CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

1
STABILITY OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Important points
1. In the previous topics, we have seen that if we develop a transfer function and provide a
step/impulse input then the problems can be solved using partial fraction method i.e.
determination of roots of denominator.
2. It is easy to find the roots of denominator for up to 2nd order processes or overall 3rd order
systems.
3. For higher order systems we only check the stability of the system that depends on the
denominator.
4. Denominator of overall transfer function can be written in the form of a characteristic
equation.
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑁(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)
= =
𝑋(𝑠) 𝐷(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
1 + 𝐺 (𝑠 ) = 0 (i)
Equation (i) is known as a form of characteristic equation of system.
5. In this chapter we will only discuss linear system i.e. no non-linear terms like
transportation lag present in the overall transfer function.
6. For a stable system, roots of characteristic equation will be negative (real part of roots).
7. As we know calculation of roots of higher order equations is a very difficult task therefore
we use some techniques to check the stability of the process with the help of coefficients
of characteristic equation.
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

STABILITY (LINEAR SYSTEMS)

For our purposes, a stable system will be defined as one for which the output response is
bounded for all bounded inputs. A system exhibiting an unbounded response to a bounded
input is unstable. This definition, although somewhat loose, is adequate for most of the linear
systems and simple inputs that we shall study.
If a linear system produces a bounded output for a bounded input then the system will
be stable
STABLE SYSTEM  a bounded input produces a bounded output

A bounded input function is a function of time that always falls within certain bounds during
the course of time. For example, the step function and sinusoidal function are bounded inputs.
The function f(t) = t is obviously unbounded.
Although the definition of an unstable system states that the output becomes unbounded,
this is true only in the mathematical sense. An actual physical system always exhibits bounds or
constraints. A linear mathematical model (set of linear differential equations describing the
system) from which stability information is obtained is meaningful only over a certain range
of variables. For example, a linear control valve gives a linear relation between flow and
valve-top pressure only over the range of pressure (or flow) corresponding to values between
which the valve is shut tight or wide open. When the valve is wide open, for example, further
change in pressure to the diaphragm will not increase the flow. We often describe such a
limitation by the term saturation. A physical system, when unstable, may not follow the
response of its linear mathematical model beyond certain physical bounds but rather may
saturate. However, the prediction of stability by the linear model is of utmost importance in a
real control system since operation with the valve shut tight or wide open is clearly
unsatisfactory control.

STABILITY CRITERION
The purpose of this section is to translate the stability definition into a simpler criterion,
one that can be used to ascertain the stability of control systems of the form shown in Fig.
1.
U

  
R G1 G2 C



B
H

Figure 1: Basic single-loop control system.

 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION. From the block diagram of the control system (Fig. 1), we
obtain by the methods of Chapter 12

G1G2 G2 (1)
C = R+ U
1 + G1G2 H 1 + G1G2 H

To simplify the nomenclature, let G = G1G2H. We call G the open-loop transfer function
because it relates the measured variable B to the set point R if the feedback loop of Fig. 1 is
disconnected from the comparator (i.e., if the loop is opened). In terms of the open-loop
transfer function G, Eq. (1) becomes

G1 G2 G2 (2)
C= R+ U
(1 + G) (1 + G)

In principle, for given forcing functions R(s) and U(s), Eq. (2) may be inverted to give the
control system response.
To determine under what conditions the system represented by Eq. (2) is stable, it is
necessary to test the response to a bounded input. Suppose a unit-step change in set point is
applied. Then

G1G2 1 G 1G2F  s  (3)

C s  = =
[1 + G(s)] s s s — r1 s — r2  s — rn 


where r1,r2, . . . , rn are the n roots of the equation

(4)
1 + G s  = 0


   1
G1  Kc G2
R  ( s  1) ( s  1) C


1
H 
(τ s + 1)

Figure 2: Third order control system

 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

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and F(s) is a function that arises in the rearrangement to the right-hand form of Eq. (3).
Equation (4) is called the characteristic equation for the control system of Fig. 1. For
example, for the control system of Fig. 2, the step response is

G 1G 2
C s =
s 1 + G 
Kc / 1s + 1 2 s + 1
=
s1 + K c / 1 s + 1 2 s + 1 3 s + 1
which may be rearranged to

Kc 3 s + 1
C s =
s  1 2 3 s3 +  1 2 +  1 3 +  2 3  s 2 +  1 +  2 +  3  s + 1 + Kc 

This is equivalent to

Kc 3 s + 1 /1 2 3
C s =
s s — r1 s — r2  s — r3

where r1, r2, and r3 are the roots of the characteristic equation

1 2 3 s3 + 1 2 + 1 3 +  2 3  s2 + 1 +  2 +  3  s + 1 + Kc  = 0

Evidently, for this case the function F(s) in Eq. (3) is

1 s + 1 2 s + 1 3 s + 1

F s  =
1 2 3

In Chap. 3 (Process system analysis and control, 3rd edition) the qualitative nature of the
inverse transforms of equations such as Eq. (3) was discussed. It was shown that (see Fig. 3–1
and Table 3.1) if there are any of the roots r1, r2, . . . , rn in the right half of the complex plane,
the response C(t) will contain a term that grows exponentially in time and the system is
unstable. If there are one or more roots of the characteristic equation at the origin, there is an
sm in the denominator of Eq. (3) (where m ≥ 2) and the response is again unbounded, growing
as a polynomial in time. This condition specifies m as greater than or equal to 2, not 1,
because one of the s terms in the denominator is accounted for by the fact that the input is a unit
step (1/s) in Eq. (3). (Note that a 1/s term will invert to a constant, while a 1/s2 term will invert
to a term of the form C1t, which is unbounded.) Additionally, if there is a pair of conjugate
roots of the characteristic equation on the imaginary axis, the contribution to the overall step
response is a pure sinusoid, which is bounded. However, if the bounded input is taken as sin
t, where  is the imaginary part of the conjugate roots, the contribution to the overall
response is a sinusoid with an amplitude that increases as a polynomial in time [the response
will have a term of the form C1t sin(t + )]. Thus, if a root lies on the imaginary axis, there
is the potential for repeating the root of a bounded input (such as a step input or a sinusoid
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

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input), and the response will be unstable. Therefore, the right-half plane, including the
imaginary axis, is the unstable region for location of roots of the characteristic equation. It is
evident from Eq. (2) that precisely the same considerations apply to a change in the load U, as
we just dis- cussed for set point changes, since they have the same characteristic equation.
Therefore, the definition of stability for linear systems may be translated to the
following criterion: A linear control system is unstable if any roots of its
characteristic equation are on, or to the right of, the imaginary axis. Otherwise
the system is stable.

It is important to note that the characteristic equation of a control system, which

determines its stability, is the same for set point or load changes. The stability depends only
upon G(s), the open-loop transfer function. Furthermore, although the rules derived above were
based on a step input, they are applicable to any input. This is true, first, by the definition of
stability and, second, because if there is a root of the characteristic equation in the right half-
plane, it contributes an unbounded term in the response to any input. This follows from Eq. (2)
after it is rearranged to the form of Eq. (3) for the particular input.
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

Imaginary
Stable Region axis Unstable Region
Left Half-Plane (LHP) Right Half-Plane (RHP)
2
1.5 1.5
1
1 0
0.5 0.5
–1
0 –1.5 12
–0.5 –2 10
0 0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9 1
–1
s3 8
6
4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
s2 (0, b3) 2
0
–2
(–a2, b2) –4
–6
–8
0 0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9 1
s4
(a4, b4)
s1 s6 s5 Real
(–a1, 0) (0, 0) (a5, 0) axis
s4*
2.5 10
(a4, –b4) 9
8
1.5 2 7
s2* 1.5
6
5
1 4
(–a2, –b2) 1 3
2
0.5 1
0.5 0 0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9 1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

s3*
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 2
(0, –b3) 1.5
1
0
0.5
–1.5
–2
0 0.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9 1

Figure 3: Stability of typical roots of the characteristic equation.

Therefore, the stability of a control system of the type shown in Fig. 13–3 is deter- mined
solely by its open-loop transfer function through the roots of the characteristic equation. This
behavior is shown graphically in Fig. 3, which relates the nature of the response to the
location of the roots of the characteristic equation.

Example 1. In terms of Fig. 1, a control system has the transfer functions

0.5s + 1
G1 = 10 ( PI controller)
s
1
G2 = (stirred tank)
2s + 1
H = 1 (measuring element without lag)
We have suggested a physical system by the components placed in parentheses. Find the
characteristic equation and its roots, and determine whether the system is stable.
The first step is to write the open-loop transfer function
10  0.5s + 1
G = G 1G 2 H =
s 2s + 1
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

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
The characteristic equation is therefore

10  0.5s + 1
1+ =0
s 2s + 1
which is equivalent to

s2 + 3s + 5 = 0
Solving by the quadratic formula gives
—3 9 — 20
s= ±
2 2
or
—3 11
s1 = +j
2 2
—3 11
s2 = — j
2 2
Since the real part of s1 and s2 is negative (–3/2), the system is stable.

ROUTH TEST FOR STABILITY

The Routh test is a purely algebraic method for determining how many roots of the
characteristic equation have positive real parts; from this it can also be determined whether
the system is stable, for if there are no roots with positive real parts, the system is stable. The
test is limited to systems that have polynomial characteristic equations. This means that it
cannot be used to test the stability of a control system containing a transportation lag.
The procedure for examining the roots is to write the characteristic equation in the form
a0sn + a1sn—1 + a2sn—2 + ... + an = 0 (6)

where a0 is positive. (If a0 is originally negative, both sides are multiplied by —1.) In this
form, it is necessary that all the coefficients

a0 , a1, a2 , ... , an—1, an

be positive if all the roots are to lie in the left half-plane. If any coefficient is nega- tive, the
system is definitely unstable, and the Routh test is not needed to answer the question of
stability. (However, in this case, the Routh test will tell us the number of roots in the right
half-plane.) If all the coefficients are positive, the system may be stable or unstable. It is then
necessary to apply the following procedure to determine stability.
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

Routh Array
Arrange the coefficients of Eq. (6) into the first two rows of the Routh array as follows:
Row
1 a0 a2 a4 a6
2 a1 a3 a5 a7
3 b1 b2 b3
4 c1 c2 c3
5 d1 d2
6 e1 e2
7 f1
n+1 g1

The array has been filled in for n = 7 to simplify the discussion. For any other value of n, the
array is prepared in the same manner. In general, there are n + 1 rows. For n even, the first
row has one more element than the second row.
The elements in the remaining rows are found from the formulas
a 1a 2 — a 0a 3 a 1a 4 — a 0a 5 ...
b1 = b2 =
a1 a1
b a — a1 b2 b a — a1 b3
c1 = 1 3 c2 = 1 5 ...
b1 b1
The elements for the other rows are found from formulas that correspond to those just given.
The elements in any row are always derived from the elements of the two pre- ceding rows.
During the computation of the Routh array, any row can be divided by a positive constant
without changing the results of the test. (The application of this rule often simplifies the
arithmetic.)
Having obtained the Routh array, we can apply the following theorems to deter- mine
stability.

THEOREMS OF THE ROUTH TEST

Theorem 13.1. The necessary and sufficient condition for all the roots of the character-
istic equation [Eq. (6)] to have negative real parts (stable system) is that all elements of the
first column of the Routh array (a0, a1, b1, c1, etc.) be positive and nonzero.
Theorem 13.2. If some of the elements in the first column are negative, the number of
roots with a positive real part (in the right half-plane) is equal to the number of sign
changes in the first column.
Theorem 13.3. If one pair of roots is on the imaginary axis, equidistant from the origin,
and all other roots are in the left half-plane, then all the elements of the nth row will van-
ish and none of the elements of the preceding row will vanish. The location of the pair of
imaginary roots can be found by solving the equation

Cs2 + D = 0 (7)
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

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where the coefficients C and D are the elements of the array in the (n – 1)st row as read from
left to right, respectively.
The algebraic method for determining stability is limited in its usefulness in that all we can
learn from it is whether a system is stable. It does not give us any idea of the degree of
stability or the roots of the characteristic equation.

Example 2. Given the characteristic equation

s4 + 3s2 + 5s2 + 4s + 2 = 0

determine the stability by the Routh criterion.

Since all the coefficients are positive, the system may be stable. To test this, form the
following Routh array:

Ro
w
1 1 5 2
2 3 4
3 11/3 6/3
4 26/11 0
5 2

The elements in the array are found by applying the formulas presented in the rules; for
example, b1, which is the element in the first column, third row, is obtained by
a1 a2 — a0 a3
b1 =
a1

or in terms of numerical values,

(3)(5) — (1)(4) 15 4 11
b1 = = — =
3 3 3 3

Since there is no change in sign in the first column, there are no roots having posi- tive real
parts, and the system is stable.

Example 3. (a) Using 1 = 1,  2 =0.5, and  3 =1/3, determine the values

of Kc for which the control system in Fig. 2 is stable. (b) For the value of Kc for which the
system is on the threshold of instability, determine the roots of the characteristic equation
with the help of Theorem 13.3.
 CHC3150 Process Dynamics and Control

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Solution
(a) The characteristic equation 1 + G(s) = 0 becomes

Kc
1+  =0
 s + 1s / 2 + 1s / 3 + 1
the rearrangement of the equation gives the following form

s3 + 6s2 + 11s + 61 + Kc  = 0

The Routh array is

Ro
w
1 1 11
2 6 6(1 + Kc)
3 10 – Kc
4 6(1 + Kc)

Since the proportional sensitivity of the controller Kc is a positive quantity, we see that the
fourth entry in the first column, 6(1 + Kc), is positive. According to Theorem 13.1, all the
elements of the first column must be positive for stability; hence
10 — Kc > 0

Kc < 10

Therefore system will be stable only if Kc < 10.