General Chemistry 2

Overview
You learned about atoms' electronic configurations, electronic structure and periodicity (Table of
Elements), chemical bonding (ionic and covalent bonds), and organic compounds like hydrocarbons and
their isomers, polymers, and biomolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in the
previous quarter. Explore the forces that hold molecules and compounds together, the properties of
liquids, solids, and crystals, phase changes and their energy requirements, solution types and
concentrations, solution stoichiometry, colligative properties, heat and energy dynamics during chemical
reactions, and chemical kinetics in this quarter.
The modules in General Chemistry 2 Quarter 3 present mental and hands-on activities that will
enable you to apply science concepts and science process skills in addressing real-world problems
through scientific investigations. These activities are designed to enhance your knowledge,
understanding, skills, and ability to transfer learning. There are five modules in this quarter, namely;
Module 1: Intermolecular Forces

Module 2: Physical Properties of Solutions
Module 3: Thermochemistry
Module 4: Chemical Kinetics
At the end of this quarter, you are expected to develop scientific, technological, and environmental literacy
that will lead you to be a rational thinker for your life choices and viable and functional member of society.
Each module is filled with interesting and fun activities that will guide you on your expedition to optimum
learning.
Let your adventure in chemistry begins…
1
This module is exclusive for Mother Theresa Colegio Group of Schools students only.
MODULE 1: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
Learning Competencies
1. use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of liquids and solids
2. describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces
3. predict the intermolecular forces possible for a molecule
4. describe the following properties of liquids, and explain the effect of intermolecular forces on these
properties: surface tension, viscosity, vapor pressure, boiling point, and molar heat of vaporization
5. explain the properties of water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces
6. describe the difference in the structure of crystalline and amorphous solids
7. describe the different types of crystals and their properties: ionic, covalent, molecular, and
metallic.
8. describe the nature of the following phase changes in terms of energy change and the increase
or decrease in molecular order: solid-liquid, liquid-vapor, and solid-vapor
9. interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide
10. (LAB) Measure and explain the difference in the viscosity of some liquid
11. (LAB) Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of a substance
Learning Objectives
a. Describe the characteristic properties that differentiate gases, liquids, and solids.
b. Identify the molecular behavior responsible for each property of gases, liquids, and solids.
c. Differentiate the types of intermolecular forces.
d. Identify the intermolecular forces possible for a molecule.
e. Rank molecules according to the strength of intermolecular forces.
f. Illustrate the interactions of multiple molecules of a compound.
g. Describe the different properties of liquids
h. Compare the properties of crystalline and amorphous solids;
i. Classify crystals according to the attractive forces among component atoms, molecules, or ions
(molecular crystals, covalent-network crystals, ionic crystals, and metallic crystals);
j. Predict the strongest force responsible for the formation of a solid.
k. Describe the transitions among gas, liquids, and solids in terms of increase or decrease in
molecular order;
l. Describe what is happening as a system is heated;
m. Relate phase changes to heat and temperature changes;
n. Explain solid-liquid, liquid-vapor, and solid-vapor transitions in terms of the amount of energy
change;
o. Calculate heat changes in phase and temperature changes.
Pre-Assessment
Multiple Choice: Direction: Read and analyze the questions or statements carefully. Choose and
Encircle the letter that best describes your answer.
1. What is being referred to as the measure of the unequal sharing of electrons indicated by the
difference of electro-negativities?
a. Intermolecular Forces c. Phase Change
b. Polarity d. Dipole moment
2
2. What do you call the force that acts between the molecules of solids and liquids?
3. What type of IMF are present in all types of particles whether it is covalent or ionic compounds?
a. Dispersion forces c. Hydrogen bonding
b. Ion-dipole forces d. Dipole-dipole Forces
4. What property of liquid exhibits when a given substance is resistant to flow?
a. Surface tension c. capillary action
b. Viscosity d. Fluidity
5. What type of solid is being described if it was all made up of a specific metal atom?
a. Ionic solids c. Covalent Network solids
b. Metallic solids d. Molecular Solids
6. What form of IMF is present in polar molecules in which it is far stronger than dispersion forces?
7. What form of solids is being referred to as the random arrangement of molecules and lack of
geometric pattern?
a. Crystalline solids c. Amorphous Solids
b. Ionic Solids d. Molecular solids
8. A given substance is under a process of phase change, if all types of phases of matter are present
what is happening to the system?
a. It reaches the critical point
b. It reaches the triple point
c. It shows the amazing nature of a substance
d. Not enough information is given
9. Among all types of crystalline solids, what form of solids is sugar?
a. Ionic crystals c. covalent network solids
b. Molecular crystals d. metallic solids
10. Carbon molecules can create different types of solids like diamonds and graphite, what property
is exhibited by carbon?
a. Allotropy c. malleability
b. Conductivity d. Ductility
11. Which of the following solids can we classify a sodium fluoride?
12. If a certain molecule becomes larger and larger, what happens to its dispersion forces?
a. Increases c. remains the same
b. Decreases d. nothing happens
13. One of the properties of ionic solids is their poor conductivity for electricity and heat, but how will
you make this solid to be a good conductor of electricity?
a. Apply heat on it c. boil it
b. Dissolve it d. freeze it
14. Water has a strong IMF, at what point these IMF will start to break?
a. During the melting process c. During evaporation
b. During boiling process d. None of these
15. Why is it water spider can walk on the water surface?
a. This is due to the capillary action of water
3
b. This is due to the surface tension of water
c. This is due to the viscosity of the water
d. This is due to the low density and buoyancy of spider
16. Solids have strong intermolecular forces between their molecules, how can you break or weaken
its IMF present on it?
a. By means of the application the heat on it
b. By means of removing the heat on it
c. By means of pounding and grinding
d. All of the above
17. A needle can float on the surface of the water, what will you do to break the surface tension on
the water?
a. Put an acid on the water
b. Put a surfactant on the water
c. Put a table salt on the water
d. drop a stone on the water to create ripples
Chapter I: Intermolecular Forces

In this chapter, we will discuss the liquid and solid states and the forces that exist between
particles. The state of matter of a substance depends on the average kinetic energy of the particles and
the intermolecular forces that bind them together.
Kinetic Molecular Theory attempts to represent and describe the properties of gases by modelling
the gas particles at the microscopic level. This idea describes the properties of substances in solid and
liquid states, not only in gases. The postulates that explain the behavior of solid and liquid substances
are:
 Particles in a solid are tightly packed together and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid,
they are close together with no regular arrangement; in a gas, they are far apart with no regular
arrangement.
 Particles in a solid vibrate about fixed positions and do not generally move in relation to one
another; particles in a liquid move past one another but remain in essentially constant contact,
and particles in a gas move independently of one another except when they collide.
Moreover, Intermolecular Forces are attractive or repulsive forces between molecules, caused
by particles charges, it is also the attraction between molecules, which determine many of the physical
properties of a substance. However, a force that exists within the molecule that keeps the molecule
together is called Intramolecular forces. Intermolecular forces are classified into four, these are; Ion-
dipole Intermolecular Forces, Dipole-Dipole Intermolecular Forces, Hydrogen bonding; and London
Dispersion Forces.
 Ion-Dipole Intermolecular Forces

These forces are due to the attraction of an ion and one end of a polar molecule. This type
of IMF is the strongest and it requires two different species of particle- an ion and polar molecule.
This is mostly found in solutions of ionic compounds in the polar molecule.
Example: Brine Solution
4
 Dipole-Dipole Intermolecular Forces
These forces result from the attraction of the positive end of one dipole to the negative
end of another dipole. This type of IMF is weaker than ion-dipole forces.
Example: ICl (iodine monochloride)
 Hydrogen Bonding
It is a special type of dipole-dipole attraction in which hydrogen atom is polar-covalently bonded
to one of the following extremely electronegative elements; N, O, and F.
Element Electronegativity value

H 2.1
N 3.0
O 3.5
F 4.1
Because of the difference in electronegativity, the H atom turns to partially positive and N,
O and F turn to be a partially negative charge. Hydrogen bonding is much stronger than dipole-
dipole interaction, that’s why molecules or particles having this bonding have unusual properties.
 London/Dispersion Intermolecular Forces

This intermolecular attraction occurs in all substances, but it is significant only when the
other types of intermolecular forces are absent. It is a temporary attractive force as a result of
electrons in two adjacent atoms occupying positions that make atoms from temporary dipoles.
This attraction is generally an extremely weak interaction, but strong enough to cause non-polar
substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into solids.
Activity: KMT and IMF

Answer the following.
1. Identify the intermolecular forces present in the following solids:
(a) CH3CH2OH
(b) CH3CH2CH3
(c) CH3CH2Cl
(d) NaCl
(e) Water
(f) HCl
5
(g) Table sugar
2. The types of intermolecular forces in a substance are identical whether it is a solid, a liquid,
or a gas. Why then does a substance change phase from a gas to a liquid or a solid?
3. Proteins are chains of amino acids that can form in a variety of arrangements, one of which is
a helix. What kind of IMF is responsible for holding the protein strand in this shape?
4. In terms of the kinetic molecular theory, in what ways are liquids similar to solids? In what
ways are liquids different from solids?
Chapter II: Properties of Liquids and Intermolecular Forces

A liquid is a state of matter that exists between the solid and gas phases of matter. Its particles
are subject to intermolecular forces, which explain its behavior and properties. The attraction between its
molecules is different from solids, which allows its particles to be variable in shape, flow and fill the shape
of a container.
The properties of liquids which is backed up by intermolecular forces are the following;
1. Cohesion- the tendency for the same kind of particles to be attracted to one another. Cohesive
forces on liquids are greatest beneath the surface of the liquid, where the particles are attracted
to each other on all sides.
2. Adhesion- is when forces of attraction exist between different types of particles.
3. Viscosity- is a measure of how much a liquid resists flowing freely.
4. Surface Tension- The amount of force required to break through the liquids molecular layer at the
surface
5. Capillary Action- is the spontaneous rising through a narrow tube, against the force of gravity
Activity: Liquids and Its properties

Answer the following
1. The test tubes shown here contain equal amounts of the specified motor oils. Identical metal
spheres were dropped at the same time into each of the tubes, and a brief moment later, the
spheres had fallen to the heights indicated in the illustration.
Rank the motor oils in order of increasing viscosity, and explain your reasoning:
6
2. Although steel is denser than water, a steel needle or paper clip placed carefully lengthwise on
the surface of still water can be made to float. Explain at a molecular level how this is possible:
Chapter III: The Solid State of Matter and Crystals

Solids are a common state of matter together with liquids and gases. The matter is composed of
atoms, which make up all of its composition, structure, and properties. In solids, atoms are held together
and are not free to move. They are incompressible and move through vibrations.
This state of matter is divided into two categories: amorphous solids and crystalline solids, which
are based on the arrangement and structure of particles. Amorphous solids are solids in which the
particles lack an ordered internal structure and have no distinct melting point. While crystalline solids are
solids in which the particles are arranged in a definite repeating pattern, they display a regular ordering
pattern of the particles in a three-dimensional structure called the crystalline lattice. Crystalline solids
have five types of solids known as:
a. Atomic Solids – atoms held together by London forces. The noble gases are the only atomic
solids known to form.
b. Molecular Solids – are solids composed of covalently bonded molecules attracted to each
other by electrostatic forces i.e. London forces, dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen bonding.
Solid methane and water are examples of these solids.
c. Ionic Solids- solids/crystals that are composed of ions held together by attraction of the
opposite charges of the ions. These crystalline solids tend to be strong, with high melting
points because of their strong IMF. NaCl is an example of this
d. Metallic Solids- a solid that is composed of metal atoms occupying the crystal lattice are held
together by a metallic bonding. In metallic bonding, the electrons of the atoms are delocalized
and are free to move throughout the entire solid. This explains why metals have properties
like opaque, lustrous, malleable, and ductile.
e. Covalent Network Solids- solids that are joined together by covalent bonds in the crystal
lattice. Unlike ionic solids, these are very hard, somewhat brittle, and with high melting points
but do not dissolve in water nor conduct electricity. Examples of these are graphite, diamond,
and silicon dioxide.
Activity: Solids
1. Identify the type of crystalline solid (metallic, network covalent, ionic, or molecular) formed by
each of the following substances:
a. SiO2
b. KCl
7
c. Cu
d. CO2
e. C (diamond)
f. BaSO4
g. NH3
h. NH4F
i. C2H5OH
2. Explain why ice, which is a crystalline solid, has a melting temperature of 0 °C, whereas butter,
which is an amorphous solid, softens over a range of temperatures.
Chapter IV: Phase Changes

The average translational kinetic energy of particles plays a major role in the states of matter. Any
changes in particle kinetic energy can cause changes to their physical state, which may include changes
to their properties and structure. Phase changes are physical changes that take place when matter
changes energy states, but chemical bonds are not broken or formed. Phase change or transition
basically occurs in the three main states of matter-solid, liquid, and gas. This transition between phases
of matter occurs under specific or certain conditions and is a reversible process.
Moreover, a phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas,
solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. These diagrams indicate the
physical states that exist under specific conditions of pressure and temperature and provide the pressure
dependence of the phase-transition temperatures (melting points, sublimation points, boiling points).
Figure. The pressure and temperature axes

Figure. The physical state of a substance and on this phase diagram of water are not drawn
its phase-transition temperatures are to constant scale to illustrate several
represented graphically in a phase diagram. important properties.
Critical Point- temperature and pressure above which a gas cannot be condensed into a liquid
Triple Point- temperature and pressure at which the vapor, liquid, and solid phases of a substance are
in equilibrium
8
Activity: Phase Transition
1. How much heat is required to convert 422 g of liquid H2O at 23.5 °C into steam at 150 °C?
2. A 2.00 x 102-g sample of water at 60.0°C is heated to steam at 140.0°C. How much heat is
absorbed?
3. Heat is added to the ice at 0 °C. Explain why the temperature of the ice does not change.
What does change?
4. Why does spilled gasoline evaporate more rapidly on a hot day than on a cold day?
Post Assessment
Encircle the letter that best describes your answer.
1. What is being referred to as the measure of the unequal sharing of electrons indicated by the
difference of electro-negativities?
2. What do you call the force that acts between the molecules of solids and liquids?
3. What type of IMF are present in all types of particles whether it is covalent or ionic compounds?
a. Dispersion forces. c. Hydrogen bonding
4. What property of liquid exhibits when a given substance is resistant to flow?
a. Surface tension c. capillary action
b. Viscosity d. Fluidity
5. What type of solid is being described if it was all made up of a specific metal atom?
a. Ionic solids c. Covalent Network solids
b. Metallic solids d. Molecular Solids
6. What form of IMF is present in polar molecules in which it is far stronger than dispersion forces?
7. What form of solids is being referred to as the random arrangement of molecules and lack of
geometric pattern?
a. Crystalline solids c. Amorphous Solids
b. Ionic Solids d. Molecular solids
8. A given substance is under a process of phase change, if all types of phases of matter are present
what is happening to the system?
a. It reaches the critical point
b. It reaches the triple point
c. It shows the amazing nature of a substance
d. Not enough information was given
9. Among all types of crystalline solids, what form of solids is sugar?
9
10. Carbon molecules can create different types of solids like diamonds and graphite, what property
is exhibited by carbon?
a. Allotropy c. malleability
b. Conductivity d. Ductility
11. Which of the following solids can we classify a sodium fluoride?
12. If a certain molecule becomes larger and larger, what happens to its dispersion forces?
13. One of the properties of ionic solids is their poor conductivity for electricity and heat, but how will
you make this solid to be a good conductor of electricity?
a. Apply heat on it c. boil it
b. Dissolve it d. freeze it
14. Water has a strong IMF, at what point these IMF will start to break?
a. During the melting process c. During evaporation
b. During boiling process d. None of these
15. Why is it water spider can walk on the water surface?
a. This is due to the capillary action of water
b. This is due to the surface tension of water
c. This is due to the viscosity of the water
d. This is due to the low density and buoyancy of spider
16. Solids have strong intermolecular forces between their molecules, how can you break or weaken
its IMF present on it?
a. By means of the application of heat on it
b. By means of removing the heat on it
c. By means of pounding and grinding
d. All of the above
17. A needle can float on the surface of the water, what will you do to break the surface tension on
the water?
a. Put an acid on the water
b. Put a surfactant on the water
c. Put a table salt on the water
d. drop a stone on the water to create ripples
10
MODULE 2: SOLUTIONS
1. describe the different types of solutions
2. use different ways of expressing the concentration of solutions: percent by mass, mole fraction,
molarity, molality, percent by volume, percent by mass, ppm
3. perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution
4. explain the effect of temperature on the solubility of a solid and of a gas
5. explain the effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas
6. describe the effect of concentration on the colligative properties of solutions
7. differentiate the colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions and electrolyte solutions
8. Calculate boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the concentration of a solute
in a solution
9. calculate molar mass from colligative property data
10. (LAB) Perform acid-base titration to determine the concentration of solutions
11. (LAB) Determine the solubility of a solid in a given amount of water at different temperatures
12. (LAB) Determine the molar mass of a solid from the change of melting point or boiling point of a
solution
Learning Objectives
a. give examples of the types of solutions
b. explain what happens at the molecular level when a solution forms
c. perform calculations for solution concentration given appropriate data (percentage, molarity,
molality, and mole fraction)
d. explain the effect of temperature on the solubility of a solid and a gas
e. Describe the effect of pressure on the solubility of a gas.
f. describe the effect of solute concentration on the colligative properties of solutions
g. differentiate the colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions and of electrolyte solutions
h. calculate or solve problems involving boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from
the concentration of a solute in a solution
i. calculate molar mass from a colligative property data
Pre-Assessments
Encircle the letter that best describes your answer
1. Among all the types of the mixture, what type of mixture is a solution?
a. Pure substance. c. Heterogeneous Mixture
b. Homogenous Mixture. d. Colloids
2. What process is being referred to decrease the level of concentration of solute in solution?
a. Dissolution c. dissociation
b. Dilution d. demolition
3. What is being referred to describe the concentration of a solution with the relationships between
the mole of solute and mass of the solvent?
a. Molarity c. Mole fraction
b. Molality d. Percent by volume
4. What entity is known to be the universal solvent?
a. Water c. Acid
b. Alcohol d. None of these
11
5. What do you call the process where the solute is being dissolved in the solvent?
6. What is being referred to as the substance where in it is the least amount in a given solution?
a. Solvent c. water
b. Solute d. salt
7. You are tasked to make a juice, you put 300g of concentrated juice at 500mL of water and you
noticed that it tastes stronger, what does it mean?
a. The amount of sugar in the juice is too much
b. The amount of water is not enough to dilute the juice
c. You put a lot of concentrated juice on the water
d. Either a or b
8. You mixed salt and water and suddenly you found out a lot of sediments at the bottom, among all
the factors affecting solubility, which of them affects your solution?
a. Nature of the solute and solvent c. Pressure
b. Particle size d. Temperature
9. Why is it water and oil that cannot mix and obtain a single phase?
a. This is due to the density
b. This is due to its molecular property
c. This is due to its different polarity
d. This is due to its difference in melting point
10. Why do you stir your coffee or juice after adding sugar?
I. This is to increase the rate of dilution
II. This is to increase the rate of dissolution
III. This is to increase the rate of contact of the solvent to solute
a. I and II c. I and III
b. II and III d. I, II, and III
11. In connection to question 26, how will you make the solution thoroughly?
I. Increase the temperature
II. Increase the solvent
III. III. Decrease the solute
12. Soda is a type of solution, which factors of solubility influence gas to dissolve in water?
a. Pressure c. Nature of solute and solvent
b. Temperature d. particle size
13. Matter can be classified as a mixture and pure substance, what is the component of a solution?
a. A solvent and a solute c. a pure element
b. A combination of 2 elements. d. None of these
14. What is the classification of a solution based on the classification of matter?
a. A pure substance c. A homogenous mixture
b. A mixture d. A heterogeneous Mixture
15. What is present in a solution if it conducts electricity?
a. Electrons c. Polarity
b. Ions d. Electrolytes
16. Solutions can exhibit different properties, but what property is being described if it shows a
property that depends on the number of particles?
12
a. Physical Property c. Colligative Property
b. Chemical Property d. Extensive Property
17. Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade, what will you add to it to decrease the boiling point?
a. Volatile compound c. Higher Temperature
b. Non-volatile Compound d. Higher Pressure
18. What will be the temperature of 25 degrees converted into Kelvin?
a. 278 c. 298
b. 288 d. 308
19. Enable to get the amount of osmotic pressure, what stoichiometric technique is being used to
determine the osmotic pressure?
a. Molality c. Normality
b. Molarity d. Mole Fraction
20. What is being described as the lowering of temperature by adding a solute?
a. Vapor pressure lowering c. Freezing point depression
b. Boiling Point elevation d. Osmotic pressure
21. What is being referred to as the diffusion of solvent molecules through a semipermeable
membrane?
a. Osmosis c. Solubility
b. Dissolution d. Freezing
22. What is absent on a non-electrolyte substance why it can’t conduct electricity?
23. Thermodynamics is a nice concept in science, but what is being dealt with by this field?
a. Matter c. heat
b. Energy d. Atoms
24. What do we mean by entropy?
a. Order c. heat
b. Disorder d. matter
25. Which of the following describes a volatile compound?
a. A substance that fasts to evaporate
b. A substance that did not evaporate
c. Substance soluble to water
d. Substance insoluble to water
26. What entity directly affects the changes in the colligative properties of a solution?
a. Solvent c. Colloid
b. Solute d. Volatile Compound
27. A solution contains 150g of NaCl and dissolves in 0.599 liters of water. What is the molarity of
the solution?
a. 1.32 mol/L c. 3.32 mol/L
b. 2.32 mol/L d. 4.32 mol/L
28. Among all the types of classification of matter, how can you classify solutions?
29. If a solution contains a nonvolatile compound, what will happen to its boiling point?
13
30. If a solution contains a volatile compound, what will happen to its boiling point?
31. Why is ice cream vendors put salt on the ice as they sell ice cream on summer days?
a. To elevate the freezing point
b. To increase the osmotic pressure
c. To increase the melting point
d. To decrease the boiling point
32. Which of the following best describes thermochemistry?
a. Study of heat and transformations
b. Study of matter and its transformations
c. Study of heat released/absorbed on chemical reactions
d. Study of energy and its transformations and conversion
Chapter 1: Types of Solutions

A solution is a homogenous mixture composed of solvent and one or more solutes. It can be a
mixture of either liquids, gases, or solids, but in this chapter, we are dealing only with liquid solutions.
Solvent is the substance that acts as a dissolving medium and is normally present in the greatest
amounts. A solute, however, is the substance that the solvent dissolves and is normally present in a
smaller amount.
To classify a mixture as a solution, it must possess the following properties: (a) it is a homogenous
mixture; (b) its particles are too tiny and not visible to the naked eye; (c) particles don’t scatter a beam of
light passing through it; (d) solutes are inseparable from the mixture and do not sediment, and (e)
components cannot be separated using filtration.
The concentration of solutions depends upon the amount of solute in the given solution, and it
can be diluted, concentrated, or saturated. Diluted refers to a solution that has a relatively small amount
of solute in comparison to the solvent. Concentrated means a solution that has a relatively large amount
of solute in comparison to the solvent. On the other hand, saturated is a solution in which one has
dissolved the maximum amount of solute per a given amount of solvent at a given temperature.
The comparison of the amounts of solute and solvent relative to each other is expressed by
percentage, molarity, molality, and mole fraction.
Percentage can be expressed in three ways:

 Mass percent
Mass %= (grams of solute/grams solution) × 100%
Example: A solution is prepared by dissolving 25.5 g of NaCl in 250.0g of water. Calculate the
mass percent of the solution.
25.2 𝑔
Mass % = ⁄25.2 + 250.0 𝑔× 100% = 9.16%
 Mass per volume percent

Mass %= (grams solute/volume of solution) × 100%
Example: A solution is prepared by mixing 125.0g of benzene with 250.0g of toluene. The density
of benzene is 0.8765 g/mL, and the density of the toluene is 0.8669 g/mL. Determine the mass/volume
percentage of the solution.
14
125.0 𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒⁄
Mass % = 431.0 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100% = 29.00%
 Volume per volume percent

Volume % = (volume solute/volume solution) × 100%
Example: Determine the volume percentage of carbon tetrachloride in a solution prepared by
dissolving 100.0 mL of carbon tetrachloride and 100 mL of methylene chloride in 750 mL of chloroform.
Assume the volumes are additive.
Volume % = 100.0 𝑚𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝑙4⁄100 + 100 + 750 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100% = 10.53%
Molarity
The number of moles of solute per liter of solution
M= moles solute/liter solution
Example: Determine the molarity of sodium sulfate in a solution produced by dissolving 15.2 g of
NA2SO4 in sufficient water to produce 750.0 mL of solution.
15.2 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 1000𝑚𝐿

M= × × = 0.143 M
750 𝑚𝑙 142 𝑔 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 1𝐿
Molality
The number of Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
m = moles solute/kilograms of solvent
Example: C2H6O2 is used in antifreeze. Determine the molality of the ethylene glycol in a solution
prepared by adding 62.1 g of ethylene glycol to 100g of water.
62.1 𝑔 C2H6O2 1000 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C2H6O2

m= × × = 10.0 m C2H6O2
100 𝑔 𝐻2𝑂 1 𝑘𝑔 62.1 𝑔 C2H6O2
Mole Fraction
It is a unit of concentration defined to be equal to the number of moles component divided by
the total number of moles of a solution.
X = Moles of component/Total moles of solution
Example: 0.100 moles of NaCl is dissolved into 100.0g of pure H2O. What is the mole fraction of
NaCl?
X= 0.100 mol NaCl/ 5.56 mol of H2O + 0.100 mol NaCl = 0.018
Activity: Solutions Stoichiometry

Solve the following using the GFSA method.
1. A bottle of a certain ceramics tile cleanser which is a solution of hydrogen chloride contains 130
g HCl and 750 g of H2O. What is the % by mass of HCl in this cleanser?
2. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride is dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the percent by
mass of KCl in this solution?
3. What is the percent by volume of ethanol in the final solution when 75 mL of ethanol is diluted to
a volume of 250 mL of water?
4. Calculate the molarity of the solution containing 10 grams of sulfuric acid in 500 mL of solution
5. Determine the mass of water to which 293 grams of NaCl is added to obtain a 0.25 molal solution.
15
Chapter II: Solubility
Some substances can or cannot be dissolved into a solvent or another substance. Insoluble
means that the substance does not dissolve into another substance, while soluble means the substance
has the ability to dissolve into another substance. Solubility is the maximum amount of solute which
dissolves in a specific amount of solvent at a specific temperature. The solubility of a substance or
compound is affected by different factors, which are the following:
a. Temperature
The temperature has a direct effect on solubility. Increasing the temperature increases the
solubility of the solute. As the temperature increase, particles of the solids move faster which
increases the chances to interact with the solvent particles.
b. Pressure
Pressure only affects the solubility of a gas solute but not in solids. When pressure is
applied, gases interact with the solvent by occupying the spaces between the particles of the
solvent.
c. Surface Area
The rate of solubility of a substance is affected by the surface area of a solid. A smaller
surface area of a solute speeds up the rate of solubility as compared to a larger surface area.
Activity: Solubility
1. Supersaturated solutions of most solids in water are prepared by cooling saturated solutions.
Supersaturated solutions of most gases in water are prepared by heating saturated solutions.
Explain the reasons for the difference in the two procedures.
2. Which of the following gases is expected to be most soluble in water? Explain your reasoning.
a. CH4
b. CCl4
c. CHCl3
3. How pressure affects the solubility of a gas in liquids and is not applicable in solids?
Chapter III: Colligative Properties

Some properties of a solution depend on the chemical and physical or intensive and extensive
properties of the individual solute. However, some solution properties depend on the number or
concentration of solute particles, not the type of solute-it is called colligative properties. Colligative
properties include the following;
a. Vapor Pressure Lowering
 the pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation above a sample in a closed container
 the rate of condensation of the gas becomes equal to the rate of evaporation of the liquid
or solid
 Raoult’s Law
o The vapor pressure of a volatile or of an ideal solution is dependent on the vapor pressure
of each component and the mole faction of the component present in the solution.
o Vapor Pressure of Solution = (Mole Fraction of solvent) (Vapor Pressure of Pure
Solvent)
number of moles of solvent
o Mole Fraction of a solvent =
total number of moles of solution and of solvent
16
Example:
Determine the vapor pressure of a solution at 25 °C that has 45 grams of glucose dissolved in 72 grams
of water. The vapor pressure of pure water at 25 °C is 23.8 torr.
a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.

MW glucose: C = 6 x 12 = 72 g/mole
H = 12 x 1 = 12 g/mole
O = 6 x 16 = 96 g/mole
180 g/mole
45 grams x 1mole C6H12O6 = 0.25 mole
180 grams C6H12O6
b. Compute the number of moles of the solvent by using its mass.

MW H2O: 18 g/mole
72 grams x 1 mole H2O = 4 moles

18 grams H2O
c. Determine the mole fraction of the solute
number of moles of solvent
Mole fraction of solvent=
total number of moles of solution and of solvent
= ________4 moles H2O
0.25 moles C6H12O6 + 4 moles H2O
Mole fraction of solvent = 0.94
d. Determine the vapor pressure of the solution
Vapor Pressure of Solution = (Mole Fraction of solvent) (Vapor Pressure of Pure Solvent)
= (0.94) (23.8 torr)
V.P. of Solution = 22.38 torr
b. Freezing-Point Depression
 Change that occurs in the temperature at which a liquid freezes when a solute is dissolved
in it
 The solution has a lower freezing point than a pure solvent
 Freezing point depression
o ΔTf = Kfm where ΔTf = freezing point depression
Kf = molal freezing point constant of the solvent
m = molal concentration
o The freezing point of solution = FPsolvent - ΔTf
Example:
Compute the freezing point of a solution of 90 grams of glucose dissolved in 750 grams of water. The K f
of water is -1.86 °C/m. The freezing point of pure water is 0 °C.

MW glucose: C = 6 x 12 = 72 g/mole
H = 12 x 1 = 12 g/mole
17
O = 6 x 16 = 96 g/mole
180 g/mole
180 grams C6H12O6
b. Convert the mass of solvent to kilograms.
750 grams H2O x 1 kg H2O = 0.75 kg H2O
1000 g H2O
c. Calculate the molal concentration.

m = moles of solute
kilogram of solvent
= 0.5 mole C6H12O6
0.75 kg H2O
m = 0.67 m
d. Compute the freezing point of solution.
ΔTf = Kfm
= (-1.86 °C/m) (0.67 m)
ΔTf = -1.25 °C
Freezing point of solution = FPsolvent - ΔTf

= 0 °C – (-1.25 °C)
Freezing point of solution = 1.25 °C
c. Boiling Point Elevation

 Change that occurs in the temperature at which a liquid boils when a solute is dissolved
in it
 The solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent
 Boiling Point Elevation
o ΔTb = Kbm where ΔTb = boiling point elevation
Kb = molal boiling point constant of the solvent
m = molal concentration
o Boiling point of solution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
Example:
The normal boiling point of benzene is 80.1 oC. It has a boiling point elevation constant of 2.53
o
C/m. If we make up a 0.5 molal solution of Br2 in benzene, what is the boiling point of the mixture?
ΔTb = Kbm
= (2.53 °C/m) (0.5 m)
ΔTb = 1.27 °C
Boiling point of solution = BPsolvent + ΔTb
= 80.1 °C + 1.27 °C
18
Boiling point of solution = 81.37 °C
d. Osmotic Pressure
 Osmosis is the diffusion of small particles through a semi-permeable membrane
 Osmotic pressure is a hydrostatic pressure produced by the difference of solute
concentration on the opposite sides of the semi-permeable membrane
 π = MRT where: π = osmotic pressure
M = molarity of the solution
R = gas constant (0.08205 L-atm/mole-K)
T = temperature in Kelvin
Example:
What is the osmotic pressure of a sugar solution that contains 100 grams of sucrose C 12H22O11
which is dissolved in water to make 1 liter of solution at 25 °C?

MWsucrose: C = 12 x 12 = 144 g/mole
H = 22 x 1 = 22 g/mole
O = 11 x 16 = 176 g/mole
342 g/mole

342 grams C12H22O11
b. Determine the molarity concentration.

Molarity = moles of solute
Liters of solution
= 0.29 mole C12H22O11
1 L solution
Molarity = 0.29 M
c. Calculate the osmotic pressure.

T = 25 + 273 = 298 K
π = MRT
= (0.29) (0.08205 L-atm/mole-K) (298 K)
π = 7.09 atm
Colligative Properties has three categories as introduced by Wilhelm Ostwald and these are;
1. Colligative Properties depend only on solute concentration and temperature, not on the nature
of solute particles.
2. Constitutional properties depend on the molecular structure of the solute particles in a
solution.
3. Additive properties are the sum of all properties of the particles. An example of an additive
property is mass.
19
Activity: Colligative Properties
Answer the following using GFSA Method
1. What is the osmotic pressure at 25 °C of an aqueous solution that is 0.0010 M C 12H22O11
(Sucrose)?
2. What is the a) Molality, b) Freezing point, and c) Boiling point of a solution containing 2.68 g of
Naphthalene (C10H8) in 18.4 of Benzene (C6H6)?
3. The freezing point of a solution of 8.00 g of an unknown compound dissolved in 60.0 g of acetic
acid is 13.2 0C. Calculate the molar mass of the compound.
4. A solution is prepared by dissolving 6.85 g of ordinary sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11, 34 g/mol) in
34.0 g of water. Calculate the boiling point of the solution.
5. Sucrose is a non-volatile, non-ionizing solute in water. Determine the vapor pressure lowering at
25 °C, of the 1.25 molal sucrose solution. Assume that the solution behaves ideally. The vapor
pressure of pure water at 25 °C is 23.8 torr.
6. Calculate the (a) lowering of the vapor pressure and (b) the vapor pressure of a solution prepared
by dissolving 25.5 g of Naphthalene, C10H8 ( a non-volatile electrolyte) in 150.0 g of Benzene C6H6
at 20 °C. Assume that the solution is ideal. The vapor pressure of pure benzene is 74.6 torr at
20 °C.
Post Assessment
1. Among all the types of the mixture, what type of mixture is a solution?
a. Pure substance c. Heterogeneous Mixture
b. Homogenous Mixture d. Colloids
2. What process is being referred to decrease the level of concentration of solute in solution?
3. What is being referred to describe the concentration of a solution with the relationships between
the mole of solute and mass of the solvent?
a. Molarity c. Mole fraction
b. Molality d. Percent by volume
4. What entity is known to be the universal solvent?
a. Water c. Acid
b. Alcohol d. None of these
5. What do you call the process where the solute is being dissolved in the solvent?
6. What is being referred to as the substance where in it is the least amount in a given solution?
a. Solvent c. water
b. Solute d. salt
7. You are tasked to make a juice, you put 300g of concentrated juice at 500mL of water and you
noticed that it tastes stronger, what does it mean?
a. The amount of sugar in the juice is too much
b. The amount of water is not enough to dilute the juice
c. You put a lot of concentrated juice on the water
d. Either a or b
20
8. You mixed salt and water and suddenly you found out a lot of sediments at the bottom, among all
the factors affecting solubility, which of them affects your solution?
a. Nature of the solute and solvent c. Pressure
b. Particle size d. Temperature
9. Why is it water and oil that cannot mix and obtain a single phase?
a. This is due to the density
b. This is due to its molecular property
c. This is due to its different polarity
d. This is due to its difference in melting point
10. Why do you stir your coffee or juice after adding sugar?
I. This is to increase the rate of dilution
II. This is to increase the rate of dissolution
III. This is to increase the rate of contact of the solvent to solute
11. Soda is a type of solution, which factors of solubility influence gas to dissolve in water?
a. Pressure c. Nature of solute and solvent
b. Temperature d. particle size
12. Matter can be classified as a mixture and pure substance, what is the component of a solution?
a. A solvent and a solute c. a pure element
b. A combination of 2 elements d. None of these
13. What is the classification of a solution based on the classification of matter?
14. What is present in a solution if it conducts electricity?
15. Solutions can exhibit different properties, but what property is being described if it shows a
property that depends on the number of particles?
a. Physical Property c. Colligative Property
b. Chemical Property d. Extensive Property
16. Water boils at 100 degrees centigrade, what will you add to it to decrease the boiling point?
a. Volatile compound c. Higher Temperature
b. Non-volatile Compound d. Higher Pressure
17. What will be the temperature of 25 degrees converted into Kelvin?
a. 278 c. 298
b. 288 d. 308
18. Enable to get the amount of osmotic pressure, what stoichiometric technique is being used to
determine the osmotic pressure?
a. Molality c. Normality
b. Molarity d. Mole Fraction
19. What is being described as the lowering of temperature by adding a solute?
a. Vapor pressure lowering c. Freezing point depression
b. Boiling Point elevation d. Osmotic pressure
20. What is being referred to as the diffusion of solvent molecules through a semipermeable
membrane?
a. Osmosis c. Solubility
21
b. Dissolution d. Freezing
21. What is absent on a non-electrolyte substance why it can’t conduct electricity?
22. Thermodynamics is a nice concept in science, but what is being dealt with by this field?
a. Matter c. heat
b. Energy d. Atoms
23. What do we mean by entropy?
a. Order c. heat
b. Disorder d. matter
24. Which of the following describes a volatile compound?
a. A substance that fasts to evaporate
b. A substance that did not evaporate
c. Substance soluble to water
d. Substance insoluble to water
25. What entity directly affects the changes in the colligative properties of a solution?
a. Solvent c. Colloid
b. Solute d. Volatile Compound
26. A solution contains 150g of NaCl and dissolves in 0.599 liters of water. What is the molarity of
the solution?
a. 1.32 mol/L c. 3.32 mol/L
b. 2.32 mol/L d. 4.32 mol/L
27. Among all the types of classification of matter, how can you classify solutions?
28. If a solution contains a nonvolatile compound, what will happen to its boiling point?
29. If a solution contains a volatile compound, what will happen to its boiling point?
30. Why is ice cream vendors put salt on the ice as they sell ice cream on summer days?
a. To elevate the freezing point
b. To increase the osmotic pressure
c. To increase the melting point
d. To decrease the boiling point
22
MODULE 3: THERMOCHEMISTRY
1. explain the energy changes during chemical reactions
2. distinguish between exothermic and endothermic processes
3. explain the first law of thermodynamics
4. explain the enthalpy of a reaction.
5. Write the thermochemical equation for a chemical reaction
6. Calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess Law
7. (LAB) Do exercises on thermochemical calculations
8. (LAB)Determine the heat of neutralization of an acid
Learning Objectives
 explain the first law of thermodynamics;
 describe and explain how the heat of reactions are determined by calorimetry
 define enthalpy of reaction;
 write and interpret thermochemical equations;
 explain Hess’ Law in your own words
 determine the enthalpy of reactions from known thermochemical data using Hess’ Law.
 perform calculations involving thermochemical equations
Pre-Assessment
1. What do you call science that deals with how much heat is released or absorbed during a chemical
reaction or physical change?
a. Kinetics c. Thermodynamics
b. Thermochemistry d. Phase Changes
2. What is being described as a reaction where heat is being absorbed during a chemical reaction?
a. Kinetics c. Exothermic Reaction
b. Endothermic Reaction d. Phase Changes
3. What is being referred to in the science that deals with the analysis of how fast reaction occurs?
a. Kinetics c. Collision
b. Chemical Reaction d. Chemical Kinetics
4. What do you call the factors affecting chemical reactions that hasten the chemical reaction and
reduce the amount of energy needed during the reaction?
a. Temperature c. Surface Area
b. Catalyst d. Orientation of Molecules
5. What idea explains that enable for the reaction to occur energy and orientation of molecules must
be obtained?
a. Chemical Kinetics c. Activation Energy
b. Collision Theory d. Thermochemistry
6. What is being referred to in the study of heat and its transformations?
a. Thermochemistry c. Chemical Kinetics
b. Thermodynamics d. Heat
7. What is the standard amount of energy needed to change entropy?
a. 0°C c. 298.15 K
b. 273.15K d. 25.00 K
23
8. What is being described to the measure of systems disorder due to matter and/or energy
dispersal?
a. Enthalpy c. Thermodynamics
b. Entropy d. Phase Changes
9. On the different states of matter, which of them has the greatest entropy?
a. Solid c. Gas
b. Liquid d. FC
10. Who is the scientist who presents an alternative to calculate the entropy change on a system?
a. Jano Gibbs c. Josiah Gibbs
b. Jose Gibbs d. Joshua Gibbs
11. What factor affects the entropy of a system if the solid turns to liquid?
a. Temperature c. Concentration
b. Physical State d. Catalyst
12. What factor affects the entropy of a system if the number of particles present varies on a different
solution?
13. Two compounds are prepared for reaction and these are CO and O 2 when they are held together
to form a new product no reaction occurs, why it does not occur?
a. The reactants are too large and require greater energy
b. The compounds are not properly oriented for the reaction
c. The compounds need catalysts to enable them to form a new product
d. The temperature necessary for the reaction is not properly introduced
14. How do we know that a system has a greater entropy?
a. If the system transforms from gas to liquid and solid
b. If the system creates more ions during a chemical reaction
c. If two compounds react and create solid by-products
d. If the water from a container freezes due to low temperature
15. A STEM student named Curie Mao wants to know Gibb’s Free energy of a system, but she can’t
find the exact value of free energy for the certain compound and what she had is only the enthalpy
and entropy value, can Curie Mao solve the problem?
a. Indeed, if she can find the table of values to Gibb’s Free Energy
b. Absolutely, by using the other alternative solution to solve the Free Energy
c. I don’t think so, because it is so hard to find free energy without the values
d. Well, just give up or ask for help
Chapter 1: Thermochemistry and Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction

Thermochemistry is the science that explains this phenomenon. Thermochemistry is a branch of
thermodynamics that focuses on the study of heat given off or absorbed in a chemical reaction. In a
chemical reaction where heat is released, this is known as an exothermic reaction.
Exothermic A reaction or process releases heat, causing the temperature of the immediate
surroundings to rise, while an endothermic reaction is a process or reaction where heat is absorbed and
cools the surroundings. Photosynthesis and cooking are examples of endothermic processes as heat
energy is required to process the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen and
to cook the food. On the other hand, combustion reaction and rain are examples of exothermic as heat
is released when methane or hydrocarbons are subjected to combustion, releasing CO2, H2O and heat;
24
the formation of rain or condensation is an example of exothermic as water vapor is converted to water
droplets through condensation.
Activity: Heat Dynamics

Part I: Decide whether each of these reactions is exothermic or endothermic:
a. Making a caramel out of table sugar: ______________
b. Reactions between water and calcium chloride: _______________
c. Melting of ice cubes: _______________
d. Producing sugar through photosynthesis _______________
e. Reaction between iron and oxygen: _______________
Part II. Explain the following

a. Differentiate exothermic and endothermic reactions.
b. How will you determine if the reaction between two or compounds is endothermic or
exothermic?
c. A burning match and a bonfire may have the same temperature, yet you would not sit
around a burning match on a fall evening to stay warm. Why not?
Chapter 2: Chemical Thermodynamics

Heat changes during a chemical process are an indication of a chemical reaction. This event is
explained and discussed in the previous chapter about thermochemistry. This chapter involves the laws
of thermodynamics.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the total energy of the universe is constant, which
follows the Law of Conservation of Energy and is expressed mathematically as;
ΔEuniverse= ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings= 0
While Second Law of Thermodynamics is attributed to Entropy which is related to the disorder of
the system. This law states that all processes that occur spontaneously move in the direction of an
increase in entropy of the universe. This is expressed mathematically as:
ΔSuniverse= ΔSsystem + ΔSsurroundings > 0 (for spontaneous process)
The entropy of the system may change when factors affecting entropy is present in the system
and it is determined by a few simple rules;
1. Entropy increases when the number of molecules increases during a reaction
2. Entropy increases with an increase in temperature
3. Entropy increases when a gas formed from liquid or solid
4. Entropy increases when liquid is formed from a solid.
Figure. The entropy of a substance increases (ΔS > 0)

as it transforms from a relatively ordered solid, to a less-
ordered liquid, and then to a still less-ordered gas. The
entropy decreases (ΔS < 0) as the substance
transforms from a gas to a liquid and then to a solid.
25
Example of Predicting the Sign of ΔS
Predict the sign of the entropy change for the following processes. Indicate the reason for each of your
predictions.
Link to LearningOne mole liquid water at room temperature ⟶ one-mole liquid water at 50 °C
o Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s)
o C6H6(l) + 15/2 O2(g) ⟶ 6CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
o NH3(s) ⟶ NH3(l)
Answers
o positive, temperature increases
o negative, reduction in the number of ions (particles) in solution, decreased dispersal of
matter
o negative, net decrease in the number of gaseous species
o the positive, phase transition from solid to liquid, a net increase in the dispersal of matter
Calculate the standard entropy change for the following process:

H2 O(g) ⟶ H2 O(l)
Solution
The value of the standard entropy change at room temperature, ΔS°298, is the difference between the
standard entropy of the product, H2O(l), and the standard entropy of the reactant, H2O(g).
ΔS298 ° = S298 ° (H2 O(l)) − S298 °(H2 O(g))
= (70.0 J mol−1 K−1) – (188.8 Jmol−1 K−1)
= −118.8 J mol−1 K−1
The value for ΔS°298 is negative, as expected for this phase transition (condensation), which the
previous
Activity: Chemical Thermodynamic Reaction

Part I: Predict the sign of the entropy change for the following processes.
a. An ice cube is warmed to near its melting point.
b. Exhaled breath forms fog on a cold morning.
c. Snow melts.
d. Pb2+(aq) + S2−(aq) ⟶ PbS(s)
e. 2Fe(s) + 3O2(g) ⟶ Fe2 O3(s)
f. 2C6 H14(l) + 19O2(g) ⟶ 14H2 O(g) + 12CO2(g)
Part II. Solve the following
1. SnCl4(l) ⟶ SnCl4(g)
2. CS2(g) ⟶ CS2(l)
3. Cu(s) ⟶ Cu(g)
Chapter 3: Calorimetry
For years, we thought and had misconceptions about measuring the amount of heat by using a
thermometer. However, this idea is wrong as this device is used to measure the temperature, not the
heat or thermal energy. Measuring heat or thermal energy released or absorbed during a chemical or
physical change is known as calorimetry. The quantity of heat absorbed or released during the chemical
26
or physical change is represented as q and is proportional to the change in temperature of the system
being studied. It is called heat capacity (Cp) and expressed mathematically as
Cp= heat capacity=q/ΔT
Another quantity to quantify the amount of heat of a substance is specific heat capacity or
specific heat (c) and is expressed mathematically as;
c= q(m x ΔT) or q=cm ΔT
Example:
1. How much heat is absorbed by 60.0 g of copper when its temperature is raised from 20.0°C to
80.0°C?
Q= mCΔT= (0.0600 kg)(385 J/kg*°C)(80.0°C - 20.0°C) = 1.39 x 103 J
2. When 50.0 mL of 1.00 M HCl(aq) and 50.0 mL of 1.00 M NaOH(aq), both at 22.0 °C, are added to
a coffee cup calorimeter, the temperature of the mixture reaches a maximum of 28.9 °C. What is
the approximate amount of heat produced by this reaction?
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
Solution
To visualize what is going on, imagine that you could combine the two solutions so quickly that
no reaction took place while they mixed; then after mixing, the reaction took place. At the instant of mixing,
you have 100.0 mL of a mixture of HCl and NaOH at 22.0 °C. The HCl and NaOH then react until the
solution temperature reaches 28.9 °C.
The heat given off by the reaction is equal to that taken in by the solution. Therefore:
qreaction = −qsolution
Next, we know that the heat absorbed by the solution depends on its specific heat, mass, and
temperature change:
qsolution = (c × m × ΔT)solution
To proceed with this calculation, we need to make a few more reasonable assumptions or
approximations. Since the solution is aqueous, we can proceed as if it were water in terms of its specific
heat and mass values. The density of water is approximately 1.0 g/mL, so 100.0 mL has a mass of about
1.0 × 102 g (two significant figures). The specific heat of water is approximately 4.18 J/g °C, so we use
that for the specific heat of the solution. Substituting these values gives:
qsolution = (4.184 J/g °C)(1.0 × 102 g)(28.9 °C − 22.0 °C) = 2.89 × 103 J
Finally, since we are trying to find the heat of the reaction, we have:
qreaction = −qsolution = −2.89 × 103 J
The negative sign indicates that the reaction is exothermic. It produces 2.89 kJ of heat.
Activity: Calorimetry
1. How many milliliters of water at 23 °C with a density of 1.00 g/mL must be mixed with 180 mL
(about 6 oz) of coffee at 95 °C so that the resulting combination will have a temperature of 60 °C?
Assume that coffee and water have the same density and the same specific heat.
2. A 4.00 x 102-g glass coffee cup is at room temperature, 20.0°C. It is then plunged into hot
dishwater, 80.0°C. If the temperature of the cup reaches that of the dishwater, how much heat
27
does the cup absorb? Assume the mass of the dishwater is large enough so its temperature
doesn’t change appreciably.
3. When 100 mL of 0.200 M NaCl(aq) and 100 mL of 0.200 M AgNO3(aq), both at 21.9 °C, are
mixed in a coffee cup calorimeter, the temperature increases to 23.5 °C as solid AgCl forms. How
much heat is produced by this precipitation reaction? What assumptions did you make to
determine your value?
Chapter 4: Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction Hess’ Law

Most of the chemical reactions that chemists prepared and observe are in constant pressure and
heat changes at a constant temperature. This kind of set-up is common in the chemistry of constant
pressure-temperature, and the thermodynamic term used to describe this event or energy dynamics is
called enthalpy: Enthalpy (ΔH) is equal to the heat gained or lost by the system under constant-pressure
conditions.
If ΔH > 0 the reaction is endothermic
If ΔH < 0 the reaction is exothermic
Enthalpies of reaction can be quantified by calorimeter, however, it can be calculated in other
ways through Hess’s Law. Hess’ Law states that if a reaction occurs in a series of steps, then the
individual enthalpy change for the overall reaction is simply is the sum of the enthalpy changes of the
individual steps.
Example:
Determine the enthalpy of formation, ΔHf ° , of FeCl3(s) from the enthalpy changes of the following two
step process that occurs under standard state conditions:
Fe(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl2(s) ΔH° = −341.8 kJ
FeCl2(s) + 12 Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl3(s) ΔH° = −57.7 kJ
Solution
We are trying to find the standard enthalpy of formation of FeCl3(s), which is equal to ΔH° for the reaction:
Fe(s) + 3/2 Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl3(s) ΔHf ° = ?
Looking at the reactions, we see that the reaction for which we want to find ΔH° is the sum of the two
reactions with known ΔH values, so we must sum their ΔHs:
Fe(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl2(s) ΔH° = −341.8 kJ

FeCl2(s) + 12 Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl3(s) ΔH° = −57.7 kJ
Fe(s) + 12 Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl3(s) ΔH° = −399.5 kJ
The enthalpy of formation, ΔHf ° , of FeCl3(s) is −399.5 kJ/mol.
Moreover, Standard Enthalpy Formation enthalpy change of a chemical reaction in which 1

mole of a pure substance is formed from its elements in their most stable states under standard state
conditions. These values are then tabulated and can be used to determine enthalpy reaction ΔH°rxn.
 ΔHf of an element in its standard state is zero.
 ΔH°rxn can be determined from the tabulated ΔHf of the individual reactants and products. It is
the sum of the ΔHf of the products minus the sum of the ΔHf of the reactants, expressed as;
ΔHreaction ° =ΣΔHf ° (products) − ΣΔHf ° (reactants)
28
Example
What is the standard enthalpy change for the reaction:
3NO2(g) + H2 O(l) ⟶ 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g) ΔH° = ?
Solution: Using the Equation

Use the special form of Hess’s law given previously:
ΔHreaction ° =Σn × ΔHf ° (products) − Σ n × ΔHf ° (reactants)
= (2 mol HNO3 × (−207.4 kJ/mol HNO3(aq)) + 1 mol NO(g) × +90.2 kJ/mol NO(g))
= (3 mol NO2(g) × (+33.2 kJ/mol NO2(g)) + 1 mol H2 O(l) × −285.8 kJ/mol H2 O(l)
= 2(−207.4 kJ) + 1(+90.2 kJ) − 3(+33.2 kJ) − 1(−285.8 kJ)
= −138.4 kJ
Solution: Supporting Why the General Equation Is Valid
Alternatively, we can write this reaction as the sum of the decompositions of 3NO2(g) and 1H2O(l)
into their constituent elements, and the formation of 2HNO3(aq) and 1NO(g) from their constituent
elements.
Writing out these reactions, and noting their relationships to the ΔHf ° values for these
compounds we have:
3NO2(g) ⟶ 3/2N2(g) + 3O2(g) ΔH1° = −99.6 kJ
H2 O(l) ⟶ H2(g) + ½ O2(g) ΔH2° = +285.8 kJ [−1 × ΔHf ° (H2 O)]
H2(g) + N2(g) + 3O2(g) ⟶ 2HNO3(aq) ΔH3° = −414.8 kJ [2 × ΔHf ° (HNO3)]
½ N2(g) + ½ O2(g) ⟶ NO(g) ΔH4° = +90.2 kJ [1 × (NO)]
Summing these reaction equations gives the reaction we are interested in:
3NO2(g) + H2 O(l) ⟶ 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
Summing their enthalpy changes gives the value we want to determine:
ΔH°rxn = ΔH°1 + ΔH°2 + ΔH°3 + ΔH°4 = (−99.6 kJ) + (+285.8 kJ) + (−414.8 kJ) + (+90.2 kJ)
= −138.4 kJ
So the standard enthalpy change for this reaction is ΔH° = −138.4 kJ.
Activity: Standard Enthalpy & Hess Law

1. Calculate for the reaction: Fe3O4(s) + 2C(s) 3Fe(s) + CO(2)
2Fe(s) + 3/2 O2 Fe2O3(s) ΔH= -826kJ
Fe(s) + 1/2 O2 FeO(s) ΔH= -272kJ
FeO(s) + Fe2O3(s) Fe2O3 ΔH= -1121 kJ
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) ΔH= -394 kJ
2. The following sequence of reactions occurs in the commercial production of aqueous nitric acid:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) ⟶ 4NO(g) + 6H2 O(l) ΔH = −907 kJ
2NO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2NO2(g) ΔH = −113 kJ
3NO2 + H2 O(l) ⟶ 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g) ΔH = −139 kJ
3. The following reactions can be used to prepare samples of metals. Determine the enthalpy
change under standard state conditions for each.
a. 2Ag2 O(s) ⟶ 4Ag(s) + O2(g)
b. SnO(s) + CO(g) ⟶ Sn(s) + CO2(g)
29
Post-Assessment
1. What do you call science that deals with how much heat is released or absorbed during a chemical
reaction or physical change?
a. Kinetics c. Thermodynamics
b. Thermochemistry d. Phase Changes
2. What is being described as a reaction where heat is being absorbed during a chemical reaction?
a. Kinetics c. Exothermic Reaction
b. Endothermic Reaction d. Phase Changes
3. What is being referred to in the science that deals with the analysis of how fast reaction occurs?
a. Kinetics c. Collision
b. Chemical Reaction d. Chemical Kinetics
4. What do you call the factors affecting chemical reactions that hasten the chemical reaction and
reduce the amount of energy needed during the reaction?
a. Temperature c. Surface Area
b. Catalyst d. Orientation of Molecules
5. What idea explains that enable for the reaction to occur energy and orientation of molecules must
be obtained?
a. Chemical Kinetics c. Activation Energy
b. Collision Theory d. Thermochemistry
6. What is being referred to in the study of heat and its transformations?
a. Thermochemistry c. Chemical Kinetics
b. Thermodynamics d. Heat
7. What is the standard amount of energy needed to change entropy?
a. 0°C c. 298.15 K
b. 273.15K d. 25.00 K
8. What is being described to the measure of systems disorder due to matter and/or energy
dispersal?
a. Enthalpy c. Thermodynamics
b. Entropy d. Phase Changes
9. On the different states of matter, which of them has the greatest entropy?
a. Solid c. Gas
b. Liquid d. FC
10. Who is the scientist who presents an alternative to calculate the entropy change on a system?
a. Jano Gibbs c. Josiah Gibbs
b. Jose Gibbs d. Joshua Gibbs
11. What factor affects the entropy of a system if the solid turns to liquid?
12. What factor affects the entropy of a system if the number of particles present varies on a different
solution?
13. Two compounds are prepared for reaction and these are CO and O2 when they are held together
to form a new product no reaction occurs, why it does not occur?
a. The reactants are too large and require greater energy
30
b. The compounds are not properly oriented for the reaction
c. The compounds need catalysts to enable them to form a new product
d. The temperature necessary for the reaction is not properly introduced
14. How do we know that a system has a greater entropy?
a. If the system transforms from gas to liquid and solid
b. If the system creates more ions during a chemical reaction
c. If two compounds react and create solid by-products
d. If the water from a container freezes due to low temperature
15. A STEM student named Curie Mao wants to know Gibb’s Free energy of a system, but she can’t
find the exact value of free energy for the certain compound and what she had is only the enthalpy
and entropy value, can Curie Mao solve the problem?
a. Indeed, if she can find the table of values to Gibb’s Free Energy
b. Absolutely, by using the other alternative solution to solve the Free Energy
c. I don’t think so, because it is so hard to find free energy without the values
d. Well, just give up or ask for help
MODULE 4: CHEMICAL KINETICS

1. describe how various factors influence the rate of a reaction
2. write the mathematical relationship between the rate of a reaction, rate constant, and concentration
of the reactants
3. differentiate zero, first-, and second order reactions
4. write the rate law for first-order reaction
5. discuss the effect of reactant concentration on the half-time of a first-order reaction
6. explain the effect of temperature on the rate of a reaction
7. explain reactions qualitatively in terms of molecular collisions
8. explain activation energy and how a catalyst affects the reaction rate
9. cite and differentiate the types of catalysts
10. (LAB)Determine the effect of various factors on the rate of a reaction
Learning Objectives
 define rate of reaction;
 identify factors that affect the rate of a reaction;
 differentiate the different reaction orders
 state the postulates of the Collision Theory;
 explain the effect of each factor on the rate of a reaction using the Collision Theory;
 define activation energy; and
 explain the effect of a catalyst on the rate of a reaction by providing a different reaction path
 calculate molar mass from a colligative property data;
 perform calculations involving Arrhenius Equation.
 Identify the different types of catalysts
PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. A reaction follows the rate law: Rate= k[A] 2. Which of the following plots will give a straight line?
a. 1/A versus 1/time c. 1/[A] versus time
2
b. [A] versus time d. ln[A] versus time
31
2. For the following reaction: NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO(g) + CO2(g), the rate is: Rate= k[NO2]2. If a small
amount of gaseous carbon monoxide is added to a reaction mixture that was 0.15 molar in NO2
and 0.30 molar in CO, which of the following statements are true?
a. Both K and reaction rate remains the same
b. Both k and reaction rate increases
c. Both k and reaction rate decreases
d. Only k increases, the reaction rate will remain the same
3. The specific rate constant, k for the radioactive Be-11 is 0.049 s-1. What mass of a 0.500 mg
sample of Be-11 remains after 28 seconds?
a. 0.250 mg c. 0.0625 mg
b. 0.125 mg d. 0.375 mg
4. Which of the following attributes caused the slow rate of a particular chemical reaction?
a. A low activation energy c. the presence of a catalyst
b. A high activation energy d. the temperature is high
5. The steps below represent a proposed mechanism for the catalyzed oxidation of CO by O 3.
NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO(g) + CO2(g)
NO(g) + O3 → NO2(g) + O2(g)
a. CO2 and O2 c. NO2 and O2
b. NO and CO2 d. NO and O2
st
6. The decomposition of ammonia to the elements is 1 order reaction with a half-life of 200-s at a
certain temperature. How long will it take the partial pressure of ammonia to decrease from 0.100
atm to 0.000625 atm?
a. 200 s c. 800 s
b. 400 s d. 1000 s
7. What do you call the difference between the reactants and the transition state?
a. Free energy c. activation energy
b. Heat of reaction d. kinetic energy
8. What is the purpose of striking the match against the side of a box to light the match?
a. To supply the free energy for the reaction
b. To supply the activation energy for the reaction
c. To supply the heat of the reaction
d. To supply the kinetic energy for the reaction
9. The following table gives the initial concentration and rate for three experiments.
Initial [Cl2] Initial rate of reaction of
Experiment Initial [CO] (mol.L1)
(mol.L1) COCl2 (mol L-1min-1)
1 0.200 0.100 3.9 x 10 -25
2 0.100 0.200 3.9 x 10 -25
3 0.200 0.200 7.8 x 10 -25
The reaction is CO(g) + Cl2 → COCl2(g). What is the rate law for this reaction?
a. Rate= k[CO] c. Rate= k[CO][Cl2]
2
b. Rate = k[CO] [Cl] d. Rate [CO][Cl2]2
10. The reaction (CH3)3CBr(aq) + H2O → (CH3)3COH(aq) + HBr(aq) follows the rate law:
Rate=k([(CH3)3Br]. What will be the effect of decreasing the concentration of (CH3)3CBr?
a. The rate of the reaction will increase
b. More HBr will form
c. The rate of the reaction will decrease
32
d. The reaction will shift to the left
Chapter 1: Chemical Kinetics and Rates of Reaction

Chemical thermodynamics can be used to predict whether a reaction will occur spontaneously or
non-spontaneously, but it only gives little information about the speed of a chemical reaction. Chemical
Kinetics (Kinetics) is the study of the speed of reaction rates. This is the rate at which reactants are
transformed into products.
For a chemical reaction to occur, there must be a collision between the reactant particles. That
collision is necessary to transfer kinetic energy, to break reactant chemical bonds and reform product
ones. If the collision does not transfer enough energy to break the activation energy, no reaction will
occur. For particle collision to occur, it must occur at the proper orientation, which is the reactive site.
Five factors affect the rates of chemical reaction;
a. Nature of the reactants - large, complex molecules tend to react more slowly than smaller ones
because collisions of molecules may occur but not at the reactive site.
b. Temperature – it is the measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules. The
higher the temperature, the higher the kinetic energy, and the greater the chance that enough
energy will be transferred to cause the reactions and collisions.
c. The concentration of reactants – the higher the concentration of the reactants, the greater the
chance of collision and the greater reaction rate. For gaseous reactants, the pressure is directly
related to the concentration; the greater the pressure, the greater the reaction rate.
d. Physical State of reactants – the same physical state has higher reaction rates because of a
greater chance of collision. Gas and liquid state reactants tend to reactant faster than solids
because of the increased surface area.
e. Catalyst- a substance that speeds up reaction rate and is recoverable at the end of the reaction
in an unchanged form. A catalyst reduces the activation energy of the reaction.
Rates of Reaction and Rate Equation

The rate or speed of reaction is related to the change in concentration of either a reactant or
product over time. Consider the genera; equation: 2A + B → C + 3D. As the reaction proceeds,
concentrations of A and B decrease and the concentration of C and D will increase and can be expressed
in the following;
1 ∆[𝐴] ∆[𝐵] ∆[𝐶 ] 1 ∆[𝐷]
Rate = - =− = =2
2 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
The first two expressions involving the reactants are negative, because their concentrations
decrease over time, while the brackets represent the concentration of solution or molarity.
Rate Equation
The rate of reaction may depend upon the reactant concentration, product concentration, and
temperature. The general reaction equation; aA + bB …→ cC + dD, where the lower case letters are the
coefficients in the balanced reactions and upper case stand for the reactants; and the product chemical
species and initial rates are used, the rate equation (rate law) is written as:
Rate= k[A]m[B]n…
In this expression, k is the rate constant—a constant for each chemical reaction at a given
temperature. The exponents m and n called orders of reaction. Example, m= 1 and n=2. That means that
if the concentration of reactant A is doubled, then the rate will also be double ([2] 1=2), if the concentration
of reactant B is doubled, then the rate will increase fourfold ([2]2=4). We say it is first-order concerning A
33
and second-order with respect to B. If the concentration of a reactant is doubled and has no effect on the
rate of reaction, then the reaction is in zero-order with respect to that reactant ([2]0=1). Many times the
overall reaction order is calculated; simply the sum of individual coefficients, which is, in this case, 3rd
order.
It is important to realize that the rate law (the rate, constant, and the orders of reaction) is
determined experimentally. Do not use the balanced chemical equation to determine the rate law.
Example:
2 NO (g) + O2 (g) → 2 NO2 (g)
The following kinetics data were collected:
Experiment Initial [NO] Initial [O2] Rate of NO2 formation (M/s)
1 0.01 0.01 0.05
2 0.02 0.01 0.20
3 0.01 0.02 0.10
To interpret the data, look at experiments 1 and 2, the [NO] was doubled, [O2] held as constant,
and the rate increased fourfold. This means that the reaction is 2 nd order concerning NO. Comparing
experiments 1 and 3, you see that the [O2] was doubled, [NO] held as constant, and the rate was doubled.
Therefore, the reaction is first order with respect to O2, and the rate equation can be written as;
Rate= k[NO]2[O2]
To solve for k, substitute the given values of the concentrations of [NO] and [O2] from any
experiments.
0.05 M/s = k (0.01M)2(0.01M)
k= (0.05 M/s) / (0.01M)2(0.01M)
k= 5.00 x104 M2s
Remember: In choosing experiments to compare, choose two in which the concentration of only
one reactant has changed while others have remained constant.
Comparing experiments 1 and 2:

0.05 M/s = k (0.01 M)m(0.01M)n
0.20 M/s = (0.02)m(0.01)n
Canceling the rate constants and the (0.01)n and simplifying;
1 1 𝑚
= ( )
4 2
m= 2 (use logarithms to solve for m)
Comparing exp. 1 and 3;
0.05 M/s = k (0.01 M)m(0.01M)n
0.10 M/s = (0.01)m(0.02)n
Canceling the rate constants and the (0.01)m and simplifying;
1 1 𝑛
= ( )
2 2
n= 1
Writing the rate equation:
Rate = k [NO]2[O2]
34
Activity 1: Rate Law and Equation: Show me your Reaction!!
1. Doubling the concentration of a reactant increases the rate of a reaction four times. With this
knowledge, answer the following questions:
a. What is the order of the reaction with respect to that reactant?
b. Tripling the concentration of a different reactant increases the rate of a reaction three
times. What is the order of the reaction with respect to that reactant?
2. The decomposition of acetaldehyde is a second-order reaction with a rate constant of 4.71 × 10−8
L/mol/s. What is the instantaneous rate of decomposition of acetaldehyde in a solution with a
concentration of 5.55 × 10−4 M?
3. Under certain conditions the decomposition of ammonia on a metal surface gives the following
data.
[NH3] (M) 1.0 x10-3 2.0 x10-3 3.0 x10-3
Rate (mol/l/h-1) 1.5 x 10 -6 1.5 x 10 -6 1.5 x 10 -6
Determine the rate equation, rate constant, and the overall reaction order.
Chapter 2: Integrated Rate Laws

The rate laws we have seen relate the rate to the concentrations of reactants. We can also
determine a second form of each rate law that relates to the concentrations of reactants and time. These
are called "integrated rate laws."
An integrated rate law is used to determine the amount of reactant or product present after a
period of time or to estimate the time required for a reaction to proceed to a certain extent. For example,
an integrated rate law is used to determine the length of time a radioactive material must be stored for its
radioactivity to decay to a safe level.
Using calculus, the differential rate law for a chemical reaction can be integrated with respect to
time to give an equation that relates the amount of reactant or product present in a reaction mixture to
the elapsed time of the reaction.
This process can be either very straightforward or very complex, depending on the complexity of
the differential rate law. For this discussion, we will focus only on the resulting integrated rate laws for
first-, second-, and zero-order reactions.
First-Order Reaction
An equation relating the rate constant k to the initial concentration [A]0 and the concentration [A]t
present after any given time t can be derived for a first-order reaction and shown to be:
(𝐴) (𝐴)
𝑙𝑛 ((𝐴) 𝑡 ) = −𝑘𝑡 or 𝑙𝑛 ( (𝐴)𝑜 ) = 𝑘𝑡 or (𝐴) = (𝐴)0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
0 𝑡
A plot of ln[A] versus t for a first-order reaction is a straight line with a slope of −k and an
intercept of ln[A]0. If a set of rate data are plotted in this fashion but do not result in a straight line, the
reaction is not first order in A.
ln[A] = (−k)(t) + ln[A]0
y = mx + b
Example:
The rate constant for the first-order decomposition of cyclobutane, C4H8 at 500°C is 9.2 × 10-3
s−1:
C4 H8 ⟶ 2C2 H4
35
How long will it take for 80.0% of a sample of C4H8 to decompose?
There are four variables in the rate law, so if we know three of them, we can determine the fourth.
In this case we know [A]0, [A], and k, and need to find t.
The initial concentration of C4H8, [A]0, is not provided, but the provision that 80.0% of the sample
has decomposed is enough information to solve this problem. Let x be the initial concentration, in which
case the concentration after 80.0% decomposition is 20.0% of x or 0.200x. Rearranging the rate law to
isolate t and substituting the provided quantities yields:
t= ln [x]/[0.200x] X 1/k
= ln 0.100 M/0.020 M X 1/9.2X10-3s-1
= 1.609 X 1/9. 2X10-3s-1
= 1.2 X102s
Second-Order Reaction
The equations that relate the concentrations of reactants and the rate constant of second-order
reactions are fairly complicated. We will limit ourselves to the simplest second-order reactions, namely,
those with rates that are dependent upon just one reactant’s concentration and described by the
differential rate law:
Rate = k[A]2
For these second-order reactions, the integrated rate law is;
1 1
= 𝑘𝑡 +
[𝐴] [𝐴]0
The integrated rate law for our second-order reactions has the form of the equation of a straight
line. A plot of 1 [A] versus t for a second-order reaction is a straight line with a slope of k and an
intercept of 1 [A]0. If the plot is not a straight line, then the reaction is not second order.
1/[A] = kt + 1/[A]0
y = mx + b
Example:
The reaction of butadiene gas (C4H6) with itself produces C8H12 gas as follows:
2C4 H6(g) ⟶ C8 H12(g)
The reaction is second order with a rate constant equal to 5.76 × 10−2 L/mol/min under certain
conditions. If the initial concentration of butadiene is 0.200 M, what is the concentration remaining after
10.0 min.?
Solution:
1 1
= 𝑘𝑡 +
[𝐴] [𝐴]0
We know three variables in this equation: [A]0 = 0.200 mol/L, k = 5.76 × 10−2 L/mol/min, and t =
10.0 min. Therefore, we can solve for [A], the fourth variable:
1/[A] = (5.76 x 10 -2 L.mol-1min-1)(10 min) + 1/0.200 mol-1
1/[A] = (5.76 x 10 -1 L.mol-1) + 5.00 L mol-1
1/[A] = 5.58 L mol -1
[A] = 1.79 x 10-1mol.L-1
36
Zero-Order Reaction
For zero-order reactions, the differential rate law is:
Rate = k[A]0=k
A zero-order reaction thus exhibits a constant reaction rate, regardless of the concentration of its
reactants.
The integrated rate law for a zero-order reaction also has the form of the equation of a straight line:
[A] = −kt + [A]0
y = mx + b
Half-Life Reaction
Half-life reaction (t1/2), is the amount of time that it takes for a recent concentration to decrease to
half its initial concentration. For first-order reaction, the half-life is a constant, independent of reactant
concentration, and can be shown to have the following mathematical relationship;
t1/2= ln 2/ k = 0.693/k
For the second-order reactions, the half-life does depend on the reactant concentration and can
be calculated using the following formula;
t1/2 = 1/k[A]0
This means that as a second-order reaction proceeds, the half-life increases.
Example:
The rate constant for the radioactive decay of thorium-232 is 5.0x10-11/year. Determine the half-
life of thorium-232.
Solution:
t1/2= ln 2/ k = 0.693/k
t1/2= 0.693/k
t1/2= 0.693/5. 0x10-11/year
t1/2=1.386 x1010 yr.
37
Activity 2: Integrated Rate Law
1. What is the half-life for the first-order decay of carbon-14? (146C→147N + e-) The rate constant for
the decay is 1.21 × 10−4 year−1.
2. What is the half-life for the decomposition of NOCl when the concentration of NOCl is 0.15 M?
The rate constant for this second-order reaction is 8.0 × 10−8 L/mol/s.
3. Some bacteria are resistant to the antibiotic penicillin because they produce penicillinase, an
enzyme with a molecular weight of 3 × 104 g/mol that converts penicillin into inactive molecules.
Although the kinetics of enzyme-catalyzed reactions can be complex, at low concentrations this
reaction can be described by a rate equation that is first order in the catalyst (penicillinase) and
that also involves the concentration of penicillin. From the following data: 1.0 L of a solution
containing 0.15 μg (0.15 × 10−6 g) of penicillinase, determine the order of the reaction with
respect to penicillin and the value of the rate constant.
[Penicillin] (M) Rate (mol/L/min)
-6
2.0 x 10 1.0 x 10 -10
-6
3.0 x 10 1.5 x 10 -10
4.0 x 10 -6 2.0 x 10 -10
Chapter 3: Collision Theory and Activation Energy

The collision theory explains that gas-phase chemical reactions occur when molecules collide
with sufficient kinetic energy. This theory is based on the kinetic molecular theory of gases and based on
the following postulates.
1. The rate of a reaction is proportional to the rate of reactant collisions:
Reaction rate ∝ # collisions
Time
2. The reacting species must collide in an orientation that allows contact between the atoms that will
become bonded together in the product.
3. The collision must occur with adequate energy to permit mutual penetration of the reacting
species’ valence shells so that the electrons can rearrange and form new bonds (and new
chemical species).
Even if the collision occurs with the proper orientation, there is no guarantee that the reaction will
proceed to form carbon dioxide. Every reaction necessitates a certain amount of activation energy in
order to proceed forward, producing an appropriate activated complex along the way. Even a collision
with the correct orientation, however, can fail to form the reaction product. Each of these three atom
arrangements is referred to as an "activated complex" or "transition state" in the study of reaction
mechanisms.
38
Furthermore, collision theory explains why most reaction rates increase with increasing
concentrations. Because there are more molecules per unit of volume as the concentration of reacting
substances increases, the chances of collisions between molecules increase. More collisions result in a
faster reaction rate, assuming the collision energy is sufficient.
Activation Energy
Activation Energy (Ea) is the minimum amount of energy that is needed to initiate or start a
chemical reaction.
A+B⟶C+D
The figure shows that the energy of the transition state is higher than that of the reactants A and
B by an amount equal to Ea, the activation energy. Thus, the sum of the kinetic energies of A and B must
be equal to or greater than Ea to reach the transition state. After the transition state has been reached,
and as C and D begin to form, the system loses energy until its total energy is lower than that of the initial
mixture. This lost energy is transferred to other molecules, giving them enough energy to reach the
transition state.
To quantify and relate activation energy to rate reaction we can use the Arrhenius equation;
k = Ae−Ea /RT
𝑙𝑛𝑘2 𝑙𝑛𝑘
Linear Equation: 𝐸𝑎 = −𝑅 ( 1 − 1 1)
( ⁄𝑇 ) ( ⁄𝑇 )
2 1
In this equation, R is the ideal gas constant, which has a value of 8.314 J/mol/K, T is the
temperature on the Kelvin scale, Ea is the activation energy in joules per mole, e is the constant 2.7183,
and A is a constant called the frequency factor, which is related to the frequency of collisions and the
orientation of the reacting molecules.
Example:
The rate constant for the rate of decomposition of N2O5 to NO and O2 in the gas phase is 1.66
L/mol/s at 650 K and 7.39 L/mol/s at 700 K:
2N2 O5(g) ⟶ 4NO(g) + 3O2(g)
Assuming the kinetics of this reaction are consistent with the Arrhenius equation, calculate the
activation energy for this decomposition.
Solution:
T(K) k (L/mol/s) 1/T ln k
-3
650 1.66 L/mol/s 1.538 x10 0.507
700 7.39 L/mol/s 1.429 x10-3 2.000
39
Substitute the given values:
𝑙𝑛𝑘2 𝑙𝑛𝑘1
𝐸𝑎 = −𝑅 ( − )
(1⁄𝑇 ) (1⁄𝑇 )
2 1
2.000 0.507
𝐸𝑎 = −8.314 𝐽. 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐾 ( − )
(1.429 x10 − 3) (1.538 x10 − 3)
𝐸𝑎 = 112, 986.35 𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 or 113,000 J/mol
Activity: Activation Energy: Chemical Reaction…Activate!!!

Solve the following problems or situations.
1. Chemical reactions occur when reactants collide. What are two factors that may prevent a
collision from producing a chemical reaction?
2. Account for the relationship between the rate of a reaction and its activation energy.
3. The rate constant at 325 °C for the decomposition reaction C4 H8 ⟶ 2C2 H4 is 6.1 × 10−8
s−1, and the activation energy is 261 kJ per mole of C4H8. Determine the frequency factor
for the reaction.
4. The rate constant for the decomposition of acetaldehyde, CH3CHO, to methane, CH4, and
carbon monoxide, CO, in the gas phase is 1.1 × 10−2 L/mol/s at 703 K and 4.95 L/mol/s at
865 K. Determine the activation energy for this decomposition.
Chapter IV: Catalysis

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of the reaction being consumed in the process.
A catalyst may take part in the reaction and even change during the reaction, but at the end of the
reaction, it is at least theoretically recoverable in its original form. It speeds up the reaction rate by
providing a different mechanism that has lower activation energy and thus will be faster.
There are two types of catalysts, and these are homogenous and heterogeneous catalysts.
1. Homogenous Catalyst
- The homogenous catalyst is in the same phase or state of matter as the reactants.
It provides an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
2. Heterogeneous Catalyst
- A heterogeneous catalyst is an indifferent state of matter for a reactant. Most
commonly, the catalyst is a solid and the reactants are liquids or gases. These
catalysts lower the activation energy for the reaction by providing a surface for the
40
reaction and improving the orientation of one reactant so its reactive site is more
easily hit by the other reactant.
Heterogeneous catalysis has at least four steps:

A. Adsorption of the reactant onto the surface of the catalyst
B. Activation of the adsorbed reactant
C. The reaction of the adsorbed reactant
D. Diffusion of the product from the surface into the gas or liquid phase (desorption).
Post-Test
1. A reaction follows the rate law: Rate= k[A] 2. Which of the following plots will give a straight line?
a. 1/A versus 1/time c. 1/[A] versus time
2
b. [A] versus time d. ln[A] versus time
2. For the following reaction: NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO(g) + CO2(g), the rate is: Rate= k[NO2]2. If a
small amount of gaseous carbon monoxide is added to a reaction mixture that was 0.15 molar in
NO2 and 0.30 molar in CO, which of the following statements are true?
a. Both K and reaction rate remains the same
b. Both k and reaction rate increases
c. Both k and reaction rate decreases
d. Only k increases, the reaction rate will remain the same
3. The specific rate constant, k for the radioactive Be-11 is 0.049 s-1. What mass of a 0.500 mg
sample of Be-11 remains after 28 seconds?
a. 0.250 mg c. 0.0625 mg
b. 0.125 mg d. 0.375 mg
4. Which of the following attributes caused the slow rate of a particular chemical reaction?
a. A low activation energy c. the presence of a catalyst
b. A high activation energy d. the temperature is high
5. The steps below represent a proposed mechanism for the catalyzed oxidation of CO by O 3.
NO2(g) + CO(g) → NO(g) + CO2(g)
NO(g) + O3 → NO2(g) + O2(g)
a. CO2 and O2 c. NO2 and O2
b. NO and CO2 d. NO and O2
st
6. The decomposition of ammonia to the elements is 1 order reaction with a half-life of 200-s at a
certain temperature. How long will it take the partial pressure of ammonia to decrease from 0.100
atm to 0.000625 atm?
a. 200 s c. 800 s
b. 400 s d. 1000 s
7. What do you call the difference between the reactants and the transition state?
a. Free energy c. activation energy
b. Heat of reaction d. kinetic energy
8. What is the purpose of striking the match against the side of a box to light the match?
a. To supply the free energy for the reaction
b. To supply the activation energy for the reaction
c. To supply the heat of the reaction
d. To supply the kinetic energy for the reaction
9. The following table gives the initial concentration and rate for three experiments.
41
Initial [CO] Initial [Cl2] Initial rate of reaction
Experiment
(mol.L1) (mol.L1) of COCl2 (mol L-1min-1)
1 0.200 0.100 3.9 x 10 -25
2 0.100 0.200 3.9 x 10 -25
3 0.200 0.200 7.8 x 10 -25
The reaction is CO(g) + Cl2 → COCl2(g). What is the rate law for this reaction?
a. Rate= k[CO] c. Rate= k[CO][Cl2]
2
b. Rate = k[CO] [Cl] d. Rate [CO][Cl2]2
10. The reaction (CH3)3CBr(aq) + H2O → (CH3)3COH(aq) + HBr(aq) follows the rate law:
Rate=k([(CH3)3Br]. What will be the effect of decreasing the concentration of (CH3)3CBr?
a. The rate of the reaction will increase
b. More HBr will form
c. The rate of the reaction will decrease
d. The reaction will shift to the left
42
Overview
In the previous quarter, you studied molecules and compounds together, properties of liquids,
solids, and crystals, phase changes and their energy requirements, types of solutions and their
concentrations, the stoichiometry of solutions, colligative properties, heat and energy dynamics during
chemical reactions, and chemical kinetics. In this quarter, immerse yourselves in the effects of heat and
work on chemical reactions, the randomness of the system, the equilibrium of reactants and products,
acids and bases, and the interrelation of heat and chemical reaction.
The modules in General Chemistry 2 Quarter 4 present mental and hands-on activities that will
enable you to apply science concepts and science process skills in addressing real-world problems
through scientific investigations. These activities are designed to enhance your knowledge,
understanding, skills, and ability to transfer learning. There are five modules in this quarter, namely;
Module 1: Chemical Thermodynamics

Module 2: Chemical Equilibrium
Module 3: Acid-Base Equilibria and Salt Equilibria
Module 4: Electrochemistry
At the end of this quarter, you are expected to develop scientific, technological, and environmental literacy
that will lead you to be a rational thinker for your life choices and viable and functional member of society.
Each module is filled with interesting and fun activities that will guide you on your expedition to optimum
learning.
Let your adventure in chemistry begins…
43
MODULE 1: CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction
Thermodynamics is a concept that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of
energy and heat's relations to its other forms. Chemical thermodynamics, on the other hand, is the study
of the interrelation between heat and work during chemical reactions or physical changes that can be
explained under the laws of thermodynamics.
In this module, the following ideas need to be explained, pondered, and understood; spontaneous
and non-spontaneous processes, entropy, enthalpy, and Gibb’s Free Energy.
1. predict the spontaneity of a process based on entropy
2. determine whether entropy increases or decreases if the following are changed: temperature,
phase, number of particles
3. explain the second law of thermodynamics and its significance
4. use Gibbs’ free energy to determine the direction of a reaction
Learning Objectives
a. Define thermodynamics and chemical thermodynamics
b. Differentiate spontaneous and non-spontaneous
c. Describe entropy and enthalpy
d. Explain the second law of thermodynamics
e. Calculate entropy changes for phase transitions and chemical reactions under standard
conditions
f. Define Gibbs free energy, and describe its relation to the spontaneity
g. Calculate free energy change for a process using free energies of formation for its reactants and
products
h. Calculate free energy change for a process using enthalpies of formation and the entropies for its
reactants and products
i. Explain how temperature affects the spontaneity of some processes
Pre-Assessment
1. Which of the following is the minimum energy required to initiate a reaction?
a. Free energy c. kinetic energy
b. Lattice energy d. activation energy
2. What is the minimum energy required to force a non-spontaneous reaction to occur?
3. What is being referred to as the energy on ideal gases at a given temperature?
4. What is the energy released when the gaseous ions combine to form an ionic solid?
5. What is the enthalpy of the following reaction, 2C(s) + H 2(g) → C2H2(g) given the following
information?
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔH= -395.5 kJ
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔH= -285.8kJ
44
C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + H2O(l) ΔH= -1299.8 kJ
a. 454.0 kJ c. 0.0 kJ
b. -227.0 kJ d. 227.0 kJ
6. A sample of metal is sealed inside a well-insulated, rigid container. The temperature inside the
container is at the melting point of the sample metal. What is the energy and entropy of the system
after equilibrium has been reached?
a. The total energy and entropy increases
b. The total energy and entropy remain constant
c. The total energy increases while entropy decreases
d. The total energy is constant while entropy increases
7. Which of the following reaction expected to have the greatest increase in entropy?
a. H2O (g) → H2O(l)
b. Ca(s) + H2(g) → CaH2(s)
c. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
d. 2 KClO3(s) → 2 KCl (s) + 3 O2(g)
8. Under standard conditions, calcium metal reacts readily with chlorine gas. What conclusions can
you draw from this?
a. Keq < 1 and G° > 0
b. Keq > 1 and G° = 0
c. Keq < 1 and G° < 0
d. Keq > 1 and G° < 0
9. Which of the following reactions have a negative entropy change?
a. 2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2 (g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
b. 2 NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
c. CaCl2(s) → Ca(s) + Cl2(g)
d. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
10. A certain reaction is nonspontaneous under standard conditions but becomes spontaneous at a
higher temperature. What conclusions may be drawn under standard conditions?
a. ΔH< 0, ΔS > 0, and ΔG > 0 c. ΔH> 0, ΔS > 0, and ΔG > 0
b. ΔH> 0, ΔS < 0, and ΔG > 0 d. ΔH <0, ΔS < 0, and ΔG > 0
Chapter 1: Spontaneous and Non-Spontaneous Process

A chemical process can occur under a set of required conditions. A spontaneous process is a
process that occurs naturally under certain conditions. It is a process that takes place without a
continuous input of energy from an external source. Moreover, it is a time-evolution system in which it
releases free energy and moves to a lower thermodynamically stable energy state. A non-spontaneous
process, also called an endogenic reaction, is a chemical reaction in which the change in free energy is
positive, thus energy is absorbed. It is a process that will not take place unless it is "driven" by the
continual input of energy from an external source.
Figure Q4-1. An isolated system consists of
an ideal gas in one flask that is connected by a
closed valve to a second flask containing a vacuum.
Once the valve is opened, the gas spontaneously
becomes evenly distributed between the flasks.
(Source: Flowers, P. et.al. (2015). OpenStax Chemistry.
OpenStax, Rice University.)
45
Chapter 2: Entropy
Entropy and Reversible and Irreversible Process
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot studies the efficiency of steam engines. In a later review of Carnot’s
findings, Rudolf Clausius introduced a new thermodynamic property that relates the spontaneous heat
flow accompanying a process to the temperature at which the process takes place. This new property is
expressed as the ratio of the reversible heat (qrev) and temperature (T). A reversible process refers to
a process that takes place at such a slow rate that it is always at equilibrium and its direction can be
changed or "reversed" by an infinitesimally small change in some condition. The idea of a reversible
process is a formalism required to support the development of various thermodynamic concepts.
However, no real processes are truly reversible, and rather they are classified as irreversible.
Moreover, entropy is a state function that is a measure of the matter and/or energy dispersion
within a system, determined by the number of system microstates, often described as a measure of the
disorder of the system. It is represented by a mathematical equation of
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑣
∆𝑆 = ⁄𝑇
Where ΔS is the entropy of the system
qrev is the reversible heat
T is the kelvin temperature
𝑞𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
∆𝑆 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 ⁄𝑇
Example:
The entropy change for the process is 22.1 J/K and requires that the surroundings transfer 6.00
kJ of heat to the system. Is the process spontaneous at −10.00 °C? Is it spontaneous at +10.00 °C?
H2O(s) ⟶ H2O(l)
Solution:
We can assess the spontaneity of the process by calculating the entropy change of the
universe.
 If ΔSuniv is positive, then the process is spontaneous. At both temperatures, ΔSsys = 22.1 J/K and
qsurr = −6.00 kJ. At −10.00 °C (263.15 K), the following is true:
ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + ΔSsurr = ΔSsys + qsurr/T
= 22.1 J/K + −6.00 × 103 J/ 263.15 K
= −0.7 J/K
Suniv < 0, so melting is nonspontaneous (not spontaneous) at −10.0 °C.
 At 10.00 °C (283.15 K), the following is true:

ΔSuniv = ΔSsys + qsurr/T
= 22.1 J/K + −6.00 × 10 J/283.15 K
3
= +0.9 J/K
Suniv > 0, so melting is spontaneous at 10.00 °C.
For the standard entropy change:

Standard entropies are given the label S°298 for values determined for one mole of substance
at a pressure of 1 bar and a temperature of 298 K. The standard entropy change (ΔS°) for any process
may be computed from the standard entropies of its reactant and product species like the following:
ΔS° =ΣνS°298 (products) −ΣνS°298 (reactants)
46
Here, ν represents stoichiometric coefficients in the balanced equation representing the process. For
example, ΔS° for the following reaction at room temperature
mA + nB ⟶ xC + yD,
is computed as the following:
=[xS298 ° (C) + yS298 ° (D)] – [ mS298 ° (A) + nS298 ° (B)]
Example:
Calculate the standard entropy change for the following process:
H2O(g) ⟶ H2O(l)
Solution:
Standard entropies
H2O(g) = 188.71 (J mol−1 K−1)
H2O(l) = 69. 91 (J mol−1 K−1)
= [xS298 ° (C) + yS298 ° (D)] – [ mS298 ° (A) + nS298 ° (B)]

= [70.0 J mol−1 K−1]− [188.8 Jmol−1 K−1]
= −118.8 J mol−1 K−1
Enthalpy (ΔH) as discussed in the previous chapter, is equal to the heat gained or lost by the system
under constant-pressure conditions.
If ΔH > 0 the reaction is endothermic
If ΔH < 0 the reaction is exothermic
The enthalpy of a chemical reaction can be quantified using the Standard Enthalpy Formation.
This concept is very important in this chapter as it is used to calculate Gibb’s free energy. The Standard
Enthalpy Formation of a chemical reaction expressed as;
 ΔHf of an element in its standard state is zero.
 ΔH°rxn can be determined from the tabulated ΔHf of the individual reactants and products. It is
the sum of the ΔHf of the products minus the sum of the ΔHf of the reactants, expressed as;
ΔHreaction ° =ΣΔHf ° (products) − ΣΔHf ° (reactants)
**(Examples are already given in previous modules)
Chapter 3: Gibb’s Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium

It is a challenge for scientists to quantify and analyze spontaneous and non-spontaneous
thermodynamic processes. To determine these processes, it is necessary to identify the entropy change
for the system and the entropy change for the surroundings. Another way to measure this process is
Gibb’s Free Energy, named after Josiah Willard Gibbs. Gibb’s Free Energy refers to the thermodynamic
function that combines enthalpy, entropy, and absolute temperature. It is represented as;
G= H-TS
Where G is the Gibb’s Free Energy
H is the Enthalpy
T is the temperature
S is the Entropy
ΔGf ° is the best indicator chemists have as to whether or not a reaction is spontaneous:
o If ΔG>0, the reaction is not spontaneous; energy must be supplied to cause a reaction to
occur
o If ΔG<0, the reaction is spontaneous
o If ΔG=0, the reaction is at equilibrium
47
If there is a ΔG associated with a reaction and that reaction is reversed, the sign of the ΔG
changes.
Similar to entropy and enthalpy, Free energy changes may also use the standard free
energy of formation (ΔGf °), for each of the reactants and products involved in the reaction. ΔGf
° is by definition zero for elemental substances under standard state conditions. The approach to
computing the free energy change for a reaction using this approach is the same as that
demonstrated previously for enthalpy and entropy changes.
ΔG°= Σ ΔGf ° products - Σ ΔGf ° reactants
Example:
a. Use standard enthalpy and entropy data to calculate the standard free energy change for the
vaporization of water at room temperature (298 K). What does the computed value for ΔG°
say about the spontaneity of this process?
H2O(l) ⟶ H2O(g)
Substance ΔH (kj/mol) ΔS (J/K.mol)
H2O (l) -268.83 70.0
H2O (g) -241.82 188.8
Combining at 298 K:
ΔH°= ΔH°298 = ΔH°f (H2O (g)) - ΔH°f H2O (l)

= (-241.82 kJ – (-268.83 kJ) kJ/mol
= 44.01 kJ/mol
ΔS°= ΔS°298 = ΔS°298 (H2O (g))- ΔS°298 (H2O (l))
= 118.8 J/\K.mol
Converting everything into kJ:
G= ΔH-TΔS
= 44.01 kJ/mol – (298 K x 188.8 j/K.mol)(1kJ/1000J)
= 8.6 kJ/mol
:At 298 K (25 °C) ΔG°298 > 0, and so boiling is nonspontaneous (not spontaneous).
---or---
ΔG°= Σ ΔGf ° products - Σ ΔGf ° reactants
= (-228.59-(-237.1) kJ/mol
= 8.51 kJ/mol
(Note: Some discrepancies on the results may happen, as long as the answers were almost the same using both equations, it is acceptable)
There are four possibilities, therefore, exist about the signs of the enthalpy and entropy changes:
1. Both ΔH and ΔS are positive. This condition describes an endothermic process that involves
an increase in system entropy. In this case, ΔG will be negative if the magnitude of the TΔS
term is greater than ΔH. If the TΔS term is less than ΔH, the free energy change will be
positive. Such a process is spontaneous at high temperatures and nonspontaneous at low
temperatures.
2. Both ΔH and ΔS are negative. This condition describes an exothermic process that involves
a decrease in system entropy. In this case, ΔG will be negative if the magnitude of the TΔS
term is less than ΔH. If the TΔS term’s magnitude is greater than ΔH, the free energy change
48
will be positive. Such a process is spontaneous at low temperatures and nonspontaneous at
high temperatures.
3. ΔH is positive and ΔS is negative. This condition describes an endothermic process that
involves a decrease in system entropy. In this case, ΔG will be positive regardless of the
temperature. Such a process is nonspontaneous at all temperatures.
4. ΔH is negative and ΔS is positive. This condition describes an exothermic process that
involves an increase in system entropy. In this case, ΔG will be negative regardless of the
temperature. Such a process is spontaneous at all temperatures.
(Source: Flowers, P. et.al. (2015). OpenStax Chemistry. OpenStax, Rice University.)
Activities:
Activity 1: Spontaneous vs. Non-Spontaneous
A. Indicate whether the following processes are spontaneous or nonspontaneous.
a. Liquid water freezing at a temperature below its freezing point ________________
b. Liquid water freezing at a temperature above its freezing point ________________
c. The combustion of gasoline ________________
d. A ball thrown into the air ________________
e. A raindrop falling to the ground ________________
f. Iron rusting in a moist atmosphere ________________
g. Evaporation of water ________________
h. Melting of ice cream ________________
i. Gas in a tube diffuses ________________
B. Explain the following
A balloon filled with a gas spontaneously deflates when put in the refrigerator, describe how it
occurs and to the energy present in the gas molecules?
Activity 2: Entropy
A. Predict the sign (+ or -) of the entropy change for the following processes. Give a reason for
your prediction.
49
a. Pb2+(aq) + S2−(aq) ⟶ PbS(s)
b. 2Fe(s) + 3O2(g) ⟶ Fe2 O3(s)
c. 2C6 H14(l) + 19O2(g) ⟶ 14H2 O(g) + 12CO2(g)
d. An ice cube is warmed to near its melting point.
e. Exhaled breath forms fog on a cold morning.
f. Snow melts
B. Calculate ΔS°298 for the following changes.

a. SnCl4(l) ⟶ SnCl4(g)
b. Zn(s) + CuSO4(s) ⟶ Cu(s) + ZnSO4(s)
Activity 3: Gibb’s Free Energy

A. Calculate ΔG°298 for the following changes, using the two equations and compare the
results.
a. Cu(s) + S(g) ⟶ CuS(s)
b. 2LiOH(s) + CO2(g) ⟶ Li2 CO3(s) + H2 O(g)
c. CH4(g) + O2(g) ⟶ C(s, graphite) + 2H2 O(g)
B. Explain the following:
What is the difference between ΔG, ΔG°, and ΔG°298 for a chemical change?
Post-Assessment
1. Which of the following is the minimum energy required to initiate a reaction?
2. What is the minimum energy required to force a non-spontaneous reaction to occur?
3. What is being referred to as the energy on ideal gases at a given temperature?
4. What is the energy released when the gaseous ions combine to form an ionic solid?
5. What is the enthalpy of the following reaction, 2C(s) + H 2(g) → C2H2(g) given the following
information?
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ΔH= -395.5 kJ
H2(g) + ½ O2(g) → H2O(l) ΔH= -285.8kJ
C2H2(g) + 5/2 O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + H2O(l) ΔH= -1299.8 kJ
a. 454.0 kJ c. 0.0 kJ
b. -227.0 kJ d. 227.0 kJ
6. A sample of metal is sealed inside a well-insulated, rigid container. The temperature inside the
container is at the melting point of the sample metal. What is the energy and entropy of the system
after equilibrium has been reached?
50
a. The total energy and entropy increases
b. The total energy and entropy remain constant
c. The total energy increases while entropy decreases
d. The total energy is constant while entropy increases
7. Which of the following reaction expected to have the greatest increase in entropy?
a. H2O (g) → H2O(l)
b. Ca(s) + H2(g) → CaH2(s)
c. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
d. 2 KClO3(s) → 2 KCl (s) + 3 O2(g)
8. Under standard conditions, calcium metal reacts readily with chlorine gas. What conclusions can
you draw from this?
a. Keq < 1 and G° > 0
b. Keq > 1 and G° = 0
c. Keq < 1 and G° < 0
d. Keq > 1 and G° < 0
9. Which of the following reactions have a negative entropy change?
a. 2 C2H6 (g) + 7 O2 (g) → 4 CO2(g) + 6H2O(g)
b. 2 NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
c. CaCl2(s) → Ca(s) + Cl2(g)
d. 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)
10. A certain reaction is nonspontaneous under standard conditions but becomes spontaneous at a
higher temperature. What conclusions may be drawn under standard conditions?
a. ΔH< 0, ΔS > 0, and ΔG > 0 c. ΔH> 0, ΔS > 0, and ΔG > 0
b. ΔH> 0, ΔS < 0, and ΔG > 0 d. ΔH <0, ΔS < 0, and ΔG > 0
Module 2: Chemical Equilibrium

Introduction
Equilibrium is the state of balance between two opposing forces or it is the dynamic reactions
that occur in both directions simultaneously from reactants to products and products to reactants. In this
module, you will learn how to predict the position of the balance and the yield of a product of a reaction
under specific conditions, how to change a reaction's conditions to increase or reduce yield, and how to
evaluate an equilibrium system's reaction to disturbances.
a. describe reversible reactions
b. explain chemical equilibrium in terms of the reaction rates of the forward and the reverse reaction
c. write expressions for the reaction quotient/equilibrium constants
d. explain the significance of the value of the equilibrium constant.
e. calculate equilibrium constant and the pressure or concentration of reactants or products in an
equilibrium mixture
f. state the Le Chatelier’s principle and apply it qualitatively to describe the effect of changes in
pressure, concentration, and temperature on a system at equilibrium
g. (LAB) Describe the behavior of reversible reactions
h. (LAB) Describe the behavior of a reaction mixture when the following takes place: a. change in
concentration of reactants or products, b. change in temperature
i. (LAB) Perform calculations involving equilibrium of gaseous reactions
51
Learning Objectives
1. Explain chemical equilibrium
2. Identify the factors affecting the equilibrium of a system
3. Predict the factors affecting the equilibrium of a system
4. Predict the direction of a chemical equilibrium
5. Explain Le Chatelier’s Principle
6. Calculate values of reaction quotients and equilibrium constants, using concentrations and
pressures
Pre-Assessment
1. What is being described to the forward and reverse reaction that occurs in equal rates where
concentrations remain constant?
a. Chemical Thermodynamics c. Chemical Equilibrium
b. Chemical Kinetics d. Chemical Rates
2. What is being referred to as the reaction where reactants react and form a product?
a. Chemical Reaction c. Reverse Reaction
b. Forward Reaction d. None of these
3. What principle explains that if the equilibrium of the chemical system is disturbed, it re-established
its equilibrium by shifting the reactions involved?
a. Archimedes’ principle c. Aufbau Principle
b. Le Chatelier’s principle. d. Pauli Exclusion Principle
4. At constant temperature, a volume change will not affect the moles of substances present in which
of the following reactions?
a. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2 HI(g)
b. CO2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ COCl2(g)
c. PCl5(g) ⇌ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
d. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)
5. Is the equilibrium constant for the hydrolysis C2O42- is best represented by which of the following?
a. K=[OH-][ C2O42-]/[HC2O4-]
b. K=[H3O+][ C2O42-]/[ HC2O4-]
c. K=[ HC2O4-][OH-]/[ C2O42-]
d. K=[ C2O42-]/[ HC2O4-][OH-]
6. CH4(g) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2 CO(g) + 2H2(g)
A 1.00 L flask is filled with 0.30 mol of CH4 and 0.40 mol of CO2 and allowed to come to equilibrium.
At equilibrium, there is 0.20 mol of CO in the flask. What is the value of Kc, the equilibrium constant
for the reaction?
a. 1.2 c. 0.30
b. 0.027 d.0.060
7. NO2(g) ⇌ 2 NO(g) + O2(g)
The above materials were sealed in a flask and allowed to come to equilibrium at a certain
temperature. A small o=quantity of O2(g) was added to the flask, and the mixture was allowed to
return to equilibrium at the same temperature. Which of the following has increased over its original
equilibrium value?
a. The quantity of NO2(g) present
b. The quantity of NO(g) present
c. The equilibrium constant, K increases
d. The rate of the reaction
52
8. C(s) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO(g) +H2O(g) endothermic.
An equilibrium mixture of the reactants is placed in a sealed container at 150°C. The amount of the
products maybe increase of which of the following?
a. Increasing the volume of the container
b. Raising the temperature of the container and increasing the volume of the container
c. Raising the temperature of the container
d. increasing the volume of the container and adding 1 mol of C(s) to the container.
9. What will happen to the equilibrium of a chemical reaction if a catalyst is added to the system?
a. Increases the forward reaction
b. Decreases the forward reaction
c. The reaction will shift to the right
d. No effect on the equilibria
10. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria?
I. Homogenous have the same state of matter in reactant and product
II. Heterogeneous have different states at each side of the reaction
III. Homogenous equilibria have more tendency to have a reverse reaction
IV. Both types of equilibria tend a reverse equilibria
a. I and II c. I, II and III
b. III and IV d. I, II, and IV
Chapter 1: Chemical Equilibrium
With this, the French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet noticed in his study that there were
reversible reactions. With this, he developed the concept of chemical equilibrium. Chemical equilibrium
is the state when two exactly opposite reactions are occurring in the same place, at the same time, and
with the same rate of reaction. This results in forward and backward reactions, which can be classified
as reversible reactions. Reversible reactions are chemical reactions that result when the products react
to form the original substances, which are called reactants.
An equilibrium state is indicated by a double arrow instead of a single arrow. This is represented
by;
aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
Note: It is important to remember that at equilibrium the concentrations of the chemical species
are constant, not necessarily equal. There may be lots of C and D and a little of A and B
Chapter 2: Equilibrium Expressions

When a chemical reaction reaches the state of equilibrium, reversible reactions may also occur.
To express this reaction mathematically on how reactants and products affect the equilibrium, it is
expressed using the reaction quotient (Q).
[𝐶 ]𝑐 [𝐷 ]𝑑
𝑄=
[𝐴 ]𝑎 [𝐵 ]𝑏
The reaction is a fraction, the numerator is the product and the denominator is the reactant, each
raised to the power of the chemical species coefficient in the balanced chemical reaction.
Example:
a. 3O2(g) ⇌ 2O3(g)
b. N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
53
Solution:
[𝑂3 ]2
a. 𝑄= [𝑂2 ]3
[𝑁𝐻3 ]2
b. 𝑄= [𝑁2 ][𝐻2 ]3
When a mixture of reactants and products of a reaction reaches equilibrium at a given

temperature, its reaction quotient always has the same value. This value is called the equilibrium
constant (K) of the reaction at that temperature. As for the reaction quotient, when evaluated in terms of
concentrations, it is noted as Kc.
That a reaction quotient always assumes the same value at equilibrium can be expressed as:
Qc at equilibrium = Kc = [C]x[D]y...
[A]m[B]n...
This equation is a mathematical statement of the law of mass action: When a reaction has
attained equilibrium at a given temperature, the reaction quotient for the reaction always has the same
value.
Example:
Gaseous nitrogen dioxide forms dinitrogen tetroxide according to this equation:
2NO2(g) ⇌ N2 O4(g)
When 0.10 mol NO2 is added to a 1.0-L flask at 25 °C, the concentration changes so that at equilibrium,
[NO2] = 0.016 M and [N2O4] = 0.042 M.
(a) What is the value of the reaction quotient before any reaction occurs?
(b) What is the value of the equilibrium constant for the reaction?
Solution
(a) Before any product is formed, [NO2] = 0.10 mol/1.0 L = 0.10 M, and [N2O4] = 0 M. Thus,
Qc = [N2 O4]/[NO2]2
= 0/0.102
=0
(b) At equilibrium, the value of the equilibrium constant is equal to the value of the reaction quotient. At
equilibrium,
Kc = Qc = [N2 O4] / [NO2}

= 0.042/0.0162
= 1.6 x 102
The equilibrium constant is 1.6 × 102.
Homogenous Equilibria
It means all of the reactants and products are present in a single solution are in the same phase
(by definition, a homogeneous mixture).
54
Example:
C2H2(aq) + 2Br2(aq) ⇌ C2H2Br4(aq) Kc = [C2H2Br4] / [C2H2] [Br2]2
If the partial pressure of the gases were used, then KP would be written in the following form:
2
𝑃𝑁𝐻 3
𝐾𝑝 =
𝑃𝑁2 × 𝑃𝐻32
There is a relationship between Kc and KP: Kp= KC (RT)Δn, where R is the ideal gas constant
(0.0821 L.atm/mol.K) and Δn is the change in the number of moles of gas in the reaction.
Example:
For the following equilibrium Kp= 1.90: C(s) = CO2(g) ⇌ 2 CO (g). Calculate Kc for this equilibrium
at 25 °C.
C(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2 CO (g) KP= 1.90
KP = Kc (RT) Δn
1.90 = Kc[(0.0821 l.atm/mol.k)(298K)]
Kc= 0.0777
Heterogeneous Equilibria
It means that the reactants and products present are in different phases of matter. When dealing
with these equilibria remember that solids and pure liquids do not appear in equilibrium constant
expressions (the activities of pure solids, pure liquids, and solvents are 1).
Example:
o PbCl2(s) ⇌ Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq) Kc = [Pb2+][Cl−]2
o CaO(s) + CO2(g) ⇌ CaCO3(s) Kc = 1/[CO2]
o C(s) + 2S(g) ⇌ CS2(g) Kc = [CS2]/[S]2
o Br2(l) ⇌ Br2(g) Kc = [Br2]
Chapter 3: Le Chatelier’s Principle

Henry-Louis Le Chatelier discovered factors that affect the equilibrium of the system. it states that
(Le Chatelier’s Principle or Equilibrium law) any change to a system at equilibrium will result in an
expected shift that will counteract the change. This change affects the concentration of reactants and
products, and to maintain the equilibrium state ratio between the chemical species remains the same.
The changes in the equilibrium of the chemical reaction are a result of the change in pressure,
temperature, and concentration of the products or reactants, that’s why shifts in the opposite direction
offset the change.
a. Changes in concentration
If the equilibrium system is stressed by a change in concentration of one of the reactants
or products, the equilibrium will react to remove that stress. If the concentration of a
chemical species is decreased, the equilibrium will shift to produce more of it. If the
concentration increases, the equilibrium will shift to consume it.
b. Changes in pressure
55
Changes in pressure are significant only if gases are involved. Pressure changes by
changing the volume of the container or by changing the concentration of the gaseous
species.
If the container changes, increasing or decreasing the pressure, it shifts to the other side
to reduce/induce the pressure as well as the number of moles. If the number of moles of
the gas is the same on both sides, changing the pressure will not affect the equilibrium
c. Changes in temperature
Equilibrium of the system changes as temperature changes, this results in the changes in
the amount of heat in the system and can be treated as a concentration effect.
Example:
N2 (g) + H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
The formation of ammonia is an exothermic reaction, so it should be written as:
N2 (g) + H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) + heat
The changes in temperature on the reaction shift the equilibrium to the side where heat is
less to consume it making the reaction always at equilibrium.
Example: Predict the shift of the equilibrium.

CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
1. Add CO2
2. Remove CO2
3. Add CaO
4. Increase T
5. Decrease V
6. Add catalyst
Answers:
1. Left- shifts to the left to remove the excess CO2
2. Right- shift to the right to replace some of the CO2
3. No change- solid reactants do not shift equilibrium unless removed from the mixture
4. Right- endothermic reactions shift to the right
5. Left- decrease in volume and/or increase in pressure shift the reaction toward the side
with less gas
6. No change- catalysts do not affect the equilibria.
Activities:
Activity 1: Equilibrium
Explain or discuss the following
1) What does it mean to describe a reaction as “reversible”?
2) When writing an equation, how is a reversible reaction distinguished from a nonreversible
reaction?
3) If the concentrations of products and reactants are equal, is the system at equilibrium?
56
Activity 2: Equilibrium Expressions
A. Write the mathematical expression for the reaction quotient, Qc, for each of the following
chemical reactions:
a. CH4(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ CH3 Cl(g) + HCl(g)
b. N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g)
c. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2SO3(g)
d. BaSO3(s) ⇌ BaO(s) + SO2(g)
e. P4(g) + 5O2(g) ⇌ P4 O10(s)
B. Calculate the reaction quotient and determine the direction in which each system will
proceed to reach equilibrium.
a. 2NH3(g) ⇌ N2(g) + 3H2(g) Kc = 17; [NH3] = 0.20 M, [N2] = 1.00 M, [H2] = 1.00 M
b. N2(g) + O2(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) KP = 0.050; initial pressures: NO = 10.0 atm, N2 = O2 = 5 atm
c. 2SO3(g) ⇌ 2SO2(g) + O2 (g) Kc = 0.230; [SO3] = 0.00 M, [SO2] = 1.00 M, [O2] = 1.00 M
C. Explain the following.
Why an equilibrium during a chemical reaction would not be established if the container were not
a closed vessel?
Activity 3: Le Chatelier’s Principle

Water gas, a mixture of H2 and CO, is an important industrial fuel produced by the reaction of steam with
red hot coke, essentially pure carbon. Predict the shift of the equilibrium.
a. Write the expression for the equilibrium constant for the reversible reaction
C(s) + H2 O(g) ⇌ CO(g) + H2(g) ΔH = 131.30 kJ
b. More C is added
c. H2O is removed
d. CO is added
e. the temperature of the system is increased
f. catalyst is added
Post-Assessment
1. What is being described to the forward and reverse reaction that occurs in equal rates where
concentrations remain constant?
a. Chemical Thermodynamics c. Chemical Equilibrium
b. Chemical Kinetics d. Chemical Rates
2. What is being referred to as the reaction where reactants react and form a product?
a. Chemical Reaction c. Reverse Reaction
b. Forward Reaction d. None of these
3. What principle explains that if the equilibrium of the chemical system is disturbed, it re-
established its equilibrium by shifting the reactions involved?
a. Archimedes’ principle c. Aufbau Principle
b. Le Chatelier’s principle. d. Pauli Exclusion Principle
4. At constant temperature, a volume change will not affect the moles of substances present in
which of the following reactions?
a. H2(g) + I2(g) ⇌ 2 HI(g)
b. CO2(g) + Cl2(g) ⇌ COCl2(g)
c. PCl5(g) ⇌ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
57
d. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g)
5. Is the equilibrium constant for the hydrolysis C2O42- is best represented by which of the
following?
a. K=[OH-][ C2O42-]/[HC2O4-]
b. K=[H3O+][ C2O42-]/[ HC2O4-]
c. K=[ HC2O4-][OH-]/[ C2O42-]
d. K=[ C2O42-]/[ HC2O4-][OH-]
6. CH4(g) + CO2(g) ⇌ 2 CO(g) + 2H2(g)
A 1.00 L flask is filled with 0.30 mol of CH4 and 0.40 mol of CO 2 and allowed to come to
equilibrium. At equilibrium, there is 0.20 mol of CO in the flask. What is the value of Kc, the
equilibrium constant for the reaction?
a. 1.2 c. 0.30
b. 0.027 d.0.060
7. NO2(g) ⇌ 2 NO(g) + O2(g)
The above materials were sealed in a flask and allowed to come to equilibrium at a certain
temperature. A small o=quantity of O2(g) was added to the flask, and the mixture was allowed to
return to equilibrium at the same temperature. Which of the following has increased over its
original equilibrium value?
a. The quantity of NO2(g) present
b. The quantity of NO(g) present
c. The equilibrium constant, K increases
d. The rate of the reaction
8. C(s) + H2O(g) ⇌ CO(g) +H2O(g) endothermic.
An equilibrium mixture of the reactants is placed in a sealed container at 150°C. The amount of
the products maybe increase of which of the following?
a. Increasing the volume of the container
b. Raising the temperature of the container and increasing the volume of the container
c. Raising the temperature of the container
d. increasing the volume of the container and adding 1 mol of C(s) to the container.
9. What will happen to the equilibrium of a chemical reaction if a catalyst is added to the system?
a. Increases the forward reaction
b. Decreases the forward reaction
c. The reaction will shift to the right
d. No effect on the equilibria
10. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria?
I. Homogenous have the same state of matter in reactant and product
II. Heterogeneous have different states at each side of the reaction
III. Homogenous equilibria have more tendency to have a reverse reaction
IV. Both types of equilibria tend a reverse equilibria
c. I and II c. I, II and III
d. III and IV d. I, II, and IV
58
Module 3: Acid-Base Equilibria and Salt Equilibria
1. define Bronsted acids and bases
2. discuss the acid-base property of water
3. define pH
4. calculate pH from the concentration of hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions
5. determine the relative strength of an acid or a base, from the value of the ionization constant of a
weak acid or base
6. determine the pH of a solution of a weak acid or weak base
7. explain the Common Ion Effect
8. describe how a buffer solution maintains its pH
9. calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
10. explain and apply the solubility product constant to predict the solubility of salts
11. describe the common ion effect on the solubility of a precipitate
12. explain the effect of pH on the solubility of a precipitate
13. (LAB) Determine the pH of solutions of a weak acid at different concentrations and in the presence
of its salt
14. (LAB)Determine the behavior of the pH of buffered solutions upon the addition of a small amount
of acid and base
Learning Objectives
 explain the acid-base property of water;
 write the equilibrium constant expression for the auto-ionization of water; and
 describe how Bronsted acids and bases act in a chemical reaction
 define pH;
 relate pH and hydronium ion concentration;
 explain the importance of determining pH of the solution;
 calculate pH and pOH in aqueous solutions; and
 Appreciate the importance of the knowledge of pH on different natural systems.
 explain the acid-base property of water;
 write the equilibrium constant expression for the auto-ionization of water; and
 describe how Bronsted acids and bases act in a chemical reaction
 identify an appropriate buffer system for a specific pH; and
 Calculate the pH of a buffer solution using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation.
 prepare buffer solutions;
 measure pH of different buffer solutions;
 determine the buffering capacity of different solutions; and
 Appreciate the importance of the different buffers in natural systems.
Pre-Assessment
1. Which of the following pH level is considered as a base?
a. pH= 7 c. pH= 13
b. pH = 3.5 d. pH= 0
2. In the Bronsted-Lowry Acid and base, which of the two types of compound, which of the following
is true about acids?
a. Acid is a proton donor c. Acid is an electron acceptor
b. Acid is a proton acceptor d. All of the above
59
3. In solution, water is considered as the universal solvent, while in acid and base it is considered
as?
a. Polyprotic c. conjugates
b. Amphoteric d. buffers
4. If a sample acid completely dissociates in water, what type of acid is this?
a. Weak acid c. Conjugate Acid
b. Strong Acid d. none of this
5. Which of the following cannot behave as both a Bronsted base and acid?
a. HCO3- c. HSO4-
b. HPO42- d. CO32-
6. What ionization constant, Ka, for a weak monoprotic acid if a 0.5 molar solution has a pH of
5.0?
a. 3.0 x 10 -4 c. 7.0 x 10 -8
b. 2.0 x 10-10 d. 1.0 x 10 -6
7. What is the pH of acetic acid with a 0.1 molar solution?
a. 1 c. 7
b. 3 d. 10
8. Determine the OH-(aq) concentration in 1.0M aniline (C5H5NH2) solution. (The Kb for aniline is
4.0 x 10-10).
a. 2.0 x 10-5 M c. 3.0 x 10-6 M
-10
b. 4.0 x 10 M d. 5.0 x 10-7 M
9. What concept is being referred to as solutions that resist the change in pH when an acid or base
is added to them?
a. Conjugate c. Amphoteric
b. Buffers d. Common-ion effect
10. Which of the following concepts are said to be the application of Le Chatelier’s Principle where
ions are added to a solution which contains the same ions?
a. Ionic Bonding c. Common-Ion Effect
b. Dissolution d. Ion-Dipole Forces
Introduction
Acids and bases play an important role in our bodies, houses, industry, and the environment.
These compounds help our bodies function properly, cleaning and disinfecting our houses, providing
necessary materials for material and food processing, and keeping our environment balanced for plant
and animal life to survive. This module on acid-base reactions and equilibria provides you with tools and
information for quantifying the concentrations of acids and bases in solutions.
Chapter 1: Acids and Bases

An acid is a substance that produces an excess of H+ ions in water, while a base is a compound
that forms excess OH- ions in water solution. This concept of acids and bases was described by Svante
Arrhenius which is known as Arrhenius Acids and Bases.
Consequently, Johannes Bronsted and Thomas Lowry provided distinctive definitions of the two
contrasting compounds, which are’
 An acid is a proton (H+ ion) donor
 A base is a proton (H+ ion) acceptor
60
Acids and bases can be classified as "strong" or "weak." Strong acids are considered strong if they
completely dissociate in water, while weak acids do so only partially. Strong bases, on the other hand,
consider hydroxide (OHn ) and oxide (O2-).
Example:
HC(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+ + Cl-(aq) – HCl is a strong acids in which no HCL left in the soulution
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq) – acetic acid is a weak acid since there
traces amounts in both products and reactants
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ OH-(aq) + NH4+(aq) - ammonia is weak base
Moreover, according to the Bronsted-Lowry acid-base theory, the two chemical classification
competes for H+.
Example:
CH3COOH(aq) + NH3(aq) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + NH4+(aq)
Acetic acid donates a proton to ammonia in the forward reaction forming acetate and ammonium
ions, in the inverse reaction ammonium ion donates to acetate forming acetic acid and ammonia. This
reaction shows equilibrium between acid and base reactions. This shows that the compounds (acetic
acid, acetate; ammonia, and ammonium ion) are considered as conjugate acid-base pair, which only
differs by a single H+.
1.1: Ka- the Acid Dissociation Constant

The acid dissociation constant is defined as follows. The electrical charges are omitted from the
equation;
[𝐻 + ][𝐴− ]
𝐾𝑎 =
[𝐻𝐴]
The greater the amount of dissociation is, the larger the values of K a. The tips for this are: For
every H+ formed, an A- is formed, so the numerator of the Ka expression can be expressed as [H+]2 or [A-
]2. Also, the [HA] is the equilibrium molar concentration of the undissociated weak acid, not its initial
concentration. The exact expression would be [HA]=Minitial - [H+], where Minitial is the concentration of the
weak acid.
Example:
Calculate the [H+] of a 0.300 M acetic acid with a Ka value of 1.8 x 10-5.
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
0.300 x x
[𝐻 + ][CH3COO−(aq) − ]
𝐾𝑎 = [CH3COOH(aq)]
= 1.8x10-5
(𝑋)(𝑋)
𝐾𝑎 = = 1.8 × 10−5
0.300−𝑥
x2 = (0.300)(1.8x10-5)
= 2.3 x 10-3 M, pH= 2.6 ----(eq. -log(H+))
(note: the x at the denominator is negligible, do not include finding the final answer)
61
1.2: Kw= the Water Dissociation Constant
In the previous discussions of acid-base equilibrium, it shows water acts as both an acid and
base, and it is considered amphoteric, which means acting either as an acid or a base depending on
the chemical species. But then, in pure water, the same amphoteric nature is noted.
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+ + OH-(aq)
This is commonly written as:
H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The water dissociation constant Kw is expressd as:
Kw = [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x10-14 at 25°C
The concentration of water is constant and is incorporated into Kw, the numerical value of Kw=1.0
-14
x10 is true for both products [H+] and [OH-].
1.3: Kb= the Base Dissociation Constant

Weak bases (B), when placed into water, also established am equilibrium system mush like weak
acids, the equilibrium expression constant is called weak base dissociation constant, Kb and expressed
as:
[𝐻𝐵+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑏 =
[𝐻𝐵]
The same thing as the acids; [HB ] = [OH-]; [HB] ≈ Minitially; the numerator represented as [OH-]2;
+
knowing the initial molarity and Kb of the weak base the [OH-] can be easily calculated.
Example:
A 0.500 M solution of ammonia has a pH of 11.48. What is the Kb of ammonia?
Given:
pH = 11.48,
[H+] = 10-11.48 = 3.3 x10-12
KW = [H+] [OH-] = 1.0 x 10 -14
[OH-] = 3.0 x 10 -3 (constant)
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
0.500 – x x x
Solution
[𝑁𝐻4+ ][𝑂𝐻 − ]
𝐾𝑏 =
[𝑁𝐻3]
[OH-] = [NH4+] = 3.0x10 -3 M
[NH3] = 0.500-3.0x10 -3 = 0.497 M
(3.0 × 10−3 )2
𝐾𝑏 =
[0.497]
= 1.8 x10-5 M
Chapter 2: pH and pOH

Hydronium (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) are present both in pure water and in all aqueous
solutions, and their concentrations are inversely proportional as determined by the water dissociation
constant (Kw). The concentrations of these ions in a solution are determinants of the solution’s properties
and the chemical behaviors of its other solutes, a scale to represent the acidity of a solution was
developed and called as pH scale. A solution is neutral if it contains equal concentrations of hydronium
62
and hydroxide ions; acidic if it contains a greater concentration of hydronium ions than hydroxide ions;
and basic if it contains a lesser concentration of hydronium ions than hydroxide ions.
A common means of expressing quantities, the values of which may span many orders of
magnitude, is to use a logarithmic scale, defined as shown where “X” is the quantity of interest and “log”
is the base-10 logarithm:
pX = −log X
The pH of a solution is therefore defined as shown here, where [H3O+] is the molar
concentration of hydronium ion in the solution:
pH = −log[H3 O+]
Rearranging this equation to isolate the hydronium ion molarity yields the equivalent expression:
[H3 O+] = 10−pH
Likewise, the hydroxide ion molarity may be expressed as a p-function or pOH:
pOH = −log[OH−]
or
[OH−] = 10−pOH
Finally, the relation between these two ion concentration expressed as p-functions is easily
derived from the Kw expression:
Kw = [H3 O+][OH−]
−log Kw = −log([H3 O+][OH−]) = −log[H3 O+] + −log[OH−]
pKw = pH + pOH
At 25 °C, the value of Kw is 1.0 × 10−14, and so:
14.00 = pH + pOH
Example:
The hydronium ion molarity in pure water (or any neutral solution) is 1.0 × 10−7 M at 25 °C. The
pH and pOH of a neutral solution at this temperature are therefore:
pH = −log[H3 O+] = −log(1.0 × 10−7) = 7.00
pOH = −log[OH−] = −log(1.0 × 10−7) = 7.00
63
The pH and pOH scales represent concentrations of [H 3O+] and OH−, respectively. The pH and pOH values
of some common substances at standard temperature (25 °C) are shown in this chart.
Chapter 3: Strengths of Acids and Bases

We can rank the strengths of acids by the extent to which they ionize in an aqueous solution. The
reaction of an acid with water is given by the general expression:
HA(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ H3 O+(aq) + A−(aq)
As discussed previously, water acts as a base that reacts with the acid HA, A− is the conjugate
base of the acid HA, and the hydronium ion is the conjugate acid of water. A strong acid yields 100% (or
very nearly so) of H3 O+ and A− when the acid ionizes in water. A weak acid gives small amounts of H3
O+ and A−.
64
The strengths of acids may be determined by quantifying their equilibrium constants in aqueous
solutions. In solutions of the same concentration, stronger acids dissociate to a greater extent, and so
yield higher concentrations of hydronium ions than do weaker acids. The equilibrium constant for acid is
called the acid-ionization/dissociation constant, Ka. For the reaction of an acid HA:
HA(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ H3 O+(aq) + A−(aq),
we write the equation for the ionization constant as:
Ka = [H3 O+] [A−] ∕ [HA]
The following data on acid-ionization constants indicate the order of acid strength CH3CO2H <
HNO2 < HSO4:
CH3 CO2 H(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ H3 O+(aq) + CH3 CO2 −(aq) Ka = 1.8 × 10−5
Another measure of the strength of an acid is its percent ionization. The percent ionization of a
weak acid is the ratio of the concentration of the ionized acid to the initial acid concentration, times 100:
% ionization = ([H3 O+]eq ∕ [HA]0) × 100
Example
Calculate the percent ionization of a 0.125-M solution of nitrous acid (a weak acid), with a pH of 2.09.
The percent ionization for acid is:
([H3 O+]eq/[HNO2]0 ) × 100
The chemical equation for the dissociation of the nitrous acid is:
HNO2(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ NO2 −(aq) + H3 O+(aq). Since 10−pH = [H3 O+], we find that 10−2.09 = 8.1 ×
10−3 M, so that percent ionization is:
8.1 × 10−3/0.125 × 100 = 6.5%
Similarly, we can measure the relative strengths of bases by measuring their base-ionization
constant (Kb) in aqueous solutions. Strong bases yield higher hydroxide ion concentrations than do
weaker bases. For the reaction of a base, B:
B(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ HB+(aq) + OH−(aq)
we write the equation for the ionization constant as:

Kb = [HB+][OH−] / [B]
where the concentrations are those at equilibrium. Again, we do not include [H2O] in the equation
because water is the solvent. The chemical reactions and ionization constants of the three bases
shown are:
NO2 −(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ HNO2(aq) + OH−(aq) Kb = 2.22 × 10−11
The table below shows the relative strengths of the conjugate acid-base pair.
65
Moreover, to measure the ionization of weak acids and bases, here are the ionization or
dissociation constants of weak acids and bases.
Chapter 4: The Common Ion Effect

The common ion effect is an application of Le Chatelier’s principle to equilibrium systems of
slightly soluble salts. The following are some points why the common ion effect is important.
66
1. With the additions of common ions, the solubility of a compound generally decreases due to a
shift in equilibrium.
2. It plays an important role in the regulation of buffers
3. It is also used in determining the solution in equilibrium upon the addition of ions that are already
present in the solution
The solubility products, Ksp are equilibrium constants in heterogeneous equilibria. If several salts are
present in a system, they will ionize in the solution. If the salts contain cation and/or anion, these salts
contribute to the concentration of the common ion effect.
Example:
A solution containing NaCl and KCl will have the following relationship:
[Na+] + [K+] = [Cl-]
When NaCl and KCl are dissolved in the same solution, the Cl- ions are common to both salts. In a
system containing NaCl and KCl, the Cl- ions are common ions.
NaCl ⇌ Na+ = Cl-

KCl ⇌ K+ + Cl-
AgCl ⇌ Ag+ + Cl-
In a solution, like silver chloride, if a chloride ion is added to the system, the solubility of silver chloride
will decrease as shown in the equation.
+Cl-
AgCl ⇌ Ag+ + Cl-, the equilibrium will shift to the left to consume an excessive amount of the
reactants and the solubility of AgCl will decrease.
Chapter 5: Buffers
Buffers are solutions that resist a change in pH when an acid or base is added to them. It is usually
a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate. The weak acid neutralizes the base added, and the weak
base of the buffer will neutralize any acid added to the solution. This is expressed using the derived
equation from Ka expression;
[H3O+] = Ka x [HA]/[A-}
Taking the negative log of both sides yields the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, which is used
to calculate the pH of a buffer:
pH = pKq + log [A-]/[HA]

The weak base Kb expression can also be used giving:
[OH-] = Kb x [B]/[HB+] and pOH = pKb + log [HB+]/[B]
This equation is used to calculate the pH and pOH of the buffer solution knowing the K of the
weak acid or base and its conjugates. The more concentrated these chemical species are, the more acid
or base can be neutralized and less the change in buffer pH, and this is called the buffer capacity, which
is the ability to resist a change in pH.
Example:
What is the pH of the solution containing 2.00 mol of ammonia and 3.00 mol of ammonium chloride
in a volume of 1.00L?
67
Kb = 1.81 x 10 -5
NH3 + H2O ⇌ NH4+ + OH-
Solution:
Kb = [NH4+] [OH-] / [NH3] = (3.00 + x) (x) / (2.00 –x) = 1.81 x 10-5
a. Assume x is small
1.81x10-5 = 3.00x/2.00
x = 1.21 x 10-5
pOH=4.918
pH= 14.00-4.918 = 9.082
b. Alternative
pOH = -log 1.81x10-5 + log [NH4+] / [NH3]
= 4.742 + log 3.00/2.00
= 4.918 pH=9.082
Chapter 6: Solubility Equilibria

Solubility equilibrium is a type of dynamic equilibrium. It exists when a chemical compound in the
solid state is in chemical equilibrium with a solution of that compound. The equilibrium is characterized
by a temperature-dependent equilibrium constant. This type of equilibrium is important in industries like
pharmaceuticals and our environment, such as soil acidity or alkalinity.
Solubility equilibrium is based on the assumption that solid compounds dissolve in water to give
the basic particles from which they are formed.
1. Molecular solids dissolve to give individual aqueous molecules
H2O
C12H22O11(s) → C12H22O11(aq)
2. Ionic solids dissociate to form their ions.
H2O
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
In the previous discussions, ionic solids when dissolved it carries electrical current due to
their ions, therefore it is a good conductor of electricity.
The product of the solubility equilibrium constant is an expression used for systems of slightly
soluble salts. It is the product of the equilibrium concentrations of the ions, each one raised to the power
of the coefficient in the balanced equation. It contains no denominator, since by convention the
concentration of solids is 1 and does not appear in the equilibrium constant expressions. It is expressed
as,
Ksp = [Ag+][Cl-]
Example:
The Ksp of the magnesium fluoride in the water is 8.0 x10 -8. How many grams of magnesium
fluoride will dissolve in 0.250 L?
MgF2(s) ⇌ Mg2+ + 2F-

Ksp = [Mg2+] [F-]2= 8.0 x 10-8
= (x) (2x)2 = 4x3= 8.0 x 10-8
(x)= 3.0 x 10-3= [Mg2+]
(3x10-3 mol Mg2+)/L (0.250 L) (1 mol MgF2)(62.3g MgF2)/(1 mol Mg2+)(1 mol MgF2)
= 0.05 g
68
Activities
Activity 3.1: Acids and Bases
A. Identify and label the Brønsted-Lowry acid, its conjugate base, the Brønsted-Lowry base, and its
conjugate acid in each of the following equations:
a. HNO3 + H2 O ⟶ H3O+ + NO3-
b. CN− + H2O ⟶ HCN + OH−
c. H2 SO4 + Cl− ⟶ HCl + HSO4-
d. HSO4 − + OH− ⟶ SO42− + H2 O
e. O2− + H2 O ⟶ 2OH−
B. Use this list of important industrial compounds to answer the following questions:
CaO, Ca(OH)2, CH3CO2H, CO2, HCl, H 2CO3, HF, HNO2, HNO3, H3PO4, H2SO4, NH3, NaOH,
Na2CO3.
Identify the strong Brønsted-Lowry acids and strong Brønsted-Lowry bases.
Activity 3.2: pH and pOH

A. Calculate the pH and the pOH of each of the following solutions at 25 °C for which the substances
ionize completely:
a. 0.200 M HCl
b. 0.0143 M NaOH
c. 0.000071 M HNO3
B. Solve the following
What are the pH and pOH of a solution of 2.0 M HCl, which ionizes completely?
Activity 3.3: Common Ion Effect

A. Answer the following
I. Which of the following will increase the percent of NH3 that is converted to the ammonium ion in
water (Hint: Use LeChâtelier’s principle.)?
a. addition of NaOH
b. addition of HCl
c. addition of NH4Cl
II. Which of the following will increase the percent of HF that is converted to the fluoride ion in water?
a. addition of NaOH
b. addition of HCl
c. addition of NaF
B. Solve the following

Calculate the equilibrium concentration of the nonionized acids and all ions in a solution that is
0.25 M in HCO2H and 0.10 M in HClO.
Activity 3.4: Buffers

A. What is [H3O+] in a solution of 0.25 M CH3CO2H and 0.030 M NaCH3CO2?
CH3 CO2 H(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ H3 O+(aq) + CH3 CO2 −(aq) Ka = 1.8 × 10−5
B. What is [H3O+] in a solution of 0.075 M HNO2 and 0.030 M NaNO2?
69
HNO2(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ H3 O+(aq) + NO2 −(aq) Ka = 4.5 × 10−5
Discuss the following
Why a buffer can be prepared from a mixture of NH4Cl and NaOH but not from NH3 and NaOH?
Activity 3.4: Solubility Equilibria

A. Excess manganese (II) hydroxide, Mn(OH)2, is added to 100.0ml of deionized water. What is
the pH of the solution? Ksp=Mg(OH)2= 1.0 X 10-13.
B. Calculate the grams of lead (II) hydroxide, Pb(OH)2, that will dissolve in 1.00 L of water. Ksp=
Pb(OH)2 1.1 x10-20
Post-Assessment
1. Which of the following pH level is considered as a base?
a. pH= 7 c. pH= 13
b. pH = 3.5 d. pH= 0
2. In the Bronsted-Lowry Acid and base, which of the two types of compound, which of the following
is true about acids?
a. Acid is a proton donor c. Acid is an electron acceptor
b. Acid is a proton acceptor d. All of the above
3. In solution, water is considered as the universal solvent, while in acid and base it is considered
as?
a. Polyprotic c. conjugates
b. Amphoteric d. buffers
4. If a sample acid completely dissociates in water, what type of acid is this?
a. Weak acid c. Conjugate Acid
b. Strong Acid d. none of this
5. Which of the following cannot behave as both a Bronsted base and acid?
a. HCO3- c. HSO4-
b. HPO42- d. CO32-
6. What ionization constant, Ka, for a weak monoprotic acid if a 0.5 molar solution has a pH of 5.0?
a. 3.0 x 10 -4 c. 7.0 x 10 -8
-10
b. 2.0 x 10 d. 1.0 x 10 -6
7. What is the pH of acetic acid with a 0.1 molar solution?
a. 1 c. 7
b. 3 d. 10
8. Determine the OH-(aq) concentration in 1.0M aniline (C5H5NH2) solution. (The Kb for aniline is
4.0 x 10-10).
a. 2.0 x 10-5 M c. 3.0 x 10-6 M
b. 4.0 x 10-10 M d. 5.0 x 10-7 M
9. What concept is being referred to as solutions that resist the change in pH when an acid or base
is added to them?
a. Conjugate c. Amphoteric
b. Buffers d. Common-ion effect
10. Which of the following concepts are said to be the application of Le Chatelier’s Principle where
ions are added to a solution which contains the same ions?
a. Ionic Bonding c. Common-Ion Effect
b. Dissolution d. Ion-Dipole Forces
70
Module 4: Electrochemistry
1. define oxidation and reduction reactions
2. balance redox reactions using the change in oxidation number method
3. draw the structure of a galvanic cell and label the parts
4. identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell
5. write the half-equations for the reactions occurring in the electrodes
6. write the balanced overall cell reaction
7. give different examples of a galvanic cell
8. define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential
9. describe the standard hydrogen electrode
10. calculate the standard cell potential
11. relate the value of the cell potential to the feasibility of using the cell to generate an electric current
describe the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries: a. leclanche dry cell, b. button
batteries, c. fuel cells, and d. lead storage battery
12. apply electrochemical principles to explain corrosion
13. explain the electrode reactions during electrolysis
14. describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes
15. (LAB) Determine the potential and predict the cell reaction of some assembled electrochemical
cells
16. (LAB) Describe the reactions at the electrodes during the electrolysis of water; cite the evidence
for your conclusion
Learning Objectives
 recognize redox reactions;
 identify reducing and oxidizing agents in a given redox reaction;
 balance redox equations using change in oxidation method;
 write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for a given redox reaction;
 balance a redox reaction using the half-reaction method.
 classify reactions as redox or non-redox;
 identify reducing and oxidizing agents in a given redox reaction;
 balance redox equations using change in oxidation method;
 write the oxidation and reduction half-reactions for a given redox reaction; and
 explain corrosion in terms of the electrochemical reactions involved; and
 discuss the economic impacts of corrosion and some measures by which metals can be protected
from corrosion
Introduction
Electrochemistry deals with chemical reactions that produce electricity that takes place because
electricity or passage of current is supplied. The chemical reactions involve electron transfer, and so they
are oxidation-reduction (or redox) reactions. Electrochemical reactions involved in this topic are
electroplating which is used to purify metals and used in devices such as automobiles, smartphones,
electronic tablets, watches, pacemakers, and many others that use batteries for power. Electrolysis of
water and storage of electricity in batteries. All electrochemical processes involve the transfer of
electrons in a reacting system and redox reactions.
71
Pre-Assessment
1. What is being referred to as the science of chemical reaction that produces electricity?
a. Chemical Kinetics c. Electrochemistry
b. Electrolysis d. Electrodynamics
2. In a voltaic cell, the anode is the electrode where ______ reaction occurs?
a. Reduction Reaction c. Redox reaction
b. Oxidation Reaction d. Chemical Reaction
3. In an electrolytic cell, anode is the electrode where __________ reaction occurs?
4. What chemical process is used to purify metals by removing the impurities in an aqueous
solution?
5. The process of rusting of metals is an example of what chemical process?
a. Corrosion c. chemical change
b. Melting d. physical change
6. MnO (aq) + H (aq) + C2O4 -→ Mn (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
4- + 2 2+
What is the coefficient of H+ when the above reaction is balanced?

a. 16 c. 8
b. 2 d. 5
7. Co2+ + 2e- → Co E°= -0.28 V
Cd2+ + 2e- → Cd E°= -0.40 V
Given the above standard reduction potentials, estimate the appropriate value of the equilibrium
constant for the following reactions:
a. 10-4 c. 104
-2
b. 10 c.1016
8. A sample of silver is to be purified by electrorefining. This will separate the silver from an impurity
of gold. The impure silver is made into an electrode. Which of the following is the best way to set
up the electrolytic cell.
a. An impure silver cathode and an inert anode
b. An impure silver cathode and pure gold anode
c. A pure silver cathode with an impure silver anode
d. A pre gold cathode with an impure silver anode
9. 2Fe2+ + Zn → Zn2+ + 2Fe2+
The reaction shown above was used in an electrolytic cell. The voltage measured for the cell was
not equal to the calculated E° for the cell. Which of the following could cause this discrepancy.
a. The anion in the anode compartment was chloride instead of nitrate as in the cathode
compartment
b. One or more of the ion concentrations was not 1M
c. Both of the solutions were at 25°C instead of 0°C.
d. The solution in the salt bridge was Na2SO4 instead of KNO3.
10. 2M(s) + 3Zn2+(aq) →
2M3+(aq) + 3Zn2+(aq) E°= 0.90 V
Zn (aq) + 2e → Zn(s)
2+ -
E°= -0.76 V
Using the above information, determine the standard reduction potential for the following
reaction.
72
M3+(aq) + 3e- → M(s)
a. 0.90 V c. 0.00 V
b. -1.66 V d. -0.62 V
Chapter 1: Redox Reactions

Electrochemical reactions often involve redox reactions. Redox is a term that stands for reduction
and oxidation. Reduction is the process of gaining electrons, whereas oxidation is the process of losing
electrons. Assume a zinc metal is immersed in a solution containing copper cu2+; during the reaction, a
reddish solid, which is the copper metal, forms on the zinc metal's surface. At the molecular level, zinc is
losing electrons to form Zn2+, while copper is gaining electrons to form copper metal (stable form). This
process can be shown as:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- oxidation

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) reduction
The substance that causes the oxidation (taking of the electrons) is called the oxidizing agent, in
this reaction the Cu2+, while the substance that undergone oxidation is called the reducing agent, which
in this process is the Zn. The two half-reactions can be added to give the overall redox reactions.
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (cancel 2e-)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
In a redox reaction, there is a simultaneous loss and gain of electrons. In oxidation reactions,
electrons are being lost but in reduction reactions, electrons are being gained. The definitions of oxidation
and reductions mentioned above are the most useful in this module. Other definitions of oxidation are the
gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen and involve an increase in the oxidation number, while reduction is
the gain of hydrogen or loss of oxygen and involves a decrease in the oxidation number.
Moreover, the study and
understanding of redox reactions in organic compounds are vital to the understanding of metabolism and
its effects, the following are the reactions in the environment;
1. Combustion – burning of coal, animal fat and wood fires are an example of redox reactions.
2. Spoiling and aging – spoilage and degeneration of food, skin tissues, and cells are the cause of
redox reaction specifically oxidation. This is the reason why preservatives and anti-oxidants are
added to the foods and in skin products used in cosmetics to act as a reducing agent to counteract
oxidation. Oxidation is the main cause of cancers and aging because of the oxidizing agents
hungry for electrons, that’s why eating foods rich in antioxidants are recommended to strengthen
the immune system.
Chapter 2: Electrochemical Batteries

Electrochemical cells are cells that use indirect electron transfer to produce electricity by a redox
reaction or use electricity to produce the desired reaction. There are two types of electrochemical cells
covered in this module, these are;
1. Galvanic Cells (Voltaic)- It is a simple battery that produces electricity by using a redox reaction.
It was created by Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta and consists of a copper electrode immersed
in an aqueous copper (II) nitrate [Cu(NO3)2] solution and wired to a silver electrode immersed in
an aqueous silver nitrate [Ag(NO3)] solution.
73
When the electrochemical cell is constructed in this
fashion, a positive cell potential indicates a spontaneous
reaction and that the electrons are flowing from the left to
the right. It works this way;
 Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode: left
to right in the standard galvanic cell in the figure.
 The electrode in the left half-cell is the anode
because oxidation occurs here. The name refers
to the flow of anions in the salt bridge toward it.
 The electrode in the right half-cell is the cathode
because reduction occurs here. The name refers to the flow of cations in the salt bridge
toward it.
 Oxidation occurs at the anode (the left half-cell in the figure).
 Reduction occurs at the cathode (the right half-cell in the figure).
 The cell potential, +0.46 V, in this case, results from the inherent differences like the
materials used to make the two half-cells.
 The salt bridge must be present to close (complete) the circuit and both an oxidation and
reduction must occur for current to flow.
The spontaneous (Voltaic) cell reaction is the one that gives a positive cell voltage when
subtracting one half-reaction from the other. This reaction is expressed through standard cell
potential which is the potential (voltage) associated with an electrochemical cell at standard
conditions.
Eocell = Eoright – Eoleft = Eocathode – Eoanode =Eo+ - Eo-
The following are the conditions at standard cell potential.
1. Solid and liquid are present in their standard states
2. Solution concentration is 1M
3. Temperature is 25 degrees Celsius or 298 degrees Kelvin
4. Pressure is 1 atm or 1 bar
A galvanic cell is composed of electrodes: anode and cathode and salt bridge and by convention,
it is described as;
 The anode is the electrode where oxidation occurs  the more negative half-reaction
potential
 The cathode is the electrode where reduction occurs  the more positive half-reaction
potential
 The salt bridge is often an inverted U-tube that
contains gel containing a concentrated
electrolyte solution, used in an electrochemical
cell to maintain electrical neutrality in the cell
compartments.
2. Electrolytic Cells- They are electrochemical cells that
are supplied by an outside source of electrons, which
allows reactant-favored redox reactions to occur. A
type of cell in which electrolysis is used, an
electrochemical cell with negative cell potentials,
converts electrical energy into chemical energy. The
74
aspect of how it works is similar to galvanic cells, but the terminals in this are different or the
opposite of the galvanic cells.
In this case, the anode is the positive terminal of the electrode at which oxidation is taking
place, while the cathode is the negative terminal of the electrode at which reduction takes place.
Moreover, a battery is an electrochemical cell or series of cells that produces an electric current.
In principle, any galvanic cell could be used as a battery. An ideal battery would never run down, produce
an unchanging voltage, and be capable of withstanding environmental extremes of heat and humidity.
There are three types of batteries, depending on their nature and capacity. Primary batteries are single-
use batteries because they cannot be recharged.
Example
a. The dry cell is a zinc-carbon battery. The zinc can serve as both a container and a
negative electrode. The positive electrode is a rod made of carbon that is surrounded by
a paste of manganese (IV) oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, carbon powder, and
a small amount of water.
b. Alkaline batteries- developed in the 1950s partly to address some of the performance
issues with zinc-carbon dry cells. They are manufactured to be exact replacements for
zinc-carbon dry cells. As their name suggests, these types of batteries use alkaline
electrolytes, often potassium hydroxide.
1. Secondary batteries are rechargeable. These are the types of batteries found in devices
such as smartphones, electronic tablets, and automobiles.
Example
a. Nickel-cadmium, or NiCd, batteries consist of a nickel-plated cathode, cadmium-plated
anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. The positive and negative plates, which are
prevented from shorting by the separator, are rolled together and put into the case.
b. Lithium-ion batteries are among the most popular rechargeable batteries and are used
in many portable electronic devices.
c. The lead-acid battery is the type of secondary battery used in your automobile. It is
inexpensive and capable of producing the high current required by automobile starter
motors.
2. A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Fuel cells are
similar to batteries but require a continuous source of fuel, often hydrogen. They will continue
to produce electricity as long as fuel is available. Hydrogen fuel cells have been used to supply
power for satellites, space capsules, automobiles, boats, and submarines.
Chapter 3: Standard Reduction Potentials

Standard Reduction Potentials are the voltages associated with a half-reaction shown in the form
of reduction. A: Reduction potential is a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to be reduced or
to gain electrons, while oxidation potential is the tendency of a chemical species to be oxidized or to give
up electrons. In order to compare the potential of one-half cell with another, it is necessary to measure
all potentials under the standard condition.
As discussed previously, the standard conditions for a reduction potential reaction are;
75
1. Solid and liquid are present in their standard states
2. Solution concentration is 1M
3. Temperature is 25 degrees Celsius or 298 degrees Kelvin
4. Pressure is 1 atm or 1 bar
Represented by the following equation
Eocell = Eoright – Eoleft = Eocathode – Eoanode =Eo+ - Eo-

Example
• Typical oxidizing agents: Standard Potentials (V)
+ -
– O + 4H + 4e  2H O +1.229
2 2
4+ - 3+
– Ce + e  Ce +1.6 (acid)
- + - 2+
– MnO + 8H + 5e  Mn + 4H O +1.51
4 2
• Typical reducing agents:
2+ - o
– Zn + 2e  Zn -0.763
3+ - 2+
– Cr +e  Cr -0.408
Using the standard reduction potential, calculate the standard potential of the cell consisting of Al
and Ag in 1M Ag+ ions and 1M Al3+ ions.
Solution:
Given:
Al3+ : Al3+ + 3 e- → Al(s) = -1.66 V
Ag+: Ag+ + e- → Ag(s) = + 0.80 V
Eocell = Eocathode – Eoanode =Eo+ - Eo-
Eocell = Eocathode – Eoanode =Eo+ - Eo-

Eocell = + 0.80 V – (-1.66 V)
= +2.46 V
Or
3(Ag+ + e- → Ag(s)) Eo = + 0.80 V
[Al3+ + 3 e- → Al(s) Eo = -1.66 V (reverse rxn)]
3Ag+ + 3e- → 3Ag(s) Eo = + 0.80 V
Al(s) → Al3+ + 3 e- Eo = +1.66 V
3Ag+ + Al(s) → 3Ag(s) + Al3+ Eo = 2.46 V
(note that when calculating E°cell, standard reduction potentials always remain the same even when a half-reaction is multiplied by a factor)
Chapter 4: Corrosion
As you look around your surroundings, you will see metals such as nails, iron rods, and tin cans.
A lot of these metallic structures are damaged and rusted, which is caused by corrosion. Corrosion is
usually defined as the degradation of metals due to an electrochemical process. The formation of rust on
76
iron, tarnish on silver, and the blue-green patina that develops on copper are all examples of corrosion.
This process is a natural process that converts a refined metal to a more stable form, such as oxides,
hydroxides, or sulfides. It is a slow process of destruction of metals through the influence of external
factors. Corrosion is also described as the chemical reaction in which metal reacts with moisture and
oxygen gas in the atmosphere to form metallic oxides. The following are the reasons why metals corrode:
1. Effects on the environment- it implies the rusting, gradual degradation of materials by chemical
reactions with its surroundings. It is the disintegration of its constituent substances due to its
reaction with its environment. Two types of corrosion under effects of environment;
a. Electrochemical process – is the deterioration of metals in a solution in some form of favored
redox reaction.
b. Aqueous and dry corrosion – the process when water and oxygen are involved. Oxygen
oxidizes the metal causing its deterioration.
2. Effects on other construction materials like pipes, downspout, etc. – corrosion of metal pipes due
to oxidation and reaction of oxides and hydroxides to metal ions.
Ways to prevent metals from corrosion

a. Paints - The layer of paint prevents the water and oxygen necessary for rust formation from
coming into contact with the iron. As long as the paint remains intact, the iron is protected
from corrosion.
b. Zinc-plated or galvanized iron - Zinc is more easily oxidized than iron because zinc has a
lower reduction potential. Since it has a lower reduction potential, it is a more active metal.
Thus, even if the zinc coating is scratched, the zinc will still oxidize before the iron.
c. Cathodic protection and can be used for metals other than just iron. For example, the rusting
of underground iron storage tanks and pipes can be prevented or greatly reduced by
connecting them to a more active metal such as zinc or magnesium
d. Sacrificial anodes because as they get used up as they corrode (oxidize) at the anode. The
metal being protected serves as the cathode, and so does not oxidize (corrode). When the
anodes are properly monitored and periodically replaced, the useful lifetime of the iron storage
tank can be greatly extended.
Chapter 5: Electrolysis
It is the process by which ionic substances are broken down into simpler substances when an
electric current is passed through them. It is a reaction in which electricity is used to decompose a
compound. A process of using electrical energy to cause a non-spontaneous process to occur. More so,
it is a method of obtaining pure substances or of removing impurities from a molten or aqueous salt.
In this process, the electrodes, anode and cathode, are used

differently in terms of convention as compared to the previous
discussions. In this case, the anode is the positive terminal of the
electrode at which oxidation is taking place, while the cathode is the
negative terminal of the electrode where reduction is taking
place.Example:
-
Anode: Cl (l) → Cl
2(g)
- -
2Cl (l) → Cl + 2e -1.3V
2(g)
77
+
Cathode: Na (l) → Na(l)
+ -
Na (l) + e → Na(l) -2.7V
- -
2Cl (l) → Cl + 2e -1.3V
2(g)
+ -
2(Na (l) + e → Na(l)) -2.7V
- +
2Cl (l) + 2 Na (l) → Cl + 2Na(l) -4.0V
2(g)
Activities
Activity 4.1: Balancing Redox Reactions
I. For each of the following balanced half-reactions, determine whether oxidation or reduction is
occurring.
a. Fe3+ + 3e− ⟶ Fe
b. Cr ⟶ Cr3+ + 3e−
c. MnO42− ⟶ MnO4 − + e−
d. Li+ + e− ⟶ Li
II. Balance the following in acidic and basic solution:
a. H2O2 + Sn2+ ⟶ H2 O + Sn4+
b. PbO2 + Hg ⟶ Hg2 2+ + Pb2+
c. Al + Cr2 O72− ⟶ Al3+ + Cr3+
d. SO32−(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s) ⟶ SO42−(aq) + Cu(OH)(s)
e. O2(g) + Mn(OH)2(s) ⟶ MnO2(s)
III. Explain the following
a. Identify the species that was oxidized, the species that was reduced, the oxidizing agent,
and the reducing agent in each of the reactions of the previous problem (I and II)
b. Why must the charge balance in oxidation-reduction reactions?
Activity 4.2: Electrochemical Cells
a. Why is a salt bridge necessary in galvanic cells?
b. An active (metal) electrode was found to gain mass as the oxidation-reduction reaction was
allowed to proceed. Was the electrode part of the anode or cathode? Explain.
c. An active (metal) electrode was found to lose mass as the oxidation-reduction reaction was
allowed to proceed. Was the electrode part of the anode or cathode? Explain.
d. Why do batteries go dead, but fuel cells do not?
Activity 4.3: Standard Reduction Potentials
For each reaction listed, determine its standard cell potential at 25 °C and whether the reaction is
spontaneous at standard conditions.
a. Mg(s) + Ni2+(aq) ⟶ Mg2+(aq) + Ni(s)
b. 2Ag+(aq) + Cu(s) ⟶ Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
c. Mn(s) + Sn(NO3 )2(aq) ⟶ Mn(NO3 )2(aq) + Sn(s)
d. 3Fe(NO3)2(aq) + Au(NO3)3(aq) ⟶ 3Fe(NO3)3(aq) + Au(s)
e. Ca(NO3)2(aq) + Ba(s) ⟶ Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Ca(s)
Activity 4.4: Corrosion
A. Which member of each pair of metals is more likely to corrode (oxidize)? Circle the element
more likely to corrode.
a. Mg or Ca
78
b. Au or Hg
c. Fe or Zn
d. Ag or Pt
B. Explain
a. Consider the following metals: Ag, Au, Mg, Ni, and Zn. Which of these metals could be used
as a sacrificial anode in the cathodic protection of an underground steel storage tank? Steel
is mostly iron, so use −0.447 V as the standard reduction potential for steel.
b. If a sample of iron and a sample of zinc come into contact, the zinc corrodes but the iron does
not. If a sample of iron comes into contact with a sample of copper, the iron corrodes but the
copper does not. Explain this phenomenon.
Activity 4.5: Electrolysis

Identify the reaction at the anode, reaction at the cathode, the overall reaction, and the approximate
potential required for the electrolysis of the following molten salts. Assume standard states and that the
standard reduction potentials are the same as those at each of the melting points. Assume the efficiency
is 100%.
a. CaCl2
b. LiH
c. AlCl3
d. CrBr3
Post-Assessment
1. What is being referred to as the science of chemical reaction that produces electricity?
2. In a voltaic cell, the anode is the electrode where ______ reaction occurs?
3. In an electrolytic cell, anode is the electrode where __________ reaction occurs?
4. What chemical process is used to purify metals by removing the impurities in an aqueous
solution?
5. The process of rusting of metals is an example of what chemical process?
a. Corrosion c. chemical change
b. Melting d. physical change
6. MnO (aq) + H (aq) + C2O4 -→ Mn (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
4- + 2 2+
What is the coefficient of H+ when the above reaction is balanced?

a. 16 c. 8
b. 2 d. 5
7. Co2+ + 2e- → Co E°= -0.28 V
Cd2+ + 2e- → Cd E°= -0.40 V
79
Given the above standard reduction potentials, estimate the appropriate value of the equilibrium
constant for the following reactions:
a. 10-4 c. 104
-2
b. 10 c.1016
8. A sample of silver is to be purified by electrorefining. This will separate the silver from an impurity
of gold. The impure silver is made into an electrode. Which of the following is the best way to set
up the electrolytic cell.
a. An impure silver cathode and an inert anode
b. An impure silver cathode and pure gold anode
c. A pure silver cathode with an impure silver anode
d. A pre gold cathode with an impure silver anode
9. 2Fe2+ + Zn → Zn2+ + 2Fe2+
The reaction shown above was used in an electrolytic cell. The voltage measured for the cell was
not equal to the calculated E° for the cell. Which of the following could cause this discrepancy.
a. The anion in the anode compartment was chloride instead of nitrate as in the cathode
compartment
b. One or more of the ion concentrations was not 1M
c. Both of the solutions were at 25°C instead of 0°C.
d. The solution in the salt bridge was Na2SO4 instead of KNO3.
10. 2M(s) + 3Zn2+(aq) →
2M3+(aq) + 3Zn2+(aq) E°= 0.90 V
Zn (aq) + 2e → Zn(s)
2+ -
E°= -0.76 V
Using the above information, determine the standard reduction potential for the following
reaction.
M3+(aq) + 3e- → M(s)
a. 0.90 V c. 0.00 V
b. -1.66 V d. -0.62 V
References:
 Jacobs, Greg. 5 Steps to a 5 AP Physics C 2016. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2015.
 Langley, R.H., & Moore, J.T. (2013). 5 Steps to a 5 AP Chemistry, 2014-2015 Edition. San
Francisco: McGraw-Hill Education
 OpenStax College. (2015). Chemistry. OpenStax College. Retrieved from
https://openstax.org/details/books/chemistry-atoms-first-2e
 Solomon, E. (2018, September 29). STEM General Chemistry 2 Curriculum Guide - Clopified.
Clopified. https://www.clopified.com/download/stem-general-chemistry-2-curriculum-guide/.
 Contributor, D. T. (2017, June 10). General Chemistry 2: Senior High School SHS Teaching
Guide - TeacherPH. TeacherPH. https://www.teacherph.com/general-chemistry-2-teaching-
guide/.
 General Chemistry 2 | Senior High School | Rex Bookstore Inc. (n.d.). General Chemistry 2 |
Senior High School | Rex Bookstore Inc. https://www.rexestore.com/senior-high-school/1759-
general-chemistry-2-worktext.html.
 Kinetics: Initial Rates And Integrated Rate Laws. (2015, December 22). YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wYqQCojggyM&t=2s.
 Integrated Rate Laws - Zero, First, & Second Order Reactions - Chemical Kinetics. (2021, April
4). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7I0Xg92_eA4.
80

General Chemistry 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

General Chemistry 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

General Chemistry 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Overview

Module 1: Intermolecular Forces

Let your adventure in chemistry begins…

Chapter I: Intermolecular Forces

 Ion-Dipole Intermolecular Forces

Element Electronegativity value

 London/Dispersion Intermolecular Forces

Activity: KMT and IMF

Chapter II: Properties of Liquids and Intermolecular Forces

Activity: Liquids and Its properties

Chapter III: The Solid State of Matter and Crystals

Chapter IV: Phase Changes

Figure. The pressure and temperature axes

Chapter 1: Types of Solutions

Percentage can be expressed in three ways:

 Mass per volume percent

 Volume per volume percent

Volume % = 100.0 𝑚𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝑙4⁄100 + 100 + 750 𝑚𝐿 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100% = 10.53%

15.2 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎2𝑆𝑂4 1000𝑚𝐿

62.1 𝑔 C2H6O2 1000 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 C2H6O2

Activity: Solutions Stoichiometry

Chapter III: Colligative Properties

a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.

b. Compute the number of moles of the solvent by using its mass.

72 grams x 1 mole H2O = 4 moles

o The freezing point of solution = FPsolvent - ΔTf

a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.

c. Calculate the molal concentration.

Freezing point of solution = FPsolvent - ΔTf

c. Boiling Point Elevation

o Boiling point of solution = BPsolvent + ΔTb

= (2.53 °C/m) (0.5 m)

Boiling point of solution = BPsolvent + ΔTb

R = gas constant (0.08205 L-atm/mole-K)

a. Compute the number of moles of the substance/solute by using its mass.

100 grams x 1mole C12H22O11 = 0.29 mole

b. Determine the molarity concentration.

c. Calculate the osmotic pressure.

Chapter 1: Thermochemistry and Endothermic and Exothermic Reaction

Activity: Heat Dynamics

Part II. Explain the following

Chapter 2: Chemical Thermodynamics

Figure. The entropy of a substance increases (ΔS > 0)

Calculate the standard entropy change for the following process:

Activity: Chemical Thermodynamic Reaction

Chapter 4: Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction Hess’ Law

Fe(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ FeCl2(s) ΔH° = −341.8 kJ

The enthalpy of formation, ΔHf ° , of FeCl3(s) is −399.5 kJ/mol.

Moreover, Standard Enthalpy Formation enthalpy change of a chemical reaction in which 1

Solution: Using the Equation

Activity: Standard Enthalpy & Hess Law

MODULE 4: CHEMICAL KINETICS

Chapter 1: Chemical Kinetics and Rates of Reaction

Rates of Reaction and Rate Equation

Comparing experiments 1 and 2:

Chapter 2: Integrated Rate Laws

Chapter 3: Collision Theory and Activation Energy

Activity: Activation Energy: Chemical Reaction…Activate!!!

Chapter IV: Catalysis

Heterogeneous catalysis has at least four steps: