ndia ( i

/ˈɪndiə/), conventional long name Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat
Gaṇarājya; see also official names of India), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest
country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people,
and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the
Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders
with Pakistan to the west; Bhutan, the People's Republic of China and Nepal to the northeast; and
Bangladesh and Burma to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and
the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with
Thailand and Indonesia.

Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast
empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much
of its long history.[13] Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and
Sikhism—originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam arrived in the first
millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture.[14] Gradually annexed by the British East
India Company from the early 18th century and colonised by the United Kingdom from the mid-
19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence
which was marked by non-violent resistance and led by Mahatma Gandhi.

The Indian economy is the world's tenth largest economy by nominal GDP and fourth largest
economy by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India
has become one of the fastest growing major economies, and is considered a newly industrialized
country; however, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, illiteracy, corruption and
inadequate public health. A nuclear weapons state and a regional power, it has the third-largest
standing army in the world, and ranks tenth in military expenditure among nations.

India is a federal constitutional republic with a parliamentary democracy consisting of 28 states

and seven union territories. It is one of the four BRIC nations. India is a pluralistic, multilingual,
and multiethnic society. It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected
habitats.

The earliest anatomically modern human remains found in South Asia are from approximately
30 thousand years ago.[19] Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian
subcontinent, including the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh.[20] The first known
neolithic settlements on the subcontinent appeared 9,000 years ago in Mehrgarh and other sites
in western Pakistan.[21] These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation,[22] the first
urban culture in South Asia,[23] which flourished during 2500–1900 BCE in Pakistan and western
India.[24] Centred around its cities, such as Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal, and Kalibangan, and
relying on varied forms of subsistence, the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and
wide-ranging trade.[23]

During the period 2000 BCE–500 BCE, many regions of the subcontinent evolved from copper
age to iron age cultures.[25] The Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism,[26] were composed
during this period, and historians have used these texts to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab
region and the upper Ganges Plain.[25] Most historians consider this period to encompass several
waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the north-west.[26] The caste system,
which created a hierarchy of priests, warriors and free peasants, but excluded indigenous peoples
by labeling their occupations impure, arose during this period.[27] In the Deccan, archaeological
evidence from this period suggests a chiefdom stage of political organization.[25] In South India,
the large number of megalithic monuments found from this period,[28] and nearby evidence of
agriculture, irrigation tanks, and craft traditions suggest progression to sedentary life.[28]

By the fifth century BCE, the small chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north-west regions
had consolidated into sixteen major oligarchies or monarchies called Mahajanapadas.[29] The
emerging urbanisation as well as the orthodoxies of the late Vedic age now created the religious
reform movements of Buddhism and Jainism.[30] Buddhism, based on the teachings of India's first
historical figure, Gautam Buddha, attracted followers from among the richest, the poorest, and
the modest households.[31] By the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or
reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire.[32] The empire was once thought to have
controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought
to have been separated by large autonomous areas.[33] The Mauryas are known as much for their
empire building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka the Great's
renunciation of militarism and his far flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma.[34]

Main article: Geography of India

See also: Geology of India

Topographic map of India.

India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor
plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[44] India's defining geological processes commenced
seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern
supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the
then unformed Indian Ocean.[44] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate
and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now
abut India in the north and the north-east.[44] In the former seabed immediately south of the
emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled
with river-borne sediment,[45] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[46] To the west of this plain,
and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[47]

The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most
stable part of India, and extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India.
These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich
Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[48] To their south, the remaining peninsular
landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western
Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[49] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India,
some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator
between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[50] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[51]

The Himalayas form the mountainous landscape of northern India. Seen here is Ladakh in Jammu and
Kashmir.

India's coast is 7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometres (3,400 mi)

belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometres (1,300 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and
Lakshadweep Islands.[52] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast
consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46%
mudflats or marshy coast.[52]

Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges (Ganga)
and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[53] Important tributaries of the
Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi; the latter's extremely low gradient causes disastrous
floods every year. Major peninsular rivers, whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from
flooding, include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into
the Bay of Bengal;[54] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[55]
Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the
alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[56] India has two archipelagos: the
Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[57]

Climate
Main article: Climate of India
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive
the monsoons.[58] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in,
keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[59][60]
The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon
winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[58] Four major
climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and
montane.[61]

Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of India

See also: List of ecoregions in India

The Indian peacock is India's national bird and is found primarily in semi-desert grasslands, scrubs and
deciduous forests of India.[62]

Lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, with three hotspots located within its area, India displays
significant biodiversity.[63] As one of the seventeen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of
all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all
fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[64] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests,
exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[65][66]

India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats,
and northeastern India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the
sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest
of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and
western Gangetic plain.[67] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in
rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded
Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment. According to latest report, less than 12% of India's
landmass is covered by dense forests.[68]

Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, from which the Indian
plate separated a long time ago. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision
with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and
climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[69]
Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either
side of the emerging Himalaya.[67] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals
and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[64]
Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the
Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[70] These
include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered
a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.

In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the
system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially
expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[71] and Project Tiger to safeguard
crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act was enacted in 1980.[72] Along with more
than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[73] four of which
are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under
the Ramsar Convention.[74]

Politics
Main article: Politics of India

The Secretariat Building, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.

India is the most populous democracy in the world.[75][76] A parliamentary republic with a multi-
party system,[77] it has six recognised national parties, including the Indian National Congress and
the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and more than 40 regional parties.[78] The Congress is
considered centre-left or "liberal" in Indian political culture, and the BJP centre-right or
"conservative". For most of the period between 1950 — when India first became a republic —
and the late 1980s, the Congress held a majority in the parliament. Since then, however, it has
increasingly shared the political stage with the BJP,[79] as well as with powerful regional parties
which have often forced the creation of multi-party coalitions at the Centre.[80]

In the Republic of India's first three general elections, in 1951, 1957 and 1962, the Jawaharlal
Nehru-led Congress won easy victories. On Nehru's death in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly
became prime minister; he was succeeded, after his own unexpected death in 1966, by Indira
Gandhi, who went on to lead the Congress to election victories in 1967 and 1971. Following
public discontent with the state of emergency she declared in 1975, the Congress was voted out
of power in 1977, and a new party, the Janata Party, which had opposed the emergency, was
voted in. Its government, however, proved short-lived, lasting just over three years. Back in
power in 1980, the Congress saw a change in leadership in 1984, when Indira Gandhi was
assassinated and succeeded by her son Rajiv Gandhi, who won an easy victory in the general
elections later that year. The Congress was voted out again in 1989, when a National Front
coalition, led by the newly formed Janata Dal, in alliance with the Left Front, won the elections;
that government too proved short-lived, lasting just under two years.[81] Elections were held again
in 1991 in which no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress, as the largest single party,
was able to form a minority government, led by P.V. Narasimha Rao, and to complete a five-year
term.[82]

The two years after the general election of 1996 were years of political turmoil, with several
short-lived alliances sharing power at the centre. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996;
it was followed by two relatively longer-lasting United Front coalitions, which depended on
external support. In 1998, the BJP was able to form a successful coalition, the National
Democratic Alliance (NDA), which, under the leadership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee, became the
first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[83] In the 2004 Indian general
elections, again no party won an absolute majority, but the Congress emerged as the largest
single party, forming a successful coalition, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), with the
support of left-leaning parties and MPs opposed to the BJP. The UPA coalition was returned to
power in the 2009 general election, with increased National Symbols of India[86][87]
numbers that ensured it no longer required
external support from India's Communist parties. Flag Tricolour
[84]
That year, Manmohan Singh became the first
prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1957 Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital
and 1962 to be re-elected to a second five-year
term.[85] Anthem Jana Gana Mana

Song Vande Mataram

Government
Main articles: Government of India and Constitution of Animal Royal Bengal Tiger
India
Bird Indian Peacock
India is a federation with a parliamentary system
Aquatic animal Dolphin
governed under the Constitution of India.[88] It is a
constitutional republic and representative Flower Lotus
democracy, in which "majority rule is tempered by
minority rights protected by law." Federalism in Tree Banyan
India defines the power distribution between the
federal government and the states. The Fruit Mango
government is regulated by a checks and balances Game Field hockey
defined by Indian Constitution, which serves as
the country's supreme legal document. The Calendar Saka
Constitution of India, which came into effect on
26 January 1950,[89] states in its preamble that River Ganges
India is a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic
republic.[90] India's form of government, traditionally described as 'quasi-federal' with a strong
centre and weak states,[91] has grown increasingly federal since the late 1990s as a result of
political, economic and social changes.[92]

The President of India is the head of state[93] elected indirectly by an electoral college[94] for a
five-year term.[95][96] The Prime Minister is the head of government and exercises most executive
power.[93] Appointed by the President,[97] the prime minister is by convention supported by the
party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.[93] The
executive branch of the Indian government consists of the president, the vice-president, and the
council of ministers (the cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the prime minister.
Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of one of the houses of parliament. In the
Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the prime
minister and his council directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[98]

The legislature of India is the bicameral parliament, operating under a Westminster-style

parliamentary system, and comprising the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of
States) and the lower called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[99] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent
body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[100] Most are elected indirectly by the
state and territorial legislatures, their numbers in proportion to their state's population.[100] All but
two of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual
constituencies for five-year terms.[100] The remaining two members are nominated by the
president from among the Anglo-Indian community, in case the president decides that the
community is not adequately represented.[100]

Judiciary

India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief
Justice of India, 21 High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[101] The Supreme Court has
original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states
and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[102] It is judicially independent,
[101]
and has the power both to declare the law and to strike down Union or State laws which
contravene the Constitution.[103] The Supreme Court is also the ultimate interpreter of the
Constitution, it being one of its most important functions.[104]

Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of India

India is a federation composed of 28 states and seven Union Territories.[105] All states, as well as
the union territories of Puducherry and the National Capital Territory of Delhi, have elected
legislatures and governments, both patterned on the Westminster model. The remaining five
union territories are directly ruled by the Centre through appointed administrators. In 1956,
under the States Reorganisation Act, states were reorganised on a linguistic basis.[106] Since then,
their structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is further divided
into administrative districts.[107] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and ultimately
into villages.
The 28 states and 7 union territories of India

States:

8. Haryana
1. Andhra Pradesh 15. Maharashtra 22. Rajasthan
9. Himachal Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh 16. Manipur 23. Sikkim
10. Jammu and
3. Assam 17. Meghalaya 24. Tamil Nadu
Kashmir
4. Bihar 18. Mizoram 25. Tripura
11. Jharkhand
5. Chhattisgarh 19. Nagaland 26. Uttar Pradesh
12. Karnataka
6. Goa 20. Orissa 27. Uttarakhand
13. Kerala
7. Gujarat 21. Punjab 28. West Bengal
14. Madhya Pradesh

Union Territories:

A. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

B. Chandigarh
C. Dadra and Nagar Haveli
D. Daman and Diu
E. Lakshadweep
F. National Capital Territory of Delhi
G. Puducherry

Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of India
India and Russia share an extensive economic, defence and technological relationship.[108] Shown here is
PM Manmohan Singh with President Dmitry Medvedev at the 34th G8 Summit.

Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relations with most nations. In the
1950s, it strongly supported the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia and
played a pioneering role in the Non-Aligned Movement.[109][110] In the late 1980s, India made two
brief military interventions at the invitation of neighbouring countries, one by the Indian Peace
Keeping Force in Sri Lanka and the other, Operation Cactus, in the Maldives. However, India
has had a tense relationship with neighbouring Pakistan and the two countries have gone to war
four times, in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. The Kashmir dispute was the predominant cause of
these wars, excepting that of 1971, which followed the civil unrest in erstwhile East Pakistan.[111]
After the India-China War of 1962 and the 1965 war with Pakistan, India proceeded to develop
close military and economic ties with the Soviet Union; by late 1960s, the Soviet Union had
emerged as India's largest arms supplier.[112]

Today, in addition to the continuing strategic relations with Russia, India has wide ranging
defence relations with Israel and France. In recent years, India has played an influential role in
the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the World Trade Organization.[113]
The nation has provided 55,000 military and police personnel to serve in thirty-five UN
peacekeeping operations across four continents.[114] India is also an active participant in various
multilateral forums, most notably the East Asia Summit and the G8+5.[115][116] In the economic
sphere, India has close relationships with the developing nations of South America, Asia and
Africa. For about a decade now, India has also pursued a "Look East" policy which has helped it
strengthen its partnerships with the ASEAN nations, Japan and South Korea on a wide range of
issues, but especially economic investment and regional security.[117][118]

Recently, India has also increased its economic, strategic and military cooperation with the
United States and the European Union.[119] In 2008, a civilian nuclear agreement was signed
between India and the United States. Although India possessed nuclear weapons at the time and
was not party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), it received waivers from the
International Atomic Energy Agency and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), ending earlier
restrictions on India's nuclear technology and commerce. As a consequence, India has become
the world's sixth de facto nuclear weapons state.[120] Following the NSG waiver, India was also
able to sign civilian nuclear energy cooperation agreements with other nations, including Russia,
[121]
France,[122] the United Kingdom,[123] and Canada.[124]
Military
Main article: Indian Armed Forces

Jointly developed by Sukhoi and Hindustan Aeronautics, the Su-30 MKI "Flanker-H" is the Indian Air
Force's prime air superiority fighter.[125]

India's military, comprising the Indian Army, Navy, Air Force, and auxiliary forces such as the
Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command, is the third largest in
the world.[40] The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian Armed Forces. The
official Indian defence budget for 2011 stands at US$36.03 billion (or 1.83% of GDP).[126]
According to a 2008 SIPRI report, India's annual military expenditure in terms of purchasing
power stood at US$72.7 billion,[127] India has also become the world's largest arms importer,
receiving 9% of all international arms transfers during the period from 2006–2010.[128] Defence
contractors, such as the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), oversee indigenous development of sophisticated arms
and military equipment, including ballistic missiles, fighter aircraft and main battle tanks, in
order to reduce India's dependence on foreign imports.

China's nuclear test of 1964 as well as its repeated threats to intervene in support of Pakistan in
the 1965 war convinced India to develop nuclear weapons of its own.[129] India conducted its first
nuclear weapons test in 1974 and further underground testing in 1998. Despite criticism and
military sanctions, India has signed neither the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT)
nor the NPT, considering both to be flawed and discriminatory.[130] India maintains a "no first
use" nuclear policy and is developing a nuclear triad capability as a part of its "minimum
credible deterrence" doctrine.[131][132] It is also developing a ballistic missile defence shield and, in
collaboration with Russia, a fifth generation fighter jet.[133][134] Other major indigenous military
development projects include Vikrant class aircraft carriers and Arihant class nuclear
submarines.[135][136]

Economy
Main article: Economy of India

See also: Economic history of India, Economic development in India, and Transport in India
The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange by market
capitalisation.

According to the International Monetary Fund, India's nominal GDP stands at US$1.53 trillion,
making it the tenth-largest economy in the world.[137] With purchasing power parity (PPP), India's
economy is the fourth largest in the world at US$4.06 trillion.[138] With its average annual GDP
growing at 5.8% for the past two decades, India is also one of the fastest growing economies in
the world.[139] However, India's per capita income is US$1,000,[140] and the country ranks 138th in
nominal GDP per capita and 129th in GDP per capita at PPP among all countries of the world.
[137]

Until 1991, all Indian governments followed protectionist policies that were influenced by
socialist economics. Widespread state intervention and regulation[141] caused the Indian economy
to be largely closed to the outside world. After an acute balance of payments crisis in 1991, the
nation liberalised its economy and has since continued to move towards a free-market system,[142]
[143]
emphasizing both foreign trade and investment.[144] Consequently, India's economic model is
now being described overall as capitalist.[143]

With 467 million workers, India has the world's second largest labour force.[145] The service
sector makes up 54% of the GDP, the agricultural sector 28%, and the industrial sector 18%.
Major agricultural products include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and
potatoes.[105] Major industries include textiles, telecommunications, chemicals, food processing,
steel, transport equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery and software.[105] By 2006,
India's external trade had reached a relatively moderate proportion of GDP at 24%, up from 6%
in 1985.[142] In 2008, India's share of world trade was 1.68%;[146] India was the world's fifteenth
largest importer in 2009, and the eighteenth largest exporter.[147] Major exports include petroleum
products, textile goods, gems and jewelry, software, engineering goods, chemicals, and leather
manufactures.[105] Major imports include crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals.[105]
Tata Nano, the world's cheapest car.[148] India is the world's number one producer of basic cars.[149]

Averaging an economic growth rate of 7.5% during the last few years,[142] India has more than
doubled its hourly wage rates during the last decade.[150] Moreover, since 1985, India has moved
431 million of its citizens out of poverty, and by 2030 India's middle class numbers will grow to
more than 580 million.[151] Although ranking 51st in global competitiveness, India ranks 17th in
financial market sophistication, 24th in the banking sector, 44th in business sophistication and
39th in innovation, ahead of several advanced economies.[152] With seven of the world's top 15
technology outsourcing companies based in India, the country is viewed as the second most
favourable outsourcing destination after the United States.[153] India's consumer market, currently
the world's thirteenth largest, is expected to become fifth largest by 2030.[151] Its
telecommunication industry, the world's fastest growing, added 227 million subscribers during
2010–11 [154] its automobile industry, the world's second-fastest growing, increased domestic
sales by 26% during 2009–10,[155] and exports by 36% during 2008–09.[156]

Despite impressive economic growth during recent decades, India continues to face a number of
socio-economic challenges. India contains the largest concentration of people living below the
World Bank's international poverty line of $1.25/day,[157] the proportion having decreased from
60% in 1981 to 42% in 2005.[158] Half of the children in India are underweight[159] and 46% of
children under the age of three suffer from malnutrition.[157] Since 1991, economic inequality
between India's states has consistently grown: the per capita net state domestic product of the
richest states in 2007 was 3.2 times that of the poorest.[160] Corruption in India is perceived to
have increased significantly,[161] with one report estimating the illegal capital flows since
independence to be US$462 billion.[162] Driven by consistent growth, India's nominal GDP per
capita has steadily increased from U$463 in 2001 to U$1,176 by 2010, yet it remains lower than
those of other Asian developing countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, and Iran.[163]

According to a 2011 PwC report, India's GDP at purchasing power parity will overtake that of
Japan during 2011 itself and that of the United States by 2045.[164] Moreover, during the next four
decades, India's economy is expected to grow at an average of 8%, making the nation potentially
the world's fastest growing major economy until 2050.[164] The report also highlights some of the
key factors behind high economic growth — a young and rapidly growing working age
population; the growth of the manufacturing sector due to rising levels of education and
engineering skills; and sustained growth of the consumer market due to a rapidly growing middle
class.[164] However, the World Bank cautions that for India to achieve its economic potential, it
must continue to focus on public sector reform, transport infrastructure, agricultural and rural
development, removal of labour regulations, education, energy security, and public health and
nutrition.[165]

Demographics
Main article: Demographics of India

See also: Ethnic groups of South Asia and List of most populous metropolitan areas in India

Population density map of India.

With 1,210,193,422 citizens reported in the 2011 provisional Census,[8] India is the world's
second most populous country. India's population grew at 1.76% per annum during the last
decade,[8] down from 2.201% per annum in the previous decade.[40] The human sex ratio in India,
according to the 2011 census, is 940 females per 1,000 males,[8] the lowest since independence.
India's median age was 24.9 in the 2001 census.[40] Medical advances of the last 50 years, as well
increased agricultural productivity brought about by the "green revolution" have caused India's
population to grow rapidly.[166][167] The percentage of Indian population living in urban areas has
grown as well, increasing by 31.2% from 1991 to 2001.[168] Despite this, in 2001, over 70% of
India's population continued to live in rural areas.[169][170] According to the 2001 census, there are
twenty seven million-plus cities in the country,[168] with Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata being the
largest.

India's overall literacy rate in 2011 is 74.04%, its female literacy rate standing at 65.46% and its
male at 82.14%.[171] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate, whereas Bihar has the
lowest.[172][173] India continues to face several public health-related challenges.[174][175] According
to the World Health Organization, 900,000 Indians die each year from drinking contaminated
water or breathing polluted air.[176] There are about 60 physicians per 100,000 people in India.[177]
The Indian Constitution recognises 212 scheduled tribal groups which together constitute about
7.5% of the country's population.[178] The 2001 census reported the religion in India with the
largest number of followers was Hinduism, with over 800 million (80.5%) of the population
recording it as their religion. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%),
Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians and Bahá'ís.[179] India has the
world's third-largest Muslim population and the largest Muslim population for a non-Muslim
majority country.

India is home to two major language families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the
population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from
the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman language families. Neither the Constitution of India, nor
any Indian law defines any national language.[180] Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[181]
is the official language of the union.[182] English is used extensively in business and
administration and has the status of a 'subsidiary official language;'[183] it is also important in
education, especially as a medium of higher education. In addition, every state and union
territory has its own official languages, and the constitution also recognises in particular 21
"scheduled languages".

Culture
Main article: Culture of India

The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan as a memorial to his deceased wife
Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value". [184]

India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[185] and cultural pluralism.[186] India's
cultural tradition dates back to 8000 BCE[187] and has a continuously recorded history for over
2,500 years.[188] With its roots based in the Indus Valley Tradition, the Indian culture took a
distinctive shape during the 11th century BCE Vedic age which laid the foundation of Hindu
philosophy, mythology, literary tradition and beliefs and practices, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga
and mokṣa.[189] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs,
traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants and spreading its cultural influence to other
parts of Asia, mainly South East and East Asia.
Indian religions form one of the most defining aspects of Indian culture.[190] Major dhármic
religions which were founded in India include Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Considered to
be a successor to the ancient Vedic religion,[191] Hinduism has been shaped by the various schools
of thoughts based on the Upanishads,[192] the Yoga Sutras and the Bhakti movement.[190]
Buddhism originated in India in 5th century BCE and prominent early Buddhist schools, such as
Theravāda and Mahāyāna, gained dominance during the Maurya Empire.[190] Though Buddhism
entered a period of gradual decline in India 5th century CE onwards,[193] it played an influential
role in shaping Indian philosophy and thought.[190]

Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it,
including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture
and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from
several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional
variation.

Considered to be the earliest and foremost "monument" of Indian literature, the Vedic or Sanskrit
literature was developed from 1,400 BCE to 1,200 AD.[194][195] Prominent Indian literary works of
the classical era include epics such as Mahābhārata and Ramayana, dramas such as the
Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.[196]
Developed between 600 BCE and 300 AD, the Sangam literature consists 2,381 poems and is
regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.[197][198][199] From 7th century AD to 18th century AD,
India's literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of
devotional poets such as Kabīr, Tulsīdās and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by
varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression and as a consequence, medieval Indian
literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[200] In the 19th century, Indian
writers took new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. During the 20th
century, Indian literature was heavily influenced by the works of universally acclaimed Bengali
poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.[201]
Society and traditions

A Buddhist prayer flag above Tanze Monastery in the Kurgiakh Valley, Ladakh. The wind is believed to
propagate the prayers printed on tissue.

Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system
describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which
social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or
castes.[202] Several influential social reform movements, such as the Bramho Shômaj, the Arya
Samāja and the Ramakrishna Mission, have played a pivotal role in the emancipation of Dalits
(or "untouchables") and other lower-caste communities in India.[203] However, the majority of
Dalits continue to live in segregation and are often persecuted and discriminated against.[204]

Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and multi-generational patriarchal joint
families have been the norm, although nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[205]
An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents and other
respected family members, with the consent of the bride and groom.[206] Marriage is thought to be
for life,[206] and the divorce rate is extremely low.[207] Child marriage is still a common practice,
more so in rural India, with about half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.[208]
[209]

Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste
and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Ugadi, Thai Pongal, Holi,
Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, Moharram
and Vaisakhi.[210][211] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union
territories — Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays,
varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices
are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair.

Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various
factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for
women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for
women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.

Music, dance, theatre and cinema

Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely
encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and
their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Regionalised forms of popular music
include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the
latter.

Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the
bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of West Bengal, Jharkhand , sambalpuri of
Orissa , the ghoomar of Rajasthan and the Lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with
narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's
National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil
Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra
Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.Cite error: Closing
</ref> missing for <ref> tag; see the help page

Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[212] Often
based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and
political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal,
the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra
Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[213]

The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[214] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes
commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[215] Established
traditions also exist in Assamese, Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and
Telugu language cinemas.[216]

Cuisine

Indian cuisine is characterised by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs
and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat
(predominantly in the north)[217] and lentils.[218] Spices, such as black pepper which are now
consumed world wide, are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper, which was
introduced by the Portuguese, is also widely used in Indian cuisine.[219]

Sport
Main article: Sport in India
A 2008 Indian Premier League Twenty20 cricket match being played between the Chennai Super Kings
and Kolkata Knight Riders

India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by Hockey India. The Indian hockey
team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic
games, making it one of the world's most successful national hockey teams ever. Cricket,
however, is by far the most popular sport;[220] the India cricket team won the 1983 and the 2011
World Cups, 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri
Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and
domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the
Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy. In addition, BCCI conducts the Indian
Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.

India is home to several traditional sports which originated in the country and continue to remain
fairly popular. These include kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest
forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, Yuddha, Silambam and Varma Kalai,
originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest
awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in
coaching.

Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is regaining widespread popularity with the
rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[221] Tennis has also become increasingly popular,
owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team and the success of Indian tennis players.[222]
India has a strong presence in shooting sports, winning several medals at the Olympics, the
World Shooting Championships and the Commonwealth Games.[223][224] Other sports in which
Indian sports-persons have won numerous awards or medals at international sporting events
include badminton,[225] boxing[226] and wrestling.[227][228] Football is a popular sport in northeastern
India, West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[229]

India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982
Asian Games, the 1987, 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the
2006 ICC Champions Trophy, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth
Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open,
Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters. It will also host the first Indian
Grand Prix in 2011 in Greater Noida.[230]
Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century

The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that during the period 200 BCE–200 CE,
the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, dynasties that
would trade extensively with the Roman Empire, and with west and south-east Asia.[35] In north
India, during the same time, Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family, leading to
the increased subordination of women.[36] By the fourth and fifth centuries CE, the Gupta Empire
had created a complex administrative and taxation system in the greater Ganges Plain that would
become a model for later Indian kingdoms.[37] Under the Guptas, a renewed Hinduism based on
bhakti, or devotion, rather than the management of ritual asserted itself,[38] and was reflected in a
flowering of sculpture and architecture, which found patrons among an urban elite.[39] Classical
Sanskrit literature flowered as well, and Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics
made significant advances.[39]

During the same time, and for several centuries afterwards, South India under the Chalukyas,
Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas, experienced its own golden age. During this period, aspects of
Indian civilization, administration, culture, and the religions Hinduism and Buddhism spread to
much of south-east Asia.

Muslim rule in the subcontinent began in 712 CE when the Arab general Muhammad bin Qasim
conquered Sindh and Multan in southern Punjab in modern day Pakistan, setting the stage for
several successive invasions from Central Asia between the 10th and 15th centuries CE, leading
to the formation of Muslim empires in the Indian subcontinent such as the Delhi Sultanate and
the Mughal Empire.

Mughal rule came from Central Asia to cover most of the northern parts of the subcontinent.
Mughal rulers introduced Central Asian art and architecture to India. In addition to the Mughals
and various Rajput kingdoms, several independent Hindu states, such as the Vijayanagara
Empire, the Maratha Empire, and the Ahom Kingdom, flourished contemporaneously in
southern, western, and northeastern India respectively. The Mughal Empire suffered a gradual
decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the Afghans, Balochis, and
the Sikhs to control large areas in the west and northwest of the subcontinent until the British
East India Company gained ascendancy over South Asia.

Beginning in the mid-18th century and over the next century, India was gradually annexed by the
British East India Company. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the Indian Rebellion of
1857, after which India was directly administered by the British Crown and witnessed a period of
both rapid development of infrastructure and economic decline.

During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by
the Indian National Congress and later joined by the Muslim League. The subcontinent gained
independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after being partitioned into the dominions of
India and Pakistan. On 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came
into effect.[40]

Since independence, India has faced challenges from religious violence, casteism, naxalism,
terrorism and regional separatist insurgencies, especially in Jammu and Kashmir and Northeast
India. Since the 1990s terrorist attacks have affected many Indian cities. India has unresolved
territorial disputes with the People's Republic of China, which, in 1962, escalated into the Sino-
Indian War, and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999. India is a
founding member of the United Nations (as British India) and the Non-Aligned Movement.

India is a state armed with nuclear weapons; having conducted its first nuclear test in 1974,[41]
followed by another five tests in 1998.[41] Beginning 1991, significant economic reforms[42] have
transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, increasing its global
clout.[43]