2/16/2021

EQUIPP REVIEW RADIOLOGIC

MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
CENTER INC.
M E Y N A R D Y. C A S T R O , R R T, M S R Tc
MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
PHYSICS
Fa c u l t y, U n i v e r s i t y o f M a k a t i

TOPICS OUTLINE
M AT T E R A N D E N E R G Y
MYC
FR
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAMTECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS
M AT T E R A N D E N E R G Y
ELECTROMAGNETISM
X - R AY I M A G I N G S Y S T E M
X - R AY P R O D U C T I O N
X - R AY I N T E R A C T I O N W I T H
M AT T E R

FR FR
MATTER MATTER
• Substance that comprises all MASS WEIGHT
physical objects
• Primary distinguishing • Force that an object exerts under
• Characteristics: characteristic the influence of gravity
• Shape and form
• Quantity of matter contained in • Newton (N) or pound (lb)
• Occupies space
any physical object • Not constant
• Mass
• Electrical charge • Kilogram (kg) • Wt = mg
• Magnetism • Constant
EARTH MOON SPACE
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MATTER
(9.8 m/s2) (1.6 m/s2) (0 m/s2)
ICE WATER VAPOR
(1 kg) (1 kg) (1 kg) Wt = 10 kg x 9.8 10 kg x 1.6 10 kg x 0
98 N 16 N 0N
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PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

Air = mixture of O, H, N, etc.

Body= mixture of Ca, O, Na, K, etc S P
D

O, H H2O
STRUCTURE OF Na, Cl NaCl

MATTER
F

FR FR
ATOM FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
• Fundamental building blocks of
matter
• Smallest particle of an element PARTICLES ELECTRON PROTON NEUTRON
LOCATION Orbital shell Nucleus Nucleus
• Neutral charged
MASS Lightest - Heaviest
• Principal Parts:
CHARGED Negative (-1) Positive (+1) Neutral (0)
• Orbital shell
• Electrons John Joseph Eugene
DISCOVERED BY James Chadwick
• Nucleus Thomson Goldstein
• Neutrons
• Protons

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ATOM IONIZED CARBON ATOM

• Neutral Atom:
IONIZATION
• Consists of same number of PROCESS
protons and electrons
• Ionized Atom:
• Consists of an extra or a
lacking of e-
• Can be positive or negative

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ORBITAL SHELL NUCLEUS
• Consists of electrons • Central core of an atom
• Consists of 7 orbital shells • Contains protons and
• K-shell (innermost) to Q-shell neutrons
(outermost) • Contains nearly all mass of
• Each shell represents the atom
different electron binding • Positively charged
energy (Eb)

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MOLECULES ENERGY

• Two or more atoms • The ability to do work

chemically united • SI: Joule
• Smallest particle of a • Radiology: electron volt (eV)
compound • Can be transformed from one form
• Example: H20, NaCl of energy to another
• Cannot be created or destroyed
ELECTRICAL TO ELECTROMAGNETIC
“LAW OF
CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY”
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ENERGY

• The ability to do work DEVICES ENERGY CONVERSION

ELECTRICAL TO
• SI: Joule X-RAY TUBE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
• Radiology: electron volt (eV) ELECTRIC MOTOR ELECTRICAL TO MECHANICAL
• Can be transformed from one form GENERATOR MECHANICAL TO ELECTRIC
of energy to another
ELECTROMAGNETIC TO
• Cannot be created or destroyed CONSERVATION OF FILM
CHEMICAL

“LAW OF
ELECTRICAL TO ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY BATTERY CHEMICAL TO ELECTRICAL

CONSERVATION OF RECHARGEABLE
ELECTRICAL TO CHEMICAL
BATTERY
ENERGY”
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TRANSFORMER ELECTRICAL TO ELECTRICAL

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LAW OF CONSERVATION

• States that the sum of all matter • KINETIC ENERGY

and energy is constant
• Matter and energy can be neither
• POTENTIAL ENERGY
created or destroyed but are • CHEMICAL ENERGY
interchangeable
• HEAT ENERGY
• Theory of relativity: E=mc2
• Mass-energy equivalence equation
• ELECTRICAL ENERGY
TYPES OF ENERGY • NUCLEAR ENERGY
• ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY
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ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
• Number of electron
(outermost shell) S P
= GROUP NUMBER D
= VALENCE STATE
• Number of outermost electron
shell
= PERIOD NUMBER

F
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GROUP IN THE PERIODIC # OF ELECTRONS IN THE

TABLE OUTERMOST SHELL
Group I 1 e-
Group II 2 e-
Group III 3 e-
Group IV 4 e-

ELECTRON Group V 5 e-
Group VI 6 e-
SPDF CONFIGURATION ARRANGEMENT Group VII 7 e-
Used to determine the electron Group VIII 8 e-
arrangement of elements with Z>18

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PERIOD IN THE PERIODIC # OF OUTERMOST

TABLE ELECTRONS SHELL SHELL SHELL NUMBER OF
Period 1 1 (K) NUMBER SYMBOL ELECTRONS
Period 2 2 (L) 1 K 2(1)2 = 2
Period 3 3 (M) 2 L 2(2)2 = 8

ELECTRON Period 4 4 (N)

MAXIMUM 3
4
M
N
2(3)2 = 18
2(4)2 = 32
Period 5 5 (O)
ARRANGEMENT Period 6 6 (P)
ELECTRONS PER SHELL 5 O 2(5)2 = 50
Formula: 2n2 6 P 2(6)2 =72
Period 7 7 (Q)
n = shell number (principal quantum 7 Q 2(7)2 = 98
number)

FR FR
ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY
• The strength of attachment • The closer to the nucleus,
of an electron to the the higher the Eb
nucleus • Inner shell:
• The energy required to • higher Eb
completely remove an • Difficult to remove
electron from the atom • Outer shell:
• Symbol: Eb • Lower Eb
• Easy to remove
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CHEMICAL SYMBOL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
• Alphabetic abbreviation
of an element • Determined by the
• Examples: • Number of electrons
• Hydrogen = H
• Arrangement of
• Tungsten = W
electrons
• Carbon = C

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ATOMIC NUMBER ATOMIC MASS NUMBER

• The number of protons in • The number of protons and

an atom neutrons (nucleons)
• Symbol: Z • Symbol: A
• Example: tungsten • Example: tungsten
• Z = 74 • A = 184 (110 neutrons & 74
• It has 74 protons protons)

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NEUTRON NUMBER VALENCE STATE
• The difference between • The chemical combining
the atomic mass number characteristic of an
and atomic number element
•Example: tungsten • Determined by the number
• A = 184, Z = 74 of electrons in the
• Neutron #: 110 (184 – outermost shell
74)

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VALENCE STATE VALENCE STATE

• H: Valence = +1 •O: Valence = -2

• Only 1 e- in the outermost • 2 e- in the outermost
shell
shell
• Group 1
• Group 6
• Freely give up the e- to bind
with another element • Has two room for
sharing of e-

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VALENCE STATE VALENCE STATE

•Na: Valence = +1
• Only 1 e- in the
outermost shell
• Group 1
• Freely give up the e- to
bind with another
element
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VALENCE STATE VALENCE STATE

•Cl: Valence = -1
• 7 e- in the outermost
shell
• Group 7
• Has one room for
sharing of e-

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RADIOACTIVE ATOM RADIOACTIVE ATOM

GROUND STATE EXCITED STATE

• Unstable nucleus • The lowest energy state of • Isomeric states
• Very heavy nuclei (A>150; the nucleus • Highest energy state of the
Z>82) • The most stable arrangement nucleus
• Disintegrate to reach of nucleons • Always unstable
stability • Daughter nuclide • Spontaneous decay can
occur
• Parent nuclide
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RADIOACTIVE ATOM RADIONUCLIDES

PARENT DAUGHTER
• Original radionuclide • Resulting radionuclide • Any nucleus that emits
radiation
• Very unstable • More stable
• Longer half-lives • Shorter half-lives
• The nuclei that undergo
radioactive decay
• Excited stated • Ground state
• Nuclides: any nuclear
arrangements

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QUESTION
From the following list of atoms, pick out
those that are isotopes, isobars & isotones

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ANSWER HALF LIFE

• PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE (T1/2)

• BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE (Tb)
• EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE (Te)

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PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE
ELEMENT HALF LIFE
99Tc 6 hours
• The time required for a quantity of radioactivity to be 131I 8 days
reduced to one-half its original value 123I 13 hours
223Ra 11 days
• Every radioactive material has its own unique half life 226Ra 1600 years
value 14C 5730 years

• All radioactivity never disappears

192Ir 74 days
60Co 5.26 years
• Quantity decreases but never reaches zero 137Cs 30 years
90Sr 28 years
99Mo 66 hours
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2.7 days

FR FR
PHYSICAL HALF-LIFE RADIOACTIVE DECAY FORMULA

REMAINING ACTIVITY = ORIGINAL ACTIVITY (0.5)n

n = number of half life

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QUESTION #1 SOLUTION #1
• Given:
• 99Tc = 6 hrs (half life)
On Monday at 6 am in the morning, 100 • Original activity = 100 mCi
• n = 1 (99Tc undergone one half life)
mCi of 99Tc is present. How much will remain • Formula:
on the same day at 12 noon? • Remaining Activity = Original Activity (0.5)n
• Solution:
• Remaining Activity = 100 mCi (0.5)1
• Remaining Activity = 50 mCi of 99Tc

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QUESTION #2 SOLUTION #2
HALF LIFE RADIOACTIVITY REMAINING
(T1/2)
How many half-lives are required before a in %age in fraction Quantity
quantity of radioactive material has decayed 0 100% 1 100 mCi
1 50% 1/2 50 mCi
to less than 1% of its original value? 2 25% 1/4 25 mCi
3 12.5% 1/8 12.5 mCi
4 6.25% 1/16 6.25 mCi
5 3.125% 1/32 3.125 mCi
6 1.56% 1/64 1.56 mCi
7 0.78% 1/128 0.78 mCi
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QUESTION #3 SOLUTION #3

If a piece of petrified wood contains

25% of the 14C that a tree living today
contains, how old is the petrified wood?

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BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE
• The time required for the body to eliminate one-half of •A combination of both T1/2 and Tb
the dose of any substances by biological processes
•The time required for half of initial
• Determined by the clearance of the radionuclides from
the organ, tissue or body radioactivity to disappear from an organ or
• Most radiopharmaceuticals are also cleared from body by combination of excretion and
organs by various physiologic processes physical decay
• Example: perspiration, urine, feces, exhalation •Must always shorter than T1/2 or Tb
•Formula: 1/Te= 1/T1/2 + 1/Tb
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EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE
• Given: Te = ?; T1/2 = 6; Tb = 3
If the radionuclide has a physical half life • Formula: 1/Te= 1/T1/2 + 1/Tb
of 6 hours and a biologic half life of 3 hours, • Solution:
• 1/Te= 1/6+1/3
what is the effective half life? • 1/Te= (1+2)/6
• 1/Te= 3/6
• Te= 6/3
• Te= 2 hours
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COMMON DECAY PROCESS COMMON DECAY PROCESS

ALPHA DECAY ALPHA PARTICLE

• Spontaneous decay emission • Identical to a helium nucleus
of an alpha particle • Consist of 2p+ & 2n0
• Not used in medical imaging • Heaviest and least penetrating
form of radiation
• Most common in A > 150 and
Z > 82 • Emitted from the atomic nucleus
• Carries an electronic charge twice
• Results in: that of the proton
• Z – 2, A – 4, N – 2
• High LET
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COMMON DECAY PROCESS COMMON DECAY PROCESS

BETA DECAY BETA PARTICLE

• Occurs in all radionuclides • Identical to electrons
• Occurs much more frequently • Light particles
than alpha particle • Symbol:
• Emits beta particle • A: 0
• 2 Types: • Charge: +1 (positron) or -1
• beta minus (negatron)
• beta plus
• Absorb by: aluminum
• Lower LET than alpha
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BETA DECAY COMMON DECAY PROCESS

BETA MINUS BETA PLUS ELECTRON CAPTURE

• Negatron decay • Positron decay • K-capture
• Neutron-rich nuclei • Proton-rich nuclei • Method of radioactive decay that
involves the capture of an orbital
• 1 n is converted into 1 p • 1 p is converted into 1 n electron most likely in the K or L-
• Results in: • Threshold: ≥1.02 MeV shell by its nucleus
• Z+1, A = same, N-1 • Results in: Z-1, A = same, • Similar to positron decay
N+1 • Occurs in neutron deficient nuclei

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COMMON DECAY PROCESS COMMON DECAY PROCESS

ELECTRON CAPTURE ELECTRON CAPTURE

• 1 e- + 1 p+ →1 n with
emission of neutrino • Results:
• <1.02 MeV: common threshold • Same as beta plus decay
for e- capture • Characteristic x-rays
• Gamma rays
• ≥1.02 MeV: both e- capture or
• Auger electron
beta plus decay may occur

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COMMON DECAY PROCESS COMMON DECAY PROCESS

ISOMERIC TRANSITION ISOMERIC TRANSITION

• Internal conversion • Isomeric State: • Results:
• A decay process occurs when a • Metastable state • No change in Z, A or neutron
• Exists for >10-9 s (half life) number
nuclei in the excited state goes to
ground state by emission of • Always unstable • Emission of gamma radiation
gamma radiation to attain stability • Emission of internal conversion
electron
• Emission of characteristic radiation
• Emission of Auger electron

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FR DAUGHTER NUCLEUS FR
COMMON DECAY PROCESS VALUE
Decay Mode Mass No. Atomic No. Neutron No. Comments

ISOBARIC TRANSITION Isomeric

Emits gamma rays;
metastable;
A Z N
transition characteristic x-rays &
internal conversion e-
• Modes of decay in which the mass
Emits negatrons &
number remains constant Beta minus A Z+1 N–1
antineutrinos
• Occurs in: Emits positrons &
Beta plus A Z–1 N+1
• Negatron decay neutrinos
• Positron decay
Emits neutrinos,
• Electron capture Electron capture A Z–1 N+1 characteristic x-rays &
Auger e-

Dominant decay mode

Alpha decay A–4 Z–2 N–2
for A > 150; Z > 82
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ELECTRICAL CHARGES
• Positive or negative
• Have potential (stored)

MYC
FR
energy
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAMTECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS • Smallest Units: electron (-)
ELECTROMAGNETISM
& proton (+)
• Fundamental Unit (SI):
coulomb (C)

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ELECTRIC FIELD ELECTROSTATICS

• The study of the

• The lines of force that distribution of electrons
causes charged particles to that are at rest (fixed
move from one pole to charges)
another

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LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS REPULSION-ATTRACTION
• Unlike charges attract
• REPULSION-ATTRACTION • Like charges repel
• INVERSE SQUARE LAW • Uncharged particles do not
have electric field
• DISTRIBUTION
• Electric field radiate out from
• CONCENTRATION positive charge
• MOVEMENT • Electric field radiate toward a
negative charge

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INVERSE SQUARE LAW COULOMB’S LAW
• The force between two
charges
• Directly proportional to the
product of their
magnitudes
• Inversely proportional to
the square of distance
between them
k = 9.0 X 109 Nm2/C2
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LAW OF DISTRIBUTION LAW OF CONCENTRATION
Greatest concentration on
Solid Conductor the sharpest curvature of a
surface
Charges uniformly
distributed at the surface
due repulsion X-ray Tube
Rounded and highly
polished

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LAW OF MOVEMENT ELECTRIFICATION
• Transfer or movement of
electron from one object to
• Only negative charges another object
move along the solid
• Describe the process of
conductors
electron charges being added
• Positively Charges: tightly to or subtracted from an
bound inside the atomic object
nuclear field • Electrified: if object has too
few or too many electrons
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ELECTRIFICATION ELECTRIFICATION

FRICTION
• Occurs when one object is rubbed
• Created by three methods: against another
• FRICTION • Cold Weather (low humidity):
• CONTACT ideal conditions for electron
• INDUCTION transfer
• Example:
• Rubbing the hands
• Combing the hair

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ELECTRIFICATION ELECTRIFICATION

CONTACT INDUCTION
• Occurs when two object touch, • The process of electrical fields
permitting electrons to move acting on another without contact
from one to the other • The most important method
• Simple equalization of charges • Used in the operation of electronic
devices (e.g. transformers & electric
• Example: motor)
• Walking across a woolen carpet in a
room with low humidity (touched by • Examples:
a positive object) • Induction motor
• Lightning
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ELECTRODYNAMICS ELECTRICITY
• The study of electric charges in • Electric current
motion
• Electron Movement:
• Deals with the distribution
• Facilitated by materials that easily and movement of electrical
permit electrons charges
• Inhibited by materials that resist the
flow of electrons • Types: AC or DC
• Vacuum: a space from which air • Unit: Ampere (A)
has been removed
• Permits the electrons to reach the • Symbol: I
speed necessary for x-ray production

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ELECTRICITY DIRECTION OF ELECTRON FLOW
• Electric Current Flow
• Electrons at high voltage • Move from positive to negative
poles
• High potential energy
• High capacity to do work • Electron Flow
• Move from negative to positive
• Inhibited electron flow poles
• High resistance

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DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT
• Electrons that flow in only one
direction • Electrons that flow alternately
• All electrons move in the same in opposite direction
direction • Waveform: sinusoidal
• Waveform: straight line • Application: transformer
• Application: x-ray tube

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POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
• Electric potential, voltage or
electromotive force (EMF) • Unit: volt (V)
• The force or strength of • Volt: potential energy per unit
electron flow charge
• The total maximum difference • Higher voltage, greater
of potential between the potential to do work
positive and negative ends of
the electron source • 1 V = 1 J/C

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GROUND POTENTIAL RESISTANCE
• The amount of opposition to
• Zero potential the current in the circuit RESISTOR

• A neutral reference point for • Unit: ohm (Ω)

discussing charges • Admittance: the measure of
• Example: earth (neutral) resistance in an AC
• Equally balanced charges • Conductance: the measure of
resistance in a DC

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FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE MAGNETISM

• The ability to conduct RESISTOR • One of the fundamental forces

electrons • Difficult to understand, detect
• The length of the conductors & measure
• The cross-sectional diameter • No smallest units
• The temperature • Magnet: any material that
produce magnetic field

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MAGNETISM

• Bipolar/Dipolar: magnets that

have two poles
• Poles: ends of the magnets
• Any charged particle in motion
produces a magnetic field

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SPIN MAGNETIC MOMENT ORBITAL MAGNETIC MOMENT

• Magnetic effect that is

• Magnetic effect that is established by charged
established by movement of electrons orbiting the nucleus
protons on their axes • A moving charged particle
• Basis for MRI induces a magnetic field in a
plane perpendicular to its
motion

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MAGNETIC DIPOLE MAGNETIC DOMAIN

• Groups of atoms with most of

the magnetic moment force in • An accumulation of many
a single or same direction atomic magnets with their
• Single Dipole: 1015 atoms dipoles aligned
• Normal Orientation: randomly
oriented

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MAGNETIC LINES OF FLUX MAGNETIC LINES OF FLUX
• Tesla (T) and Gauss (G):
• Lines of force, lines of flux or the units of magnetic flux
magnetic field density
• Imaginary lines of force of the • 1 T = 10,000 G or 1 Wb/m2
magnetic field
• Stronger MF:
• SI Unit: Weber (Wb)
• More lines of flux
• 1 Wb = 108 lines of flux • Greater flux density

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DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC FIELD ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
• The production of a
• Outside a magnet: always current in a conductor by a
flow from N to S changing magnetic field
near the conductor
• Within a magnet: always
flow from S to N • Faraday and Oersted
Experiments
• Never intersect
• The basis of transformer
operation
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ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION MICHAEL FARADAY

SELF INDUCTION MUTUAL INDUCTION

• He described the first law
of electromagnetic
induction
• He observed the current in
a changing magnetic field

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FARADAY LAW FARADAY LAW

• It states that an electric • Magnitude of induced

current is induced in a current depends on:
circuit if some part of that • Strength of MF
circuit is in a changing • Velocity of MF
magnetic field • Angle of the conductor
• Number of turns

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HANS OERSTED HEINRICH LENZ
• He described the second
law of electromagnetic
induction
• He demonstrated that
electricity can be used to • States that the induced
current flow sets up a
generate magnetic fields magnetic field opposing the
action that produced the
original current

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HEINRICH LENZ LENZ LAW

• States that induced current

• He described the second flow sets up a magnetic
law of electromagnetic field opposing the action
induction that produced the original
current

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FR

MYC
FR
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAMTECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS
X - R AY I M A G I N G S Y S T E M

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THREE SECTIONS OF X-RAY CIRCUIT X-RAY IMAGING CIRCUIT

• PRIMARY CIRCUIT
• SECONDARY CIRCUIT
• FILAMENT CIRCUIT

FR FR
PRIMARY CIRCUIT MAIN POWER SWITCH
• Main power switch
(connected to the
incoming power supply)
• An on–off switch for the
• Circuit breakers unit and is connected to
• Line compensator the power supply of the
• Autotransformer facility
• Timer circuit
• Primary side of the step-up
transformer

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FR FR
CIRCUIT BREAKER FUSE
• Prevents short circuit and
electric shock
• Constructed to permit the • Used to protect the circuit
breaking of the circuit elements from overload by
before a dangerous operating the circuit in the
temperature is reached event of a power surge
• Prevents short circuit and • Constructed with a metal tab
electric shock that will melt when
dangerously heated
• Can be reset once the
• Not reusable
problem has been located
• Must be replaced

FR FR
LINE COMPENSATOR AUTOTRANSFORMER

• Usually wired to the • Variable transformer or

autotransformer kVp selector
• Measures the voltage • Consists of single coil and
provided to the x-ray core
imaging system • 100-400 V
• Adjusts that voltage to • Self induction
precisely 220 V

FR FR
AUTOTRANSFORMER TIMER CIRCUIT
• An adjustable transformer • Used to make and break
controlled by the kVp the HV across the x-ray
selector on the operating tube
console • Located on the primary
• Provides a voltage that will side of the HVT
be increased by the step up • Examples:
transformer to produce the • Synchronous
kilovoltage selected at the • Electronic
operating console • mAs
• AEC

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SECONDARY CIRCUIT STEP UP TRANSFORMER
• Used to increase the
• Secondary side of the step- voltage from the
up transformer autotransformer to
kilovoltage
• mA meter
• Increases output voltage
• Rectifier
• Not adjustable or variable
• X-ray tube (except for the (fixed amount)
filaments)
• Mutual induction

FR FR
STEP UP TRANSFORMER mA METER

• Turns ratio greater than 1 • A device placed in the

• Steps up voltage secondary circuit that
monitors x-ray tube current
• Steps down current
• Connected at the center of
HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER the secondary winding of
PRIMARY
SIDE
SECONDARY
SIDE
the HV step-up transformer
Less turns More turns
Low voltage High voltage
High current Low current

FR FR
RECTIFIER SOLID-STATE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
• A device that allows
current flow in only one • Most commonly used to in
direction x-ray circuits
• Converts AC to DC • Made of two
• Accomplished with diodes semiconducting materials
• Required to ensure that • P-type crystals
the electrons flow from x- • N-type crystals
ray tube cathode to anode
only

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FR FR
SOLID-STATE SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
Conducts

• P-type crystals
• Abundance of electron
traps (spaces or holes)
• Attracts electrons
• N-type crystals Does not conduct
• Abundance of freely moving
or loosely bound electrons

FR FR
VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION FACTOR ADJUSTMENT
POWER SUPPLY kVp mAs
POWER SUPPLY SUPPLIED VOLTAGE
Single Phase 100 15
10
Single Phase, 100% Falls to 0% Three Phase 6-pulse (2/3 of the original
88 or 90 value)
Never falls below (12% or 10 kVp
Three Phase 6-pulse, 14% 7.5
86% Three Phase 12-pulse
reduction)
(1/2 of the original
Never falls below value)
Three Phase 12-pulse, 4%
96% 84 or 88
<7.5
(<1/2 of the original
Never falls below High Frequency (16% or 12 kVp
value)
HF generator, <1% reduction
99%

FR FR
FILAMENT CIRCUIT RHEOSTAT

• A variable resistor
• Rheostat • Controls the amount of
• Step-down transformer resistance in the filament
circuit
• Filaments
• Controls the amount of
filament current

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FR FR
RHEOSTAT STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

• Controlled by mA selector • Used to increase the

• 1000 mA: current by reducing the
• Very little resistance to the voltage that is applied to
flow of electricity the filament
• 100 mA: • Increases output current
• Very high resistance to the • Mutual induction
flow of electricity

FR FR
STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER FILAMENTS
• Tiny coils of wire housed in
• Turns ratio less than 1 the cathode of the x-ray
tube
• Step down voltage
• General purpose x-ray
• Step up current tube:
FILAMENT TRANSFORMER • Small filament
PRIMARY SECONDARY • Large filament
SIDE SIDE
More turns Less turns
High voltage Low voltage
Low current High current

FR
X-RAY TUBE

• An electronic vacuum tube

that produces x-rays
MYC
FR
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAMTECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS • A special type of diode
X - R AY T U B E
• Contained in a protective
housing

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FR FR
GENERAL TUBE CONSTRUCTION PROTECTIVE HOUSING

• PROTECTIVE HOUSING • Lead-lined metal structure

• ANODE ASSEMBLY • Provides solid, stable
mechanical support
• CATHODE ASSEMBLY
• Serves as electrical insulator
• Serves as a thermal cushion

FR FR
PROTECTIVE HOUSING PROTECTIVE HOUSING

• Do not touch the housing

• Controls leakage radiation after long “on times”
• <100 mR/hr • Do not use the high-
• Isolates the high voltages voltage cables as “handles”
• Absorbs off-focus radiation for maneuvering the tube

FR FR
ENCLOSURE ENCLOSURE
• Glass or metal
GLASS ENCLOSURE METAL ENCLOSURE
• Contains the x-ray tube,
entire cathode and anode
assembly except the stator
• Maintains a high
vacuum between the
cathode and anode
• Pressure: <10-5 mm Hg
FUTURE RRT 2020 156

26
 2/16/2021

FR FR
TARGET WINDOW ANODE
• Positive end of the x-ray
• Exit point of the x-rays tube
produced • Provides the target for
• Made thinner than the rest electron interaction
• Minimally interfere with • Designed for heat
(absorb) the x-rays dissipation (thermal
conductor)
• 5 cm2

FR FR
ANODE STATIONARY ANODE
•A tungsten button
• Consists of an induction embedded in a copper rod
motor • Used in old tube designs
• Stator • Heat builds up rapidly
• Rotor
• Limited to low-power
• Designs: stationary & functions
rotating
• Applications:
• Dental x-ray imaging system
• Portable x-ray imaging
system

FR FR
ROTATING ANODE ROTATING ANODE
• Consists of a rotating disc
made of molybdenum as a
core material coated with
tungsten • 3400 rpm: most rotating
anode (3200-3600 rpm)
• 50% greater heat load
capacity • 10,000 rpm: high capacity
x-ray tube (10,000-12,000
• Possible with high tube rpm)
current and lower
exposure times

27
 2/16/2021

FR FR
TARGET MATERIALS TUNGSTEN
• TUNGSTEN
• RHENIUM • High melting point
• COPPER • 3400 oC or 6152 oF
• MOLYBDENUM • Equal thermal conductivity
as copper
• GRAPHITE
• High atomic number
• Improve efficiency of x-ray
production

FR FR
RHENIUM COPPER

• Added to tungsten target • Used as part of the shaft

• Increases thermal capacity • Excellent thermal and
• Adds mechanical strength electrical conductive
to withstand high-speed properties
rotation

FR FR
MOLYBDENUM ROTATING ANODE
• Used as the disc base and
core • Faster rotation, better heat
• Low thermal conductivity dissipation
• Slows migration of heat • Rotated by an
into the rotor bearings electromagnetic induction
• Minimizing heat damage motor
• Low mass density • Applications:
• Make the anode easier to • General-purpose x-ray
rotate tubes

28
 2/16/2021

FR FR
LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE
• Maintained a large actual
• Angling the face of the focal spot (6 mm)
anode target • Area bombarded by
filament electrons
• Used to reduce the • To spread heat load
effective area of the focal
spot • Maintained a small
effective focal spot size
• Used to increase thermal (not over 2mm)
conductivity • Area seen from the
perspective of the patient
• To improve image quality

FR FR
LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE
• Advantages:
• Improves spatial resolution • <45-deg angle: Effective FSS
• Improves heat capacity < Actual FSS
• Disadvantages: • 7 to 18-deg angle: for
• Anode heel effect general purpose tube
• The ability of the cone of x- • 12-deg angle: most common
rays produced to
adequately cover the largest • 23-deg angle: for
field size used mammography

FR FR
LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE

FUTURE RRT 2020 173 FUTURE RRT 2020 174

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 2/16/2021

FR FR
ANODE HEEL EFFECT ANODE END
• Less radiation intensity
• Consequence of line focus • 25% fewer
principle • Positioned toward the
• Photons produced on the thinner part
anode side penetrate the
heel of the target • Smaller effective FSS
• weakened and absorbed
• Reduced intensity of the
beam on the anode side

FR FR
CATHODE END CATHODE
• More radiation intensity • Negative end of the x-ray
• 20% higher tube
• Positioned toward the • Consists of filaments and
focusing cup
thicker part
• Provides source of
• Larger effective FSS electrons
• Focus the electron stream

FR FR
FILAMENT SPACE CHARGE EFFECT
• A coil of wire
• 7-15 mm long • Negative charges (space
• 1-2 mm wide charge) begin to oppose
• Made up of tungsten the emission of addition
• High melting point electrons
• Does not vaporize easily • Space Charge: electrons
• 1-2% thorium within the vicinity of the
• Increase thermionic filament
emission
• Extend filament life

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FR FR
FOCUSING CUP EXTENDING X-RAY TUBE LIFE
• Related to thermal characteristic of x-ray production
• Designed to house the • 99% heat, 1% x-rays
filament • Under RT’s control
• Used to narrow the • Heat Unit (HU): a measure of heat stored in a particular
thermionic cloud device
• Receives a strong negative • SP: 1.0 x kVp x mAs
charge from the secondary • TP6P: 1.35 x kVp x mAs
circuit • TP12P: 1.41 x kVp x mAs
• To repel electrons • HF: 1.45 x kVp x mAs

MAJOR CAUSES OF X-RAY TUBE FR

FAILURE

• Frequent use of very high or maximum exposure factors

MYC
FR
• Use of lower but very long exposure factors
• Maintaining the tube at high temperatures
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAMTECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS
• Overloading the filament X - R AY P R O D U C T I O N

• Prolonged excessive heating caused by prepping the rotor

unnecessarily or arcing from filament)

CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR X-RAY FR FR

PRODUCTION ELECTRON-TARGET INTERACTIONS
• Large potential difference
(kVp) • Most of the interaction
• Quantity of electrons produces anode heat (99%)
(mAs) • Some of the interaction
• A place of interaction produces x-rays (1%)
(target) • Bremsstrahlung x-rays
• Source of electrons • Characteristic x-rays
(filament)

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 2/16/2021

FR FR
ANODE HEAT CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS
• Interaction of projectile
• Interaction of projectile electrons to inner-shell
electrons to outer-shell electrons of the target
electrons of the target atoms
atoms • Primarily ionization
• Primarily excitations • Projectile e- KE ≥ Orbital e- Eb

• Directly related to mA & • Outer-shell electrons drop

kVp (diagnostic range) to fill inner-shell vacancies

FR FR
CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS
• Energy: difference 15% of primary beam • Emission spectrum:
between the binding discrete
energies of the shells • Photon energies: very
involved specific
• K shell Eb: most useful for
imaging purposes

FR FR
BREMSTRAHLUNG X-RAYS BREMSTRAHLUNG X-RAYS
• Braking or slowing down 100 keV
• Emission spectrum:
radiation 70 keV continuous
• Interaction of projectile • Photon energies:
electrons to nucleus of the maximum to near zero
target atoms
• Primarily deceleration 30 keV
• Projectile e- loses KE and change
80 keV
direction
• Energy: equal to KE loss 100 keV 20 keV

32
 2/16/2021

FR FR
BREMSTRAHLUNG X-RAYS EFFICIENCY OF X-RAY PRODUCTION
• Most photons produced at
diagnostic range • Independent of the tube
• Two Reasons: current (mA)
• K-shell must be ionized to • Dependent to tube voltage
produce characteristic x- (kVp)
rays (≥70 keV)
• 100 kVp, 1% x-rays
• Projectile e- is more likely to
miss the orbital e- (constant • 60 kVp, 0.5% x-rays
motion) • 20 MV, 70% x-rays

85% of primary beam

FR
X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER

X-RAY ENERGY INTERACT WITH

LOW-ENERGY

MYC
FR
WHOLE ATOMS
X-RAYS
RADIOLOGIC PHYSICS
RADIOLOGIC
FABRIKAMTECHNOLOGIST
RESIDENCES
X - R AY I N T E R A C T I O N W I T H M AT T E R MODERATE-ENERGY
ELECTRONS
X-RAYS
HIGH-ENERGY absorbed
NUCLEUS
X-RAYS scattered

IN DIAGNOSTIC X-RAY RANGE, THE INTERACTIONS ARE MOST transmitted

COMMONLY WITH ORBITAL ELECTRONS

FR FR
X-RAY INTERACTION WITH MATTER CLASSICAL INTERACTION

• CLASSICAL INTERACTION • Coherent or Thomson or

• COMPTON INTERACTION unmodified scattering
• PHOTOELECTRIC • Interaction between very
INTERACTION low energy (<10 keV) and
whole atom
• PAIR PRODUCTION
• Do not involve ionization
• PHOTODISINTEGRATION

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 2/16/2021

FR TWO TYPES OF COHERENT FR

CLASSICAL SCATTER PHOTONS SCATTERING
• Same energy, frequency
and wavelength as incident • Rayleigh Scattering:
photon • Involves all of the electrons
• Travel in different direction of the atom in the
interaction
• Absorbed in the body
• Thomson Scattering:
• Add slightly to patient
• Involves a single electron of
dose the atom in the interaction
• Do not contribute
significantly to the image

FR FR
COMPTON EFFECT COMPTON SCATTERING
• Modified scattering
• Occurs when an incident x- • Results:
ray photon interacts with a • Scattered x-ray
loosely bound electron • Compton electron
• High-energy photon uses a • Change in direction
portion of its energy to • Change in energy, frequency
eject an outer shell and wavelength
electron • Energy Transfer:
• Involves ionization of Ei = Es+ Eb + EKE
electron

FR FR
COMPTON SCATTER COMPTON SCATTER
• Retain most of its energy • Increased angle of X-ray tube

• 180o deflection: scattered deflection: more energy is

x-ray retains at least 2/3 of transferred to Compton
its energy electron
• 0o deflection: no energy is • Decrease angle of Patient

transferred to Compton deflection: less energy is

electron transferred to Compton
electron

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 2/16/2021

FR
COMPTON SCATTERING

• Predominates in the
diagnostic x-ray range
• Primary source of scatter
radiation
• Production of low contrast
image FEATURES OF
COMPTON EFFECT

FR FR
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Occurs when an incident x-
ray photon interacts with a • Results:
tightly bound electron • No scattered x-ray
• Low-energy x-ray photons • Photoelectron
gives up all its energy • Total x-ray absorption
ejecting an inner-shell • Secondary x-rays
electron • Energy Transfer:
• Involves ionization of Ei = Eb + EKE
electron

FR
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Predominates in the lower
energy ranges produced by
40-70 kVp
• Predominates when high Z
elements are introduced
• Major contributor to
patient dose FEATURES OF
• Production of high contrast PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
image

35
 2/16/2021

FR FR
COMPTON VS PHOTOELECTRIC PAIR PRODUCTION
• Occurs only with very-high-
energy photons of 1.02
MeV or greater
• Incident x-ray photon
interacts with the nucleus
of the tissue atom
• Does not occur in
radiography
• Useful in nuclear medicine
FUTURE RRT 2020 211

FR FR
PAIR PRODUCTION PHOTODISINTERGRATION
• Results:
• Incident photon disappears • Occurs only with
• Incident photon is extremely-high-energy
converted to matter (pair photons of above 10 MeV
electrons)
• Negatron • Incident x-ray photon
• Positron interacts with the nucleus
• Annihilation reaction of the tissue atom
• Two x-ray photons • Does not occur in
radiography

FR INTERACTION ENERGY OCCUR AT

INTERACTION
WITH
RESULTS FR
PHOTODISINTERGRATION Change in x-ray
direction;
COHERENT LOW <10 keV Whole atom
No change in x-ray
energy
Change in x-ray
• Results: direction;
Outer-shell Reduced in x-ray
• Incident photon disappears COMPTON
Electron energy;
Compton electron
• Nuclear excitation MODERATE 30-150 keV
emitted
• Emission of nuclear particle Inner-shell
X-ray disappear;
PHOTOELECTRIC Photoelectron
• Proton Electron
emitted

• Neutron X-ray disappear;

Two electrons with
• Alpha particle PAIR PRODUCTION ≥1.02 MeV Nucleus
opposite charge
appear
HIGH
X-ray absorbed in
the nucleus;
PHOTODISINTEGRATION >10 MeV Nucleus
Nuclear fragment
FUTURE RRT 2020 emitted 216

36
 2/16/2021

THANK YOU FUTURE

MYC
RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGIST
RRTs!!!
Meynard Y. Castro RRT
Future RRT Hub

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