliability in MV and LV networks. Along with the requirements on operation and

maintenance ever-growing cost pressure is an add-on. New requirements have
arisen for automation, monitoring control, and protection of distribution substations
and ring main units (RMUs) because of the shift in paradigm. Consistent and
flexible system solutions, which are scalable for different applications, are used to
support these requirements. In order to ensure seamless and interoperable systems
in communication, there should be consistent use of standards. The segments’
generation, transmission, and subtransmission perform at a high level in today’s
electrical grids and these also have substation automation systems. But the distri-
bution segment and distribution substations (feeder heads) along with the ring main
units, are positioned along the feeder and thus far only have a basic level of
communication and automation. Most of the existing RMUs are not equipped with
any intelligence for communication and automation. Furthermore, there may be a
variation in the levels of automation in different countries due to previous strategies
of the utilities. Another critical area in many distribution grids may be a lack of
space in RMU housing for the necessary peripherals of the feeder automation
system. Finally, there exist a large variety and differences in the age of primary
equipment, which is not prepared for advanced automation and communication; for
example, many RMUs are not prepared for remote control, or a fuse is used for
protection purposes instead of a circuit breaker. Therefore, the smart grid policy of
the utility companies requires an individual migration and modernization strategy
for a future-oriented distribution automation and protection solution.
First of all a concept has to be designed which states that for the distribution
substations and RMU, there is a required level of automation and functionality.
Because of the presence of distinct primary equipment or communications avail-
ability, there could have been a difference in the RMU in one distribution grid or in
the same feeder. At the same time, a certain level of automation and smart grid
functionality could be realized with or without limited access to communication.
There can also be a mix of functions in one feeder automation system.
The roadmap for grid upgrades towards a smart grid can be provided by the
following levels of distribution automation.
Local Automation (Without Transmission)
• Sectionalizer (by using switching sequences, automated restoration of fault)
• Voltage regulator (regulation for long feeders, automation of voltage regulation)
• Recloser controller (for overhead lines, automatic closing of breaker after use).
Monitoring Only (One-Way Transmission to Distribution Substation or

Control Center)
• Messaging box (e.g., for fast fault location, short circuit indicators with one-way
communication to distribution substation or control center).
7.5 Distribution Automation 175
Control, Monitoring, and Automation (Two-Way Transmission to Distribution

Substation or Control Center)
• DA-RTU (distribution automation RTU) with powerful communication and
automation features and applicable for smart grid functions.
7.6 DMS (Distribution Management System)
Automation involves “A set of technologies that enable an electric utility to

remotely monitor, coordinate and operate distribution components in a real-time
mode from remote locations.” Please see Table 7.1.
The selection of distribution automation plays a key role in maintaining the
power network with improved operation and maintenance, high reliability,
improved efficiency, and power quality [12].
The substation automation system (SAS) is the latest technology trend that
provides control of all the transmission and distribution substation equipment from
remote control centers (RCC), as well as from the local control center, along with
monitoring. Local station control is enabled by SAS using a PC by means of a
human–machine interface (HMI) and control software packages containing an
extensive range of functions by SCADA. For the control of bay and inter-IED
communication infrastructure, a communication gateway and intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs) should be included. The SAS adheres to IEC 61850 standards.
DMS performs many functions such as managing the operation of the electrical
distribution network and the field crews assigned to operate, maintain, and repair
the network. Improvement of the utilization of the distribution network and increase
in productivity of the workforce are some of the functions of a DMS network
manager. Thus the flow of data and information among operations, engineering,
management, and customers is enhanced.
Table 7.1 Function of automation

Substation automation Feeder automation Consumer-level automation
functions functions functions
Data acquisition and Data acquisition and • Automatic meter reading
supervisory control of supervisory control of • Remote reprogramming of
• Circuit breakers • Line reclosers time-of-use (TOU)
• Load tap changers • Voltage regulators • Meters remote service
• Capacitor banks • Capacitor banks • Connect/disconnect
• Transformers • Sectionalizers • Automated customer
• Fault location • Line switches • Claims analysis
• Fault isolation • Fault indicators
• Service restoration • Fault location
• Substation reactive power • Fault isolation
control • Service restoration
• Feeder reconfiguration
• Feeder reactive power
control
A connectivity model of the as-built electrical network is maintained completely

by the system.
The system is able to retain an accurate representation of the as-operated phase
of the electrical network by processing inputs from EMS/SCADA (see Table 7.2).
The most efficient manner to analyze the status of a network in terms of loading
(current and voltage), outages, fault location, and dispatch crews, other information
inputs such as substation loads, customer trouble calls, relay fault data, and crew
location can be used [13]. In this way, the DMS network manager can provide a
more accurate picture of the electrical distribution network performance as com-
pared to a standalone SCADA system. It can also allow for more reliable responses
to system disturbances at improved speed.
The following are the functional requirements to be built into a distribution
management system.
• Common user interface (SCADA, DMS, GIS)
• Historical information system
• Network topology processor (automated mapping and facilities management)
• Outage management
• Switching order management
• Fault location, isolation, and service restoration
• Load balancing
• Interfacing to trouble call system (complaint system)
• Crew management
• Load management (auto and on-demand scheduled load shedding)
• Optimal feeder reconfiguration
• Distribution power flow
• Load survey and energy accounting.
For control center operators, service center and call center personnel and man-
agement, full graphics and Web-based interfaces are being offered by the DMS
network manager. To support various work procedures such as the requirement for
switch orders, trouble calls, crew dispatch, outage management, and to allow access
to up-to-the-minute operational status reports, these are expanded throughout the
utility.
A typical distribution network consists of following components.
Table 7.2 Assessment results

Global level Indian utilities
IT used to enable operations at transaction level to Core operations are manual and faces
provide benefits: issues such as
• In-built process control • Ad hoc decision making
• Workflow-enabled transactions • Poor data quality
• Single point of data capture • Long decision-making cycles
• Support for timely strategic decision making • Underutilization of IT investments
7.6 DMS (Distribution Management System) 177
Transformers
• Circuit breakers
• Feeders
• Sectionalizing switches
• Capacitor banks
• Voltage regulators
• Small generation sets
• LT consumers
• HT consumers.
Automation could be done at three levels.
• Substation level automation
• Feeder level automation
• Customer level automation.
Automation can address the following types of problems and other jobs.
Fault location, isolation, and service restoration.
• Maintaining good voltage profile
• Load balancing
• Load control
• Metering
• Maintaining maps
• Fuse-off call operations
• Energy accounting
• Outage management
• Customer information system management.
Distribution automation requires substantial IT interventions and communication
devices/systems to be deployed by distribution utilities.
This wide gap between Indian and global best utilities needs to be bridged to
improve commercial and operational performance of the utilities including quality
of service to consumers. With the finances made available under the R-APDRP
project by the Indian government, Indian utilities have launched massive programs
of installing the required IT hardware/software. Please see Table 7.3.
Communication Technologies
UMTS: Universal mobile telecommunication system (3G system); WiMAX
(worldwide interoperability for microwave access professional mobile radio (or
private mobile radio, PMR); point to multipoint communication using VHF/UHF
frequency show the way forward towards smart grid [14].
Because the communication and information infrastructure is expected to be the
backbone of a smart grid, electric utilities all over the world are aware of the
opportunity and are already investing in them.
Collaborative smart grid demonstration projects are used to unveil the difference
in standard and open communications. These are related to the integration of
Table 7.3 Wireless communication technologies available to november 2011

Technology Standards Operator Freq. band Data rate Application
owner
VHF/UHF Proprietary Utility 150/ Narrowband Voice, DA, and
radio PMR 400 MHz SCADA
2.4 GHz WLAN Customer 2.4 GHz Broadband Short-range
wireless ZigBee utility AMR, home
automation
Point to Proprietary, Utility or 5–60 GHz Broadband High-speed data,
multipoint WiMAX third party DA, SCADA
Public cellular GSM/GPRS, Third 900/ Narrow Voice, data, DA,
data services UMTS, party 1800 MHz band, AMR
CDMA (EU) broadband
800–
1900 MHz
(EU)
Satellite Proprietary Third 6, 12 GHz Narrow AMR
communication party band
distributed resources and would get the smart grid on the “Slope of Enlightenment”
shortly. The success of technical and financial investments is the area of interest of
investors and regulators.
Customers are interested in understanding whether the profit that can finally be
produced will justify the cost.
7.7 Mobile Substation
A mobile substation is used during war, natural catastrophe, or an equipment

breakdown in order to bring electricity temporarily to regions that have lost it.
It constitutes the components such as the trailer, switchgear, breakers, emer-
gency or station power supply, a compact high-power-density transformer, and
raised cooling capability (Fig. 7.2). It reaches the blackout location within 24 h to
provide temporary electrical power. Its capability to move from one area to another
quickly is its greatest advantage [15].
Apart from mobility, it also offers service providers time to repair damaged parts
and get normal service back. It is also useful when maintenance is needed on
substations so that consumer’s power does not shut off during work. They are made
in compact size so that units become easier to use in smaller regions. Please see
Fig. 7.3.
Utilities also use mobile transformers so that out-of-service transformers are
replaced temporarily, either for maintenance or due to forced outage. These mobile
transformers are available in medium power range (10–100 MVA) with HV rated at
245 kV.
7.7 Mobile Substation 179
Fig. 7.2 Mobile substation components
Fig. 7.3 Mobile substation in transit
Some Potential Purposes of Mobile Substation

• Planned maintenance: A mobile substation is used on a day-to-day basis
within the utility to provide alternate capacity during planned maintenance of
substations. It is desirable to have mobile substation systems available for
emergency duty during peak loading or extreme weather conditions; utilities
schedule their planned maintenance around the time when mobile substation
systems are less likely to be needed for emergency use.
• Temporary substation capacity increase: Mobile substations may be called
upon when an area may be faced with a temporary load increase that is not
expected to last more than several months. Examples are construction projects or
major plant modifications that require high electrical loads that will drop following
completion. Special events can boost the capacity needs for a short time period.
• Forced outage repair: Unplanned repairs can be called for due to existing
equipment failure, weather phenomena, or intentional disruptions. Equipment
failure is the most common cause for deployment [16].
• Weather and other natural outages: Disasters are the main cause of electrical
outages, although most often these have a larger impact on the power lines
leading to and from the substations than on the substations and transformers
themselves. Some natural disasters can harm substation operations and create a
need for mobile substation systems.
• Sabotage and attacks: Intentional disruptions such as sabotage could severely
harm the electrical grid, and mostly substations are vulnerable to attack. These
systems may be useful in returning the facility to normal operations more
quickly. This may be especially true if the attack strikes several substations,
perhaps in order to bring down portions of a large urban area.
References
1. Computer Aided Distribution Management Utility Practices, Publication No. 227, CBIP,
Malcha Marg, Channakyapuri, New Delhi
2. Wiebe M (1999) A guide to utility automation. Pannwell, USA
3. Stevenson A (1993, June) Which communication technology is best for automation?
Transmission and distribution, pp 44–53
4. Peri R, Krishna Rao MV (1994) Load control for India. Transmission and Distribution
International, Fourth Quarter, pp 26–30
5. Sehgal BK (1989) Computer aided electric power control. Power & Process Tech,
Incorporated Publication Division, New Delhi
6. Asian Electricity (1999, Mar) pp 22–24
7. Asian Power (2000, Sep), pp 65–66
8. Berney GC Intelligent instrumentation. Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi, pp 10, 118, 125
9. Pabla AS Future technologies for rural electrification in India. In: Proceeding of international
R&D conference, CBIP, New Delhi 9–12, pp 339–351
10. Khare PN (1999) Load management by judicious load shedding. Electrical India, 28th Feb,
pp 12–15
11. Strauss C (2003) Practical electrical network automation & communication system. Newnes,
Amsterdam, pp 49–50, 69
12. Craig D (2010) Communication options for distribution automation and automatic metering.
In: Proceedings of IEEE PES transmission & distribution conference, New Orleans, U.S.A.,
April 19–22
13. IEEE Guide for Power Line carrier Applications, IEEE Standards 643-2005
14. Marihart DJ (2001, Apr) Communication technology guidelines for EMS/SCADA systems.
IEEE Trans Power 16(2):181–188
15. Gelblen L (1996, Oct) Distribution automation increases reliability. Transmission and
Distribution World, pp 38–41
16. Bush R (1996, Jan) T&D spending patterns. Transmission and distribution, p 61
Chapter 8
and Maintenance of Energy Meters
8.1 Metering Provisions
The energy meter is a device that records the energy consumed over a specific
period of time. It is an integral part of revenue realization in the distribution
business. All domestic and industrial consumers need at least one energy meter to
register energy consumption. Based on the meter reading, the supplier calculates the
bill to the consumer [1, 2]. The generation company sells the electricity to the
distribution company which has the responsibility to sell this energy to the con-
sumer and consumer needs to pay the bill from the distributor.
Accurate energy accounting remains elusive in the Indian power distribution
system, as utilities continue to manage with unmetered consumer segments,
incomplete transformer metering, and lack of baseline data. This leads to significant
limitations in efficient determination and loss reduction.
8.2 Indian Electricity Act 2003
The Indian Electricity Act 2003 notified on June 10th, 2003 the objective of com-
petition, protection of consumer’s interest, and power for all consumers located in
various regions. It creates a liberal framework for power development and focuses
on revenue recovery and protection. Act 2003 creates an environment to run the
power distribution business as profit centers as well as encourage private investment.
8.2.1 Electricity Act 2003 Section 55
In Section 55, the Act 2003 amendment explains after the two years of expiration
from the date of appointment, except through installation of the correct meter, the

182 8 Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance of Energy Meters
licensee is not entitled to supply electricity in accordance with regulations. For

proper accounting and audit in generation, transmission, and distribution or elec-
tricity trading, the authority may direct the installation of a meter by a GENCO or
licensee at such stages of generation, transmission and distribution, or electricity
trading, and at such locations it may be deemed necessary.
8.2.2 Central Electricity Authority Notification

Dated March 17th, 2006
The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) notification provided for the classification
of meter types, specification and standards, proprietorship, location, precision class,
installation, testing, operation and maintenance (O&M), access, meter safety seal,
reading and recording, failure or inconsistencies in the meter, tamperless features,
quality assurance, calibration and periodic testing, and adoption of new technolo-
gies in respect to the following meters for correct accounting, billing, and audit of
electricity.
• Interface meter
• Consumer meter
• Energy accounting and audit meter
All the above-specified meters should be in accord with the Bureau of Indian
Standards (BIS) [3]. If equipment or material do not have any BIS Standards, the
corresponding International Electro-Technical Commission (IEC) Standards,
British Standards (BS), or any other equivalent standard should be practiced,
provided that whenever an international standard is followed, necessary cus-
tomization or alterations should be made for the parameters such as system fre-
quency, voltage, ambient temperature, humidity, and other conditions prevailing in
India before actual adoption of the said international standard; the standards on
“Installation and Operation of Meters” as specified in the schedule annexed to these
regulations and as amended from time to time should be followed.
8.3 Variety of Meters
Figure 8.1 depicts the different kinds of meters.
8.4 Location of Meters
Meter locations are shown in Table 8.1.

8.4 Location of Meters 183
Static Energy Meters
Single Phase Meters LT Three Phase HT Three Phase

Meter Meter
Static Display CT Operated Meter HT Meters with 5

100/5, 200/5, 400/5 Amp, 11000/110 v
Downloadable
Communication port Whole current Meter ABT meters
10-60 Amp Bidirectional meters
Pre Paid
Fig. 8.1 Meter varieties
Table 8.1 Location of interface, consumer, energy accounting, and audit meters
S. Stages Main meter Check Standby meter
No. meter
1. Generating station All outgoing feeders All • HV side of generator
outgoing transformer
feeders • HV side of all station
auxiliary transformers
2. Transmission and • For same licensee, – • No separate standby
distribution system one end of the line meter
between the • In the case of two
substations different licensees,
• For two licensees, meter installed at
both ends of the line other end of the line
between substations; works as standby
for respective meter
licensees, meters at
both ends considered
as main meters
3. Interconnecting HV side of ICT – LV side of ICT
transformer (ICT)
4. Directly connecting As directed by appropriate commission
consumers to the inter/
intra-state transmission
system, covered under
ABT and permitted
open access by the
appropriate
commission
(continued)

S. Stages Main meter Check Standby meter
No. meter
5. Consumer energy Meter installed at a – –
meters (as per supply height enabling
code) convenient meter
reading and to protect
meter from adverse
weather conditions
Note The location of meters already installed at generating stations should not be changed or
altered without proper approval from the authority
8.5 Meter Classification per Technology,

Use, and Locations
Meters can be classified in the following manner as per their technology, use,
location, and so on.
8.5.1 Interface Meters
(i) Consumers with open access permission by the proper commission should be
provided with an interface meter; this meter interconnects the inter- or
intra-state transmission system [4, 5].
(ii) The consumer who is connected to the distribution system and allowed open
access should have the provision of interface meters as per directions of the
proper commission.
(iii) The licensee connected to a central or state transmission utility should submit
the location of interface meters in advance before the installation.
8.5.2 Consumer Meters
• The licensee should install this meter either inside or outside the consumer
premises.
• When the licensee installs the meter outside the consumer premises, he or she
should provide a realtime display unit to indicate the electricity consumed by the
consumer.
• The consumer meter reading should be taken into account, not the display unit,
for billing purposes.
• When the commission allows, the direct electricity supply from the generation
company to the consumers on a separate transmission system and the location of
meters should be per the mutual agreement between them.
8.5 Meter Classification per Technology, Use, and Locations 185
8.5.3 Energy Accounting and Audit of Meters
These meters are installed at the locations to facilitate the energy generated,
transmitted, distributed, and consumed in the various parts of the power system and
the energy loss [6]. The location of these meters should be as follows.
(i) Generating Stations:
• At the generator stator terminal.
• Generating station and unit auxiliary transformers high- and low-voltage
sides.
• Feeders to various auxiliaries.
(ii) Transmission Stations:
• Energy accounting and audit of meters are installed for all incoming and
outgoing feeders whenever interface meters do not exist.
(iii) Distribution System:
• Energy accounting and audit meters are installed for all incoming and
outgoing feeders for the distribution system, when the system voltages
are 11 kV and above.
• Depending upon the necessity for energy accounting and audit, the
licensee may provide the meter on the primary or secondary side or both
sides of the substation transformer including any distribution transformer.
8.6 Accuracy of Electromechanical Versus Electronic

Energy Meters
Table 8.2 gives comparisons between meters.
8.7 Communication Facility in Meters
There are various types of communication facility available in energy meters. These
ports enable easy, accurate, and automated meter reading. Nowadays meters having
multiple communication ports are available [7, 8]. Some of the variety is as follows.
a. Optical communication
b. RS 232 communication
c. RS 485 communication
d. RJ 11 communication
e. Modem communication
f. Radio frequency (RF) communication
Table 8.2 Comparison between electromechanical and electronic energy meters

S. Electromechanical energy meters Electronic energy meters (TVM)
No.
1. Energy measured is based on the Energy measured is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction principle of sampling
2. Meter measures only active current Meter measures active, reactive, and
(KWH) apparent energies in all four quadrants
3. It has poor accuracy of measurement. It It has better accuracy. It can measure up
can measure up to class 1 of accuracy to 0.2 s class of accuracy
4. It does not have a data storage facility It has a data storage facility and stores
kWh, kVArh (lead and lag), and kVAh in
forward and reverse directions with the
help of energy accumulator (registers)
5. Meter measures cumulative active power Meter measures instantaneous phase
only voltages, phase powers, currents,
frequency, phase sequence, rising
demand, power factor, date, and time
6. Manual reading facility only Data collection possible through the
optically isolated serial interface, using a
PC or MRI
7. No time of day (TOD) facility Time of day (TOD) programmable
8. Maximum demand is recorded by means Maximum demand registers with
of a manual counter that can be reset programmable block/sliding methods,
manually integration periods, and energy types
9. No load survey recorder facility Load survey recorder facility available
10. No tamper-recording facility in such Various tamper records available for
meters detecting tamper/fraud
11. Unidirectional only. In case of change in Meter can be configured as a
phase and neutral direction of energy unidirectional/bidirectional meter
recording changes
12. No auto reset facility Different means of reset—automonthly,
manual, or automonthly and manual reset
Meters are read using a meter reading instrument (MRI), wireless communicator for
RF meters, or through automatic meter reading (AMR) [9]. In a direct MRI
downloading meter, the meter reader carrying a handheld device reaches each
metering site, connects the optical port/RS Port/RJ port of the meter and downloads
meter data as required. In modem-connected meters, the meter reader need not visit
the metering location each time. Meter data can be downloaded from the central
server located at the office by using the GSM/GPRS/CDMA/3G network. Today the
central server has a scheduler using this meter scheduled to read at a particular date
and time. Manual interference can be completely avoided using this methodology.
In the RF communication method, the meter reader has to visit the metering site and
search for nearby meters within the accessible range (normally 50–100 m). After
finding the meter the same can be downloaded by establishing wireless commu-
nications [10].
8.8 Meter Calibration and Periodical Testing 187
8.8 Meter Calibration and Periodical Testing
8.8.1 Interface Meter
• The accuracy of each interface meter is tested using a standard reference meter
by the owner at the site at the time of commissioning.
• Periodic testing is required to ensure accuracy, and also to avoid malfunctioning.
As per the standard, meters are tested at least once in five years.
• The meters should be tested via a NABL-accredited mobile laboratory or by any
accredited laboratory and recalibrated if meter records any abnormal or incon-
sistent electrical quantity as required by the manufacturer’s works.
• Advance notice should be sent to the customer from the supplier to intimate the
date and timing of testing; it is carried out in the presence of representatives
from both sides.
8.8.2 Consumer Meter
• The accuracy of each consumer meter is tested using a standard reference meter
• Periodic testing is required to ensure accuracy, and also to avoid malfunctioning.
As per the standard, meters are tested at least once in five years.
• The testing of the said consumer’s meter above 650 V should cover the
metering system including CTs, VTs, and the like. The meters may be tested
through a NABL-accredited mobile laboratory or by any accredited laboratory
and recalibrated if the meter records any abnormal or inconsistent electrical
quantity as required at the manufacturer’s works.
• Advance notice should be sent to the customer from the supplier to intimate the
date and timing of testing; it is carried out in the presence of representatives
from both sides.
8.8.3 Meter Energy Accounting and Audit
• The accuracy of each consumer meter is tested using a standard reference meter
• Periodic testing is required to ensure accuracy for both check meters and
standby meters, and also to avoid malfunctioning. As per the standard, meters
are tested at least once in five years without removal of CTs and PTs.
• The meters may be tested by a NABL-accredited mobile laboratory or by any
accredited laboratory and recalibrated if the meter records abnormal or incon-
sistent electrical quantity using a measuring unit, secondary injection kit,
phantom loading, and so on, as required at the manufacturer’s works.
8.9 Best Practices for Meter Installation
To avoid erroneous meter readings, the following points should be taken care of
while installing meters.
(i) Reversal of phase and neutral connection (single-phase).
(ii) Reversal of load connected on middle phase and earth (three-phase three-
wire system).
(iii) Bypassing of neutral wire (three-phase four-wire meter).
(iv) Use of protection core of the meter.
(v) Influence of CT and PT wires.
• Long lead CT wires.
• Small size of the conductor.
(vi) For distribution transformer metering meter should be on LT side only.
• Meter specification should be of outdoor type; LT CT meters preferable.
• Best to locate so as to account for ATC loss.
(vii) For industrial and commercial metering ideal to locate near the front gate.
(viii) For agricultural supplies.
• Preferable on DT of each consumer.
• Meter should be located on the pole.
• Load restriction with built-in switches.
(ix) Outdoor type of meter mounting to be done inside enclosure.
8.10 Best Practices for Reliable Metering
(i) Proper stripping of cable/wire.

• Use of crimped pin socket.
• Use of chrome compound.
• Ensure proper contacts by lugging of cable/wire.
• Proper crimping of lugs.
• Ensure screws are tightened properly.
• Ensure proper antirusting bolt, nut, and spring washer.
(ii) Shake or rotate the cable to ensure proper seating of conductor strands in the
terminal.
(iii) Terminal must completely cover the conducting (bare) part of the cable.
(iv) Meter should be properly mounted onto the panel/box and firmly fixed with
screws.
(v) Ensure correct connection, that is, right polarity, phase association, and
phase sequence.
8.10 Best Practices for Reliable Metering 189
(vi) Use of crimped joint and not twist joint when joining two wires.
(vii) Protection fuses must be used as per practice and appropriate places only.
(viii) Crossing of wire at meter terminals must not be allowed.
(ix) All wires must be numbered and ferruled for easy identification.
(x) No exposure of XLPE insulation.
• UV susceptible.
• Applying insulation tape is not the solution.
• Crutch point is highly vulnerable.
• Use of heat shrink breakout and sleeve.
• Embedding lug protection in sleeve.
(xi) Use of double-bolted long barrel lugs in LT side of distribution transformer.
(xii) Improper wiring of neutral wire for four-wire meters.
(xiii) Undersized neutral wire in three-phase loads.
(xiv) Adopting single earth wire return system in single-phase system.
(xv) Installing meter without confirming secondary CT rating.
8.11 Storage Methodology in Tri-vector Meters
8.11.1 Types of Tri-vector Meters
Tri-vector meters have the following types of storage.

(i) Block
(ii) Sequential
(i) Block Storage: Separate memory will be allocated for each type of tampering
for each phase. Tamper events will be recorded in this memory. The recording
of each event is on a FIFO basis.
Example
The time of occurrence and duration of the tamper is recorded separately phasewise
for each tamper for the latest 10 tampers. The number of tamper counts of each type
of tamper is also recorded [11, 12].
If a tamper condition exists at the time of total power failure, then at the time of
recovery of power, the tamper condition still continues without an increment in the
tamper count. The power-off time is not added to the tamper condition.
Make 10 tampers of each type (R, VF), collect the data, and check for continuing
tamper, tamper status, tamper count, tamper occurrence date and time, and tamper
duration. Create one more event (R, VF); the first event will be erased and the
second event will be shifted to the first event memory, the tenth event to the ninth
event place and the new event will occupy the tenth event memory.
(ii) Sequential Storage: All tamper events will be recorded sequentially. There is
no separate memory allocation for each type of tampering. Any one tamper
can occupy complete memory if others do not exist, but in block a separate
memory is allocated for each tamper.
Example
The time of occurrence and duration of the tamper is recorded separately phasewise
for each tamper. The number of tamper counts of each type of tamper is also
recorded. The tamper is recorded in the sequence of occurrence.
If the maximum tamper count is 100 events, make any 100 tampers, collect the
data, and check for continuing tamper, tamper status, tamper count, tamper
occurrence date and time, and tamper duration. Create one more event; the first
event will be erased and the second event will be shifted to the first event memory,
the 100th event to the 99th event place and the new event will occupy the 100th
event memory (FIFO) [13, 14].
8.11.2 Storage Methodology
(1) Snapshots: Snapshots mean voltage, current, PF, kWh, and KVAH will be
logged into memory at the time of occurrence or restoration of any type of
tamper. Snapshot parameters vary from customer to customer.
(2) Load survey snap: Tamper and power fail snaps will be shown in the LS
integration period if any tamper and power fail has occurred during that period.
It can be checked on the spreadsheet as well as on a graph.
(3) Total power fails: Power fail records are recorded separately. The time of
occurrence and duration of power fail is recorded for the latest 10 power
failures. The power fail count is also recorded. Total power on duration is
recorded as well.
(4) Indications for voltage and current:
• 123 indication will be on LCD if phase voltage > 20% Vn
• 1. R phase
• 2. Y phase
• 3. B phase
• 123 will start blinking if phase current > 2% In
(5) Persistence time: Persistence time is the minimum time to identify the tamper
with the tamper threshold by default occurrence; the time is 2 min and
restoration time is 1 min.
(6) Event: Event means either occurrence or restoration of tamper.
(7) Anomaly on display: “*” (Star) will show on the LCD display after confir-
mation of any tamper and will clear after recovery of all tampers. The star will
appear for any tamper occurrence.
8.12 Meter Testing 191
8.12 Meter Testing
Energy meters are the heart of the distribution business. Revenue inflow to the
power systems is guarded by energy meters. A distribution engineer is always
behind accurate metering of the energy. There are various guidelines issued by
regulators for periodic meter testing [15].
8.12.1 Preinstallation Laboratory Testing
Manufacturers during supply of meters calibrate them within an acceptable range of

accuracy. However, it is the distribution company’s responsibility to check the
meter accuracy before installation at the consumer’s premises. In the process the
distribution company checks the meter at its lab for the following tests.
• Accuracy testing by calculating the pulses or numbers of disc rotation at a
particular load, standard voltage
• Mechanical inspection of terminal, body, and so on
• No-load, full-load tests
• Routine tests.
8.12.2 Onsite Tests
Regulators have already defined the periodicity of a routine test for different kinds
of meters. Obeying the same regulations, the testing engineer visits the metering site
with all the metering testing devices. He or she inspects the site, sealing the con-
dition of the meter in the presence of the customer/customer executive. The testing
engineer tests the accuracy of the meter with a portable site meter testing device.
That meter testing device has to be calibrated from a NABL-accredited laboratory.
After completion of the test, the testing engineer fills the meter inspection report
and gets consent from the consumer’s representative. In the case of any sign of
theft/inaccuracy, the testing engineer opens the meter and seals it for Panchanama
and invites the customer for joint inspection.
8.12.3 Joint Inspection of Meter
Normally joint inspection of a meter is carried out if any tamper/misuse of the meter
is detected. In this case the sealed meter is opened in front of the consumer,
accessing authority, and manufacturing company’s representative (if any). The
meter is tested at a laboratory for accuracy calculation and witnessed by all. Where
any tampering is detected the subsequent penalty is charged.
8.13 Meter Sealing
Electricity theft is a very big international problem in power utilities; nearly 20% of
the electricity produced is stolen annually and creates big revenue losses. These
costs are then usually imposed on honest consumers in the form of higher tariff
rates. It is the responsibility of the distribution company and engineer to design a
positive, reliable, security seal to enable checks on such theft. Specially designed
seals are available on the market and specially researched designs enable the meters
to be impossible to be tampered with without a trace. Once the said seal is broken it
cannot be joined or returned to the meter [16]. The seal is designed for one-time use
only and cannot be accidentally opened and must be deliberately cut by cutting
pliers for its removal. The see-through body enables easy detection of internal
tampering.
Following are some of the advanced variety of seals.
a. Met grip seals
b. Paper seals
c. Anchor security seal
d. Valve/meter cable seal
e. Tamper-evident security seal (with continuity check).
8.14 Latest Advanced Technology in Metering
8.14.1 Meter Data Acquisition (MDA)
The meter data acquisition (MDA) system can acquire data from energy meters
connected through an optical port/serial communication cord with all major meter
manufacturers using GSM/GPRS/CDMA technologies. The meter data acquisition
has these features:
• The data extraction can be granular (based on type of data, e.g., billing,
instantaneous, load profile, etc.) and is incremental in order to minimize the data
volume.
• The scheduling feature allows the user to configure the acquisition schedules for
a location, set of meters, or for the office hierarchy such as division or
subdivision.
• The system maintains a complete history of metering points and can compare
datapoints of the same or different metering points.
• It supports report server integration.
• The system is scalable and integration with other applications of IT
infrastructure.
• The solution is built on Java, XML, and Oracle technologies and has a browser-
based Web interface for access.
8.14 Latest Advanced Technology in Metering 193
8.14.2 AMR Technology
In India the following types of AMR techniques are being adopted.

• RS485 through Modbus RTU Open protocol
• PSTN (public switched telephone network)
• GSM (global system for mobile)
• CDMA (code division multiple access)
• RF (radio frequency)
• PLCC (powerline carrier communication).
8.14.3 Prepaid Metering
Figure 8.2 depicts prepaid metering.

• In order to reduce the gap between billing and collection efficiency a new
methodology, prepaid metering, was introduced for educated customers.
• A proximity-based smart card prepaid energy metering system provides benefits
and convenience to both utility and consumer.
• It reduces the billing cycle, increases revenue gain, and optimizes the use of
energy in order to make the system more efficient.
Fig. 8.2 Prepaid metering

Various prepaid metering technologies are:

• Coin operated meters—obsolete technology
• Magnetic cards—obsolete technology
• Keypad meters
• Contact-based prepaid meters
• Proximity-based smart card.
References
1. Orchard N (2000, Oct) The advance of metering. Utility Automation International, pp 31–32
2. Handbook for Electricity Metering (2002, Apr) 10th Edition. Edison Electric Institute, USA,
pp 199–209
3. AMR/Metering Handbook (2006) The electricity forum. Ontario, Canada
4. Fryers T (2005) Metering international, issue 3, pp 84–85
5. IS Standards Related to metering: (i) IS: 13010, ac electricity meters induction type class
2,1,0.5. (ii) IS: 13779, ac electricity electronic meters class 2 and 1. (iii) IS: 14697, CT/PT
operated ac electronic watthour meters class 2 and 1. (iv) IEC: 62053-11, ac electromechan-
ical Kilo watthour meters class 2,1,0.5(v) IEC: ac electronic (static) kWh meter 60687 (class
0.2 s and 0.5 s) (vi) IEC: ac electronic (static) kWh meter 61036 (class 1 and 2) (vii) IEC:
61268, ac electronic reactive energy meters (class 1 and 2) (viii) IEC: 60044-1-2,
Instrumentation Transformers (CT and PT)
6. Forst & Sullivan (2008) AMR market Report
7. Chris Bread and Logica (2008) Smart metering or dummies. Wiley, United Kingdom,
8. Central Electricity Authority (Installation and Operation of Static Meters) regulations (2006)
9. IEE conference publication No 462, Metering and Tariffs for Energy Supply, 25–28 May,
1999
10. Prepaid Electricity Meters: IEC 62055-41 and IEC 62055-51
11. Ripple control receivers for tariff and load control IEC 61037
12. Fryers T (2005) Metering internationals, issue 2, pp 84–85
13. IEC Standard 60044-7 Voltage Sensors (Electronic Voltage Transformers)
14. IEC Standard 60044-8 Current Sensors (Electronic Current Transformers)
15. Central Electricity Regulatory Commissions (2008) (Open Access in Inter-State
Transmission) Regulations
16. Economic Growth in the Future (1976) Edison Electric Institute, McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, pp 257–286

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Power Systems

Practices in Power System

ISSN 1612-1287 ISSN 1860-4676 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

Faridabad, India J. Raja

I am deeply indebted to my respected principal director and my business devel-

I would like to express my sincere thanks to the principal of Pondicherry

I am thankful to my senior colleagues and fellow engineers at Power Grid

1 Overview of Power Sector Scenario in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2.1.3 Temporary System Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.13 New Technologies in Power System Control Operation . . . . . . . 58

4.11 Earth Grid and Earthing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6 International Best Practices in Operation and Maintenance

7.3 Consumer Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

Fig. 1.1 Percentage of installed capacity for different sources of power

Fig. 6.14 Megger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Table 1.1 Growth of electricity installed capacity in India . . . . . . . . . . .. 5

Table 2.13 International practices, MV switchgear and control panel

Table 7.3 Wireless communication technologies available to november

1.1 Historical Background and Stages of Growth

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 1

The previous rural electriﬁcation scheme, Rajiv Gandhi Grameen

1.2 Major Players in the Indian Power Sector

(i) National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC): NTPC produces the

1.3 The Growth Story of the Indian Power Sector

Table 1.1 Growth of electricity installed capacity in India

Table 1.2 PAN India power Energy

Table 1.3 Sectorwise utility power generation capacity as of November 2016

1.4 The Growth in Rural Electriﬁcation

1.5 Growth in Generating Capacity Addition

Table 1.5 shows the addition in generating capabilities of the post-Independence

Table 1.4 Rural electriﬁcation status in India

Table 1.5 Growth of installed generation capacity in India

1.6 Electricity Generation in India

1.6.1 Thermal Power

1.6.2 Renewable Energy

As of March 2017, India had a generation capacity of approximately 60 GW based

1.6.4 Nuclear Power

1.7 Transmission and Distribution

The length of India’s HV transmission lines (700,000 km) is comparable to that of

1.8 Unbundling of Power Sector

Fig. 1.2 Growth in Indian power sector

1.9 Private Participation in Transmission

(i) Joint Ventures:

1.10 Electricity Act and Policy

It is a multifaceted or complex Act purporting to combine the laws relating to the

(i) The Indian Electricity Act, 1910

1.10.1 Provisions in the Electricity Act

Fig. 1.3 Implementation of Electricity Act

• Transmission and Distribution:

1.10.2 Impact of Electricity Act

Table 1.7 Electricity Act, objective and impact

1.11 Various Policies

(ii) National Electricity Policy (NEP)

1.12 National Energy Policy

(ii) Improved security:

1.13 Energy Demand: Efﬁciency and Conservation

1.14 Demand-Side Management (DSM)

The concept of DSM is to able to manage power consumption at the consumers’