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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
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CIVIL DEPARTMENT

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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MIT KUNDAPURA

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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Geology
GEO from the Ancient Greek γῆ, gē, i.e. "earth"
Logy -λoγία, -logia, i.e. "study of, discourse“
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Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the

rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they
change over time.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY
6 Def:- The science which deals with the physical structure and substance
of the earth, their history, and the processes which act on them.
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GEOLOGY & ITS IMPORTANCE IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

7 PRACTICE

 The engineering geologist has to observe and record geological

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information and then translate this data into practical engineering

design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering projects.
 The geological aspects of the civil engineering site have to be
studied in detail before commencement of the project.
 The civil engineer and the engineering geologist have to work
together in the field in various stages.
 However, in some stages they work separately, in other jointly.
 The responsibilities and nature of the work in which both
engineering geologist and civil engineer are involved are listed
below.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Engineering Geology and Civil Engineering:

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MAPPING: The engineering geologist has to prepare a geological

map of the area based on aerial photo and satellite imagery
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interpretation and field observation.

 Subsurface geological features are also mapped.

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India Outline Map

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Physical Map of India

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Geological Map of India

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DECCAN TRAP
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EXPLORATION: In this stage the engineering geologist explore the area

13 based on exploration techniques. The engineering geologist works from the
planning stage. Supervise the exploration works and records the data for further
interpretation.
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
EXPLORATION OF ROCKS

PROJECT PLANNING: Project planning is the most important

14 aspect in civil engineering.
 The civil engineer plans the various stages.

 Geologists plans and prepares geologic feasibility and

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developmental parameters reports, which are useful to the civil

engineer for planning the project schedule.

Dam site

DAM SITE
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SURFACE WATER: The engineering geologist and the civil

15 engineer together prepare surface water mapping. Both study the
volume of total runoff, drainage basin characteristics and
sedimentary process in the basin. Weathered areas, silting
potential and erosion potential are also estimated before planning
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any hydraulic structure in the basin.

GROUNDWATER: Groundwater is the major problem in the

majority of civil engineering works. The engineering geologist
studies in detail the occurrence, movement, structural controls and
hydro geological properties of the rocks. Hydro geological maps
are prepared for civil engineering purposes.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

SLOPE STABILITY: Geological parameters of possible slide

16 regions are studies

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES: Field investigation is carried

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out for selection of a suitable area. Detailed surface-subsurface

studies are conducted and surface and subsurface maps are
prepared. The engineering geologist and the civil engineer
conduct in-situ tests for foundation materials, supervise the
construction methods and monitor the structure after completion
of the work.

TUNNELING: The tunnel site selected is based on a detailed

study of the region. The civil engineer and the geologist have to
conduct in-situ tests for estimation of weathered zone thickness,
depth of hard rock, structural features etc.
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Earthquake: The engineering geologist studies the

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seismic nature of the project site.
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He examines the seismic zoning map of the

country, evaluates active and inactive faults and
keeps the historical record of the earthquake of the
region in which the civil engineer will prepare a
seismic design of structure.

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FAULT ZONES IN WORLD MAP

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

SEISMIC ZONE

Geological features of the civil engineering have to be

20 studied a detail before execution of the work.

The engineering geologist must work from the exploration

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stage to the end of the project.

The civil engineer and the engineering geologist have to

work in the field together either good coordination in order
in order to identify the field problems and to suggest
possible remedial measures in the case of problems of
structures.

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Application of earth science in civil engineering practices:

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1. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction

materials, occurrence, composition, durability etc. for
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civil engineering works.

2. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of flowing

water, blowing wind, ice, earthquake etc. for planning and
carrying major civil engineering works.

3. Quantity and depth of ground water table occurrence.

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4. Construction of Dams, Reservoir, Bridges, Roads etc. are

22 directly concerned with geology of the area.

5. The knowledge about the Nature and Structure of rocks is

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very necessary for tunneling construction and canals.

6. The knowledge about the variation in the earth atmosphere

studied by geology.

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INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH

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Our Earth is a cosmic body. It is one of the nine members

of The Solar system of which Sun is the central star.
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The eight planets constituting the Solar system has been

named as Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
In its shape, the Earth is commonly described as a
spheroid, it has an equatorial diameter of 12,757.776km
and a polar diameter of 12,713.824km and thus has an
equatorial bulge.
At present the Earth is the only planet believed to be
sustaining life other planets have shown no signs of life on
them.
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The Earth's layered structure.

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(1) inner core; (2) outer core; (3)

lower mantle; (4) upper mantle;
(5) lithosphere; (6) crust (part of
the lithosphere)

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ATMOSPHERE
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The outer gaseous part of earth starting from the surface

and extending as far as 700km and beyond is termed
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atmosphere.
 Although extending for such great distances, the
atmosphere makes only one-millionth part of the mass of
earth; this is because of its gaseous composition.
It is now fairly established that the atmosphere possesses a
layered structure.
Their well-defined layers or zones of the atmosphere are
surface upward, troposphere, stratosphere and ionosphere.
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LITHOSPHERE
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 It is the solid part of the earth and in a broader sense includes all the
solid materials composing the earth from surface downwards,
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although sometimes-specific terms are used for deeper earth zones.

 Recent detailed seismic studies of the body of the earth have shown
that it is composed of three well-defined Crust, Mantle, Core.

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Depth
Kilometres Miles Layer
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Lithosphere (locally varies
0–60 0–37
between 5 and 200 km)
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… Crust (locally varies

0–35 0–22
between 5 and 70 km)

35–60 22–37 … Uppermost part of mantle

35–2,890 22–1,790 Mantle

… Upper mesosphere (upper
210-270 130-168
mantle)
… Lower mesosphere (lower
660–2,890 410–1,790
mantle)
2,890–5,150 1,790–3,160 Outer core
5,150–6,360
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3,160–3,954 Inner core

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THE CRUST
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Is the topmost shell of the earth, which has a thickness of
30-40 km in the continents and 5-6 km in the oceans.
There is a striking variation in the materials or rocks, as
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they are called, composing the crust over the continents

and ocean floors.
The oceanic crust is made up of heavier and darker rocks
called basalts compared to light-colored and light-density,
granitic rocks of the continental crust.
When considered as a part of the total structure of the
earth, crust makes only an insignificant part represented by
a thin layer, similar to the skin of an apple.
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 As regards he chemical composition of the crust, analyses made

32 by Clarke and Gold Schmith, using rocks from different
geographic regions of the crust have all shown that when
expressed in terms of oxides, the crust has Silica as the most
dominant component, its value lying above 50% by volume in
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the oceanic crust and above 62% in the continental crust.

 Alumina is the next important oxide, varying between 13-16%

followed by Iron Oxides (8%), Lime (6%), Sodium (4%),
Magnesium (4%), Potassium (2.5%) & Titanium (2%).

 The crust itself shows a complicated structure both in make-up

and compositional variations.
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THE CRUST
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Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than

34 100 million (1×108) years ago; however, the oldest known
mineral grains are about 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old,
indicating that Earth has had a solid crust for at least 4.4
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billion years.

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THE MANTLE
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At the base of the crust materials of the earth become

greatly different in many properties from those overlying
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them in the crust.

These materials appear to form a nearly homogeneous

zone till a depth of 2900 km is reached.

This zone of materials lying between crust and a depth of

2900 km is known a MANTLE.
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It is made up of extremely basic materials, called ultra

36 basic rocks, which are believed to be very rich in iron and
magnesium but quite poor in silica.
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 Such rock names as Periodotites, Dunite.

This One is characterized with a high density, increasing

steadily with depth further; the mantle material is believed
to be highly plastic in nature.

Many of the most important geological process such as

earthquakes and formation of mountains are believed to
have their origin in this zone.
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The mantle is divided into upper and lower mantle.

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The upper and lower mantle are separated by the transition

zone.
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 The lowest part of the mantle next to the core-mantle

boundary is known as the D″ (pronounced dee-double-
prime) layer.

The pressure at the bottom of the mantle is ≈140 GPa (1.4

Matm).
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THE CORE
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It is the third and the innermost structure shell of the earth,
which is clearly marked by the seismic evidence.
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It starts at a depth of 2900 km below the surface and

extends right up to the center of the earth at 6370 km.

The material making the core is found to be from seismic

studies only strikingly different from that making the other
two shells in one major aspect, in elastic properties.

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 The material has no shear resistance, which makes it nearer to

39 liquid than to a solid body.

 It has a very high density, above 5-6 gms/cubic centimeter, at

the mantle –core boundary.
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 Nothing can be said about the composition of the core.

 Metallic portion to occupy some 65% of the diameter of the

Earth.

 According to one, widely favored view, the inner core is made

up of Iron and Nickel alloy material.
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The core can be divided on the bases of rock formation:

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The upper layer is called sialic or granitic.
The lower layer is sima or borattic
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THANK YOU

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
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CIVIL DEPARTMENT

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MINERALOGY

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Mineralogy: It’s the branch of geology deals with study of

44 minerals.

Minerals:
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Minerals its is a substance having a definite

composition, atomic structure formed from inorganic process
in nature.

Minerals have been defined as naturally occurring

substances, mostly inorganic, that are
characterized by a definite chemical composition
and a definite atomic structure.
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Since rocks which make up the earth are simply natural

45 aggregates of minerals, a study of minerals is of
fundamental importance understands the elements of
science of geology.
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Each mineral is generally characterized with a set of

qualities some of which are always distinctive and
differentiate it from other minerals.

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Minerals are classified into two groups namely:

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1) Rock forming minerals
2) Ore minerals
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Rock forming minerals: are those which are essential to

form rock.
Ex: Quartz, Mica etc.

Ore minerals: are those having metal content which are

very essential to start an industry to the development of
country.
Ex: Hematite, Chalcocite etc.
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Properties may be studied from the body of the minerals, its

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shape, color, shine, hardness etc.; these are termed physical
properties.
 Some other qualities like the behavior towards light require
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extremely thin sheets or sections of the minerals and are best studied
with the help of a microscope.
 These are termed optical or microscopic properties.

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Physical properties:
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1. Colour
2. Streak
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3. Lusture
4. Fracture
5. Cleavage
6. Diaphariety
7. Hardness
8. Specific gravity

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49 Habit
 A mineral may sometimes show a definite and characteristic
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arrangement in its outer appearance or physical shape.

 This shape is expressed by the term Habit and is typical in the case
of many minerals.

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Foliated habit: - When the mineral consists of thin and separable leaves.
Ex.in Mica.

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Fibrous habit: -When the mineral is made up of fibers, generally separable.

Ex. in Asbestos.

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Some Common Structures in Minerals: 1-Tabular, 2-Columnar ,3-Bladed, 4-Acicular,

5- Fibrous, 6-Reniform, 7-Foliated, 8-Radiating, 9-Granular.
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Columnar habit: - When the mineral is composed of
thin or thick columns, sometimes flattened.
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Ex.in Hornblende.

Bladed habit: - The minerals appears as if composed

of thin, blade like structure.
Ex. in Kyanite.

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Lamellar habit: - The plates or leaves are separable,

54 Ex. Vermiculite.

Granular habit: - The mineral shows numerous grains

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packed together.
Ex. in Chromite.

Acicular habit: - When a mineral surface is covered

by large, conspicuous, overlapping prominences.
Ex. in Malachite.

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Mammillary habit: - When a mineral surface is

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covered by large, conspicuous, overlapping
prominences.
Ex. in Malachite.
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Reniform habit: - The rounded prominences exhibit a

resemblance to a kidney shape.
Ex. in Hematite.

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Radiating habit: - When the fibers or needles are

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arranged around a central point.
Ex. in Iron Pyrites.
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Tabular habit: - The mineral is flat and elongated.

Ex. in Calcite, Orthoclase.

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COLOUR
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 Minerals show great variety of colors.

 The color of a substance is its appearance in light and depends
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upon the composition and structure of the substance.

 In minerals, colors may be either of inherent of an exotic
nature.
 The inherent colour former is related to the chemical
composition and is more diagnostic.
 whereas exotic colors are due to small traces of impurities and
may vary within wide limits.
 Metallic minerals commonly show greater consistency in colors
than the non-metallic minerals.
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STREAK
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 The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder.

 This becomes important in the sense that for some minerals, the
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color is entirely different from that of their powder.

 This has been found true in certain or minerals, while most of the
other minerals exhibit a white streak: and, streak does not help in
distinguishing those minerals.

MINERAL ORIGINAL STREAK

NAME COLOR COLOR

PYRITE Brass-Yellow Greenish Black

CHROMITE Greenish-Black Greenish Brown

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY HEMATIE Black Cherry-red

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The streak of mineral can be readily observed by

59 scratching it on a streak plate, which is made up of
unglazed porcelain or roughened glass.
While determining streak for a mineral, care should be
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taken to scratch it from its obscure part, and to give only a

small scratch, producing a small quantity of its powder.

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LUSTER
60  The shining surface of a mineral is called it luster.
 The different types of luster and their examples are given in a tabular
column.
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S.No.. Type of Luster Description Example

1 VITEREOUS LUSTER A mineral having a glassy shine Quartz and Calcite

2 PEARLY LUSTER A mineral having a pearly shine Muscovite Mica
3 METALLIC LUSTER A mineral having a metallic shine Magnetite
4 SILKY LUSTER A mineral having a silky shine Asbestos

A mineral having a greasy, oil

5 RESINOUS LUSTER shine Talc

ADAMANTINE A mineral having a diamond like

6 LUSTER shine Diamond
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DIAPHENITY
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 Diaphaneity of a mineral may be defined as its capability to pass

light through it.
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 Hence, if an object can be seen fully and easily through a mineral, it

may be called as diaphaneity.
 Depending upon the extent to which light can pass through a
mineral, they may be classified as follows.

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Type of
Description Example
Transparency
Mineral which allows the light to
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Quartz,
Transparent pass fully, and objects on Other sides
Calcite
are seen clearly through the mineral.
A mineral which allows only
Translucent some diffused light to pass through Jasper
edges.
A mineral which does not pass
Orthoclase,
Opaque any light, and hence through which
Hornblende
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nothing can be seen.

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FRACTURE
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 The fracture of a mineral may be defined as the appearance of its
broken surface, when the mineral is hammered and broken.
 It is a characteristic feature of certain minerals, which help us in their
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identification.
 The different types of fractures seen in various minerals.

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Type of Fracture Description Example

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EVEN FRACTURE When the broken surfaces of a mineral are smooth Chert

UNEVEN
When the mineral breaks with very rough and coarse surface Chromite
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FRACTURE

When a mineral breaks with curved surfaces. In fact, there

CONCHOIDAL
will be concentric grooves and ridges resembling with the Quartzite
FRACTURE
concentric lines of growth on a shell (Conch)

HACKLY When a mineral breaks with irregular surfaces having

Copper
FRACTURE sharp edges

EARTHY
When a broken surface is soft and almost smooth Chalk
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HARDNESS
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Hardness is another property of a mineral, which can be used as a
handy tool in the field, to differentiate between the different minerals or
to recognize particular minerals.
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 Hardness of a mineral may be defined as the resistance, which the

mineral offers to scratch.
 This property of a mineral is generally determined by scratching a
given mineral with a mineral of known hardness, so as to obtain the
comparative figure for the hardness of the given mineral.
 Thus for example, if a given mineral gets scratched by a mineral or
metal of hardness say 6, but does not get scratched by that of
hardness 5, then evidently we can conclude that the hardness of a
given mineral lies between 5 and 6. Moreover, the intensity of
scratch procured, will help us to judge whether the hardness
determined is nearer to 5 or to 6
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MINERAL HARDNESS
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TALC 1 Can be scratch even by finger nail

GYPSUM 2 Can be scratch even by finger nail

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CALCITE 3 Can be scratch even by finger nail

FLUORITE 4 Can be scratch by penknife
APATITE 5 Can be scratch by penknife
ORTHOCLASE 6 Can be scratch by penknife
QUARTZ 7 Can not be scratch by penknife
TOPAZ 8 Can not be scratch by penknife
CORUNDUM 9 Can not be scratch by penknife

DIAMOND 10 It can be scratch by another

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diamond

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SPECIFIC GRAVITY
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 It is defined as the ratio of its weight to the weight of an equal

volume of water.
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 Strictly speaking, the weight of water should be taken at 4o C, as the

temperature variations bring a slight change in the weight of after of
a certain fixed volume.
 In fact, the specific gravity of a mineral depends upon the weight and
spacing of its atoms.
 A mineral possessing heavier and closely spaced atoms will have a
high specific gravity: whereas, a mineral possessing lighter and
widely-spaced atoms will have a low specific gravity.

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 The specific gravity of the mineral is thus, in fact a representation of

68 its atomic structures.
 All minerals have been found to possess a specific gravity varying
between 1 to 20: but most of them do have specific gravities varying
between 2 to 7.
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Cleavage - The tendency of a mineral to break
along flat planar surfaces as determined by the
structure of its crystal lattice.
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 Cleavage forms parallel to crystallographic planes

70  Basal or pinacoidal cleavage occurs when there is only one cleavage
plane. Graphite has basal cleavage. Mica (like muscovite or biotite) also
has basal cleavage; this is why mica can be peeled into thin sheets.
 Cubic cleavage occurs on when there are three cleavage planes
intersecting at 90 degrees. Halite (or salt) has cubic cleavage, and
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therefore, when halite crystals are broken, they will form more cubes.
 Octahedral cleavage occurs when there are four cleavage planes in a
crystal. Fluorite exhibits perfect octahedral cleavage. Octahedral cleavage
is common for semiconductors. Diamond also has octahedral cleavage.
 Rhombohedral cleavage occurs when there are three cleavage planes
intersecting at angles that are not 90 degrees. Calcite had rhombohedral
cleavage.
 Prismatic cleavage occurs when there are two cleavage planes in a crystal.
Spodumene exhibits prismatic cleavage.
 Dodecahedral cleavage occurs when there are six cleavage planes in a
crystal. Sphalerite has dodecahedral cleavage.

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Classification of Minerals
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I. a. Rock-forming minerals (important-constituents

72 of rocks). Biotite
b. Minerals of economic value (important for
society) Hematite
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II. a. Primary minerals – Product of consolidation of

magma ( magma – molten silicate lying under the
surface of the earth)
b. Secondary minerals – formed by operational
process on the surface subsequent to the
consolidation of magma.
- Olivine – primary mineral
Malachite – secondary mineral
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III. a. Essential minerals – presence or absence

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affect the naming of the rock.
b. Accessory minerals – no much importance
in the naming of the rocks.
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- Quartz – essential – composition of granite

Zircon – in granite – accessory
IV. a. Most scientific method – Dana- the
fundamental subdivisions of the mineral
kingdom on the basis of chemical
composition
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i. Native elements
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ii. Sulphides
iii. Sulphosalts
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iv. Halides
v. Oxides
vi. Oxygen salts
vii.Organic salts
viii.Hydrocarbon compounds

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I. The non-silicate minerals

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1. Native elements
2. Halides
3. Sulphides
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4. Oxides
5. Carbonates
6. Nitrates
7. Borates
8. Sulphates
9. Chromates
10. Phosphates, arsenates and vanadates
11.
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II. The silicate minerals
Quartz group
Kaolinite group
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Mica group
Feldspar group
Asbestos group
Carbonate group
Gypsum
Ore minerals
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THANK YOU

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT
1

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

2
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MINERALOGY

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Properties:
1. Colour
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2. Streak
3. Lusture
4. Fracture
5. Cleavage
6. Diaphariety
7. Hardness
8. Specific gravity
 Chemical composition

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

COLOUR
 The color of a substance is its appearance in light and
4 depends upon the composition and structure of the
substance.
STREAK
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 The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder.

LUSTER
 The shining surface of a mineral is called it luster.
S.No.. Type of Luster Description

1 VITEREOUS LUSTER A mineral having a glassy shine

2 PEARLY LUSTER A mineral having a pearly shine
3 METALLIC LUSTER A mineral having a metallic shine
4 SILKY LUSTER A mineral having a silky shine

A mineral having a greasy, oil

5 RESINOUS LUSTER shine

ADAMANTINE A mineral having a diamond like

6 LUSTER shine
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Type of
5 Description
Transparency
Mineral which allows the light to pass fully, and
Transparent objects on Other sides are seen clearly through
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the mineral.
A mineral which allows only
Translucent
some diffused light to pass through edges.
A mineral which does not pass
Opaque any light, and hence through which nothing can
be seen.

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Type of MINERAL HARDNESS

Description
Fracture
6
EVEN When the broken surfaces of a mineral TALC 1
FRACTURE are smooth

UNEVEN When the mineral breaks with very

GYPSUM 2
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FRACTURE rough and coarse surface CALCITE 3

When a mineral breaks with curved FLUORITE 4

CONCHOIDA
surfaces. In fact, there will be concentric APATITE 5
grooves and ridges resembling with the
L FRACTURE ORTHOCLASE 6
concentric lines of growth on a shell
(Conch) QUARTZ 7
When a mineral breaks with irregular TOPAZ 8
HACKLY
surfaces having CORUNDUM 9
FRACTURE
sharp edges

EARTHY When a broken surface is soft and almost DIAMOND 10

FRACTURE smooth
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Cleavage - The tendency of a mineral to break
along flat planar surfaces as determined by the
structure of its crystal lattice.
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Quartz Group of Minerals

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Most common mineral in the earth’s crust

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Member of silicate group of minerals
Chemical composition – SiO2
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Color – commonly white, sometimes –

yellow, brown, pink, green, blue or black

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Luster – vitreous, occasionally resinous

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Cleavage – No
 Fracture – conchoidal
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Transparent – Transparent when clear, to

translucent when white
Hardness – 7
S.G. – 2.65

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VARITIES OF QUARTZ
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Colored varieties
Common pure quartz – colorless transparent
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mineral
Trace amount of impurity – gives – characteristic
color

Few common varieties –

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AMETHYST
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Transparent, Purple or violet
Semi precious variety
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Impurities – ferric iron

Restoration of color – by moistening

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SMOKY QUARTZ
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Cairngarm or Scotch topaz, black – morion.
Variety of pale brown quartz
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Color – smoky yellow, dark to light brown, even

black

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MILKY QUARTZ
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Color – pure white
Numerous microscopic air cavities
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Most common crystalline quartz

Translucent to opaque

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ROSE QUARTZ
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Color – pale pink
Presence of Li, Na and Ti – in structure
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Occur – as crystalline masses

Rarely – individual crystals

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Cryptocrystalline types
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Means – quartz with hidden or microscopic
crystals
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Crystallization of pure silica to quartz –

incomplete – interruption in the process.
Silica – of these varieties – close in composition
and physical properties to quartz – named
differently.

Few common varieties-

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CHALCEDONY
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Luster – waxy
Transluscent, massive
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Occurrence – lining cavities, filling cracks,

form crusts
Color – white to grey, blue, brown or black

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AGATE
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Chalcedony with – banded, irregular
variegated appearance
Bands – wavy or parallel
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Petrified wood – agatized wood

Opaque, massive

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ONYX
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Regularly banded agate
Even, parallel bands of alternate colors
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Color – black and white, brown and white

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FLINT
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Dull opaque – chalcedony
Color – grey , brown or black
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Found – nodules in chalk

Duller – opaque, rougher than chalcedony,
conchoidal fracture, with sharp edges
Used – by early man – making tools

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JASPER
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Color – dull red, yellow or brown or mixture
of these
Sometimes banded
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Transparency- opaque
Amorphous variety of silica

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OCCURENCE
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All types of rocks – igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
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Igneous- quartz make up bulk of acidic

varieties
Sedimentary – make up – sandstones and
ortho quartzites
Loose sands consists – quartz grains
Metamorphic rocks – gneisses, schists, (Para)
Quartzite – entirely made up of quartz
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USES
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Building of roads and houses
Quartz sand – minor impurities – feldspar,
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mica and iron oxides

Abrasives
Ceramics
Radio, TV, Watch, computers
In electric tests- produce regular electric
pulses and field changes that inventors could
predict
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QUARTZ IN MANUFACTURING OF GLASS
Most important uses
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Glass sands – silica content – 95 – 99.8% -

impurities also important
Alumina – less than 4% - not harmful-
for optical glasses – < 0.1%
Iron oxide – imparts – green and yellow tints –
neutralized by decolorizing agents
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Vindhyan Sandstones near Allahabad (U.P)
– disintegration by weathering – good
quality of sands – manufacturing of
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glasses.
Special purification - yield – sand- optical
glass manufacturing
Milky white quartz – used – available in
peninsular region of India
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

FELDSPAR GROUP
OF MINERALS
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The feldspars – most prominent group of minerals –

31 make – more than 50%, by weight, crust of the
Earth – 30Km depth
Occurrence – Igneous rocks – chiefly
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Metamorphic rocks – good proportion

Sedimentary rocks – arkose and greywacks
Most common 3-4 minerals

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Chemical Composition
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Chiefly aluminosilicates of Na, K and Ca
General Formula – WZ4O8
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W = Na, K, Ca and Ba ; Z = Si and Al

The Si:Al – vary from 3:1 to 1:1
 Eg- NaAlSi3O8 KAlSi3O8 CaAl2Si2O8
Other metals – present in appreciable quantities – Ba,
Li, Rb and Cs
Very important character – occurrence in isomorphous
series
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Atomic Structure
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Show – continuous three-dimensional network type
of structure
SiO4 – linked to all the corners – each oxygen –
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shared by two adjacent tetrahedra

SiO4 tetrahedra – accompanied by – AlO4 tetrahedra
Hence – feldspars – complex three-dimensional
framework of above two types of tetrahedra
Resulting network – negatively charged
Negative charge – satisfied by – presence of
positively charged – K, Na, Ca and Ba
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Crystallization
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Crystallize in only two crystallographic systems
Monoclinic
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Triclinic
Plagioclase feldspars – only in Triclinic system

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Classification
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On basis of – chemical composition and
crystallization
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Chemically – fall into two main groups –

1. Potash feldspars
2. Soda lime feldspars

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1. Potash feldspars –
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Also called Alkali feldspars
Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8), Sanidine (KAlSi3O8) and
Microcline (KAlSi3O8)
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2. Soda-lime Feldspars
Also called – the Plagioclase feldspars
Consists – isomerism series of six feldspars
With two components – as end members
NaAlSi3O8
CaAl2Si2O8
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sanidine

orthoclase
microcline

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 The six feldspars –

39 i. Albite ii. Labradorite iii. Oligoclase

iv. Bytownite v. Andesine vi. Anorthite
 The above series – Albite – Anorthite series
 Crystallographically feldspars fall into two crystal systems
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Monoclinic Feldspars Triclinic Feldspars

1. Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) 1. Microcline (KAlSi3O8)

2. Sanidine (KAlSi3O8) 2. Albite-Anorthite series (six
minerals)

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labradorite

oligoclae
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bytownite andesine

anorthite

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Physical Properties
42 Not only – the members of this group closely related in chemical
composition, crystallography and atomic constitution
Also show broad similarity and closeness in physical characters
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Differentiation between minerals – need thorough microscopic

examination
Color – variable –
Usually white or light color
Orthoclase – pink or reddish
Ca-rich plagioclase – often dark grey with a bluish tinge
Sometimes greenish or bright green
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 Cleavage – two cleavages – perfect

43  Fracture – conchoidal to uneven and splintery
 Lustre – vitreous to pearly on cleavage planes
Irridiscence – may be seen – cleavage faces – labradorite plagioclase
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feldspar
Sometimes dull
 Transparency – subtransparent to transluscent and opaque
Higher temperature members more transparent then lower temperature
members
 Hardness – 6.0-6.5
 Specific gravity –
Alkali feldspars – 2.6 to 2.63
Plagioclase feldspars – 2.63 – 2.76
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Description
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Following mineral species – common rock
forming minerals
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ORTHOCLASE

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Monoclinic – crystals commonly occur in prismatic

46 shape
Cleavage – in two directions – one cleavage is perfect
Color – various shades of pink and red
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Such as flesh red, reddish white, light pink

The transparent variety - Adularia
Lustre – vitreous to semivitreous
HD – 6-6.5
SG – 2.56 to 2.58

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Composition – KAlSi3O8
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Optically negative ( - )
Occurrence – a most common and essential constituent
of many igneous rocks, especially granites
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Economic use – Ceramic material

Varieties –
Adularia – transparent variety
Sanidine – a high temperature variety stable above
900°C

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adularia sanidine

sanidine
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MICROCLINE

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Triclinic, resemble closely with orthoclase in crystal

50 habits
 Cleavage – in two directions COL – similar to
orthoclase. In addition, may occur as a greenish
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feldspar – amazonite
Streak – colorless
HD – 6 - 6.5
SG – 2.54 to 2.57

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Composition – KAlSi3O8
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Mineral – not easily distinguished in hand
specimens from orthoclase except when perfectly
crystallized
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Occurrence –
Along with orthoclase in granites and other
igneous rocks
In coarse-grained igneous rocks – pegmatites –
microcline is the prominent variety of feldspar
Also occur as – intergrowth with albite
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Economic use
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As a ceramic material
As a semi precious stone - amazonite
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Varieties – anorthoclase (mean-not orthoclase). A

triclinic feldspar containing also sodium
aluminium silicate

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amazonite
microcline

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anorthoclase

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ALBITE

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Triclinic –first member of the isomorphous

55 plagioclase series of feldspar – the albite-
anorthite series
Cleavage – in two directions
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colour:- white or pinkish white, shows shades of

grey, green and blue.
Streak – colorless
Lustre – vitreous to pearly. Some varieties show
play of colors on the cleavage surface

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HD – 6 – 6.5
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SG – 2.60 – 2.62
Composition – sodium aluminium silicate
NaAlSi3O8 – 100-90%
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CaAlSi2O8 – 0-10%
Occurence – essential constituent of many igneous rocks –
granites, syenites, rhyolites and dacites
Economic use –
As a ceramic material
As an ornamental stone in polished form

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ANORTHITE

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Triclinic – last member of the isomorphous plagioclase series

59 of feldspars. Cryatals are commonly – prismatic
 Cleavage – in two directions
Colour - white; may also – reddish and light grey shades
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Streak – colorless
Lustre – semi-vitreous
Composition – CaAl2Si2O8 – 100-90%
Ocurence – important constituent – many basic types of
igneous rocks
Varieties – as already told. Occur with albite

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USES
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Chiefly used in ceramic and glass industries
Smaller quantities used in – tiles, white ware and
sanitary ware
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Catalysts
Acid resistant
Decorative stone
As a flux or binding agent in certain scanning soaps
Artificial teeth

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Potash Feldspar – used in many industries

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Best for ceramic and sanitary ware manufacturing
Application in both –
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Glaze ( K2O > 11.5%)

Body (K2O >10.5%)
Gives white firing color
In manufacturing of ceramic products – second most
important ingredient after clay

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It does not have a strict melting point – since it melts

62 gradually over a range of temperatures
Greatly facilitates the quartz and clays – through
appropriate mixing, allows modulations of this
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important step of ceramic making

Feldspars – used as fluxing agents to form a glassy
phase at low temperatures and as a source of
alkalies and alumina in glaze.

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They improve –
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 the strength, toughness and durability of the
ceramic body
cement the crystalline phase of other ingredients
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Softening, melting and wetting other batch

constituents
Feldspar assists the enamel composition – assure the
absence of defects and the neatness of the end product

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THANK YOU

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

JAYARAM NAYAK B
1
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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MIT KUNDAPURA

MINERALOGY

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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Properties:
3 1. Colour
2. Streak
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3. Lusture
4. Fracture
5. Cleavage
6. Diaphariety
7. Hardness
8. Specific gravity
 Chemical composition

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CARBONATE GROUP
OF MINERALS

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A few carbonate minerals are very important as

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rock forming minerals in sedimentary and

metamorphic groups.
Include – calcite, dolomite and magnesite

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CALCITE
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 Composition – CaCO3
 Shape – hexagonal – rhombohedral.
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 The mineral occurs in great variety of crystals :

 Tabular, rhombohedral, prismartic, thin and elongated
 Cleavage– highly perfect, rhombohedral. Parting is also common
 Colour – pure calcite – white and transparent
 Milky-white, opaque varieties also common
 Small proportion – impurities – pink, red, violet, blue, green and black
 HD – 3
 SG – 2.71

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Lustre – vitreous. Earthy in massive varieties

7 Occurrence – Calcite – one of –most common rock
forming minerals – sedimentary rocks.
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Limestones – almost or entirely m.u.o. calcite

Dolomite – good proportion of calcite
Marbles – recrystallized variety, a well known metamorphic
rock
Calcite – secondary mineral – fromed from the carbonate rich
water of sea and oceans
Varieties – numerous varieties
Aragonite, Iceland Spar, Satin spar and chalk
Iceland spar – a transparent crystalline variety – optical
instruments ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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Iceland spar

calcite
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Satin spar

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DOLOMOTE
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 Composition – Ca, Mg(CO3)2
 CS – hexagonal, rhombohedral division
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 COL- white when pure

 also sometimes – shades of brown, red, grey, green and black
 HD – 3.3 – 4
 SG – 2.8 – 2.9
 Lustre – Vitreous
 Occurrence –
 Commonly – massive forms – making layers – extend several
kilometers across
 As mineral – in veins – when of igneous origin
 As rock constituent – formed by action of magnesian rich sea
water on original limestone
ENGINEERING deposit – process- dolomitization.
GEOLOGY

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MAGNESITE
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Composition – MgCO3
CS – Hexagonal – Rhombohedral
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CL - Hexagonal – Rhombohedral

COL – white when pure
Shades of grey and brown – common
HD – 3.5 – 4.5
SG – 3.0 – 3.1

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Lustre – Vitreous to silky in fibrous varieties

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Occurrence – formed from magnesium bearing
sea water – contact – other carbonate rocks
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Large deposits of this mineral – take form of

rock bodies – become source of commercial
rock
Economic use – as refractory material
For chemical compounds of magnesium

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USES
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Cement is basically is made by heating
limestone(calcium carbonate) with small
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quantities of other materials to 1450°C in a kiln

The resultant hard material which is recovered
after heating limestone and chemicals is called
clinker
Clinker looks like small lumps
These lumps – crushed – small amount – gypsum
into powder – final product – OPC cement
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Following components – important – OPC

15 cement
Limestone : natural reserve, extracted or mined from
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mines
Heat : requires heat of 1450°C, ideally obtained from
Coal or its varients
Gypsum: a mineral compulsory for providing the
binding nature to cement
Although limestone can be substituted from other
materials – they do not give better strength
To make cement – first plant has to do– clinker – grind
clinker with Gypsum - cement
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Limestone – prerequisite – clinker

16 Limestone extracted from mines
Limestone – natural resource – more than 65% of
India’s limestone comes from – Madhya Pradesh,
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Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Chhattisgarh

Other materials that are used for calcium carbonate in
cement are chalks, marbles, marls and oyster shells

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Mica group of
minerals

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Characteristic feature – presence of a micaceous

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structure (cleavage) – by virtue of this – these –
split into very thin sheets along one direction
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Micaceous cleavage – because of atomic

constitution
Consists of SiO4 tetrahedra linked at three of their
corners and extending in two dimensions – called
sheet strucutre
These sheets held together in pairs by by metallic
ions
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Resulting bond due to metallic ions – weakest

19 – hence – eminent cleavage present in micas
Micas – very common rock forming minerals
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– besides feldspars, pyroxenes and amphiboles

Form – approximately – 4% - crust
Despite great variation in their chemical
compositon – grouped together because of –
similar atomic structure

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Chemical composition
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Show great variation – chemical composition
Mainly – silicates of aluminium and potassium
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containing one or more of:

i. Hydroxyl group ii. Magnesium iii. Iron
iv. Sodium v. Lithium vi. Fluorine
All the micas yield water – when heated in a
closed test tube – because of – invariable
presence of hydroxyl group

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Atomic structure
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Micas – characterized with a sheet structure in
atomic constitution
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In this – structure – basic unit of silicates – SiO4

tetrahedra – linked at their three corners result in
Si : O ratio of 2 : 5
 Such linkage when extended in two directions –
result in sheets of SiO4 tetrahedra

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Two sheets – so placed one above

22 another – that their vertices point
inwards – towards each other
Here – they are mutually cross-linked
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with a metallic ion – Al or Mg

Other groups – esp. – hydroxyl group –
incorporated between these cross links

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Crystallization
24
Most important members – crystallize in one
system – monoclinic system
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Less important members – triclinic system

Typical of mica crystals – apparently show higher
symmetry – hexagonal or orthorhombic systems
Because of atomic constitution – micas show –
excellent basal cleavage

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Classification
25
Generally – divided into – two groups – based on
chemical composition
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A. Light micas

Muscovite – KAl2(AlSi2O10)(OH)2 – Potash mica
Paragonite - NaAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 – Sodium mica
Lepidolite - KLiAl(Si4O10)(OH)2 – Lithium mica
B. Dark Micas
Biotite – K(Mg,Fe)3, (AlSi3O10)(OH)2 – Fe, Mg mica
Phlogopite – K, Mg3(Al3Si3O10)(OH)2 – Mg mica
Zinwaldite – complex Li-Fe mica
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lepidolite
muscovite

paragonite
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27
phlogipite
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zinwaldite

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Physical properties
28
Some common properties found among all
micas
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Perfect basal cleavage

Low hardness, b/w – 2-3
Vitreous luster
Platy habit of the crystals

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Descriptive
29
Only muscovite and biotite – common
occurrence in rock forming minerals
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MUSCOVITE
KAl2(AlSi2O10)(OH)2
 Potash mica
CS- monoclinic, commonly occurs in platy form
with pseudo symmetry of hexagonal or
orthorhombic type
CL – eminent, basal
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COL – colorless, in thin sheets; as a mass

30
appear pale yellow
HD – 2.5 – 3.0
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SG – 2.7 – 3.1

Lustre – pearly on cleavage faces, vitreous
Streak – colorless

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Optical – optically (-)

31
Occurrence –
Most common variety of micas
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Acidic igneous rocks – in abundance –

granites, pegmatites
Metamorphic rocks – mica schists
Sedimentary rocks – common accessory
mineral

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BIOTITE
33
K(Mg,Fe)3, (AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Black mica or Fe, Mg mica
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CS – monoclinic; commonly occur in tabular

sheets or short prismatic plates
CL – highly perfect and basal
COL – black, deep green variety is also found
HD – 2.5 – 3

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SG – 2.7 – 3.1, increases with iron content

34 Streak – colorless
Optical – optically (-). Strongly pleochroic in
thin sections
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Occurrence –
Igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks– commonly
found – gneisses
Sedimentary rocks – rare in compared to muscovite

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

PHLOGOPITE
36
K, Mg3(Al3Si3O10)(OH)2
Mg Mica
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Monoclinic type of mica in the form of granular

masses
Show typical properties of micas
Perfect cleavage
HD – 2.5 – 4
SG – 2.8 – 3.3
Luster - pearly
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

LEPIDOLITE
38 KLiAl(SI4O10)(OH)2
Complex Li-Fe mica
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Commonly occur – form – granular masses

Show typical properties of micas
CL – perfect
HD – 2.5 – 4
SG – 2.8 – 3.3
Luster – pearly
Occurrence
Confined mostly to igneous rocks – esp. – pegmatites
Important source of LiENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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lepidolite
Lepidolite - pegmatite

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

USES
40
Sheet mica is used principally in the electronic and
electrical industries
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Because – unique electrical and thermal properties

and its mechanical properties – allow it to be cut,
punched, stamped and machined to close
tolerances
Mica – good electrical insulator at the same time
good thermal conductor
Block mica – electrical insulator in electronic
equipment
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High quality block mica – processed – to

41
line the gauge glasses of high-pressure
steam boilers- because – flexibility,
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transparency and resistance to heat and

chemical attack
High quality muscovite film mica – India
ruby mica or ruby muscovite mica- used as
a dielectric in capacitors
the highest quality mica film – manufacture
capacitors for calibration standards
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The next lower grade – transmitting

42
capacitors
Slightly lower grade of high-quality
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muscovite – receiving capacitors

Mica sheets – used – provide structure for
heating wire in heating elements and can
withstand upto 900°C
India – major producer of mica in the
world
Largest producer of sheet mica
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About 95% of India’s mica – distribute in

43 Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
World’s largest deposit of mica – at Koderma
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district in the state of Jharkhand

Other states – Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West
Bengal, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

KAOLINITE GROUP OF
44
MINERALS

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Clay minerals – important products from the

45 weathering of rocks
Feldspars give rise to clays with K-feldspar
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reacting in the presence of water to give illite

and plagioclase feldspar reacting in a similar
manner to give montmorillonite.
If excess water is present both reactions will
eventually produce kaolinite which is the final
product
Kaolin group - also called as kandites

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Kaolinite
46
Varieties nacrite, dickite, China clay, kaolin
Al4[Si4O10](OH)8
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Nacrite and dickite – identical chemical

composition to kaolinite – but atomic layer
stacking along c crystallographic axis – different
from that of kaolinite
CS – triclinic or monoclinic
COL – white when pure ; grey or yellowish
CL – perfect
Luster – dull and earthy
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Feel – greasy feel; often very soft material,

47 crumbling to powder when pressed between the
fingers
Smell – clayey smell
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HD – 2.0 – 2.5

SG – 2.61 – 2.68
Varieties –
Nacrite and dickite already mentioned
Kaolin or China clay – consists – partly of
crystalline and partly of amorphous material
Kaolinite – a mineral – kaolin – a fine clay rich in
kaolinite
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Lithomarge – white, yellow or reddish clay

48 Consists – kaolinite and halloysite
Often speckled and mottled, adhering strongly to
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the tongue and greasy feel

When scratched – fingernail – shows a shining
streak
Occurrence –
Nacrite and dickite – rare minerals – in association
with metallic ores
Kaolinite – form from – alteration of feldspars in
granites
This acceleration – weathering process
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kaolinite

nacrite
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kaolinite

lithomarge

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Uses
51
Kaolin in Paper industry
Most extensively used mineral – filling and
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coating of paper
Improves paper appearance – gloss,
smoothness, brightness and opacity, improve
printability
Paper – filled with kaolin- extend fiber
The purity, rheology and particle geometry of
the processed mineral – influence – quality of
minerals ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Kaolinite in Paint industries

52 Kaolin – functional extender – provide – cost
reduction paint formulations
Kaolin modifies
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Opacity performance
Color
Gel strength and low shear viscosity
Opacity generated by the difference between the
RI of a material and the medium surrounding it
TiO2 has high RI- fine particle size kaolin –
increase efficiency of TiO2 - Platy hydrous
kaolin – more effectiveENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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Gloss performance – coarse kaolin more effect

53 than fine kaolin – kaolin selected based on
gloss required
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Color performance – hydrous kaolin –

becomes less white – increase in particle size –
fine kaolin – to minimize on effect on color
Gel strength – increased – use of hydrous
kaolin

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Gypsum group of minerals

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55
Belong to sulphates
A non-silicate mineral
CaSO4.2H2O
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CS – monoclinic
COL – crystals colorless; massive varieties –
colorless or white – occasionally grey,
yellowish, pink or buff colored

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CL- perfect
56 Luster – cleavage faces – shining and pearly, some
faces vitreous. Massive varieties glistening but
mostly dull and fibrous types are silky
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Transparency – transparent to translucent and even

opaque
HD – 1.5-2.0
SG – 2.31

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57  Varieties –
Selenite – broad transparent plates of gypsum
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Alabaster – very fine grained snow white or

light-colored massive variety
Satinspar – fibrous variety – silky luster
Gypsite – gypsum mixed with sand and earth

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gypsite
Satin spar

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
alabaster selenite

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Occurrence
59
Thick stratified sedimentary beds associated with
dolomite, limestone, halite and other Evaporite
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deposits.
It is a chemical precipitate of isolated massive
basins – preceded by clays and limestones –
followed by anhydrite, halite and magnesium and
potassium salts

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Gypsum associated with – anhydrite and Sulphur

60 in the cap rock of salt domes
Occur in – salt pans and dry lake beds, and
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ascending ground waters may deposit gypsum as

single crystals or aggregates or as efflorescence's
in desert soils
May form near fumaroles and volcanic vents, and
it may occur in the gossan or metalliferous
Sulphides deposits if carbonate rocks are present

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61

Desert roses
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Sulphur and gypsum in a cap rock

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63
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Evaporite deposit

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Evaporite deposit

Golden gypsum

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

USES
66 POP or gypsum plaster is made by heating gypsum
to 150°C, and then mixing the dry plaster to one
part water to create a paste.
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POP – mixed into paste hardens into a smooth solid

with a soft and malleable surface
POP hardens quickly before the water in it
evaporates – so does not shrink as it dries
POP – plaster for finishing in construction, in arts –
sculpting, cast molded and carved
Drywall or gypsum sheets made of calcium sulfate
dihydrate(gypsum) with or without additives and
normally pressed between a facer and a backer.
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 Used to make interior walls and ceilings

67  The plaster mixed with fiber, plasticizer, foaming agent
and various additives – decrease – mildew, increase –
fire resistance and lower water absorption
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 Gypsum also used in manufacturing of cement

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ASBESTOS

69

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ASBESTOS

70

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Includes the fibrous form of amphibole

71 Fibers – very long, thin, flexible and easily
separated by the fingers
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Color – vary from white to greenish and

brownish
Varieties –
Mountain cork, mountain leather and mountain wood
Vary in compactness and matting of their fibers

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73

Mountain
cork
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Mountain
wood
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 Term asbestos – confined – fibrous forms of actinolite

74  But common asbestos includes fibrous varieties of a
number of different silicates
 Following minerals – commercial asbestos
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Chrysotile (fibrous serpentine)

Actinolite (asbestos proper)
Amosite (fibrous anthophyllite)
Crocidolite (fibrous riebeckite)

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75
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chrysolite

actinolite

Crocidolite ENGINEERING GEOLOGY Crocidolite

76
All the above minerals – occur as long fibrous crystals
Commercial value depend – property being spun and
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good asbestos – yield long silky fibers when rubbed

between fingers
Heat-resisting value of all varieties – same

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Crocidolite and amosite – acid resistant –

77 where as chrysotile – decomposed by HCl
 better grades – long fibers – woven into
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fireproof fabrics
Fibro or fibrous cement sheet or asbestos
cement sheet or AC sheet – building material in
which asbestos fibers are used to reinforce thin
rigid cement sheets

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

AC sheets used for

78 Flat sheets for house and ceilings
Pipes of various sizes drainage
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Those with shorter fibers – used for – asbestos

sheets, boards, roofing tiles, felt, boiler
coverings, fireproof paints, insulating cements
etc.

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79
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

80
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THANK YOU

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

1 JAYARAM NAYAK B
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
CIVIL DEPARTMENT

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

2
MIT KUNDAPURA

MINERALOGY

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3
Properties:
1. Colour
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2. Streak
3. Lusture
4. Fracture
5. Cleavage
6. Diaphariety
7. Hardness
8. Specific gravity
 Chemical composition

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

ORE FORMING
MINERALS
4

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Ore is a naturally occurring solid material

5 from which a metal or valuable mineral
can be preferably extracted
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Ores – extracted through mining, which

later undergoes refining to extract the
valuable element
Various types of ores
Metal ores – generally oxides, sulfides,
silicates of native metals – Cu, that are not
commonly concentrated in the earth’s crust

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic

6 solids with a specific chemical composition
having a particular atomic structure
Ores are concentration of minerals in rock that
MIT KUNDAPURA

are high enough to be economically extracted

for use.
ALL ORES ARE MINERALS, BUT ALL
MINERALS ARE NOT ORES
Iron Ore
Bauxite
Chalcopyrite
Chromite
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IRON ORE
7
They are ores from which metallic iron is
economically extracted.
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Important Iron ores:

Hematite(FeO3)
Magnetite(Fe3O4)
Limonite(FeO(OH)nH2O

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Hematite
8 CS – Trigonal
COL – metallic grey, dull to bright red
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Streak – bright red to dark red

Luster – Metallic
Diaphaneity – Opaque
Habit – Massive, oolitic
CL – absent
Fracture – uneven to sub-conchoidal
HD – 5.5 – 6.5
SG – 5.26
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Magnetite
10  CS – Isometric
 COL – Black
 Streak – Black
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 Luster – Metallic
 Diaphaneity –Opaque
 Habit – Massive
 CL – Distinct
 Fracture – Uneven
 HD – 5.5 – 6.5
 SG – 5.17 – 5.18

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Limonite
12 COL – Shades of brown and yellow
Streak –Yellowish brown
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Luster – Earthy
Diaphaneity – Opaque
CL – Absent
Fracture – Uneven
HD – 4 – 5.5
SG – 2.9 – 4.3

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Occurrence
13 Occur in metamorphic rock
Banded hematite quartzite
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Basic and ultrabasic rocks

As a cementing material in breccia

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Uses
14
Hematite - Making ornamental as well as
carving gemstone, Pigments in paint
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Magnetite – ore of iron, iron liberated

from the ore is used to manufacturing
steel. Also used as - abrasive
Limonite – ore of iron, ore of nickel, a
yellow brown natural earth pigment-
oichre obtained

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15 magnetite
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hematite Banded iron quartzite

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

limonite

COPPER ORE
16  Pure Cu – rarely found in nature
 Usually combined with other chemicals in the form of
Cu ore
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 Ores of Cu:
Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2)
Malachite [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2]
Cuprite (Cu2O)

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Chalcopyrite
17 CS – Tetragonal
COL – Brass yellow
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Streak – Greenish black

Luster – Metallic
Diaphaneity – Opaque
Habit – Massive, botryoidal
CL – Indistinct(Poor)
Fracture – Uneven
HD – 3.5
SG – 4.1 – 4.3
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Occurrence
18 Chalcopyrite occurs in hydrothermal veins –
where malachite occurs in weathered Cu
deposits
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Cuprite – common in oxidized zone of Cu

veins with native Cu, malachite and relict
primary Sulphides

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Uses
19
All three minerals used as an ore of Cu
Malachite – used in making ornamental
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table-tops and vases

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20
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chalcopyrite
Chalcopyrite in
Hydrothermal vent

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ALUMINIUM ORE
21
Two ores of Aluminum
Bauxite
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Diaspore

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Bauxite
22
CS – Monoclinic
COL – White grey, greenish
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Luster – Uneven
Diaphaneity – Transparent
Habit – Foliated, Pisolite
CL – Perfect
Fracture – Uneven
HD – 2.5 – 3.5
SG – 3.4 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Occurrence
24 Gibbsite occurs principally – constituent of
Bauxite, because of days produced by tropical
or sub-tropical weathering
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An alteration product of feldspar and

corundum
Diaspore – metamorphosed aluminous rocks
often with emery chloritoid and spinel

Uses
Constitute part of the ore of aluminium

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25
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diaspore gibbste

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

CHROMITE
26  CS – Cubic
 COL – Iron black or brownish black
 Streak – Brown
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 Luster – Metallic or submetallic

 Diaphaneity – Opaque; may be translucent on thin
edges
 Habit – massive with a granular or compact structure
 CL – None
 Fracture – Uneven
 HD – 5.5
 SG – 5.1
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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

Occurrence
28 As a primary mineral of ultramafic plutonic
igneous rocks
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Most peridotites and dunites – contain –

chromite
Chromite occurs in detrital deposits
Well known mineral in meteorites

Uses
Chromite – essential ore of chromium

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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

30
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THANK YOU

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

15