THE NEW JKR MANUAL ON PAVEMENT DESIGN

by Ir. Mohd Hizam bin Harun

Acknowledgement

This Report is extracted from the newly revised pavement design manual of JKR
titled ‘Design of Flexible Pavement Structures’. It is a manual for the structural
design of new apshalt pavements and asphalt pavement overlays. The manual
was prepared by Unit Kejuruteraan Pavemen, Caw. Penyelidikan &
Pembangunan (CPP) in a study project which commenced in May 2005.
Pengarah CPP was the Project Director and he was assisted by Ketua Unit
Kejuruteraan Pavemen, Ir. Syed Abdul Rahman bin Syed Abdullah as the Study
Leader. Mr. Walter Tappeiner of Advanced Pavement Technologies International
was appointed as a consultant in drafting this manual in close cooperation with
the Study Leader.

INTRODUCTION

The current JKR Manual on Pavement Design (Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85) is
loosely based on the 1981 Asphalt Institute (MS-1) and AASHTO design
procedures. However these procedures have undergone several revisions;
NCHRP Research Project 20-7 was undertaken, the results of which were used
to formulate a substantial revision of the AASHTO Guide for the Design of
Pavement Structures which was issued in 1986. Another revision to the AASHTO
Guide was published in 1993 (GDPS-4) and further amended in 1998 (GDPS-
4S). By comparison, Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85 dates back to 1985 and is thus
by international standards outdated by several “technical generations”. The
Manual does not allow designing pavement structures that are either sufficiently
durable for current and future highway traffic, or optimised in terms of function
and user safety.

Unit Kejuruteraan Pavemen, CPP has therefore conducted a study in this area, a
result of which is a revised and substantially upgraded pavement design manual
which incorporates performance based stress and strain analysis and
mechanistic material characterisation. The Manual is presented in the form of
catalogue of pavement structures with traffic volume and sub-grade strength as
primary input.

This Manual contains procedures for the design of the following pavement
structures;

ƒ New flexible and semi-flexible pavements containing one or more bound

layers.
 ƒ New flexible pavements for low volume roads, consisting of unbound or
cement stabilised granular materials capped with a thin bituminous
surface treatment.
ƒ New flexible and semi-flexible heavy duty pavements for severe loading
conditions.
ƒ Rehabilitation of rigid or flexible pavements through partial reconstruction
or overlay with one or more bituminous layers, through hot-in-place
recycling (HIPR) with or without an overlay, or cold-in-place recycling
(CIPR) followed by bituminous overlay.

For the purpose of this Manual, flexible pavements shall consist of one or more
bituminous paving materials and a bituminous or granular road base supported
by a granular sub-base. Semi-flexible pavements shall include cement-bound or
similarly stabilised base course consisting either of plant-mixed aggregate
stabilised with cement, fly-ash or lime or of an in-situ recycled and stabilised
layer using CIPR technique, incorporating additives such as bituminous
emulsion, foamed bitumen or cement.

This Manual does NOT contain information related to the design of new rigid
pavement structures.

PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODOLOGY

The design procedure used in this Manual is based on traditional concepts of

pavement design, which is based on the assumption that the following two
strains are critical to pavement performance;

ƒ Vertical strain εz on top of the sub-grade

ƒ Horizontal strain εt at the bottom of the lowest bound pavement course

In the design process, type and course thickness of paving materials are
selected to ensure that the above strains remain within an acceptable range.
Vertical sub-grade strain is adopted as a design criterion to control accumulation
of permanent deformation of the sub-grade. Sub-grade deformation (strain) is
primarily a function of sub-grade stiffness and strength, traffic (design load and
cumulative traffic volume over design period), and the thickness and stiffness of
the pavement structure above the sub-grade. Horizontal strain at the bottom of
the bound layer (bituminous or cement treated material) is used to control fatigue
damage due to repeated traffic loads. Both of these strain values are expressed
as a function of traffic volume. The allowable design strain is that which occurs
under a single pass of an Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL). Allowable
strain values decrease with increasing traffic volume; strain caused by a single
pass of the design wheel load must be smaller for a pavement designed for high
volumes of traffic than for low traffic volumes.
 Wheel Load 40 kN

Bituminous Wearing Course

Durability, Safety (Skid Resistance,
Smoothness), Strength

Bituminous Binder/Base Course

Stiffness (Load Bearing), Fatigue
εt Horizontal Tensile Strain at Bottom
of Bound Layer

εz Granular Base and Sub-Base

(Additional Load Distribution)

Vertical Compressive Strain on Sub-Grade

FIGURE 1: Components of a Typical Flexible Pavement Structure

Determination of Design Traffic

The Equivalent Standard Axle Load (ESAL) used in this Manual is 80 kN, which
corresponds to the standard axle load used in the AASHTO pavement design
procedure.

Traffic volume is calculated from a known or estimated volume of commercial

vehicles (CV) and axle load spectrum. Axle loads of passenger cars are too low
to cause significant pavement distress; therefore, traffic counts and axle load
spectra used for pavement design are based on the volume and type of
commercial vehicles. Traffic data that are considered in this Manual include;

ƒ Number of commercial vehicles during Year 1 of Design Period, which is

the expected year of completion of construction.
ƒ Vehicle class and axle load distribution.
ƒ Directional and lane distribution factors.
ƒ Tyre characteristics and inflation pressure.
ƒ Traffic growth factors.

Three types of raw traffic data are typically collected and entered into a data
base; vehicle counts, vehicle classification, and load data. Based on current
Malaysian practice of traffic characterisation, two types of data are available for
structural pavement design;

ƒ Traffic volume and percent commercial vehicles from the JKR national
traffic data base (administered by the Highway Planning Unit or HPU).
 ƒ Axle load studies, which provide information about the axle load
spectrum for selected types of roads and highways in Malaysia.

Axle load studies provide information about the type of commercial vehicles and
axle loads for a specific road section. Axle configurations and corresponding load
equivalence factors (LEF) used as basis for this Manual are shown in Table 1.

For pavement design purposes, mixed traffic (axle loads and axle groups) is
converted into the number of ESAL repetitions by using load factors. The
structural design of a pavement is then based on the total number of ESAL
passes over the design period. Load factors can be determined from theoretically
calculated or experimentally measured truck and axle loads. Information from
axle load studies carried out in Malaysia and from legal loads in Malaysia
(Maximum Permissible Gross Vehicle and Axle Loads, RTA 1987, Weight
Restriction Order 2003) have been used as basis for calculating commercial
vehicle load factors for traffic classes monitored by HPU.

TABLE 1: Axle Configuration and Vehicle Load Factors (VLF) based on

Traffic Categories used by HPU

Vehicle Basis for Calculating VLF Vehicle Load

HPU Class Class LEF TAF Factor (VLF)
Designation

ƒ Cars and Taxis C <0.01 N/A 0

ƒ Small Trucks and CV1 0.1 1.0 0.1

Vans
(2 Axles)

ƒ Large Trucks CV2 4.5 1.4 4.0

(2 to 4 Axles) 2.4 (3.2 to 5.2)
3.1

ƒ Articulated CV3 2.6 1.4 4.4

Trucks (3 or more 4.2 (3.9 to 5.8)
Axles) 2.9
4.1
ƒ Buses
(2 or 3 Axles) CV4 1.5 1.2 1.8

ƒ Motorcycles MC N/A 0

ƒ Commercial CV % 3.5
Traffic (Mixed)
Note: Axle load studies provide the most reliable basis for calculating ESAL; axle
load studies should be carried out and used whenever feasible.

In the absence of an axle load study, Table 1a below shall be used as a guide.

TABLE 1a: Guide for Load Equivalence Factor without Axle Load Study

Percentage of Selected 0 – 15% 16 – 50% 51 – 100%

Commercial Vehicles*
Type of Road Local Trunk
Load Equivalence Factor 1.2 2.0 3.0 3.7
* Selected commercial vehicles refer to those carrying timber and quarry
materials.

Combined Thickness of Tyre Inflation Pressure (kPa)

Bituminous Layers (cm) 480 700 1050

10 1.2 1.8 4.0

15 1.0 1.5 2.3

20 1.0 1.3 1.5

22 1.0 1.2 1.4

26 1.0 1.1 1.3

TABLE 1b: Tyre Pressure Adjustment Factor (TAF)

The following permissible gross vehicle weights (MGVW) and maximum axle
loads (MAL) in accordance with List 1 (Peninsular Malaysia) of the Road
Transport Act, Weight Restrictions Order 2003, were used as basis for
calculating Vehicle Load Factors (VLF) shown in Table 1.

ƒ Axle Loads:
o Maximum Single Axle (4 Wheels): 12 tonnes
o Maximum Tandem Axle: 19 tonnes
o Maximum Tridem Axle: 21 tonnes

ƒ Maximum Permissible Gross Vehicle Weights (RIGID Vehicles):

o 2-Axle: 18 tons
o 3-Axle: 26 tons
o 4-Axle: 33 tons
 ƒ Maximum Permissible Gross Vehicle Weights (ARTICULATED Vehicles):
o 3-Axle: 30 tons
o 4-Axle: 37 tons
o 5-Axle: 40 tons
o 6-Axle: 44 tons

Design Procedure

The procedure for calculating the Traffic Category to be used as design input
(number of 80 kN ESALs over Design Period, see Table 3), is as follows;

1. From traffic counts for the project under consideration (information

provided by HPU for the past 5 or more years), determine;

a. Initial Average Daily Traffic in one direction (ADT); the average

should be based on a minimum of 3 days, 24 hours per day. If
traffic count covers a time period of 06:00 to 22:00 hours, multiply
the traffic count reported by HPU with a factor of 1.2.
b. Percentage of Commercial Vehicles (CV) with an un-laden weight
of more than 1.5 tons (PCV) and break-down into vehicle categories
(shown in Table 1).
c. Average Annual Traffic Growth Factor (r) for CV.

2. Determine the following information from the geometric design of the

road for which the structural pavement design is carried out;

a. Number of lanes.
b. Terrain conditions (flat; rolling; mountainous).

3. Select Design Period (20 years for Traffic Categories T 3 to T 5 and

minimum 10 years for Traffic Categories T 1 and T 2).

Note: Estimate Traffic Category based on conceptual design and refine,

if needed, during pavement design process.

4. Calculate the Design Traffic (Number of ESALs) for the Design Lane
and Base Year Y1 (First Year of Design Period) using the following
formula;

ESALY1 = ADT x 365 x PCV x VLF x L x T (1)

where;
ESALY1 = Number of ESALs for the Base Year (Design Lane)
ADT = Average Daily Traffic
PCV = Percentage of CV (Un-Laden Weight > 1.5 tons)
 VLF = Vehicle Load (Equivalence) Factor (including Tire Factor)
L = Lane Distribution Factor (refer to Table 1c)
T = Terrain Factor (refer to Table 1d)

VLF in Equation (1) is 3.5 (weighted average distribution of commercial

traffic and axle loads. If site specific distribution of traffic by vehicle type
is available, Equation (1) shall be refined as follows;

ESALY1 = [ADTVC1x VLF1 + ADTVC2x VLF2 + …+ ADTVC4 x VLF4] x 365 x L x T (2)

where;
ADTVC2, etc = Average Daily Number of Vehicles in each Vehicle Class
VLF2, etc = Vehicle Load Factor of applicable vehicle class
Other symbols as shown for Equation (1).
Other design input factors used in Equations (1) and (2) are provided
in Tables 1c and 1d below.

Number of Lanes Lane Distribution

(in ONE direction) Factor, L

One 1.0

Two 0.9

Three or more 0.7

TABLE 1c: Lane Distribution Factors

Note: Traffic in the primary design lane (one direction) decreases with
increasing number of lanes.

The Terrain Factor, T that shall be used in the determination of the

design traffic volume (ESAL) is shown in Table 1d below.

Type of Terrain Terrain Factor, T

Flat 1.0

Rolling 1.1

Mountainous/Steep 1.3

TABLE 1d: Terrain Factors

 Note: As terrain changes from flat to mountainous topography, the
percentage of road sections with steep slopes and with curves
increases, thus increasing stresses and strains in pavement structures
due to breaking, acceleration and cornering of commercial vehicles.

5. Calculate the Design Traffic (Number of ESALs) for the Design

Period (Design Life in Years) using the following formula;

Design Traffic ESALDES = ESALY1 x [(1 + r)n -1]/r (3)

where;

ESALDES = Design Traffic for the Design Lane in one Direction

(determines the Traffic Category used as Basis for
selecting a Pavement Structure from the Catalogue)
ESALY1 = Number of ESALs for the Base Year (Equation 1 or 2)
r = Annual Traffic Growth Factor for Design Period
n = Number of Years in Design Period

Alternatively, the following simplified Equation (3a) shall be used in

conjunction with the Total Growth Factor shown in Table 2 below.

Design Traffic ESALDES = ESALY1 x TGF (3a)

Design Period Annual Growth Rate (%)

(Years) 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 5.20 5.31 5.42 5.53 5.64 5.75

10 10.95 11.46 12.01 12.58 13.18 13.82

15 17.29 18.60 20.02 21.58 23.28 25.13

20 24.30 26.87 29.78 33.06 36.79 41.00

25 32.03 36.46 41.65 47.73 54.86 63.25

30 40.57 47.58 56.08 66.44 79.06 94.46

TABLE 2: Total Growth Factors (TGF)

 For the purpose of this Manual, predicted traffic expressed as number of
ESALs over the design period is classified into the following traffic
categories (Table 3).

Traffic Design Traffic Probability (Percentile) Applied to

Category (ESAL x 106) Properties of Sub-Grade Materials

ƒ T1 ≤ 1.0 ≥ 60%

ƒ T2 1.1 to 2.0 ≥ 70%

ƒ T3 2.1 to 10.0 ≥ 85%

ƒ T4 10.1 to 30.0 ≥ 85%

ƒ T5 > 30.0 ≥ 85%

TABLE 3: Traffic Categories used in this Manual (ESAL = 80 kN)

Note: Whenever feasible, statistical analysis shall be used to evaluate

laboratory or field test results for use as input for pavement design (sub-
grade, sub-base, road base and bituminous courses). The above
probability values shall be applied to material strength and stiffness
values as follows;

Design Input Value = Mean – (Normal Deviate x Standard Deviation)

For normal distribution and single-tailed analysis, the following Normal

Deviate values shall apply;

60% Probability: Mean - 0.253 x STD

70% Probability: Mean - 0.525 x STD
85% Probability: Mean - 1.000 x STD

Properties of Sub-Grade

Sub-grade strength is one of the most important factors in determining pavement

thickness, composition of layers and overall pavement performance. The
magnitude and consistency of support that is provided by the sub-grade is
dependent on soil type, density and moisture conditions during construction and
changes that may occur over the service life of a pavement.

For pavement design purposes, several parameters shall be used to categorise

sub-grade support. Traditionally, the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) has been
widely used for this purpose. Mechanistic pavement design procedures require
elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio as input for all pavement layers, including the
sub-grade which is usually treated as an isotropic semi-infinite elastic medium.
For this Manual, CBR has been retained as a design tool; however, direct
measurement of elastic stiffness values of the sub-grade is recommended
whenever feasible. Elastic stiffness values used for the design of the pavement
structures presented in this Manual are shown in Table 4 along with the CBR
values used as input values for selecting pavement structures from the
catalogue.

A minimum CBR of 5% is recommended for pavements that have to support

traffic volumes corresponding to Traffic Classes T 2 through T 5. If the sub-grade
(cut or fill) does not meet this minimum CBR requirement, at least 0.3m of
unsuitable sub-grade soil shall be replaced or stabilised to ensure that the
selected minimum CBR value is obtained under due consideration of applicable
moisture conditions and probability of meeting the design input value. For road
pavements designed for large volumes of traffic (Traffic Classes T 4 and T 5), a
minimum sub-grade strength corresponding to CBR of 12% is recommended.
For pavement design purposes, the use of average CBR or sub-grade modulus
test results is not recommended; it would signify that there is only a 50%
probability that the design input value is met.

Sub-Grade Elastic Modulus (MPa)

Category CBR (%)
Range Design Input Value

ƒ SG 1 5 to 12 50 to 120 60

ƒ SG 2 12.1 to 20 80 to 140 120

ƒ SG 3 20.1 to 30.0 100 to 160 140

ƒ SG 4 > 30.0 120 to 180 180

TABLE 4: Classes of Sub-Grade Strength (based on CBR) used as Input in

the Pavement Catalogue of this Manual

The correlation between sub-grade stiffness and CBR values shown in Table 4
above is based on the following criteria;

ƒ For cohesive soils, a relationship similar to that shown in TRRL LR

1132: “The Structural Design of Bituminous Roads” is used.
ƒ For primarily granular materials, information contained in the 1993
edition of the AASHTO Pavement Design Manual and in Appendices
CC and DD of Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New & Rehabilitated
Pavement Structures (“AASHTO 2002”) is used as primary guideline.
Properties of Paving Materials

For the purpose of this Manual, paving materials are classified into several
categories in accordance with their intended function within the pavement
structure. The categories include (from top of the pavement downwards);

ƒ Bituminous wearing and binder courses.

ƒ Bituminous road base.
ƒ Unbound granular road base.
ƒ Cemented or otherwise stabilised road base.
ƒ Unbound granular sub-base.

When shown in project drawings and specifications, recycled asphalt pavement

(RAP) shall be used instead of unbound granular road base, or up to 30% of
RAP shall be included in bituminous road base. Use of in-place recycled
materials, such as CIPR and HIPR, is considered in Section 6 (Rehabilitation of
Flexible Pavements) of this Manual.

Descriptions of all paving materials used in this Manual are contained in the new
JKR Standard Specifications for Road Works and are summarised in Figure 6 of
this Manual.

Bituminous Wearing and Binder Courses

Specifications for bituminous mixtures are contained in the JKR Standard

Specifications for Road Works. For the purpose of pavement design, the elastic
modulus and Poisson’s ratio are the two most important properties of bituminous
mixtures.

Elastic modulus of bituminous mixtures is primarily a function of its composition

and density, and of the temperature and loading time to which a bituminous
mixture is exposed in a pavement. The effect of temperature on elastic modulus
and on the Poisson’s ratio is pronounced. Within the range of temperatures that
can occur in road pavements in Malaysia, elastic modulus values will vary from a
few hundred MPa at high pavement temperatures to about 3000 MPa at the low
end of pavement temperatures. Over the same temperature range, the Poisson’s
ratio varies from about 0.35 to 0.45.

For the design of pavement structures presented in this Manual, the following
average pavement temperatures are adopted;

ƒ Bituminous Wearing and Binder Courses: 35°C

ƒ Bituminous Road Base: 25°C

The design used to develop the catalogue of pavement structures shown in this
Manual is based on default values (Table 5 below). If mechanistic design is
carried out in lieu of adopting one of the pavement structures offered in this
Manual, material input parameters similar to those shown below or developed on
the basis of mechanistic laboratory tests (elastic modulus) shall be used. The use
of design input values that differ by more than 50% from the design values
shown below is discouraged.

TABLE 5a: Elastic Properties of Unmodified Bituminous Mixtures

Bituminous Mixture based Elastic Modulus (MPa) Poisson’s Ratio

on PEN 50/70 Bitumen 25°C 35°C 25°C 35°C

ƒ Wearing Course AC ---- 1500 0.35 0.40

10 and AC 14
ƒ Wearing Course ---- 1500 0.35 0.40
SMA 14 and SMA 20
ƒ Binder Course AC 28 2500 2000 0.35 0.40
ƒ Road Base AC 28 2500 --- 0.35 ---

TABLE 5b: Elastic Properties of Polymer Modified Bituminous Mixtures

Bituminous Mixture based Elastic Modulus (MPa) Poisson’s Ratio

on PMB 25°C 35°C 25°C 35°C

ƒ Wearing Course AC ---- 1800 0.35 0.40

10 and AC 14
ƒ Wearing Course ---- 1800 0.35 0.40
SMA 14 and SMA 20
ƒ Binder Course AC 28 3200 2500 0.35 0.40
ƒ Road Base AC 28 3200 --- 0.35 ---

Notes to Tables 5a and 5b:

1. The elastic modulus values shown above are based on the bituminous
binders as shown in the tables, on average mixture air voids of 5.0%, and
on a loading time of 0.1 second (corresponding to a traffic speed of about
60 km/hour at a depth of 10 cm below pavement surface).
2. If PEN 70/100 bitumen is used instead of PEN 50/70, reduce the elastic
stiffness values shown in Table 5a by 20%.
3. When polymer modified asphalt is specified, use type and grade of PMB in
accordance with JKR standard or project specifications.

Bituminous Road Base

For the purpose of flexible pavement design, bituminous road base shall be
treated similarly to bituminous binder and wearing courses, except that a lower
average temperature is used for this layer. The bottom of the bituminous road
base is subject to fatigue-type repeated tensile loading, the effect of which is
evaluated in traditional and advanced pavement design.

Crushed Aggregate and Wet Mix Road Base

Unbound granular materials used for road base consist of crushed rock or gravel
with a grading that imparts on the mixture a mechanically stable course that is
capable of distributing effectively traffic loads transmitted by overlaying
bituminous courses. The performance of well graded granular materials is largely
governed by their shear strength, stiffness and by material break-down that may
occur during construction and as a consequence of heavy traffic. The presence
of excessive fine material and moisture has a detrimental influence on stiffness
and stress distribution capacity of unbound granular courses. Adequate shear
strength and drainage is usually obtained when the percentage of fine material (≤
0.075 mm) does not exceed 10%.

Temperature and loading time have no significant effect on modulus, strength

and durability of granular base materials. JKR Standard Specifications for Road
Works include two types of granular base material;

ƒ Crushed Aggregate Road Base

ƒ Wet-Mix Road Base

Both materials show similar composition, but construction practices are different.
The minimum CBR requirement for Crushed Aggregate Road Base and for Wet-
Mix Road Base is 80% corresponding to an elastic modulus of about 350 ± 100
MPa.

Stabilised Road Base

The objective of stabilisation is treatment of a road paving material to correct a

known deficiency or to improve its overall performance and thus enhance its
ability to perform its function in the pavement. Base materials can be stabilised
in-situ or mixed with stabilisers in a plant and laid by a paver or other approved
construction equipment. Plant mixed stabilised material tends to be more uniform
in composition and strength, and should be preferred. If in-place stabilisation is
used, a cold recycler with appropriate mixing chamber should be used.

JKR Standard Specifications for Road Works include the following types of
stabilised road base;

• Aggregates stabilised primarily with cement and other hydraulic binders

(STB 1).
 • Aggregates stabilised primarily with bituminous emulsion (STB 2) or a
combination of emulsion and cementitious material.

Materials stabilised with cement exhibit higher stiffness and strength, but are
more prone to cracking. Materials stabilised primarily with bituminous emulsion
show usually lower structural stiffness but are more strain tolerant. Both of these
stabilising agents can be combined to yield a paving mixture with desired
performance properties. For the design of pavement structures included in the
catalogue of this guide, the following elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio values
were assumed;

• STB 1: Stabilised base with 3% to 5% Portland cement.

E = 1800 MPa; ν = 0.40
• STB 2: Stabilised base with bituminous emulsion or foamed bitumen and
a maximum of 2% Portland cement.
E = 1200 MPa; v = 0.35

Temperature

The development of this Manual is based on pavement temperatures that are

representative of average climatic conditions in Malaysia as follows;

• Mean Annual Air Temperature: 28°C

• Maximum Air Temperature: 45°C
• Maximum Average Air Temperature during the hottest 7-Day Period
(over the Pavement Design Life): 38°C

Design Period and Reliability

For Traffic Category T 3 through T 5, a design life of 20 years is recommended.

For low volume roads and other rural road pavements, a design life of 10 years
may be adequate. The above design life and a probability of 85% were used as
basis for designing the pavement structures presented in this Manual.

CATALOGUE OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

A catalogue from which pavement structures can be selected for a range of sub-
grade support conditions and traffic volumes is presented in Figures 8A, 8B, 8C,
8D and 8E of this Manual. As an example, Figure 8C of this Manual is shown
below (layer thickness is in cm). These pavement cross sections have been
designed for roads and highways that are typical for conditions in Malaysia. For
rural and other low volume roads, either cross sections from this catalogue
(Traffic Category: < 1 million ESALs) or pavement structures provided in Table 7
of Section 4.1 can be used. For pavements with unusually severe loading
conditions, such as container terminals or other areas where pavements are
exposed to high loads and long loading times, the use of a mechanistic design
procedure and of special high-performance paving materials is recommended.

Pavement materials used in this catalogue are shown in Figure 6 of this Manual
and included in the new JKR Standard Specification for Road Works.

Mechanistic Design using Elastic Layer Programs

For the design of pavement structures shown in the catalogue of this Manual,
one or more of the following programs were used as design tools:

ƒ Asphalt Institute SW-1 (based on Manuals MS-1; MS-11; MS-17; MS-23)

ƒ Pavement Design: A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements,
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA and AUSTROADS, 2004, in conjunction with
CIRCLY Version 5.0
ƒ SHELL SPDM Version 3.0
ƒ Pavement Design and Analysis by Yang H. Huang, Second Edition,
2003 in conjunction with KENLAYER

Worked Example

Design a road pavement for a 2-lane highway with an average daily traffic of
1350 vehicles, 16% of which are commercial vehicles with an un-laden weight >
1.5 tons.

Step 1: Development of Design Input

Traffic count data indicate a total of 2700 vehicles in both directions; pavement
design is then based on 1350 vehicles (one direction, 24 hour period). If the
design is based on traffic data from an HPU survey, the result based on a 16-
hour survey (usually 06:00 to 22:00 hours) should be multiplied with 1.2.

The following additional project related information is available;

PCV = 16 % (no detailed break-down by vehicle type)

Lane Distribution Factor, L = 1.0 (one lane in one direction)
Terrain Factor, T = 1.1 (rolling)
Design Life = 20 years
Annual Traffic Growth = 4.0%
Step 2: Determine Design Traffic (Traffic Category)

ESALY1 (Base Year) = ADT x 365 x PCV x VLF x L x T

= 1350 x 365 x 16/100 x 3.5 x 1.0 x 1.1
= 0.304 million

Design Traffic over 20 Years; ESALDES = ESALY1 x TGF

= 0.304 x 29.78
= 9.05 million
= Traffic Category T 3

Step 3: Determine Sub-Grade Strength (Sub-Grade Category)

Results from Sub-Grade testing;

CBR Mean =18.5%
CBR Standard Deviation = 4.4%
Probability 85% (Normal Deviate = 1.282)

Characteristic CBR value used for design;

= 18.5% – 1.282 x 4.4%
= 18.5% – 5.6%
= 12.9%
= Sub-Grade Category SG 2

Step 4: Select one of the pavement structures from Figure 8C (T 3, SG 2)

ƒ Conventional flexible with unmodified PEN 50/70 bitumen;

- Bituminous Surface Course (AC-10 or AC-14): 5 cm
- Bituminous Binder/Base Course (AC 28): 12 cm
- Crushed Aggregate Base or Wet-Mix Base: 25 cm
- Granular Sub-Base: 20 cm

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The newly revised pavement design manual of JKR titled Design of Flexible
Pavement Structures shall replace the current JKR Manual on Pavement Design
ie. Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 5/85. The new Manual provides JKR and consultants
engaged in pavement engineering projects in Malaysia with a uniform process of
designing pavements for all classes of traffic. The Manual is based on proven,
validated pavement design technologies; it builds on past JKR practice and
experience and on design methodologies that have been successfully used in
other countries over the last twenty years. The design approach recommended in
the Manual combines improved design development data and mechanistic
methods of analysis into a single tool that is presented in the form of a catalogue
of pre-designed pavement structures.
In the case of special project conditions or requirements, mechanistic elastic
multi-layer design can be carried out using project specific input parameters in
conjunction with one of the software programs recommended in the Manual.

FINAL REPORT:
JKR 20601-LK-0156-KP-05
 FIGURE 8C: Pavement Structures for Traffic Category T 3: 2.0 to 10.0 million ESALs (80 kN)

Pavement Sub-Grade Category

Type SG 1: CBR 5 to 12 SG 2: CBR 12.1 to 20 SG 3: CBR 20.1 to 30 SG 4: CBR > 30

Conventional BSC: 5 BSC: 5 BSC: 5 BSC: 5

Flexible: BC: 13 BC: 13 BC: 13 BC: 13

Granular CAB: 20 CAB: 20 CAB: 20 CAB: 20

Base GSB: 20 GSB: 20 GSB: 15 GSB: 10

BSC: 5 BSC: 5 BSC: 5 BSC: 5

Deep BC: 10 BC: 10 BC: 10 BC: 10
Strength: STB 1: 15 STB 1: 15 STB 1: 10 STB 1: 10
Stabilised GSB: 20 GSB: 15 GSB: 15 GSB: 10
Base

BSC: 5 BSC: 5
Full Depth: BSC: 5 BSC: 5
BC/BB: 13 BC/BB: 13
Asphalt BC/BB: 16 BC/BB: 15
GSB: 15 GSB: 10
Concrete
GSB: 20 GSB: 15
Base