1 2 3 Write

1, 2, 3 Write!
1, 2, 3 Write!
GAY MONTEVERDE
MHCC LIBRARY PRESS

GRESHAM, OR
1, 2, 3 Write! by Gay Monteverde is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Contents
Attribution and OER Revision Statement vii
Chapter 1: Getting Started
1.1 Reading and Writing in College 2
Chapter 2: Words
2.1 Word Confusion 10

2.2 Word Choice 21
Chapter 3: Parts of Speech
3.1 Nouns and Capitalization 30

3.2 Pronouns 42
3.3 Verbs 50
3.4 Adjectives and Adverbs 57
3.5 Prepositions 67
3.6 Conjunctions and Interjections 74
Chapter 4: Sentences
4.1 Basic Sentence Structure 80

4.2 Common Sentence Errors 88
Chapter 5: Punctuation
5.1 End Punctuation 97

5.2 Commas 101
5.3 Apostrophes 109
5.4 Quotation Marks, Italics, and Underlining 115
5.5 Semicolons, Colons, Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses, Ellipses, and 124
Slashes
Chapter 6: Paragraphs
6.1 The Structure of a Paragraph 134

6.2 Stand-alone Paragraphs 144
6.3 Building with Paragraphs 152
Chapter 7: Essays
7.1 The Writing Process 159

7.2 Getting Started 164
7.3 Organizing Ideas 172
7.4 Writing the Draft 180
7.5 Polishing the Draft 187
7.6 Correcting the Final 194
Chapter 8: Readings
8.1 Example Essays 203
Appendix: Research
Glossary 207
Attribution and OER
Revision Statement
1, 2, 3 Write! by Gay Monteverde is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0, except
where otherwise noted. It was adapted from Writing for Success, which in turn
was adapted from a work produced and distributed under a Creative Commons
license (CC BY-NC-SA) in 2011 by a publisher who has requested that they and
the original author not receive attribution.
1, 2, 3 Write! retains a basic structure, several exercises and tables, and some nicely
written explanations from Writing for Success, but about 75% of the original
96,000-word text was cut. Then, information on basic writing mechanics,
expanded writing process steps, example readings, an introduction to citations,
and a glossary was added. Chapters were organized to reflect a 1, 2, 3-step process,
moving from words to sentences to paragraphs to essays.
1, 2, 3, Write! is designed for college students who need further study in writing
mechanics before tackling freshman composition.
Cover image provided by Designed by Bluelela / Freepik.
Cover design by Anne Sigrun.
Thanks to Lily, Toby, Jodie, Judy and John for invaluable content. Thanks to my
past students for sharing their work. Thanks to Heather for persisting. Special
thanks to Holly for computer magic.
Attribution and OER Revision

Statement | vii
CHAPTER 1: GETTING
STARTED
1.1 Reading and Writing in College
1 | Chapter 1: Getting Started

1.1 Reading and Writing in
College
Preview
This section of Ch. 1 will cover the following topics:
• using this textbook

• college vs. high school
• reading strategies
• college resources
Writing well is difficult. Even people who write for a living sometimes struggle
to get their thoughts on the page. For people who do not like writing or do not
think of themselves as good writers, college writing assignments can be stressful
or intimidating.
But you cannot get through college without having to write–sometimes a lot and
often at a higher level than you are used to. Educationally, you are moving into
deeper waters. A good introductory writing course will help you swim.
Using this Textbook

Each chapter in this textbook is divided into sections. Each section begins with a
green Preview box that lets you know what topics will be covered and ends with
1.1 Reading and Writing in College | 2

an orange Takeaways box that highlights important points to remember. Red Tips
boxes on the right side of the page provide interesting or helpful insights.
Exercises in blue boxes will help you review the information presented. Work is
submitted in Blackboard; look for instructions there.
The following supplemental information is also available in the text:
• Blue underlined text is a link to outside materials. Click on it to view the

material.
• Red text with a dotted underline is a link to a brief definition of the word.
Click on it to view the definition. (If you print this book, the full Glossary
will be at the end.)
• Purple boxes contain graphics. Click on the camera icon to view a Power-
Point presentation, video, or image.
You can continue to read this text online throughout the term or you can down-
load a PDF to your desktop for easy access. You can also print out a paper copy to
read and annotate
annotate.
College vs. High School

In college, expectations change from what you may have experienced in high
school. The quantity and quality of work increases. The table below summarizes
some major differences between high school and college assignments.
High School College
Teachers may set aside class time You are expected to come to class with a
for reading and reviewing the basic understanding of material.
material.
Teachers often provide study Reviewing is primarily your

guides and other aids to help you responsibility.
prepare for exams.
Your grade is determined by a Your grade may depend on just a few

wide variety of assessments, both major assessments. Most are
minor and major. Many writing-based.
assessments are not
writing-based.
3 | 1.1 Reading and Writing in College

Hi
High
gh Sc
Schhoo
ooll Coll
lleg
egee
Writing assignments include Except in creative writing courses, most

personal and creative writing. writing assignments are expository
expository.
The structure and format of You may be asked to master new formats
writing assignments is generally or follow new standards within a
familiar. particular professional field.
Teachers try to help students who Although teachers want students to

are performing poorly, missing succeed, they expect you to take steps to
classes, or not turning in work. help yourself. “Second chances” are less
Often students get many “second common.
chances.”
Reading Strategies
Most discussions and writing assignments–from brief responses to in-depth
research papers–will depend on your ability to understand what you read. Follow-
ing are some strategies for getting the most out of assigned readings.
Planning
To handle college reading successfully, you need to manage your time and know
your purpose. “Time management” includes setting aside enough time to com-
plete work and breaking assignments into manageable chunks. If you are assigned
a fifty-page chapter for next week’s class, don’t wait until the night before to start.
Give yourself a few days and tackle one section at a time.
Knowing what you want to get out of a reading assignment–your purpose–helps

you determine how much time to spend on it and helps you stay focused when
tired or distracted. Sometimes your purpose is simply to understand the reading
well enough to discuss it intelligently in class. However, your purpose will often
go beyond that. You might read to compare two texts, to write a personal response,
or to gather ideas for research.
When you start a reading assignment, identify your purpose and write it down
somewhere such as on a sticky that you put on the first page of the book or on your
computer screen. Keep that information nearby and refer to it occasionally as you
read.

Improving Comprehension
In college, you will read a wide variety of materials, including textbooks, articles,
and scholarly journals. Your primary goal is to identify the main point, the idea the
writer wants to communicate. Finding the main point helps you understand the
details–the facts and explanations that develop and clarify the main point. It also
helps you relate the reading to things you learned in class or in other assignments.
Sometimes that task is relatively easy. Textbooks have headings that identify main
concepts and often include comprehension questions at the end of a chapter.
(This text provides information in the Preview and Takeaways boxes.) Diagrams
and charts can help you understand complex information. Non-fiction books and
articles may have an introduction that presents the writer’s main ideas and pur-
pose. In long works, chapter titles give a sense of what is covered.
Regardless of what you read, stop occasionally and assess how well you under-
stand what you are reading. If you aren’t confident, go back and read it again.
Don’t just push ahead.
A good way to review and reinforce what you’ve learned is to discuss the reading
with classmates. Discussions can help you determine whether your understanding
is the same as that of your peers. They can also spark new ideas or insights.
Active Reading
The most successful students in college are active readers: students who engage in
purposeful activities as they read. The best way to remember the information you
read is to do something physical with it, something beyond just letting your eyes
scan the page. For example, taking notes as you read helps your brain retain the
information.

Exercise 1
There are many different ways to take notes, but the process does not
need to be difficult or complicated to be effective. The essay “How to
Mark a Book” by Mortimer Adler (link in Ch. 8) provides a simple tech-
nique that is effective and easy to personalize.
Print out the Adler essay. Read it through once. Then, read it a second
time, marking the essay up using the process Adler explains.
Scan the annotated essay as a PDF or take a correctly-oriented photo of

the pages to submit the assignment.
Here is an example of what your marked-up essay should look like. You won’t say
exactly the same things; your notes are for you. But they should be thorough and
useful.

College Resources
If we try to handle every challenge alone, we can become frustrated and over-
whelmed. Following are some resources available at Mt. Hood Community Col-
lege (MHCC):
• Your instructors can clarify information and give you strategies to succeed.
To contact an instructor, use the Saints email system or My Messages in
Blackboard.
• Tutors will not write or edit your paper for you, but they can help you see,
understand, and fix problems before you submit work for grading. Contact
them at https://www.mhcc.edu/lsc/
• Tech support is available for Blackboard, Zoom, and Word. Call 503-491-7170
or email [email protected]
• Librarians can quickly guide you to exactly the information you need. Con-
tact them at https://www.mhcc.edu/library/
• Free, confidential counseling services can help a student cope with difficult
personal situations or academic problems. They are available at

https://www.mhcc.edu/Personal-Counseling/
Many students are reluctant to seek help. They feel like doing so marks them as
slow, weak, or demanding. The truth is, every learner occasionally struggles. If you
are sincerely trying to keep up but feel over your head, ask for help as early as pos-
sible. Most instructors will work hard to help students who make the effort to help
themselves.
Takeaways
• College reading and writing assignments differ from high school

assignments in quantity and quality.
• Managing college successfully requires you to plan ahead, divide
work into smaller, manageable tasks, and set aside sufficient time
for study.
• Learning to read purposefully and actively is crucial to succeeding
in college.
• Many resources are available to help with writing and other
aspects of college life. Ask for help when you need it.

CHAPTER 2: WORDS
2.1 Word Confusion
2.2 Word Choice
9 | Chapter 2: Words
2.1 Word Confusion
Preview
• frequently misspelled words

• commonly confused words
• homonyms
Experienced writers know that deliberate, careful word selection leads to more
effective writing. This chapter covers common word errors and how to correct
them.
Frequently Misspelled Words

Writers are responsible for the errors in their work. Spellcheckers are useful, but
they cannot replace human knowledge and judgment.
Below is a list of words that are often misspelled. Each word has a segment in bold
type, which indicates the part of the word that is often spelled incorrectly. Read
through the list, noting words that are problematic for you.
accross disapp
appoint integ
tegration particu
ular separa
arate
addr
ddress disapp
pprove intell
telligent per
perform similar
ilar
answ
wer does
esn’t intere
erest per
perhaps sin
since
argu
ument eighth
hth inter
erfere personn
nnel spee
eech
2.1 Word Confusion | 10

athl
thlete embarr
rrass jewel
elry poss
ssess
ss strength
gth
beginn
nning environ
onment judgm
gment poss
ssible succ
ccess
behavi
vior exagg
ggerate knowled
dge pre
prefer sur
surprise
caleendaar famili
iliar maintain
ain prejud
judice tau
taught
carreerr finally
lly matheematics privilege
ege temperaature
conscie
cience govern
rnment meaant probab
bably thorou
orough
crowded
ded grammaar nece
cessary psy
psychology
gy thoughtt
defini
inite heigh
ght nervous
ous pur
ursue tired
d
des
escribe ill
illegal occ
ccasion refer
erence until
il
desper
erate immediate
iately opinion
ion rhy
rhythm
m weight
ht
diffe
fferent important
ant optiimist ridicul
ulous writt
tten
11 | 2.1 Word Confusion

Exercise 1
Find the 10 misspelled words in the following paragraphs. List them,

spelled correctly.
(Note: “Lenapi” is not misspelled; it is the name of a native American

tribe. “Breuckelen” is also not misspelled. Look for common words.)
Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs that make up New York

City. It is located on the eastern shore of Long Island directly
accross the East River from the island of Manhattan. Its begin-
ings stretch back to the sixteenth century when it was founded
by the Dutch who originally called it “Breuckelen.” Immedietely
after the Dutch settled Brooklyn, it came under British rule.
However, niether the Dutch nor the British were Brooklyn’s first
inhabitants.
When European settlers first arrived, Brooklyn was largely

inhabited by the Lenapi, a collective name for several organized
groups of Native American people who settled a large area of
land that extended from upstate New York through the entire
state of New Jersey. Over time, the Lenapi succumbed to Euro-
pean diseases or died in conflicts with European settlers or other
Native American enemies. Finalley they were pushed out of
Brooklyn completly by the British.
In 1776, Brooklyn was the site of the first importent battle of the
American Revolution known as the Battle of Brooklyn. The
colonists lost this battle, which was led by George Washington,
but over the next two years they would win the war, kicking the
British out of the colonies permanently.

By the end of the nineteenth century, Brooklyn grew to be a city
in its own right. The completion of the Brooklyn Bridge was an
ocasion for celebration; transportation and commerce between
Brooklyn and Manhattan became much easier. Then, in 1898,
Brooklyn lost its seperate identity as an independent city and
became one of five boroughs of New York City. In some people’s
opinion, the intagration into New York City should have never
happened; they thought Brooklyn should have remained an
independent city.
Commonly Confused
Words Tip
As you study this information, pay special
attention to words that are challenging for
you.
These words are identi-
A, An, And fied by their part of
speech as well as their
• A (article
article) is used before nouns that meaning. A definition
begin with a consonant
consonant: a key, a mouse, for each part of speech
a screen is provided the first
• An (article) used before nouns that time the term is used.
begin with a vowel
vowel: an airplane, an For more about parts of
ocean, an igloo speech, see Ch. 3.
• And (conjunction
conjunction) connects two or
more words: peanut butter and jelly,
pen and pencil
Accept, Except

• Accept (verb
verb) means to take or agree to something offered: They accepted
our proposal for the conference.
• Except (conjunction) means only or but: We could fly except the tickets cost
too much.
Affect, Effect
• Affect (verb) means to create a change: Hurricane winds affect the amount of
rainfall.
• Effect (noun) means an outcome or result: Heavy rains will have an effect on
crops.
Its, It’s
• Its (pronoun
pronoun) shows possession: The butterfly flapped its wings.
• It’s (contraction
contraction) joins the words “it” and “is”: It’s a beautiful butterfly.
Loose, Lose
• Loose (adjective
adjective) describes something that is not tight or is detached: With-
out a belt, his pants are loose at the waist.
• Lose (verb) means to forget, give up, or fail to earn something: She will lose
more weight while training for the marathon.
Of, Have
• Of (preposition
preposition) means from or about: I studied maps of the city.
• Have (verb) means to possess something: I have friends help me move.
• Have (linking verb) is also used to connect verbs: I should have helped her.
Quite, Quiet, Quit
• Quite (adverb
adverb) means to a significant degree: My work will require quite a lot
of concentration.
• Quiet (adjective) means not loud: I need a quiet room to study.
• Quit (verb) means to stop or to end: I will quit when I am tired.

Than, Then
• Than (conjunction) is used to connect two or more items when comparing:

Registered nurses have less training than doctors.
• Then (adverb) means at a specific time: Doctors first complete medical school
and then open a practice.
Their, They’re, There
• Their (pronoun) shows possession: The Townsends feed their dogs twice a
day.
• They’re (contraction of a pronoun and a verb) joins the words “they” and
“are”: They’re the sweetest dogs in the neighborhood.
• There (adverb) indicates a particular place: The dogs’ bowls are over there, by
the table.
• There (pronoun) is also used to introduce a sentence in which the verb
comes before the subject: There are more treats handed out if the dogs
behave. Often this kind of sentence is better if reorganized: More treats are
handed out if the dogs behave.
To, Two, Too
• To (preposition) indicates movement: Let’s go to the circus.

• To also completes a certain type of verb: to play, to ride, to watch.
• Two (adjective) is the number after one. It describes how many: Two clowns
squirted elephants with water.
• Too (adverb) means also or very: The crowd was too loud, so we left.
Who’s, Whose
• Who’s (contraction) joins the pronoun “who” and the verb “is” or “has”:
Who’s the new student? Who’s met him?
• Whose (pronoun) shows possession: Whose schedule allows them to take
the new student tour?
Your, You’re

• Your (pronoun) shows possession: Your book bag is unzipped.
• You’re (contraction) joins the pronoun “you” and the verb “are”: You’re the
girl with the unzipped book bag.
Exercise 2
Type the following sentences, choosing the correct word from those in
parentheses
parentheses:
1. My little cousin turns ____________ (to, too, two) years old tomorrow.
2. The next-door neighbor’s dog is ____________ (quite, quiet, quit) loud. He
barks constantly throughout the night.
3. ____________ (Your, You’re) mother called this morning to talk about the
party.
4. I would rather eat a slice of chocolate cake ____________ (than, then) a
chocolate muffin.
5. I don’t care ____________ (whose, who’s) coming to the party.
6. Do you have any ____________ (loose, lose) change to pay the parking
meter?
7. Father must ____________ (have, of) left his briefcase at the office.
8. The party ____________ (their, there, they’re) hosting will be in June at
____________ (their, there, they’re) ranch, and we are planning to be ____________
(their, there, they’re).
9. It must be fall, because ____________ (it’s, its) getting darker earlier.
10. Four animals live in my house: ____________ (a, an, and) cat, ____________ (a, an,
and) owl, ____________ (a, an, and) two old dogs.

Homonyms
Homonyms are words that sound like each other but have different meanings. For
example, a witch rides a broom, but the word “which” is a question word when
choosing between options. Following is a list of commonly confused homonyms.
Read through the list, paying particular attention to words you have found con-
fusing in the past.
Lead, Led
• Lead can be used in several ways. As a noun, is can name a type of metal:
The lead pipes in my home need to be replaced. It can also refer to a position
of advantage: Our team is in the lead
lead. As a verb, it can mean to guide or
direct: The girl will lead the horse by its halter.
• Led (verb) is the past tense of “lead”: The young volunteer led the patrons
through the museum.
Lessen, Lesson
• Lessen (verb) means to reduce in number, size, or degree: My dentist gave me

medicine to lessen the pain of my aching tooth.
• Lesson (noun) is reading or exercise for a student: Today’s lesson was about
mortgage interest rates.
Passed, Past
• Passed (verb) means to move: He passed slower cars using the left lane.
• Past (noun) means having taken place before the present: The argument hap-
pened in the past
past, so there is no use in dwelling on it.
Principle, Principal
• Principle (noun) is a fundamental concept that is accepted as true: The prin

prin--
ciple of human equality is an important foundation for peace.
• Principal (noun) has two meanings. It can mean the original amount of debt
on which interest is calculated: The payment covered both principal and

interest. Or it can mean a person who is the main authority of a school: The
principal held a conference for parents and teachers.
Threw, Through
• Threw (verb) is the past tense of the word “throw”: She threw the football
with perfect form.
• Through (preposition) indicates movement: She walked through the door
and out of his life. (Note: “Thru” is a non-standard spelling of “through”
and should be avoided.)
Where, Wear
• Where (adverb) is the place in which something happens: Where is the

restaurant?
• Wear (verb) is to carry or have on the body: I wear my hiking shoes when I
climb.
Whether, Weather
• Whether (conjunction) means expressing a doubt or choice: I don’t know

whether to go to Paris or Hawaii.
• Weather (noun) is a quality of the atmosphere: The weather could be rainy.

Exercise 3
Type the following sentences, choosing the correct homonym from the
options in parentheses:
1. I ____________ (where, wear) my pajamas to attend online classes.

2. Being ____________ (led, lead) up the mountain by a guide felt safer.
3. Serina described ____________ (witch, which) book was hers.
4. Do you think it is healthy for Grandpa to talk about the ____________
(passed, past) all the time?
5. Eating healthier foods will ____________ (lessen, lesson) the risk of heart
disease.
6. Everyone goes ____________ (through, threw) hardships in life.
7. The ____________ (weather, whether) continued to be unpredictable.
8. The ____________ (principal, principle) gave the students a long lecture
about peer pressure.
The English language contains about 200,000 words. Some are borrowed from
other languages. Some have multiple meanings and forms. When in doubt, con-
sult an expert: the dictionary!

Takeaways
• Error-free spelling enhances your credibility with readers.

• Differentiating homonyms can reduce confusion.
• Choosing the proper words leaves a positive impression on read-
ers.

2.2 Word Choice
Preview
• using a dictionary and a thesaurus

• recognizing connotations
• avoiding slang, clichés
clichés, and overly general words
Effective writing involves making conscious choices about which words best con-
vey your ideas to the reader.
If you have always been an avid reader, your vocabulary is probably large and you
generally use words correctly. The best time to develop language skills is as a child,
but it’s never too late to start. The more you read, the larger your vocabulary gets
and the more the rules of language use are automatically embedded in your brain.
But studying how to use words can also expand your vocabulary and increase your
ability to use words correctly.
Use a Dictionary and Thesaurus

Even professional writers need help with the meaning, spelling, pronunciation,
and use of some words. No one knows every word in the English language and
their multiple uses and meanings, so all writers, from beginners to professionals,
can benefit from using a dictionary and a thesaurus.
21 | 2.2 Word Choice

Most good dictionaries provide the following information:
• Spelling: how the word and its different forms are spelled
• Pronunciation: how to say the word
• Part of speech: the function of the word in a sentence
• Definition: the meaning or meanings of the word
• Synonyms
Synonyms: words that have similar meanings
• Etymology: the history of the word
Look at the following dictionary entry and see if you can identify parts from the
list above:
myth
myth, mith, n. [Gr. mythos, a word, a fable, a legend.] A fable or legend
embodying the convictions of a people as to their gods or other divine
beings, their beginnings and early history and the heroes connected with
it, or the origin of the world; any invented story, having no existence in
fact.—myth • ic, myth • i • cal
A thesaurus gives a list of synonyms and antonyms for a word. A thesaurus can
help you find the perfect word to convey your ideas. It will also help you learn
more words.
Here is an example thesaurus entry. It gives

the word, its part of speech, an example of
its use, and synonyms and antonyms. Tip
precocious adj., She’s such a preco-
cious child.: uncommonly smart,
mature, advanced, bright, brilliant,
gifted, quick, clever. Ant. slow, Never simply replace
backward, stupid. one word with another
unless you are sure you
Every time you use a dictionary or a the- know what the replace-
saurus, the number of ways you can express ment word means!
yourself grows.
2.2 Word Choice | 22

Recognizing Connotations
“Denotation” is the dictionary definition of a word, its literal meaning. A “con-
notation” is the emotional or cultural meaning attached to a word. The connota-
tion of a word can be positive, negative, or neutral. Obviously, writers want to use
words with correct meaning, but writers must also keep connotative meanings in
mind when choosing a word.
Look at the differences illustrated here:
Scrawny
• Denotation or literal definition: exceptionally thin and slight

• In a sentence: Although he was a scrawny child, Martin developed
into a strong man.
• Connotation: (negative) In this sentence, the word “scrawny”
implies weak or flawed.
Skinny
• Denotation or literal definition: having little fat

• In a sentence: Skinny jeans have become very fashionable.
• Connotation: (positive) In this sentence, the word “skinny” has pos-
itive cultural and personal overtones. It is good to remember that in
the past, “skinny” had only negative connotations, meaning less
than normal.
Lean
• Denotation or literal definition: lacking or deficient in flesh

• In a sentence: My brother is lean, but I have a more muscular build.
• Connotation: (neutral) The word “lean” does not evoke an overly
thin person like the word “scrawny,” nor does it imply the positive
cultural impressions of the word “skinny.” It is merely a neutral
descriptive word.

These words have very similar denotative meanings; however, their connotations
differ dramatically.
Exercise 1
For each of the words listed below, identify two synonyms

synonyms. One should
have a positive connotation and one a negative connotation.
For example:
dog: pet (positive), mutt (negative)
1. Smell
2. Liar
3. Proud
4. Young
5. Private
Avoiding Slang and Clichés

Slang is informal words that are non-standard English. “Non-standard” means
“not accepted by most people as correct.” Slang is language used by a specific
group and often changes over time as new fads appear. For example, the word
“cool” was common slang in the 1960s, whereas “cold” is common slang these
days. Slang is appropriate between friends in an informal context, but should be
avoided in academic writing.
Clichés are expressions that have lost their effectiveness because they are
overused. For example, the phrase “fluffy white clouds” is boring because we’ve
heard it a million times. The poet Rupert Brooke called clouds “rounds of snow.”
Better, right? We aren’t all poets, but writing that uses clichés suffers from a lack

of originality and insight. Avoiding clichés will help your writing feel original and
fresh. Here is an example:
• Cliché: When my brother and I have an argument, he says things that make
my blood boil.
• Better: When my brother and I have an argument, he says things that make
me really angry.
• Original: When my brother and I have an argument, he says things that
make me want to go to the gym and punch the bag for a few hours.

Exercise 2
Identify a casual word that you use frequently that is acceptable in con-
versation but not in the kind of formal writing expected in college. Write
a sentence using the word, underlining it. Then rewrite the sentence
replacing the casual word with a more formal option that means the same
thing. (Don’t pick a texting abbreviation, such as “LOL” or “OMG.”
They are casual and should be avoided in formal writing, but this assign-
ment is looking for actual words.)
For example:
• Casual sentence: When he doesn’t get what he wants, he’s a jerk.

• Revised sentence: When he doesn’t get what he wants, he
behaves badly.
Then, identify one cliché that you have used in the past. Write a sen-
tence using the cliché and underline it. Then rewrite the sentence
replacing the cliché with a more original option that means the same
thing.
For example:
• Cliché sentence: In this job, it’s important to think outside of the

box.
• Revised sentence: In this job, it’s important to think creatively.
Avoiding Overly General Words

General words are vague and boring. Specific words and images make writing

more interesting to read. Details bring your words to life. They provide color, tex-
ture, sound, even smell.
Which sentence in each pair is stronger, more visual, and more fun to read?
• My new puppy is cute.

• My new puppy is a ball of white fuzz with eyes like black olives.
• My teacher told us plagiarism is bad.

• My teacher, Ms. Atwater, explained that plagiarism is illegal and unethical.
Notice that it isn’t the use of fancy words that makes an image vivid; it’s the use of
specific examples.
Exercise 3
Revise the following sentences by replacing the overly general words

(which are underlined) with more precise and interesting language. Don’t
overdo; just add some specific detail.
1. My sister’s new hair style was interesting.

2. The good dog got a cookie.
3. The farmer was tired after a long day.
4. She thought the guy at the next table was cute.
5. Santiago worked hard on the brick patio.

Takeaways
• Using a dictionary and thesaurus will improve your writing by

expanding your word choice.
• Connotations of words may be positive, neutral, or negative. Be
aware of connotations when choosing words.
• Slang, cliches, and overly general words should be avoided in writ-
ing.

CHAPTER 3: PARTS OF
SPEECH
3.1 Nouns and Capitalization
3.2 Pronouns
3.3 Verbs
3.4 Adjectives and Adverbs
3.5 Prepositions
3.6 Conjunctions and Interjections
29 | Chapter 3: Parts of Speech

3.1 Nouns and Capitalization
Preview
• understanding “parts of speech”

• a noun’s job
• common and proper nouns
• capitalization rules
There are two ways to be a correct writer:
• read a lot
• study grammar
If you were lucky enough to have a family that encouraged you to read books as a
child, and you continued to read over the years, chances are your writing is already
correct. Why? Because your brain absorbed the structures and systems we call
“standard English usage” as you read. You may not be able to recite the rules, but
you are able to use them.
If that didn’t happen, then you probably struggle with writing to some extent. You
didn’t see enough correct language to embed the rules in your unconscious mind.
But it is never too late! The more you read good writing, the more you will auto-
matically write correctly.
Why does correct grammar matter? We all know that writing correctly is part of
how students are graded in every class that involves writing (and that is “most
3.1 Nouns and Capitalization | 30

classes”). But writing correctly is also important after college. Stop here and read
the essay “I Won’t Hire People Who Use Poor Grammar. Here’s Why” by Karl
Wiens (a link is available in Ch. 8).
Writers who want to write more correctly need to study grammar so they can con-
sciously make correct choices when they write. Does it take work? Yes. But in the
long run, it is easier than spending the next 50 years making the same mistakes
over and over and over. Learning to write correctly is like every challenge in life: it
won’t get better until you deal with it. The information in this chapter will get you
closer to the kind of writing you want to be able to do.
The “8 Parts of Speech”

“Parts of speech” is the system we use to explain how words are used in a sen-
tence–which word goes where, why, and in what form.
Even if you struggle with writing, your brain already has a pretty good grasp of
how this system works. For example, you know there is something wrong with this
sentence:
I love dog my.
If I asked you to explain the problem, I doubt you would say, “The possessive pro-
noun ‘my’ is being used as an adjective here, to show who owns the dog, and it
should be placed before the noun it modifies.” But you’ve heard enough correct
examples that your brain automatically sees the problem.
Can you spot the more subtle errors in the following sentences?
• The two best things about the party was the music and the food. (Error: sub
sub--
ject
ject/verb agreement. The verb “was” does not agree with the subject
“things.” It should be “were.”)
• Natalie found a sparkly girl’s bracelet on the sidewalk. (Error: misplaced
modifier
modifier. It’s not a sparkly girl, it’s a sparkly bracelet.)
• When John’s dog came back, he was so happy. (Error: unclear pronoun refer-
ence. Who was happy? The dog or John?)
31 | 3.1 Nouns and Capitalization

Understanding how words work can help writers communicate more clearly and
correctly. Start here:
“Part of speech” is what job a word is doing in a sentence.
There are eight parts of speech in English. In other words, there are eight possible
jobs or functions. Here is a list, with brief job descriptions:
1. noun: names a person, place, thing, or idea

2. pronoun: used in place of a noun to avoid repetition
3. adjective: modifies a noun or pronoun
4. verb: shows action, links subjects with words that describe them, or helps
other verbs do those things
5. adverb: modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
6. preposition: shows the position of something or someone in space and time
7. conjunction: connects words, phrases
phrases, or clauses
8. interjection: shows surprise or emotion
In Ch. 3, we will study the eight parts of speech, one at a time and in depth.

Graphics
This PowerPoint presentation is a visual review of the parts of speech.

Click on the image below to open it and work through the slides.
What Is a Noun?
The simplest words in English are nouns
nouns; they are easy to understand and found
everywhere. To understand how English is structured, start by understanding
what nouns do and how to find them in sentences.
A noun is a word that names people, places, things, or ideas

ideas.
Remember that “part of speech” is what job a word is doing in a sentence. Naming
is a noun’s job. All of the following words are nouns because they name someone
or something:
rabbit, tangerine, paper clip, Mars, democracy, student, Alaska

Most nouns are things you can see (like a mouse or the sun), but nouns can also
name ideas (like democracy or faith).
Proper Nouns
There are two types of nouns: proper and common. Proper nouns name specific
people, places, things, or ideas. For example:
• people: Shakespeare, Jean

• places: Paris, Gresham, the South
• things: Kleenex, Geology 101, Oreos
• ideas: Buddhism, Reconstruction
Proper nouns can be more than one word, but they still name one thing. For exam-
ple:
• people: Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Bill Gates, Billie Eilish

• places: New York City, Republic of Ireland
• things: House of Representatives, MacBook Pro
• ideas: Harlem Renaissance, Green New Deal
The following types of words are usually proper nouns:
• deities, religions, religious followers, sacred books (Allah, Catholic, Protes-

tants, the Torah)
• family relationship when used as a name (Mom, Grandpa Lenz)
• nationalities, languages, races, tribes (Italian, Japanese, African American,
Apache)
• educational institutions, departments, specific courses (Mt. Hood Commu-
nity College, Humanities Department, Writing 115)
• government departments, organizations, political parties (Army Corps of
Engineers, Doctors Without Borders, Democratic Party)
• historical movements, periods, events, documents (Black Lives Matter, the
Renaissance, March Madness, Declaration of Independence)
• trade names (Apple, Xerox, Newman’s Own)
• months, holidays, days of the week–but not seasons (July, Yom Kippur, Fri-

day, but not winter)
• titles when used as part of a person’s
name–but not when used alone (Gover-
nor Brown, but not the governor of Ore-
gon) Tip
• titles of books, movies, CDs (The Hunger
Games, “Bohemian Rhapsody,” Back to
Black)
Proper nouns are

Common Nouns always capitalized.
Common nouns name general people, places, Common nouns are

things, or ideas. For example: never capitalized,
unless they are the
• people: students, aunt, dog first word of a sen-
• places: river, country, home tence.
• things: aquarium, car, hamburger, rose
• ideas: democracy, love, happiness, reli-
gion
Common nouns, like proper nouns, can be more than one word, but they still
name one thing. For example:
• people: homeless person, state representative

• places: high school, swimming pool
• things: printer cartridge, washing machine
• ideas: civil rights, public speaking
Nouns of more than one word are called compound nouns

nouns. The two words
together have a meaning that is different from the two separate words. For exam-
ple, a “state” is one thing, a “representative” is another thing, and a “state rep-
resentative” has a third, slightly different meaning. Sometimes compound nouns
are written as one word (“greenhouse”) or hyphenated (“mother-in-law”). Check
a dictionary to be sure.

Changing Jobs
Sometimes words can be a proper noun in one sentence but a common noun in
another. For example:
• My sister Fern prefers ferns to flowers. (“Fern” is a proper noun because it is

a specific person’s name, but “ferns” is a common noun because it names a
general type of plant.)
• My mother said she was tired, but Dad was ready to go. (“mother” is a com-
mon noun here because it names the relationship, but “Dad” is what we call
him, so it’s a proper noun.)
• When Obama was President, he actually called the president of my garden
club. (“President” is only capitalized when it refers to the President of the
United States, not when it refers to someone like the “president of my gar-
den club.”)

Graphics
Cartoon videos are an easy way to review the information you studied.
Click on the icon below to view a video about nouns:

Exercise 1
Type up the following sentences. Double space the text.
1. Toby studies film at the University of New Mexico.

2. I spend time in the garden because it is so peaceful.
3. Blues guitar is my very favorite music.
4. Rats! The noisiest dog on our block just had puppies.
5. John lives in Oregon now, but he previously lived in California,
Alaska, Texas, and Massachusetts.
Identify which words in each sentence are nouns by highlighting them in

yellow. Remember that a noun can be proper or common and also can
sometimes be more than one word.
For example: The fox jumped over the sleeping German Shep-
herd, then ran silently away.
The word “fox” is a common noun and one word; “German Shepherd” is
a proper noun made up of two words.
Keep this exercise, as you will continue to work on these sentences as

you proceed through Ch. 3.
Capitalization
Knowing what to capitalize is not difficult: there are only a few rules.
Why are rules of capitalization in a chapter about nouns? Because one of the main
ways capital letters are used is to differentiate between proper and common nouns.

Proper nouns are always capitalized. Common nouns are not. The following table
illustrates the differences:
common noun Proper Noun
museum The Art Institute of Chicago
theater Apollo Theater
country Malaysia
uncle Uncle Javier
doctor Dr. Jackson
book Pride and Prejudice
college Smith College
war the Spanish-American War
historical event The Renaissance
Besides proper nouns, there are several other capitalization rules:
• The pronoun “I” is always capitalized. For example: It’s time I settled down
and found a job.
• The first word in every sentence is capitalized. For example: Peaches taste
best when they are cold.
• The first word in a sentence-length quotation is capitalized
capitalized. For example:
The college president asked, “W
What can we do for our students?”
• The first, last, and main words in a title are capitalized
capitalized. For example: I found
a copy of Darwin’s book The Origin of Species at a yard sale.
That’s it. The challenge is not understanding when to capitalize. It’s remembering
to do it.

Exercise 2
Type up the following sentences, correcting any capitalization errors.
1. my best friend’s name is judy and i met her in alaska.

2. Last term, I read a book called the thing with feathers by noah
stryker.
3. If the movie is that bad, i have to ask, “why spend your money?”
4. uncle jack smoked cigars and drank too much, but He loved his
wife and son.
5. Mt. Hood community college is offering very few face-to-face
classes now.

Takeaways
• Understanding parts of speech is the first step in understanding

how writing works.
• A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are either
proper or common.
• Always capitalize the following:
◦ proper nouns
◦ the pronoun “I”
◦ the first word in every sentence
◦ the first word in a sentence-length quote
◦ the first, last, and main words in a title.

3.2 Pronouns
Preview
• a pronoun’s job
• fixing common pronoun problems
Pronouns are more complicated than nouns and they cause more trouble. To mas-
ter pronouns, start by noticing the word “pronoun” has the word “noun” embed-
ded in it. That gives us a hint that they are related, and you already know what a
noun is.
What Is a Pronoun?
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun to avoid repetition.
Here is an example of how pronouns work:
Maria threw the boomerang and it came back to her. (“it” and “her” are
pronouns)
If there were no pronouns, writing and speaking would be tedious and repetitive.
The above sentence would be written like this:
Maria threw the boomerang and the boomerang came back to Maria.
3.2 Pronouns | 42
The noun that is being replaced by the pronoun is called its antecedent
antecedent. “Maria” is
the antecedent of “her” and “boomerang” is the antecedent of “it.”
Compared to nouns, there are very few pronouns. Following is a pretty complete
list. Read through it to get familiar with the kind of words that work as pronouns.
all she no one they

another her nothing this
any hers one those

anyone herself our us
anybody I ours you
anything it ourselves your
both its several yours
each itself some yourself

either many somebody yourselves
everybody me someone we
everyone my something what
everything myself that which
few mine their whichever

he most theirs who
him neither them whom
himself nobody themselves whoever
his none these whomever
Pronouns can be divided into lots of different types: personal, possessive, reflex-
ive, intensive, indefinite, demonstrative, interrogative, relative, etc. Don’t let that
overwhelm you. They do slightly different things, but they all have the same basic
job: they replace nouns to avoid repetition.
Correcting Pronoun Errors

Pronoun errors are the second most common error in college writing (comma
43 | 3.2 Pronouns
errors are #1), so it is worth your time to study pronouns and better understand
how to use them.
The three most common pronoun errors are these:
• unclear pronoun reference

• lack of noun/pronoun agreement
• shifts in person
Error #1: Unclear Pronoun Reference

If we don’t understand which noun the pronoun has replaced, that is called an
unclear pronoun reference. For example:
Before syncing my phone with my laptop, I deleted everything on it.

(What does the pronoun “it” refer to? The phone or the laptop? This is an
example of an unclear pronoun reference.)
A clearer explanation would be this:
I deleted everything on my phone before syncing it with my laptop. (Now

“it” clearly refers to the phone.)
Error #2: Lack of Noun/Pronoun Agreement

Pronouns must agree in number with the nouns to which they refer. If the noun is
singular, the pronoun replacing it should also be singular. If the noun is plural, the
pronoun replacing it must be plural. For example:
3.2 Pronouns | 44
The parrot (singular) sat on its (sin-
gular) perch.
The parrots (plural) sat on their Tip

(plural) perches.
When referring to several people, it can be

tempting to avoid sexist language by using
both male and female pronouns rather than People in the transgen-
defaulting to male. For example: der and gender non-
conforming
Sexist: An actor must share his emo-
communities often use
tions.
the pronoun “they” to
Not sexist, but awkward: An actor refer to one person. In
must share her or his emotions. the past, we would not
say, “Mason has a new
A better way to fix the problem is to switch cat because they love
to a plural noun and pronoun. For example: cats.” Traditional gram-
mar rules required a
Actors must share their emotions.
singular pronoun when
Although many singular pronouns in Eng- referring to a singular
lish reflect a specific gender (he, she, him, noun. But respect for
her), most plural pronouns do not (they, an individual’s identity
them, their, we, us). is an important part of
the evolution of lan-
Error #3: Shifts in Person guage.
Don’t assume which

To understand what “person” means, imag- pronoun a person uses.
ine a conversation between three people. It is okay to politely ask
The first person would speak using “I.” That people their pronoun.
person would talk to a second person using
“you.” When they talk about a third person,
they use “he,” “she” or “they.”
• First person pronouns: I, me, mine, we, us, ours

• Second person pronouns: you, yours
45 | 3.2 Pronouns
• Third person pronouns: he, him, his, she, her, they, them, theirs, one, any-
one, it, its
When using pronouns, avoid incorrectly mixing first, second, and third person.
That is called “shifts in person.” For example:
With our delivery service, cus-

tomers can pay for their groceries
when ordering or when you receive Tip
them. (“Customers” is third person,
so “you,” which is second person, is
a shift in person.)
Here is how the sentence should read: Don’t use second per-
son (“you”) in college
With our delivery service, cus- or business writing. It is
tomers can pay when they order or too casual. Use first per-
when they receive the groceries.” son (“I”) or third per-
son “(“she,” “he,”
Three Quick Pronoun “them”) instead.
Guidelines
1. The words “who,” “whom,” and
“whose” refer only to people. The word “which” refers to things. The word
“that” can refer to people or things. Never write “I have a dog who bites.”
2. To decide whether to use “me” or “I,” take out the other person’s name and
see if the sentence sounds right: “The teacher looked at Maria and I.” sounds
wrong. “The teacher looked at Maria and me.” is correct.
3. Never put a pronoun directly after a noun. For example: “Christine she went
to work earlier than usual.” Delete either the pronoun “she” or the noun
“Christine.”
3.2 Pronouns | 46
Exercise 1
Type up the following sentences, correcting any pronoun confusion

errors. Don’t guess. Refer to the information above to figure out the cor-
rect answer.
1. The children they were behaving badly.

2. Natalie and me went shopping on Friday.
3. The teacher gave Makayla her notes.
4. Any actor attending the play audition should bring his own lunch.
5. Kevin is a man which has high standards.
6. An employee is only successful if he or she works hard.
47 | 3.2 Pronouns
Graphics
To review pronouns, watch this great cartoon video:
3.2 Pronouns | 48
Exercise 2
Go back to the following sentences from Ex. 1 in Ch. 3.1.
1. Toby studies film at the University of New Mexico.

2. I spend time in the garden because it is so peaceful.
3. Blues guitar is my very favorite music.
4. Rats! The noisiest dog on our block just had puppies.
5. John lives in Oregon now, but he previously lived in California,
Alaska, Texas, and Massachusetts.
You have marked the nouns by highlighting them in yellow. If you made
any errors previously, correct them now.
Then, look for any words in the sentences that are pronouns. Highlight
them in orange. Notice that, unlike nouns, some sentences will have
pronouns and some won’t.
Takeaways
• A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.

• Pronoun errors are very common and include unclear pronoun
reference, noun/pronoun agreement problems, and shifts in per-
son.
49 | 3.2 Pronouns
3.3 Verbs
Preview
• a verb’s job
• dealing with verb tense
• managing irregular verbs
Verbs may be the most important part of speech. Why? Because every sentence
has to have a verb. For example:
Stop!
That is a complete sentence. It has what is called a “you understood” subject (the
subject is not written, but a command is directed at someone and we “understand”
that) and it has a verb: “stop.” That’s enough to express a complete thought.
You can’t have a sentence without a verb, no matter how many words you write.
For example:
The small black dog in my backyard with floppy ears and a long tail.
That’s a fragment
fragment. Why? Because it doesn’t have a verb. Learning about verbs will
help you avoid writing sentence fragments.
3.3 Verbs | 50
What Is a Verb?
A verb shows action or a state of being. The verb in a sentence is what the subject
is doing. (More about subjects in Ch. 4.1.)
Action verbs are easy: they are words like “walk,” “study,” “wash,” “wait,” and
“dance.” They are words that describe something happening. For example:
The raccoon ate the old pizza box. (“ate” is what the raccoon did. “ate” is
the verb.)
But after that, it gets more complicated.
A verb can also link subjects with words that describe them. Think of “linking”
as an action. Common linking verbs include “is,” “am,” “are,” “was,” “seem,”
“became” and “look.” For example:
Emmett is a small black dog. (“is” links the subject “Emmett” with the
description “a small black dog.” Therefore “is” is a verb.)
Often a verb is one word, but a verb can also be two or more words. These are
called verb phrases
phrases. For example:
We have taken many trips together. (“have taken” is a verb phrase.)
Verb Tense
Verbs not only tell us what is happening, they tell us when it is happening. This is
called verb tense
tense. For example:
• I walk to school. (present tense: I am doing it now.)

• I walked to school. (past tense: I used to do it.)
• I will walk to school. (future tense: I am going to do it.)
When the action is happening is communicated by the form of the verb: “walk,”
“walked,” “will walk.”
51 | 3.3 Verbs
Generally, verb tense should remain consistent in writing. If you start in present
tense, stay there, or if you start in past tense, stay there. For example:
I walked to school on Tuesday. When I arrived, I saw my teacher. She told

me to get to class quickly. I ran through the door, sat in my chair, and took
a deep breath. (Notice that all of the underlined verbs are past tense.)
However, there are times when we want to shift tense to let a reader know things
happened at different times. For example:
To Kill a Mockingbird is Harper Lee’s most famous book. It received a

Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1961. Lee died in 2016, but her book will remain
one of the most compassionate novels in American literature.
Her book is currently famous. She received a prize and died in the past. Her book
will remain great into the future. All those events happened at different times and
we change the form of the verb to let the reader know when.
3.3 Verbs | 52
Exercise 1
Type up the following paragraph, inserting the correct form of the verb,
whether present, past, or future tense.
The Dust Bowl ____________ (is, was, will be) a name given to a period of
destructive dust storms that occurred in the United States dur-
ing the 1930s. The Dust Bowl mostly ____________ (affects, affected, will
affect) Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico.
Dust storms ____________ (continue, continued, will continue) to occur
in these dry regions, but not to the devastating degree of the
1930s. The dust storms during The Dust Bowl ____________ (cause,
caused, will cause) irreparable damage to farms and the environ-
ment for several years. When early settlers ____________ (move, moved,
will move) into these areas, they ____________ (remove, removed, will
remove) the natural prairie grasses to plant crops and graze cattle.
They did not ____________ (realize, realized, will realize) the grasses kept
the soil in place. The Dust Bowl era finally came to end in 1939
when the rains ____________ (arrive, arrived, will arrive).
Irregular Verbs
The most troublesome thing about verbs is that many are “irregular.”
Regular verbs change to past tense by adding “d” or “ed.” For example:
walk → walked
type → typed
dance → danced
53 | 3.3 Verbs
But irregular verbs change in irregular ways. For example:
sell → sold
is → was
think → thought
The best way to learn about irregular verbs is simply to get familiar with them.
Read through the list below, and notice any verbs which have caused you problems
in the past:
Present → Past Present → Past Present → Past
be → was, were give → gave sell → sold
become → became go → went send → sent
begin → began grow → grew set → set
blow → blew have → had shake → shook
break → broke hear → heard shine → shone (shined)
shrink → shrank
bring → brought hide → hid
(shrunk)
build → built hold → held sing → sang
burst → burst hurt → hurt sit → sat
buy → bought keep → kept sleep → slept
catch → caught know → knew speak → spoke
choose → chose lay → laid spend → spent
come → came lead → led spring → sprang
cut → cut leave → left stand → stood
dive → dove (dived) let → let steal → stole
do → did lose → lost strike → struck
draw → drew make → made swim → swam
drink → drank mean → meant swing → swung
drive → drove meet → met take → took
eat → ate pay → paid teach → taught
3.3 Verbs | 54
Presen
resentt → P
Past
ast Presen
resentt → P
Past
ast Presen
resentt → P
Past
ast
fall → fell put → put tear → tore
feed → fed quit → quit tell → told
feel → felt read → read think → thought
fight → fought ride → rode throw → threw
understand →
find → found ring → rang
understood
fly → flew rise → rose wake → woke
forget → forgot run → ran wear → wore
forgive → forgave say → said win → won
freeze → froze see → saw wind → wound
get → got seek → sought
Graphics
To review verbs, watch this great cartoon video:
55 | 3.3 Verbs
Exercise 2
Go back to the sentences that you used for Ex. 1 in Ch. 3.1.
You have already identified the nouns by highlighting them in yellow

and the pronouns by highlighting them in orange. If you made any
errors, correct them now.
Now, identify which words in the sentences are verbs by highlighting

them in red. (Hint: The verbs are what the nouns and pronouns are
doing.)
Keep this exercise for further work in Ch. 3.
Takeaways
• Using verbs correctly is challenging but important to writing

clearly.
• Verb tense helps a writer express when an event takes place.
• Regular verbs follow regular patterns when shifting from present
to past tense, but irregular verbs do not.
3.3 Verbs | 56
3.4 Adjectives and Adverbs
Preview
• the jobs of adjectives and adverbs

• avoiding common errors
Adjectives and adverbs modify or add information to other words. Adjectives and
adverbs make writing more interesting.
For example, “cat” is a good, solid noun and

“ran” is a simple verb, but “The silky spotted
cat ran swiftly and silently.” is much more Tip
interesting than “The cat ran.” “Silky” and
“spotted” are adjectives; “swiftly” and
“silently” are adverbs.
To “modify” means to
Adjectives change or improve
something by adding to
Adjectives modify only nouns and pro
pro-- it. Notice “adjective”
nouns. and “adverb” both
begin with “ad“?
An adjective answers questions such as
which one, what kind, what color, or what
shape.
57 | 3.4 Adjectives and Adverbs

To find an adjective, first find the nouns and pronouns. Then, look around to see
if any words add information to those nouns and pronouns.
Here is an example of adjectives modifying nouns:
The head librarian helped me find a history book on famous writers.

(“librarian,” “book” and “writers” are all nouns. The adjectives are “head,”
which tells us which librarian; “history,” which tells us what kind of book;
and “famous,” which tells us what kind of writers.)
Here is an example of an adjective modifying a pronoun:
She is tall. (“tall” is an adjective that describes the size of the pronoun
“She.”)
A Word About Articles

The words “a,” “an” and “the” are special types of adjectives called articles
articles. They
modify nouns and pronouns just like regular adjectives and tell us which one or
how many. For example:
The dog barked at a woman on the street. (“The” tells us which dog, “a”
tells us how many women, and the second “the” tells us which street.)
Some people are confused about when to use “the” and when to use “a” or “an.”
The answer depends on whether we are modifying a specific noun (“the dog” as in
“that specific dog”) or a general noun (“a woman” as in “any woman”).
Placement
In English, adjectives usually come before the noun or pronoun (Asian elephant,
small table, long journey). But not always. For example:
3.4 Adjectives and Adverbs | 58

The organic farm has oranges that
are ripe and juicy. (“The” and
“organic” are adjectives that modify
the noun “farm.” But “ripe” and Tip
“juicy” are adjectives too; they mod-
ify the noun “oranges,” even though
they come after it.)
To find adjectives in a
Changing Jobs sentence, look for
nouns and pronouns
Sometimes nouns or pronouns modify
first. Then see if any
another noun or pronoun, and when they
words modify those
do, they change jobs and turn into adjec-
nouns and pronouns.
tives. For example:
dog’s bed, Vicky’s homework, her

book, their house, your decision
“dog’s,” “Vicky’s,” “her,” “their,” and “your” answer the question “which one?”
They look like nouns or pronouns, but they are working as adjectives here.
Capitalizing Adjectives
When proper nouns work as adjectives, they are capitalized, just like they’d be cap-
italized if they were working as nouns. For example:
Oregon → Oregon beer
Jewish → Jewish synagogue
Biden → Biden presidency

Graphics
Watch this cartoon video to reinforce what you’ve learned about adjec-
tives:

Exercise 1
Go back to the sentences that you used for Ex. 1 in Ch. 3.1.
You have identified the nouns by highlighting them in yellow, the pro-
nouns by highlighting them in orange, and the verbs by highlighting
them in red. If you made any errors, correct them now.
Next, look at the nouns and pronouns you identified to see if any words
modify them. Those will be adjectives. Highlight adjectives in light
green.
Adverbs
Adverbs and adjectives do the same kind of work: they modify other words. The
difference is which types of words they modify. Adjectives modify nouns and pro-
nouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
adverbs.
Adverbs answer questions such as how, to what extent, why, when, and where. For
example:
• Adverb modifying a verb: Bert sings horribly. (“horribly” modifies the verb
“sings”; it tells how he sings.)
• Adverb modifying an adjective: Sarah was very nervous about the date.
(“very” modifies the adjective “nervous”; it tells how much.)
• Adverb modifying another adverb: Students study really hard before finals.
(“hard” is an adverb that modifies the verb “study”; it tells to what extent.
But “really” is also an adverb; it modifies the adverb “hard”; it also tells to
what extent.)

To find adjectives, we started by finding nouns and pronouns. To find adverbs, we
must first find the verbs and adjectives in the sentence.
Placement
Unlike adjectives, which usually appear in front of the noun or pronoun they
modify, adverbs can move around. In the following sentences, the adverb “now”
modifies the verb “have” by saying when, but it can appear in many locations:
Now I have enough money for a vacation.
I now have enough money for a vacation.
I have enough money now for a vacation.
Adverbs can also appear in the middle of a verb phrase

phrase, but that doesn’t mean they
are part of the verb. They are still adverbs. For example:
I do not have enough money for a vacation. (“not” is an adverb that modi-
fies the verb “do have.”)
Other adverbs that often interrupt verbs are “also” and “never.”
Caution
Don’t overuse adverbs. Unlike adjectives, which often add interesting informa-
tion, too many adverbs can actually weaken writing. For example:
It was a very, very cold night. (The word “very” already means “exces-
sively” so don’t say it twice.)
Also, don’t use an adverb to modify a verb if a stronger, one-word verb is better.
For example, use “gulp” rather than “drink quickly” or “ravenous” rather than
“very hungry.”

Graphics
To reinforce what you’ve learned about adverbs, watch this cartoon

video:

Exercise 2
Go back to the sentences you did in Ex. 1 above. You’ve already identified
the nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives.
Now, look for adverbs, and highlight them in dark green:
• First, see if any words modify the verbs you’ve found. Those are
adverbs. Highlight them in dark green.
• Then see if any words modify the adjectives you found. Those are
also adverbs. Highlight them in dark green.
• Finally, see if any words modify the adverbs you just found in the
previous two steps. Those are also adverbs. Highlight those
adverbs in dark green.
There will still be a few words not labeled, but not many.
Save this exercise for more work in Ch. 3.
Don’t Confuse Adverbs and Adjectives

You may hear someone say, “Anthony is real smart” or “This pizza is real salty.”
That is incorrect grammar, and it is a common error. The correct way to say those
sentences is “Anthony is really smart” and “The pizza is really salty.”

Why? Because “real” is an adjective and
adjectives can’t modify other adjectives, like
“smart” or “salty.” On the other hand,
“really” is an adverb so it can modify an Tip
adjective.
People also have difficulty differentiating

between “good” and “well” or “bad” and
A dictionary will tell
“badly.” If you understand adjectives and
you what part of speech
adverbs, you will always choose the correct
a word is.
word. For example:
If the word can work as
Cecilia is a good person. (“good” is
several parts of speech,
an adjective that modifies the noun
a dictionary will tell you
“person.”)
that too.
Cecilia did well on a test. (“well” is

an adverb that modifies the verb
“did.”)
I performed badly on my accounting test. (“badly” is an adverb that modi-

fies the verb “performed.”)
The coming thunderstorm looked bad. (“bad” is an adjective that modifies

the noun “thunderstorm.”)
“Good” and “bad” are adjectives; they have to modify nouns or pronouns. “Well”
and “badly” are adverbs.

Takeaways
• Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

3.5 Prepositions
Preview
• the job of prepositions

• using prepositions to avoid common writing problems
The first five parts of speech we studied–nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and
adverbs–are the foundation of a sentence. They tell us who is doing what.
The small dog is barking loudly. It is annoying.
But many sentences are more complex than simply who and what. We also want
to know where and when.
The small dog ran into the street. (where)
The dog barks every day at 7 a.m. (when)
What Is a Preposition?
A preposition is a word that shows the position of something or someone in space
and time.
If you look at the word “preposition,” you’ll see the embedded word “position.” A
preposition tells us where and when.
67 | 3.5 Prepositions
A prepositional phrase is a common part of English sentences. A prepositional
phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition, ends with a noun or pro-
noun, and does not include the verb or subject.
In the sentences above, “into the street” is a prepositional phrase that shows where
the dog ran. “at 7 a.m.” is a prepositional phrase that tells us when it barks. Notice
that both begin with prepositions (“into,” “at”) and end with nouns (“street,” “7
a.m.”), and neither includes the subject or verb of the sentence.
Here is another example:
The study rooms (on the first floor) (of the library) are full (in the morning).
Each group of words enclosed in parenthe-

ses is a prepositional phrase: they all start
with a preposition (“on,” “of,” “in”), end Tip
with a noun or pronoun (“floor,” “library,”
“morning”), and don’t include the verb
(“are”) or subject (“rooms”). The job of
these prepositional phrases is to tell you When working with
where the study rooms are and when they English grammar, we
are full. mark prepositional
phrases by enclosing
Prepositions Show Position in them in parentheses.
Space
Here are some common prepositions that show positions in space:
to across over against with

at through inside under within
in beyond between beneath without

on among above around below
by near behind past from
Imagine a plane flying across a sky. We can change the plane’s position in space by
3.5 Prepositions | 68
changing the prepositions: above the clouds, below the clouds, within the clouds,
between the clouds, past the clouds, behind the clouds.
Another way to remember prepositions about space is with this graphic. Think of
where the caterpillar is in relation to the apple.
(This image reproduced with permission. © Elizabeth O’Brien,

English-Grammar-Revolution.com)
Prepositions Show Position in Time

Here is a list of common prepositions that show position in time:
at before since
by past throughout
in until from
for during between
after within around
Imagine that plane is about to land. We can change its position in time by chang-
ing prepositions: at 3 p.m., after 3 p.m., before 3 p.m., around 3 p.m.
Exceptions: Of, As, Like

The words “of,” “as,” and “like” are also prepositions, but they don’t fit neatly into
either the space or time category. However, they are very common. For example:
book of essays, note of apology, type of bicycle, give as an example, testify

as an expert, think like a computer, disappear like magic
Just remember: “of,” “as” and “like” are prepositions.
Exercise 1
In the following sentences, put parentheses before and after any preposi-
tional phrases.
For example: The cell phone rang (in the other room), but John
didn’t wake (from his nap).
Remember: Prepositional phrases always begin with a preposition and

end with a noun or pronoun. They sometimes include adjectives or
adverbs, but they never include verbs or subjects.
1. Meera was deeply interested in marine biology.

2. I just watched the season finale of my favorite show.
3. Jordan won the race, and I am happy for him.
4. The lawyer appeared before the court on Monday.
5. For the party, Chloe wore a comfortable blue tunic.
Why Bother?
Locating prepositional phrases will help you correct other parts of the sentence.
For example:
In the rainy season, one of our windows leaked at all four corners.
If we isolate the prepositional phrases from the rest of the sentence, it is easy to
find the verb and subject:
(In the rainy season), one (of our windows) leaked (at all four corners).
All we have left are the words “one” and “leaked.” “one” is the pronoun subject
and “leaked” is the verb.
Identifying prepositional phrases can help writers see and correct things like sub-
ject/verb agreement problems, sentence fragments, and other common grammati-
cal errors. (More about subjects and verbs in Ch. 4.)
Graphics
To review prepositions, watch this cartoon video:
Exercise 2
Go back again to the sentences you used for Ex. 1 in Ch. 3.1.
You’ve already highlighted nouns in yellow, pronouns in orange, verbs in

red, adjectives in light green, and adverbs in dark green. Double check to
make sure your answers are all correct.
Then, look for prepositions. Highlight the preposition itself in blue and
enclose each prepositional phrase in parentheses.
Save this exercise to complete in the remainder of Ch. 3.
Takeaways
• Prepositions show the placement in space or time of other ele-

ments in a sentence.
• Identifying prepositional phrases can help writers avoid other
grammatical errors.
3.6 Conjunctions and
Interjections
Preview
• using conjunctions
• recognizing and avoiding interjections
We have studied six of the eight parts of speech. The two remaining are the easi-
est.
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that connect. (Think what the word “junction” means: a
place where things cross or connect.) Conjunctions connect two or more people,
things, places, or ideas. They also can connect two or more parts of a sentence.
The most common conjunctions are “for,” “and,” “nor,” “but,” “or,” “yet,” and
“so” (called “fanboys” after the first letter of each word). We see them often. For
example:
The small bird flew swiftly towards the tree, but it nearly collided with a
crow. It swerved at the last minute and landed safely. Neither the crow
nor the small bird was hurt, yet both seemed upset.
3.6 Conjunctions and Interjections | 74

Other conjunctions, such as “because,” “since,” “after,” “as,” “when,” “while,” and
“although,” can begin dependent clauses and connect them to the main part of the
sentence. (More about clauses in Ch. 4.)
For example:
The library and its landscaping impress people when they first visit our
campus. (“and” joins “library” with “landscaping.” Then “when” joins the
main part of the sentence with the dependent clause at the end.)
Graphics
Watch this cartoon video for a fun way to review conjunctions:
75 | 3.6 Conjunctions and Interjections

Exercise 1
Find any conjunctions in the following sentences. List them.
1. Netta has a cheerful attitude while her husband is always gloomy.

2. Lydia is thoughtful and kind.
3. Dorian’s math skills are good, although they are not as good as
mine.
4. My handwriting is not worse than yours nor is it better.
5. Hilton went through drug rehab twice, but the second time seems
to have worked.
Interjections
Interjections convey a greeting or show surprise or other emotions.
Interjections are common in spoken English but rare in written English because
they are considered very casual. Interjections are like an exclamation point or an
emoticon (which also should be avoided in college and business writing). Notice
that interjections are usually followed by an exclamation point!
Here is a list of common interjections, but there are hundreds more:
blech gak ouch wow

boo-yah geez rats whoa
darn ha sweet yikes
duh huh ugh yippee

eek oh uh-oh yuck

eww oops whoa yum
Graphics
Watch this fun cartoon video to review interjections:
77 | 3.6 Conjunctions and Interjections

Exercise 2
Go back to the sentences you used for Ex. 1 in Ch. 3.1 for a final time.
You have marked all the nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and
prepositions using the appropriate highlight color. Double check to be
sure your answers are correct.
Now, mark any conjunctions by highlighting them in pink and any inter-
jections by highlighting them in gray.
If you have done this series of exercises correctly, every word will be
identified by the job it is doing and the relationships between the words
will be clear.
Now, submit this complete (and colorful) assignment.
Takeaways
• Conjunctions are helpful connectors.

• Interjections show emotion, but should be avoided in college writ-
ing.

CHAPTER 4: SENTENCES
4.1 Basic Sentence Structure
4.2 Common Sentence Errors
79 | Chapter 4: Sentences
4.1 Basic Sentence Structure
Preview
• subjects, verbs, and objects

• phrases and clauses
• fragments
Writing is basically a system of structures. Words connect to form phrases

phrases,
clauses and, eventually, sentences. Sentences connect to form paragraphs, and
paragraphs connect to create essays, stories, letters, and reports.
Ch. 2 and Ch. 3 focused on words. This chapter looks at how we put words
together into sentences.
Sentence Structure
A sentence is defined as a group of words that has a subject and a verb and express
a complete thought. Some sentences are brief and others are complex, but those
three criteria are the basic building blocks of a sentence.
subject + verb + complete thought = sentence
The subject of the sentence is always a noun or a pronoun. It is who or what per-
forms the action. The verb tells what happened to the subject or what state the
subject is in. For example:
4.1 Basic Sentence Structure | 80

Samantha sleeps. (“Samantha” is performing the action so she is the sub-
ject of the sentence, and “sleeps” is the verb, the action she is performing.)
To find the subject of a sentence, first find all the nouns and pronouns. Then ask
yourself which noun or pronoun is performing the action. For example:
Samantha often sleeps on the sofa. (The nouns in that sentence are
“Samantha” and “sofa.” But which noun is performing the action?
“Samantha” is sleeping, so “Samantha” is the subject.)
The subject is often at the beginning of the sentence, but sometimes it isn’t. For
example:
After dinner, Alice served cake. (“Alice” is the subject and “served” is the
verb; “After dinner” is a prepositional phrase that tells us when the action
happened.)
Sometimes sentences have two subjects. For example:
Alice and Juan walked to school. (“Alice” and “Juan” are the subjects; they
both did the action. The word “and” isn’t part of the subject; it is a con-
junction that joins the two subjects.)
Sentences can also have more than one verb. For example:
Samantha studies at her desk, sleeps on the couch, and drives to school.
(Samantha does three things: “studies,” “sleeps,” and “drives.” All three of
those words are verbs.)
81 | 4.1 Basic Sentence Structure

Exercise 1
Type the sentences below.
1. I have strong feelings about bullying.

2. Rachel and Jack dance competitively.
3. The patient was quickly admitted to the hospital.
4. Kim checked the condition of the track.
5. In August, Lily celebrated her birthday.
First, find all the nouns and pronouns. Then, figure out which noun or
pronoun is the sentence subject. Underline subjects once.
What is the subject doing? That is the verb. Underline verbs twice.
(It is easy to insert underlines and double underlines in Word. If you

don’t know how to do this, contact the computer tutor at the college.)
Remember that a sentence can have more than one subject and more
than one verb.
For example: Martie and Mitch spend time in the garden every
weekend.
Phrases and Clauses

Groups of words are called “phrases” or “clauses.” (Remember that in Ch. 3 we
studied one type of phrase: a prepositional phrase
phrase.)
A phrase is a group of words that does not contain a sentence subject or verb. For
example:
• in the kitchen

• the long and winding road
A clause is a group of words that does contain a subject and verb

verb. For example:
• Luisa cooked lasagna.

• the journey includes
Tip
There are two types of clauses:
• Dependent clauses need further infor

infor--
mation to make a complete sentence.
Think of “dependent”
For example: “the journey includes”
as a child who relies on
has a subject and a verb but it does not
her parents for help. A
express a complete thought. It is a
dependent clause is not
dependent clause.
a sentence; it cannot
• Independent clauses do not need addi
addi--
survive alone.
tional information to stand on their
own. For example, “Luisa cooked A clause is “indepen-
lasagna” has a subject and a verb, and it dent,” like a child, when
expresses a complete thought. It is an it can stand on its own.
independent clause. An independent
clause is also known as “a sentence.”
Building Longer Sentences

Obviously, most sentences are not as simple as a noun plus a verb: “Eugenio
helped.” But writers build on this basic structure.
One way sentences grow is by adding an “object.”
subject + verb + object
The object of a sentence is the noun or pronoun affected by the action of the verb.
In other words, the subject is the person or thing doing something; the object is
having something done to it. For example:
Alice baked a cake. (“Alice” is the subject; she is doing the action of

baking. “baked” is the action being done by Alice; it is the verb. “cake”
received the action of the verb; it is the object in this sentence.)
Adding prepositional phrases is another way to build more complex sentences.

For example:
Samantha is a good student who studies from 6 to 9 p.m. every day and
often she will fall asleep on the sofa with a book in her lap.
“from 6 to 9 p.m.,” “on the sofa,” “with a book” and “in her lap” are all preposi-
tional phrases; they add information about where and when to the sentence.
Experienced writers often write complex sentences, but a sentence is not effective
just because it is long. It is important not to overload sentences. For example:
The treasure lay buried under the old oak tree, behind the crumbling fif-
teenth-century wall, near the schoolyard where children played merrily
during their lunch hour, unaware of the riches that remained hidden
beneath their feet.
If a sentence is cluttered, divide it into two shorter sentences:
The treasure lay buried under the old oak tree, behind the crumbling
fifteenth-century wall. In the nearby schoolyard, children played merrily
during their lunch hour, unaware of the riches that remained hidden
beneath their feet.
Dissecting a sentence is like dissecting a frog in science class. We are opening it up

and looking at the parts, giving each part a name and figuring out how the parts
work together, with the goal of understanding how the frog works. For some peo-
ple, digging into the anatomy of language is as interesting as when other people
dig into the anatomy of a political movement, or a car engine, or a piece of music.
Avoiding Fragments
One of the benefits to understanding sentence structure is the ability to identify
fragments. It is easier to avoid fragments if you know how a sentence is built.

Remember: A complete sentence requires three things: a subject, a verb, and a
complete thought. Our example above, “Samantha sleeps,” fulfills those require-
ments. It has a subject “Samantha,” a verb “sleeps,” and it expresses a complete
thought. Even though it is short, it is a complete sentence.
A fragment is an incomplete sentence.
It may be missing a subject. For example:
Went to the movies last weekend. (Who went to the movies? The subject
is missing.)
Or a fragment may be missing a verb. For example:
The statue damaged during the riots. (“damaged” is not a verb; it’s an
adjective that describes the noun “statue.” Without a verb, this is a frag-
ment.)
Or a fragment may have both a subject and a verb, but not express a complete
thought. For example:
If she feels like going. (This has a subject “she” and a verb “feels.” But the
point is unfinished.)
To fix fragments, you have to add what is missing. For example:
• “Went to the movies last weekend” + subject = Massimo went to the movies
last weekend.
• “The statue damaged during the riots” + verb = The statue damaged during
the riots was a symbol of racism.
• “If she feels like going” + complete thought = If she feels like going,, let her
her.

Exercise 2
Type up the sentences below, adding missing information to any frag-

ments so the sentence is complete. If a sentence is complete already, write
“Complete.”
Don’t guess. Look for subjects and verbs, then make sure the sentence
expresses a complete thought.
1. The band arrived in a limo with their guitars in the trunk.

2. Entered the office and took off his coat.
3. A kite shaped like a raven.
4. In the park, I saw a homeless family.
5. My password for the library website.
6. Bentley, the next door neighbor, likes.
7. Blew down in the high wind, but the maple tree was unharmed.

Takeaways
• A sentence is a group of words with a subject, a verb, and a com-

plete thought.
• Groups of words are called phrases or clauses. There are two types
of clauses: dependent and independent.
• Adding prepositional phrases and objects makes a sentence more
complex.
• Understanding how a sentence is constructed will help you avoid
errors such as fragments.

4.2 Common Sentence Errors
Preview
• subject-verb agreement
• misplaced and dangling modifiers
• parallel structure
Writing mistakes make a negative impression on a reader (and on a grade). Three

common sentence errors are subject-verb agreement, modifier problems, and lack
of parallel structure. By understanding parts of speech and sentence structure,
these three errors can be avoided.
Subject-Verb Agreement
“Subject-verb agreement” means the subject of a sentence and the verb of a sen-
tence must agree with each other in number. A singular subject belongs with a sin-
gular verb, and a plural subject belongs with a plural verb. For example:
Singular: The cat jumps over the fence.

Plural: The cats jump over the fence.
Errors in subject-verb agreement are common, especially when the subject of the
sentence is separated from the verb by other words. One way to avoid that prob-
lem is to identify (and cross out) prepositional phrases and dependent clauses.
4.2 Common Sentence Errors | 88

Why? Subjects and verbs never appear in a prepositional phrase or a dependent
clause.
For example, the prepositional phrases have been crossed out here:
The students with the best grades win the academic awards.
The puppy under the table is my favorite.
That makes it easy to identify the subjects (“students,” “puppy”) and the verbs
(“win,” “is”).
Dependent clauses that separate the subject and verb have been crossed out here:
The car that I bought has power steering and a sunroof.

The representatives who are courteous sell the most tickets.
That makes it easier to see the subjects (“car,” “representatives”) and the verbs
(“has,” “sell”). And it makes it very easy to see that the subjects and verbs agree in
number.
89 | 4.2 Common Sentence Errors

Exercise 1
Type the sentences below, correcting any errors in subject-verb agree-

ment.
(Note: If you identify prepositional phrases and dependent clauses, it is

easier to find subjects and verbs because they never appear in preposi-
tional phrases or dependent clauses.)
1. My sister and brother fights during every meal.

2. The books in the college library is easy to locate.
3. Our renters cleans up after themselves.
4. Some of the holiday decorations is packed away in the attic.
5. Squirrels in my attic and basement annoys me.
Modifiers
A modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that clarifies or describes another word,
phrase, or clause. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers. Phrases and clauses can
also work as modifiers. Modifiers make writing more interesting, but also more
prone to errors.
Two common modifier errors are misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
When these errors occur, readers become confused trying to figure out what the
writer meant.
A misplaced modifier is too far from the word or words it modifies. Misplaced
modifiers make a sentence awkward and sometimes unintentionally funny. For
example:

She wore a bicycle helmet on her head that was too large.
This seems to say her head was too large. The modifying phrase “that was too
large” should be closer to the word “helmet.” The modifier is misplaced.
Corrected: She wore a bicycle helmet that was too large on her head.
The patient was referred to a physician with stomach pains.
Does the doctor have stomach pains? The modifier “with stomach pains” is too far
from the word “patient.”
Corrected: The patient with stomach pains was referred to a physician.
A dangling modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that describes something that isn’t
in the sentence. When there is nothing to modify, the modifier is said to “dangle.”
For example:
Riding in the sports car, the world seemed to whiz by rapidly.
Who is riding in the sports car? The modifier “riding in the sports car” is dangling.
Corrected: When Farzad was riding in the sports car, the world seemed to
whiz by rapidly.
Walking home at night, the trees looked like spooky aliens.
Who is walking? The modifier “walking home at night” is dangling.
Corrected: As Sarah was walking home at night, the trees looked like
spooky aliens.

Exercise 2
Type up the following sentences, moving or adding information to cor-

rect misplaced or dangling modifiers.
1. Chewing furiously, the gum fell out of my mouth.

2. The young woman was walking her dog on the telephone.
3. Piled up next to the bookshelf, I chose a mystery novel.
4. I heard there was a fire on the evening news.
5. We are looking for a sitter for our baby who doesn’t smoke and
owns a car.
6. The teacher served snacks to the children wrapped in aluminum
foil.
7. Lily spotted a stray dog driving home from work.
8. While driving to the veterinarian’s office, the dog nervously
whined.
Parallel Structure
When something is parallel to something else, they are similar in form. For exam-
ple, two parallel lines look like this:
Parallelism in writing is the use of a similar structure in related words, clauses, or

phrases. For example, these three phrases have parallel structure:
in the pool, in the forest, in the book

They feel balanced. Also, they are easy to read and remember.
Now look at these word groups:
in the pool, forests are green, book shelf
They are different in structure. Notice how jagged it feels to read them, and they
are more difficult to remember.
Parallel structure creates rhythm and balance in a sentence. An unbalanced sen-

tence sounds awkward. Read the following sentences aloud:
Kelly had to iron, do the washing, and shopping before her parents
arrived.
Driving a car requires coordination, patience, and to have good eyesight.
Swimming in the ocean is much tougher than a pool.
All of these sentences contain faulty parallelism. The construction is clunky and
confusing. In the first example, three different verb forms are used (“had to,” “do,”
“shopping”). In the second example, the writer begins with nouns (“coordina-
tion,” “patience”), but ends with a phrase (“to have good eyesight”). In the third
sentence, the writer is comparing an action (“swimming”) with a thing (“a pool”).
Here are the same sentences with correct parallelism:
Kelly had to do the ironing, washing, and shopping before her parents
arrived. (The verbs have the same structure.)
Driving a car requires coordination, patience, and good eyesight. (The

three qualities are all written as nouns.)
Swimming in the ocean is much tougher than swimming in a pool. (One

action is being compared with another action.)
When sentences use parallel structure, they sound more pleasing. Repetition of
the pattern also minimizes the work a reader has to do to understand the sentence.

Exercise 3
Type up the following sentences, making any necessary changes to cor-

rect parallel structure problems.
1. I would rather work at a second job to pay for a new car than a
loan.
2. How you look in the workplace is just as important as your behav-
ior.
3. Indian cuisine is tastier than the food of Great Britain.
4. Jim’s opponent in the ring was taller, carried more weight, and not
as strong.
5. Working for a living is much harder than school.
An Example of Parallel Structure

Some of the most beautiful pieces of writing and many great historical speeches
use parallel structure to emphasize important points and create a smooth, easily
understandable idea.
For example, here is a paragraph from Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream”
speech:
But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years
later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segrega-
tion and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro
lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of mater-
ial prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the
corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land.
And so we’ve come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.

Not only does King repeat the phrase “One hundred years later” to drill that fact
into the listener’s memories, but he also uses more subtle parallel structure in “the
manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination.” These phrases are sim-
ilar in structure (article + plural noun + preposition + noun), and the words within
each part are similar in form (“manacles” and “chains,” “segregation” and “dis-
crimination”).
Great writers and speakers are aware of the power of parallel structure to clearly
communicate ideas.
Takeaways
• A verb must always agree with its subject in number. A singular

subject requires a singular verb; a plural subject requires a plural
verb, even when the subject and verb are separated.
• Misplaced and dangling modifiers make sentences difficult to
understand.
• Parallelism creates rhythm and balance in writing by using the
same grammatical structure. Faulty parallelism makes a sentence
clunky and awkward.

CHAPTER 5:
PUNCTUATION
5.1 End Punctuation
5.2 Commas
5.3 Apostrophes
5.4 Quotation Marks, Italics, Underlining
5.5 Semicolons, Colons, Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses, Ellipses, Slashes
Chapter 5: Punctuation | 96
5.1 End Punctuation
Preview
• the role of punctuation

• end punctuation: periods, question marks, exclamation points
Punctuation is nothing more than a code that shows how a sentence should be
spoken. For example, a question mark at the end of a sentence means your voice
goes up at the end. A period means your voice goes down at the end. Say these
sentences aloud:
What is your name?
My name is Laura.
Hear the difference? If you use punctuation correctly, readers will “hear” what you
want them to hear.
Incorrect punctuation sends incorrect information to the reader. Sometimes the

result is confusing or even silly. For example:
With a comma: Let’s eat, Mother. (This is telling your mother it’s dinner
time.)
Without a comma: Let’s eat Mother. (This is suggesting that Mother be the
main course.)
97 | 5.1 End Punctuation

Chapter 5 provides basic information about punctuation. Let’s begin at the end,
because that’s easiest.
End Punctuation
There are only three kinds of punctuation used at the end of English sentences:
• periods
• question marks
• exclamation points
The Period.
A period goes at the end of a complete sentence that makes a statement or a mild
command. Most sentences end in a period. For example:
Heavy rain caused delays on I-5. (statement)
Take a different route to avoid traffic congestion. (mild command)
Periods are also used on one other way: after an abbreviation. For example:
Jan. (for January) Mr. (for Mister)

ft. (for feet) abbr. (for abbreviation)
Ave. (for Avenue) Pres. (for President)

Tues. (for Tuesday) Ch. (for chapter)
Note: An abbreviation is not the same thing as an acronym. An abbreviation is a

shortening of a word, like “ft.” for “feet.” However, an acronym is a new word cre-
ated from the initials of a longer phrase, like “AIDS” for “Acquired Immune Defi-
ciency Syndrome.” Text abbreviations are acronyms, such as “OMG” and “LOL.”
Abbreviations end in a period, but acronyms don’t.
5.1 End Punctuation | 98

The Question Mark?
The second most common end punctuation is a question mark. It is used after
direct questions, but not after indirect questions. For example:
Has online enrollment begun? (direct question)
I wonder if online enrollment has begun. (indirect question)
The Exclamation Point!

Exclamation points are used after an expression that conveys strong emotions or
loud sounds. They are casual and rarely used in college or business writing. For
example:
I need a break from this job!
Ouch! That hurts!
Exercise 1
Type the sentences below, adding end punctuation. (Existing punctua-

tion and capitalization are already correct.)
1. Christine brought soup and homemade bread to her elderly neigh-

bor
2. Will Lily be on time
3. Mom always says my sister has her own agenda
4. I have to clean my room before my parents get back
5. Rats I didn’t get into the class I wanted
6. The good news is they are offering a discount for senior citizens
99 | 5.1 End Punctuation

The key to end punctuation is to remember to use it! Because many people text or
send messages these days, they often forget to use punctuation in more formal sit-
uations, like school or the workplace, where it matters.
Takeaways
• The three types of end punctuation in English are periods, ques-

tion marks, and exclamation points.
• The content of the sentence determines which punctuation to put
at the end.
• Remembering to actually use end punctuation is the biggest chal-
lenge.
5.1 End Punctuation | 100

5.2 Commas
Preview
• basic comma rules

• run-on sentences/comma splices
Commas are the most frequently used punctuation mark, but they are also the
most common punctuation error.
Like other punctuation, the job of a comma is to help the reader understand how
something would be said. The word “comma” comes from the Greek word mean-
ing “to cut off.” The message commas send is this: pause here, just for a second.
Try to read the following sentence:
I have three pigs four cats with six toes a gerbil named Hammy an old spot-
ted cow who still gives milk and an Irish wolfhound named Vanessa.
You don’t know where to pause; you struggle to break the information into under-
standable chunks. Now read this:
I have three pigs, four cats with six toes, a gerbil named Hammy, an old
spotted cow who still gives milk, and an Irish wolfhound named Vanessa.
Commas help us translate words on the page into meaning. But incorrect comma
use makes the reader’s job harder. For example, look at these two sentences:
101 | 5.2 Commas

I love my parents, Beyonce and Barack Obama.
I love my parents, Beyonce, and Barack Obama.
The only difference is a comma. But if you put a comma after “Beyonce,” the sen-
tence says you love four people. Without that comma, the sentence says that your
parents are Beyonce and Barak Obama!
It’s the writer’s responsibility to use commas correctly, not the reader’s responsi-
bility to figure out what the writer meant.
Basic Comma Rules

• Commas have two jobs: they either separate or they enclose. Remember that,
and you are halfway there.
• There are seven main rules for comma use
use. Understanding these seven rules
will eliminate nearly all of the comma errors in your writing.
Commas That Separate

Rule 1: Use a comma to separate independent clauses joined by the conjunctions
known as “fanboys.” The word “fanboys” stands for the first letter of those con-
junctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
For example:
• We brought chips to the party, and our neighbors were appreciative. (“We
brought chips to the party” is an independent clause–it has a subject, a verb,
and a complete thought. “our neighbors were appreciative” is also an inde-
pendent clause. The two independent clauses are joined by the conjunction
“and,” so we put a comma in front of “and.”)
5.2 Commas | 102

• My geology textbook is expensive, so I’ll
find a used copy. (“My geology textbook
is expensive” is an independent clause.
“I’ll find a used copy” is also an indepen- Tip
dent clause. The two independent clauses
are joined by “so.” Put a comma in front
of “so.”)
This comma rule is

Caution: Be sure the conjunction connects
probably the most dif-
two independent clauses, not just two words
ficult. Master it and
or two phrases or even two dependent clauses.
the others will seem
For example:
easy!
My dog curled up on the sofa and
waited for dinner. (“and” joins the
verbs “curled” and “waited.” The
phrase “waited for dinner” is not an independent clause. No comma
before “and.”)
This rule clarifies a term you have probably heard: comma splice
splice. If we put a
comma between independent clauses that are NOT joined by “fanboys,” that is a
“comma splice.” The comma is splicing, or cutting, the sentence in two parts. A
comma splice is a comma error.
Here is a comma splice:
Dogs are people’s best friends, people are a cat’s best friend.
To fix this error, add one of the “fanboys”:
Dogs are people’s best friends, but people are a cat’s best friend.
Understanding how a comma splice works has the added benefit of explaining
what a run-on sentence is. A run-on sentence is two or more independent clauses
connected improperly. For example:
I love to eat ice cream I would eat it every day if I could.
103 | 5.2 Commas

That run-on can be fixed by adding a comma and the conjunction “and” after “ice
cream,” or by putting a period after “ice cream” and making two sentences.
Exercise 1
Turn the sentence pairs below into a single sentence by adding a separat-
ing comma and a “fanboys” conjunction.
1. Ellen wanted a book to read at bedtime. She checked her book-

case.
2. We could go to Paris for vacation. We could go to the beach
instead.
3. I want a college education. I want to start a career.
4. Sarah needs a different job. She has started interviewing.
5. The weather is getting colder. We decided to stay home.
Rule 2: Use commas to separate items in a series, date, or address. This comma
allows the reader to pause after each item and identify which words are included
in a group.
For example:
• We need to get flour,, tomatoes,, and cheese at the store. (Separate items in a
list with commas. Writers sometimes leave out the comma before “and”
when the meaning is clear. That kind of comma is called an “Oxford
comma,” by the way.)
• Mr. Schaeffer could see a wild, overgrown jungle in his neighbor’s yard.
(Use commas between a series of adjectives that modify a noun.)
• My grandfather was born on August 13, 1897, in Alameda County. (In a date,
put a comma between the day and the year. If the sentence continues on, put
5.2 Commas | 104

a comma after the year. When only the month and year are used, no comma
is needed. For example: He was born in August 1897.)
• My best friend’s address is 2600 Trillium Avenue, Mill Creek, Washington
97202, and she visits me often. (Put a comma after the street and after the
city, but not between the state and the zip code. If you continue the sentence
after the address, add a comma after the address.)
Rule 3: Use a comma to separate an introductory word or phrase from the begin
begin--
ning of the main sentence.
For example:
• Finally, he received an Oscar for his work in film. (introductory word)

• During last season, our team won nearly every game. (introductory phrase)
Rule 4: Use a comma to separate a tag question, contrast, comment, or description

from the end of the main sentence. (A “tag” is an afterthought.)
For example:
• The age restriction goes into effect in March, doesn’t it? (tag question)
• Students who earn high grades are those who study, not those who cheat.
(tag contrast)
• She said she would “consider my application,” whatever that means. (tag
comment)
• We spent a month in Italy, visiting family. (tag description)
Most prepositional phrases and dependent clauses at the end of sentences are not
tags and do not require commas. For example:
The word “ruminate” means to think about something. (“about some-

thing” is a prepositional phrase, not a tag. No comma.)
105 | 5.2 Commas

Exercise 2
Type these sentences, adding commas where necessary to separate.
1. Her holiday card was postmarked December 7 2020 but I didn’t

receive it until January.
2. I recently moved from my dorm to an apartment at 2055 High
Street Eugene Oregon 97401.
3. In a flash the barista had Chris’s latte on the counter.
4. Confused but persistent Sarah tried opening the door with a dif-
ferent key.
5. I prefer hot chocolate to coffee or tea don’t you?
6. The best dogs are loyal and sweet not necessarily well behaved.
Commas That Enclose

Rule 5: Commas are used to enclose (placed before and after) the name of a person
being spoken to in a sentence.
For example:
Did you know, Sophia, that you left your book in class?
5.2 Commas | 106

Rule 6: Commas are used to enclose transi
transi--
tions or expressions that interrupt the flow
of the sentence.
Tip
For example:
I know, by the way, that my paper is

late. When people start
studying commas, they
I will try, therefore, to be on time in
tend to insert them
the future.
everywhere. Don’t put a
If you are unsure whether an expression is comma in a sentence
interrupting, say it aloud. You can hear the unless you can explain
pause before and after “by the way” in the the rule for doing so.
first sentence. Remember that punctuation
is trying to communicate how we would say
the words.
Rule 7: Use commas to enclose extra or unnecessary information in the middle of

a sentence.
For example:
Max O’Keefe, who organized the event, will introduce the speakers.
Be sure the information is unnecessary:
The person who organized the event will introduce the speakers. (We
don’t know which person without the phrase “who organized the event.”
No commas.)
107 | 5.2 Commas

Exercise 3
Type these short paragraphs, inserting commas where necessary. At the

end of each sentence, write the number of the rule you used.
1. Our meeting is scheduled for Thursday March 20. To prepare for

the meeting please print any e-mails faxes or documents referred
to in your report.
2. The leader of the group Garth kept checking their GPS location.
Isabelle Raoul and Maggie carried the equipment. As a result no
one noticed the darkening sky until the first drops of rain.
3. Please submit your application to Roger by April 15 2020. In your
cover letter include contact information the position for which
you are applying and two references. We will not be available for
questions after April 10 but you may contact the office before then.
Takeaways
• Commas separate or enclose units in a sentence.

• Never use a comma unless you know which rule you are following.
5.2 Commas | 108

5.3 Apostrophes
Preview
• apostrophes in possessives
• apostrophes in contractions
• commonly confused words
Apostrophe mistakes happen all the time! The only punctuation mark that causes
more problems is the comma, and that’s just because it is used more often. Be the
first person on your block to know how to use an apostrophe correctly! It’s not
that hard!
An apostrophe looks like a comma floating in the air: ’ .
Sometimes people see the letter “s” and stick an apostrophe next to it. Don’t
do that. Correct apostrophe use is important because errors change meaning. For
example:
Mary’s refers to something Mary has.
Marys refers to more than one person named Mary.
Marys’ refers to more than one person named Mary and they both have
something.
There are only two places where an apostrophe is needed:
109 | 5.3 Apostrophes

• with a noun, to show possession: Mary’s cat, the neighbor’s garage sale
• in a contraction, to indicate where letters (or sometimes numbers) have been
left out: didn’t, ’80s.
Possessives
To possess something is to own it. Words that show possession are called “posses-
sives.” We use apostrophes to show possession.
To know where to put the apostrophe and whether or not to add an “s,” start by
asking the question “Who or what does the possessing?”
• If the word ends in a letter other than an “s,” add an apostrophe and an “s.”
For example: the children’s toys, the doctor’s visit
• If the word already ends in an “s” (most plurals), add an apostrophe after the
existing “s.” For example: two birds’ nest, the girls’ bicycles
• Occasionally, a word that ends in “s” needs another sound to make the pos-
sessive clear. For example: Texas’s border, the dress’s color, my boss’s
instructions. Say the word aloud. If it needs another sound, you’ll hear it.
Add the apostrophe and another “s.”
Pronouns such as our, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, their, theirs, and whose
are already possessive and do not need apostrophes. For example:
• their house
• her dog
• our religion
5.3 Apostrophes | 110

Contractions
To “contract” means to decrease in size.
When two words are shortened into one by
Tip
removing letters and squeezing the words
together, an apostrophe is added where the
letters were removed. For example:
Contractions are com-
is not → isn’t (the apostrophe goes mon in informal writing
where the “o” was) and speech, but because

they are considered
you have → you’ve (the apostrophe casual, they are usually
goes where “ha” was) avoided in academic
and business writing.
Here are some common contractions:
These words → become these contractions
are not → aren’t should not → shouldn’t
cannot → can’t that is → that’s
could have → could’ve there is, there has → there’s
could not → couldn’t they will → they’ll
does not → doesn’t they are → they’re
do not → don’t they have → they’ve
have not → haven’t we will, we shall → we’ll
he will → he’ll we are → we’re
he is, he has → he’s we have → we’ve
I would → I’d were not → weren’t
I will → I’ll what is → what’s
I am → I’m where is → where’s
I have → I’ve who is, who has → who’s
is not → isn’t would have → would’ve

Th
These
ese w
words
ords → becom
becomee th
these
ese con
contra
traccti
tions
ons
it is, it has → it’s would not → wouldn’t
let us → let’s you will → you’ll
she will → she’ll you are → you’re
she is, she has → she’s you have → you’ve
should have → should’ve
One exception: When making a contraction of “will not,” the pattern of just
removing letters doesn’t hold true:
will not → won’t
In all other contractions, the apostrophe goes exactly where the letter or letters
were removed.
Number Contractions
We also sometimes “contract” numbers. The rule is similar: put an apostrophe
where the numbers are missing. For example:
He grew up in the ‘90s. (put the apostrophe where 19 was removed)
However, if the number is simply a plural, not a contraction, do not add an apos-
trophe.
The temperature is going to be in the low 40s. (this is a plural, not a con-
traction)
Do NOT put an apostrophe between the number and the “s.” These are contrac-
tions, not possessives.
Commonly Confused Words

People often confuse these words:

• “its” (a possessive pronoun) and “it’s” (a contraction of “it is” or “it has”)
• “whose” (a possessive pronoun) and who’s” (a contraction of “who is” or
“who has”)
• “your” (the possessive pronoun) and “you’re” (a contraction of “you are”)
Here’s a trick: If you can turn a contraction back into two words and the sentence
still makes sense, then it’s a contraction and needs an apostrophe. For example:
The cat licked its paw. (You would not say “The cat licked it is paw,” so
“its” is a possessive pronoun, not a contraction. No apostrophe.)
Who’s going to the party? (You could say “Who is going” so this is a con-
traction and needs an apostrophe.)
The doctor said you’re to take the prescription. (You would say “You are”
so this is a contraction and needs an apostrophe.)
Notice that possessives work as adjectives

and modify nouns. For example:
Tip
Mary’s mother
our friends’ arrival (This is a plural.

Several friends have arrived. If only
one friend arrived, it would be “our Don’t put an apostro-
friend’s arrival.”) phe wherever you see
an “s.” A lot of words
the Jones’s address
end in “s.” Always ask if
their counselor’s office the word is showing
possession or if it is a
a person’s clothes (singular)
contraction.
people’s clothes (plural, but “peo-
ple” doesn’t end in s)

Exercise 1
Type up the following sentences, adding apostrophes where needed. Pay

close attention to placement.
1. Colin was a hippie in the 60s.

2. My brothers wife is one of my best friends.
3. Its my parents house, but its my bedroom.
4. I couldnt believe that I got the job!
5. My supervisors informed me that I wouldnt be able to take the day
off.
6. Wont you please join me for dinner tonight?
7. Sarahs job just disappeared due to the pandemic.
8. Texass state flower is a bluebonnet, not a yellow rose.
Takeaways
• Use apostrophes to show possession.

• Use apostrophes in contractions to show where letters or numbers
have been removed.
• Do not use apostrophes to indicate a plural.

5.4 Quotation Marks, Italics,
and Underlining
Preview
• using quotation marks

• using italics
• not using underlining
What do quotation marks, italics, and underlining look like?
• Quotation marks look like little pairs of commas up in the air (“ ”). They
always come in a set: one before and one after whatever is being enclosed.
For example: “The Lottery” is a very scary story.
• Italics is a typeface, not a symbol. It is a design that tilts the tops of letters to
the right and makes them look fancy, like this: italics. (The name comes from
the fact that the first typefaces designed to look like handwriting came from
Italy.)
• Underlining is obvious: underlining.
How do you use these marks? First, stop using underlining. The only thing under-
lined in a document these days is a live link to something online. The only excep-
tion is if you are writing by hand; you can use underlining where you would
normally type in italics. But you really don’t need underlining for any other rea-
son.
115 | 5.4 Quotation Marks, Italics, and

Underlining
So all you really need to know is how to use quotation marks and italics.
Quotation Marks
Quotation marks (“ ”) enclose words to set them off from the rest of the text. Quo-
tation marks are used three ways:
• to identify certain types of titles

• to indicate another person’s words, whether written or spoken
• to refer to a word being used as a word (For example: The word “cat” has
three letters. Putting “cat” in quotes clarifies that we are referring to the
word, not the animal. If we were just talking about the animal, we would not
use quotes. For example: I had a cat named Maggie. Note: This use of quo-
tation marks is rare. Focus on the first two uses, which are much more com-
mon.)
Titles in Quotation Marks

Quotation marks are used to identify the titles of short works such as poems,
essays, articles, chapters, songs, stories, web pages, TV and radio episodes–
episodes–any-
thing short enough that is part of something larger like a book, CD, program, or
website. For example:
“Looking for America” by Lana Del Rey (song)
“Shooting an Elephant” by George Orwell (essay)
“A Real Durwan” by Jhumpa Lahiri (short story)
“Watering the Stones” by Mary Oliver (poem)
“The Rains of Castamere” (episode in a TV series)
“Blood Gold: The Fight for the Future of Brazil’s Rain Forest” (magazine
article)
“Take Action” (page on Cascade AIDS Project’s website)
5.4 Quotation Marks, Italics, and Underlining | 116

For the titles of longer works, see “Italics” below.
Quoting Speech
In college, you will write lots of research papers, using the ideas and the words of
other people. The first step in punctuating that research is understanding the dif-
ference between direct and indirect quotations.
A direct quotation is when you write exactly what someone else said or wrote.
Their words are enclosed in quotation marks. For example:
The wolf said, “Then I’ll huff and I’ll puff and I’ll blow your house down.”
According to Gandhi, “You must be the change you wish to see in the
world.”
An indirect quotation is a restatement of

what someone said or wrote but using your
own words. Do not use quotation marks for Tip
indirect quotations. For example:
The wolf threatened to destroy the

little pig’s house. Whether you quote
research directly or
Gandhi often said we have to take
indirectly, it must
action if we want the world to be
always be identified as
better.
research!
Capitalizing Quotes
Quotes are capitalized just like regular sentences
sentences. The first word in a sentence is
capitalized; the first word in a quote is capitalized.
Martie wrote an email saying, “Thank you for the card. The design was
lovely.” (The words “Thank” and “The” are capitalized because they begin
sentences.)
When identifying the speaker in the middle of a quote, the beginning of the sec-
117 | 5.4 Quotation Marks, Italics, and Underlining

ond part of the quote does not need to be capitalized unless it is the beginning of
a new sentence. For example:
“Thank you for the card,” Martie wrote in her email. “The design was
lovely.” (“The” is capitalized because it is the beginning of the new sen-
tence.)
“Thank you for the card,” Martie wrote, adding, “with the lovely design.”
(The word “with” is not capitalized because the phrase “with the lovely
design” is a continuation of the sentence that begins “Thank you for the
card.”)
Placement of Quotation Marks

Quotation marks go at the beginning and the end of the quote. This is true even
if a quote goes on for two or more sentences. No additional quotation marks are
needed in between. For example:
My sister said, “Your dog ran away again. I found him, but he was wet and
muddy. The next time he runs away, get him yourself.”
However, if the quote is interrupted with explanatory words, the quotation marks
go around the quoted words to separate them from the explanation. For example:
My sister said, “Your dog ran away again.” I could tell she was really angry.
“I found him, but he was wet and muddy,” she continued. “The next time
he runs away, get him yourself.”
The speaker can be identified at the beginning, middle, or end of a quote. For
example:
Madison said, “Let’s stop at the market to buy fresh vegetables for dinner.”
“Let’s stop at the market,” Madison said. “We can buy fresh vegetables for
dinner.”
“Let’s stop at the market to buy some fresh vegetables for dinner,” Madi-
son said.

When quotation marks are used next to other punctuation
punctuation, it is important to
know the correct order.
• Quotation marks are always placed after commas and periods. For example:
I love the Billie Eilish song “My Future,” which she sang at the Democratic
convention.
• If both the sentence and the quote are statements, put the period inside the
end quotes
quotes. For example:
In high school I read “The Lottery.”
• If the sentence is a question or exclamation and the quote is a statement, put

the question mark or exclamation point after the end quotes. For example:
I finally memorized the poem “The Raven”!
• But if the sentence is a statement and the quoted material is a question or

exclamation, put the question mark or exclamation point inside the end
quotes. For example:
I asked the teacher, “Can you help me?”
Single quotation marks (‘ ’) are only used to indicate a quotation within another
quotation. For example:
Theresa said, “I wanted to take my dog to the music festival, but the man
at the gate said, ‘No dogs allowed,’ so I took Pepper home.”
Using quotation marks correctly requires practice. Keep these rules nearby and
check them when you want to use quotation marks.

Exercise 1
Type up the following sentences, adding quotation marks where neces-

sary. Check the rules above as you work.
1. Yasmin said, Let’s go out to eat.

2. Where should we go? asked Russell.
3. Yasmin said it didn’t matter to her.
4. I know, let’s go to the Two Roads Juice Bar. Did you know that the
name is a reference to a poem? asked Russell.
5. Yasmin was surprised and asked the poem’s title.
6. The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost, Russell explained.
7. Oh! said Yasmin, Is that the one that starts with the line, Two
roads diverged in a yellow wood?
8. Russell nodded in agreement.

Italics
Use italics to identify titles of long works
(books, plays, newspapers, magazines,
Tip
albums and CDs, websites, movies &
DVDs, TV and radio series), the names of
ships and aircraft, and foreign words. For
example: Use quotation marks to
indicate the titles of
Books and plays: To Kill a Mocking-
small things that are
bird, Hamlet, The Hobbit
part of something
Magazines and newspapers: The New larger.
York Times, Rolling Stone Use italics to indicate
the titles of large things.
Movies & DVDs: Casablanca, Moon-
light, Vivo Never use both quota-
tion marks and italics.
Websites: Craig’s List, Common Sense It’s always one or the
Media, Khan Academy, TED other.
TV & radio series: Stranger Things,

SNL, Morning Edition
Albums and CDs: Abbey Road by The Beatles, American Idiot by Green
Day
Video games: Super Mario 3D World, Minecraft
Ships and aircraft: Enterprise, Spruce Goose
Foreign words: The Italian word ciao is used when greeting people.

Exercise 2
Type up the following list, putting the titles either in quotes or italics. (If
you are unfamiliar with something on the list, Google it. You can’t punc-
tuate correctly if you don’t know what the thing is.)
• Queen Mary 2
• The Washington Post
• BBC News
• Breaking Bad
• Pulp Fiction
• The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman
• The New Yorker
• The Raven by Edgar Allen Poe
• aloha
• Bigger Love by John Legend
• Wikipedia
• Netflix
• I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou
Notice that whether you put a title in quotes or italics gives your reader
information.

Takeaways
• Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotes and titles of short

works.
• Use italics to enclose the titles of long works.
• Don’t use underlining for anything other than live links.
• Never use both italics and quotes; it’s always one or the other.

5.5 Semicolons, Colons,
Hyphens, Dashes,
Parentheses, Ellipses, and
Slashes
Preview
• using semicolons, colons, hyphens, dashes, parentheses, ellipses,

and slashes
• where the most study is needed
Why lump all the remaining punctuation marks into one section? Because none
of them are used very often. In fact, you could probably make it through college
without using any of these punctuation marks more than a few times.
Your focus should be on the first four sections of this chapter: end punctuation,
commas, apostrophes, and quotes/italics. Those are very common and very com-
monly misused. If you learn how to use those correctly, you are 99% of the way to
mastery over punctuation.
However, there are other punctuation marks. So let’s work through them.
5.5 Semicolons, Colons, Hyphens, Dashes,

Parentheses, Ellipses, and Slashes | 124
Semicolon;
The semicolon looks like a period sitting on top of a comma. It indicates a pause
in the sentence. What it looks like can help you remember that the length of the
pause longer than a comma but less than a period.
Use a semicolon between two independent clauses that are not joined by one of
the conjunctions called “fanboys.” For example:
My brother is an insurance sales-

man; we have great coverage.
Tip
Also, use a semicolon as sort of a “super
comma” to avoid confusion in a list that
already has commas. For example:
I enjoy gardening, my hobby; danc- A semicolon has

ing, my passion; and writing, my job. absolutely nothing to
do with a colon. Don’t
The color combinations we can
confuse the two.
choose are black, white, and grey;
green, brown, and black; or red,
green, and brown.
You can write all your life and never need a semicolon. A comma or a period will
usually work instead. Avoid semicolons unless you have a really good reason, and
then be sure to use them correctly.
125 | 5.5 Semicolons, Colons, Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses, Ellipses, and Slashes
Colon:
The colon looks like a period sitting on top
of another period.
Tip
A colon is used after an independent clause
to direct a reader’s attention to something
that follows, like a list, a quote, an example,
or an explanation. For example:
Exceptions to rules
The college website introduced the happen all the time. In
new dean: Sara Rivara. this textbook, a colon is
used after “For exam-
The Toyota Prius comes in four col-
ple” to direct attention
ors: red, orange, blue, or black.
to the examples that
Mark Twain said it best: “When in follow. “For example” is
doubt, tell the truth.” not an independent
clause, but this use is
However, if the introductory clause is
common in business
dependent, generally we don’t use a colon.
writing.
For example:
The Toyata Prius comes in red, blue,

orange, and black.
The first letter following a colon is capitalized only if the word is a proper noun,
the beginning of a quote, or the beginning of a sentence. Otherwise, do not capi-
talize a word that follows a colon.
5.5 Semicolons, Colons, Hyphens, Dashes, Parentheses, Ellipses, and Slashes | 126
Exercise 1
Type up the following sentences, adding semicolons or colons where

needed. To do this assignment correctly, you must know how these two
punctuation marks are different.
1. There are three ways to get to the grocery store by car, by bus, and
by foot.
2. I did not notice that you were in the office I was at the front desk
all day.
3. Do you want turkey, spinach, and cheese roast beef, lettuce, and
cheese or ham, tomato, and cheese?
4. Please close the blinds there is a glare on the screen.
5. Next semester, we will read contemporary authors Zadie Smith,
Emma Donoghue and Tea Obreht.
Hyphen-
The hyphen is a short line, like a minus sign. It is used in four ways:
• Compound words. A compound word is when two or more words are joined
to form a new word. A dictionary will tell you whether a compound word
needs a hyphen (as in “water-repellant”), or is written as one word (as in
“waterproof”), or is two words (as in “water table”).
• Words working together as an adjective. When two or more words work
together to modify a noun or pronoun, they are connected by a hyphen. For
example: “well-known candidate,” “four-year-old child.”
• Numbers: Hyphenate the written form of fractions and compound numbers,
such as “three-fourths” and “twenty-one.”
• Word breaks: Use a hyphen to divide a word onto two lines. Many word pro-
cessing programs will do this for you, but if you have to do it yourself, put
the hyphen between syllable breaks. (A dictionary will tell you where a word
can be divided.)
Dash–
A dash is a long line between words, used to
set off a phrase for emphasis. You can
enclose text between two dashes or just use Tip
one dash to set off a phrase from the begin-
ning or the end of the sentence. For exam-
ple:
To create a dash in
I love movies about other coun- Word, type two
tries–such as Slumdog Millionaire and hyphens and don’t put
Roma. any spaces before or
after them. When you
The new students–Oliver, Diego,
hit the space bar after
and Natasha–still need to buy their
the last word, the two
textbooks.
hyphens should turn
Unless you have a good reason for using a into a dash.
dash, avoid it. Using dashes creates a choppy
feel and generally other punctuation marks
work equally well. For example, commas could replace the dashes in the two sen-
tences above.
Exercise 2
Type up the following sentences, adding dashes or hyphens where neces-

sary.
1. Which hair length do you prefer short or long?

2. My favorite is shoulder length hair.
3. Marta is taking care of her six month old nephew this weekend.
4. My homework is three fourths done.
5. I will be happy to work over the weekend if I can have Monday off.
(Parentheses)
Parentheses come in pairs and are placed before and after information that is sec-
ondary or supplemental to the main sentence (such as an afterthought). Notice
parentheses curve around (enclose) the word or words. For example:
Hospital nurses record a patient’s

vital signs (temperature, pulse,
blood pressure) every few hours. Tip
Attack of the Killer Tomatoes has to be
the worst movie I’ve seen (so far).
To check if parentheses are needed, the sen- Never put the subject or
tence should still make sense if the informa- verb of a sentence in
tion in the parentheses is deleted. parentheses.
Hospital nurses record a patient’s

vital signs every few hours.
Attack of the Killer Tomatoes has to be the worst movie I’ve seen.
Parentheses are also used to enclose an abbreviation that follows the full-length
word. The abbreviation is then used throughout the rest of the text. For example:
I attend Mt. Hood Community College (MHCC). When I first registered

at MHCC, I was a bit nervous.
And parentheses are used to enclose in-text citations in research papers (more
about this in WR121).
Exercise 3
Type up the following sentences, adding parentheses where necessary. If

the sentence is already clear, write “Correct.”
1. I recommend you try the sushi bar unless you don’t like sushi.
2. I was able to solve the puzzle although I had to think carefully.
3. Please complete the questionnaire at the end of this letter.
4. Has anyone in the class read the assignment?
5. Be sure to circle not underline the correct answers.
Remember to ask yourself if the information makes sense without the

words enclosed in parentheses.
Ellipses…
An ellipsis looks like three periods in a row.
It indicates that something has been deleted
from an otherwise word-for-word quota- Tip
tion. For example:
According to the review, the new

book was “an important contribu- Ellipses (with an e) is
tion to gender studies…in the 21st the plural form of the
century.” word and how we refer
to the punctuation
This tells us there were additional words
mark in general. Ellipsis
between “studies” and “in” in the original
is singular; we put an
quote, but they have been deleted as not rel-
ellipsis in a sentence.
evant to this situation. You can’t just take
the words out of a quote; you have to show
you are doing so.
Ellipses are not usually necessary at the beginning or end of a quote, just when
something is deleted in the middle.
Slash/
The slash is too casual for most academic writing. One exception is when the slash
is used to separate individual lines of poetry that have been written out as one line.
For example:
Mary Oliver’s poem starts with this image: “Once I looked inside / the
darkness / of a shell folded like a pastry, / and there was a fancy face.”
You also might see a slash used to separate a pair of opposites, like this:
pass/fail, and/or, he/she
This use is discouraged in formal writing. Use “pass or fail” instead. Avoid “and/
or”; make up your mind. While sexist language should be avoided, “he/she” isn’t
a good way to do that. Either change to a non-gender plural such as “they” or
rephrase the sentence.
Takeaways
• The most common punctuation marks are end punctuation, com-

mas, apostrophes, and quotation marks/italics. Study those.
• All the other punctuation marks are rare. Have a general sense of
what they are and, if you decide to use one, look up the rule.
CHAPTER 6: PARAGRAPHS
6.1 The Structure of a Paragraph
6.2 Stand-alone Paragraphs
6.3 Building Paragraphs
133 | Chapter 6: Paragraphs

6.1 The Structure of a
Paragraph
Preview
• topic sentences
• supporting detail
• transitions and conclusions
• paragraph length
The basic building blocks of language are words, which form sentences, which
combine to make paragraphs. Paragraphs can stand alone or be combined to
become essays, research papers, reports, letters, and books.
This chapter covers the parts of a paragraph, different types of paragraphs, and
how to use paragraphs to build longer documents.
The Parts of a Paragraph

A paragraph is generally composed of a topic sentence, supporting information,
and a concluding point or transition.
6.1 The Structure of a Paragraph | 134

Topic Sentences
The main idea of the paragraph is stated in the topic sentence. A good topic sen-
tence does the following:
• indicates what is in the rest of the paragraph

• contains both a topic and an opinion
• is clear and easy to follow
• does not include supporting details
• engages the reader
For example:
Development of the Alaska oil fields created many problems for already-
endangered wildlife.
This sentence introduces the topic and the writer’s opinion. After reading this
sentence, a reader might reasonably expect the writer to explain what the prob-
lems are and how they were created. The sentence is clear and the word choice is
interesting.
Major league baseball has a history of cheating.
Again, the topic and opinion are clear, the details are saved for later, and the word
choice is powerful.
Now look at this example:
I think that people should not take their pets to work, even for special
occasions, because it is disruptive and someone might get bitten by a dog
or a rabbit.
Even though the topic and opinion are evident, there are too many details (under
what conditions, types of pets, different consequences). The phrase “special occa-
sions” is vague. Also, “I think that” is unnecessary.
Revised, that sentence might read like this:
135 | 6.1 The Structure of a Paragraph

People should not take their pets to work.
The most efficient place to put a topic sentence is at the beginning of the para
para--
graph. In college and business writing, readers often lose patience if they are
unable to quickly grasp what the writer is trying to say. Topic sentences make the
writer’s basic point easy to locate and understand.

Exercise 1
Read the following paragraph from Pablo Medina’s student essay (posted
in Ch. 8):
I like going to the library because I can concentrate more effec-

tively on doing my homework. It is a very quiet place, with desig-
nated study areas where people read in peace. When I go there, I
sit in the corner because I do not like anybody disturbing me.
Also, everybody respects the place and they try to not make any
noise. Sometimes the library has special celebrations. Even
though on these days it gets too noisy to study, I can manage the
situation so I can concentrate better by asking someone to let me
into one of the study rooms. There is no place like the library to
really focus on my assignments.
Find Pablo’s topic sentence. Then, answer these questions about that
sentence, without referring to the rest of the paragraph:
1. What is the topic of Pablo’s paragraph? (Hint: The topic is not

“I.”)
2. What is Pablo’s opinion on that topic? (Hint: The opinion is not
“like.”)
Notice that Pablo’s topic sentence does not include any supporting
details.
Supporting Ideas
The body of a paragraph contains supporting details to help explain, prove, or

expand the topic sentence. For example, a paragraph on the topic of people con-
tinuing to work into their 70s might have a topic sentence like this:
Retirement is no longer guaranteed for many older Americans.
A supporting sentence could include some of the following:
• Fact: Something proven to be true. For example: More than 20 percent of

adults over age 65 are currently working or looking for work in the United
States.
• Reason: An explanation or justification. For example: The increasing life
expectancy for an average American means retirement may last decades.
• Quotation: An opinion from an expert on the topic. For example: “Retire-
ment is not in my vocabulary,” claims long-lived actor Betty White.
• Example: An illustration of the point. For example: Last year, my grandpa
had to take a job with Walmart.
A topic sentence guides the reader by signposting what the paragraph is about. All
the rest of the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence. Can you spot the sen-
tence in the following paragraph that does not relate to the topic sentence?
Health policy experts note that opposition to wearing a face mask during
the COVID-19 pandemic is similar to opposition to the laws governing
alcohol use. For example, some people believe drinking is an individual’s
choice, not something the government should regulate. However, when an
individual’s behavior impacts others–as when a drunk driver is involved
in a fatal car accident–the dynamic changes. Seat belts are a good way
to reduce the potential for physical injury in car accidents. Opposition
to wearing a face mask during this pandemic is not simply an individual
choice; it is a responsibility to others.
If you said the sentence that begins “Seat belts are” doesn’t belong, you are correct.
It does not support the paragraph’s topic: which is opposition to regulations. If an
idea isn’t clearly connected to the topic sentence, the writer should tie it in or take
it out.

Exercise 2
Look again at Pablo’s paragraph in Exercise 1.
Identify 3 supporting details that explain, prove, or expand the topic sen-
tence. Write them down.
Concluding Sentences
In a stand-alone paragraph, a strong conclu-
sion draws together the ideas raised in the
paragraph. A concluding sentence reminds Tip
readers of the main point without restating
it in exactly the same words.
Concluding sentences can do any of the fol- Don’t introduce new

lowing: ideas in a conclusion. It
will just confuse the
• restate the main idea in a different way reader.
• summarize the key points in the para-
graph
• draw a conclusion based on the infor-
mation in the paragraph
• make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information
For example, in the paragraph above about wearing face masks, the concluding
sentence repeats the idea about opposition to masks without using the exact
words of the topic sentence. It also summarizes the key point: responsibility to
others.

Exercise 3
Look at Pablo’s paragraph again. Find the concluding sentence.
Which of the following options does Pablo do in his concluding sen-

tence?
◦ restate the main idea in a different way

◦ summarize the key points in the paragraph
◦ draw a conclusion based on the information in the para-
graph
◦ make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about
the information
Transitions
Transitions are words or phrases that help the reader move from one idea to the
next
next, whether within a paragraph or between paragraphs. For example:
I am going to fix breakfast. Later, I will do the laundry.
“Later” transitions us from the first task to the second one. “Later” shows a
sequence of events and establishes a connection between the tasks.

Look at this paragraph:
There are numerous advantages to

owning a hybrid car. For example, Tip
they get up to 35 percent more miles
to the gallon than a fuel-efficient,
gas-powered vehicle. Also, they pro-
duce very few emissions during low
A transition can appear
speed city driving. Because they do
at the end of a sentence
not require gas, hybrid cars reduce
or paragraph or at the
dependency on fossil fuels, which
beginning of the follow-
helps lower prices at the pump.
ing sentence or para-
Given the low costs and environ-
graph, but never in
mental benefits of owning a hybrid
both places.
car, it is likely that many people will
buy hybrids in the future.
The underlined words are transitions.
In a series of paragraphs, such as the body of an essay, transitions usually replace

concluding sentences. They connect ideas and move the discussion forward. For
example:
Attending a community college is one way to save on the cost of college.

Most lower division prerequisites–such as freshmen comp and intro to
psychology–can be completed at either a community college or a four-year
college, but cost significantly less at a community college.
Another way to complete college on a budget is to apply for grants and

scholarships. Although not everyone qualifies for these educational ben-
efits, many students find that they do. It is worthwhile to look for these
opportunities.
But perhaps the best way to save money on education is to…
Transitions organize the writer’s ideas and keep the reader on track. They make
the writing flow more smoothly.

Beginning writers tend to rely on ordinary transitions, such as “first” and “in con-
clusion.” There are more interesting ways to tell a reader what you want them to
know. Here are some examples:
Purpose Transition Words and Phrases
eventually, finally, previously, next, then, later

to show a sequence of events
on
to show additional
also, in addition to, for example, for instance
information
to show consequences therefore, as a result, because, since
to show comparison or
however, but, nevertheless, although
contrast
These words have slightly different meanings so don’t just substitute one for
another that might sound newer or better. Use your dictionary to be sure you are
saying what you mean to say.
Exercise 4
Look one final time at Pablo’s paragraph. Find three words or phrases in
the paragraph that work as transitions. List them.
Paragraph Length
How long should a paragraph be? The answer is “long enough to explain your
point but not too long.” A paragraph can be fairly short (two or three sentences)
or, in a complex essay, a paragraph can be half a page. Most paragraphs contain
three to six supporting sentences.
As long as the writer maintains a close focus on the topic and does not ramble, a

long paragraph is acceptable in college-level writing. But often a long paragraph
will not hold the reader’s interest. In such cases, divide a paragraph into two or
more shorter paragraphs, adding a transitional word or phrase.
In a long piece of writing–an essay, a research paper, a book–paragraphs separate

ideas into logical, manageable chunks. Effective writers begin a new paragraph for
each new idea they introduce.
Takeaways
• Topic sentences express the main idea of the paragraph and the
writer’s opinion. In most academic essays, the topic sentence
appears at the beginning of a paragraph.
• Supporting sentences explain, prove, or enhance the topic sen-
tence by offering facts, reasons, quotations, or examples.
• Concluding sentences wrap-up the points made in the paragraph.
• Transitional words and phrases show how ideas relate to one
another and move the reader on to the next point. In a series of
paragraphs, transitions often replace concluding sentences.

6.2 Stand-alone Paragraphs
Preview
• summaries and evaluations

• critical thinking
• audience and tone
Often in college, you will be asked to write short responses, whether to a reading
assignment or on an essay test. An instructor will ask you to respond to a short
story, explain the main points in a chapter from your text, or report back on a lab
experiment. Often these responses will be single paragraphs. Two common types
of stand-alone paragraphs are summaries and evaluations.
Summary Paragraphs
A summary is a significantly shortened version of another, longer piece
piece. A sum-
mary gives only a general sense of the information, capturing the main ideas, with-
out necessarily following the order or emphasis of the original. A summary is
always written in your own words.
You probably summarize every day. At some point in a casual conversation with
a friend or classmate, you compressed a two-hour movie into a brief description.
You described the major highlights in a few sentences, using your own words.
That is a summary.
6.2 Stand-alone Paragraphs | 144

A summary will do the following:
• maintain the meaning of the original

• contain all the main points, without the supporting details
• not include your opinion
• use your words rather than those of the original writer
In writing a summary, you have to judge what is important and what isn’t. The eas-
iest way to do this is to “mark up” the document you want to summarize as you
read–identifying the topic, the main supporting details, and any other significant
points. Those notes are easily turned into a summary.
Following is a summary of the essay “How to Mark a Book” by Mortimer Adler

(available in Ch. 8). This essay was assigned in Ch. 1.1 but you should re-read it
now, before reading the following summary.
Mortimer J. Adler’s main point in the essay “How to Mark a Book” is

that a reader must own a book, not just buy it. He defines “ownership” as
understanding the material, not simply scanning the page with one’s eyes.
Active reading, he says, involves marking up a book. He provides examples
of how he does this: underlining, starring, circling key words or phrases,
numbering, writing in the margins. If someone complains that writing
notes slows down their reading, Adler explains that is the point: reading
slowly and taking notes helps a reader understand and retain information.
His final comment is crucial to the idea of “owning”: he recommends that
readers not lend their annotated books to friends because “it is almost like
giving your mind away” (138).
Notice how the summary retains the key points of the original but omits many
details. The information has been paraphrased
paraphrased, avoiding Adler’s specific vocab-
ulary. Phrases like “prelude to possession,” and “the soul of a book” belong to
Adler. Where a particularly well-written phrase is used, it is quoted and cited cor-
rectly. Also, the summary does NOT include the writer’s opinion.
145 | 6.2 Stand-alone Paragraphs

How to Write a Summary
1. Carefully read the original document, making notes as you go. You must
fully understand something before you try to explain it to someone else.
2. Then, put the original away. This is crucial; if you glance at the original
now and then, you will accidentally copy words or sentence structures.
Summarizing without referring to the original also forces you to understand
the material before trying to explain it.
3. Write a single sentence that explains the point of the piece. Name the docu-
ment and the author. This is your topic sentence.
4. Identify the several main ideas in the original. (You may refer to your notes,
but do not look at the original.) Briefly explain each. These are your support-
ing details.
5. Read your summary to be sure it is clear and complete. Check that you have
not included your opinion; a summary explains but does not comment on
the original.
6. Add a concluding comment that refers to but does not repeat the topic sen-
tence.
7. Now, re-read the original to be sure you didn’t miss anything important.
8. Revise and edit your paragraph for clarity and correctness.
Note that the example summary paragraph above on the Adler essay does all of
these things.
A summary will be far shorter than the original. It should include just enough
information to recount the main points. A summary of a paragraph should be one
or two sentences. A summary of a chapter or an essay might be a paragraph or
maybe two. A summary of a whole book might be one or two pages.
It takes practice to be able to pull the essential information from a piece of writing,
but there are many benefits to doing so. And you will be asked to do this task again
and again in college.

Exercise 1
Go to Ch. 8 and read the essay “The Maker’s Eye” by Donald Murray. If
possible, print the document so you can mark it up. If you can’t do that,
take good notes as you read.
Following the steps above, write a summary of the Murray essay.
Your summary should be a single paragraph (at least 150 words, but no
more than 200). Be sure your paragraph has a topic sentence, clear sup-
porting points, and a concluding comment.
Revise and edit your paragraph for clarity and correctness.
Evaluation Paragraphs
An evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. Evalua-
tions are based on set standards, influenced by opinion and prior knowledge. At
work, a supervisor may evaluate an employee based on how well he meets the com-
pany’s goals, but the evaluation also includes the supervisor’s opinion and prior
experience of the employee.
In college, when a student expresses an opinion about a piece of writing or a topic,

that evaluation should be based on specific criteria
criteria, careful reading, and any prior
knowledge.
Following is an evaluation paragraph on the Adler essay:
Even though it was written in 1940, “How to Mark a Book” by Mortimer J.

Adler is still relevant. Many of his examples are outdated and even funny.
We can’t buy a book for less than a dollar these days. Many people have
never heard of a bookplate or an ice-box, let alone Rudy Vallee or John

Dewey. Hardly anyone reads Plutarch’s Lives. But Adler’s notion of how
learning happens hasn’t changed. We still get to know books better by
having a conversation with the writer. Active reading is still promoted
by educators because it is the best way to organize and retain complex
information. Taking notes still makes reading go more slowly, and reading
quickly is still not better than reading carefully. Even in the 21st century,
when faster is supposedly better for everything from data to dating,
Adler’s advice should be heeded. If we want to really understand a prob-
lem, a person, or a piece of writing, we have to put in the time.
Notice how the paragraph incorporates the reader’s personal judgment. Because
an evaluation includes the writer’s point of view and reasons, it requires more crit-
ical thinking than a summary.
Critical Thinking
We know what “thinking” is. The word “critical” can mean “crucial” or “poten-
tially dangerous.” To “be critical” often means to be disapproving. But in college,
“critical thinking” is neither negative nor life-threatening. It simply means actively
analyzing something (a poem, a piece of music, a political issue) using observation,
reflection, and reason to draw a conclusion
conclusion.
To engage in critical thinking, a student must be willing to do three things:
• read carefully with the goal of fully understanding

• use specific standards to measure the material
• think reasonably, using previous experience and knowledge
How to Write an Evaluation

1. Carefully read the original document, taking notes as you go. In fact, reading
the piece several times is a good idea. You must fully understand it before
you have a right to an opinion.
2. Take 10 minutes to jot down your thoughts. Start simply: Did you like it?
Why or why not? Then get more specific. What did the writer do that was
effective? Were there any problems? What observations did you make as you

read?
3. Identify several criteria for evaluation. What makes the piece good or bad?
You might consider the way the piece was organized, or how well the writer
supports her point, or whether the information was repetitive or the lan-
guage evocative, whether the writer’s argument was logical or not.
4. In one sentence, write your opinion. Name the document and author in this
sentence so we know what you are evaluating. This is your topic sentence.
5. Expand your point. Provide examples from the original. Use transitions to
connect the ideas. These are your supporting details.
6. Wrap up with a final thought that reflects your point but doesn’t repeat
things you’ve already said. That is your concluding sentence.
7. Re-read the original essay to be sure you didn’t miss anything important.
Notice that the example evaluation paragraph above on the Adler essay does all of
these things.

Exercise 2
Re-read “The Maker’s Eye” by Donald Murray, then write an evaluation

of his essay.
Important: Do not just agree or disagree on the topic. Your job is to ana-
lyze and evaluate whether his point is effectively explained. If so, how? If
not, why not? An evaluation paragraph is your judgment, but it is not
just your gut feeling. A judgment should be based on sound reasoning,
examples, and logic.
State your opinion in a clear topic sentence, use supporting details to

explain your opinion, and wrap up your paragraph with an effective final
point.
Your evaluation should be a single paragraph (at least 150 words but no
more than 200 words). Revise and edit your paragraph for clarity and cor-
rectness.
Audience and Tone

Being aware of “invisible” readers is a skill you likely already possess. Consider the
following notes. Which would the writer send to her parents? Which would she
send to her best friend?
Last Saturday, I volunteered at a local hospital. The visit was fun and
rewarding. I even learned how to do cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or
CPR. Unfortunately, I think I caught a cold from one of the patients. I
hope I am well by next Saturday to volunteer again.
OMG! You won’t believe this! My advisor forced me to do my community

service hours at this hospital all weekend! We learned CPR but we did it
on dummies, not even real peeps. And some kid sneezed on me and got me
sick! I hope I don’t have to go back next week. I def do NOT want to miss
the basketball game!
Most likely, you matched each note to its intended reader easily.
Just as speakers transmit emotion through voice, writers transmit a range of atti-
tudes using sentence structure, punctuation, and word choice. In the second
example above, notice the writer uses slang (“OMG,” “peeps,” “def”), casual punc-
tuation (!), and informal sentence structure (starting a sentence with “And”).
Those choices set a certain tone.
A writer’s tone should always match the audience and the purpose of the piece of
writing. The tone of college writing is slightly formal–not casual, but not stiff. You
should sound like yourself, but the way you would speak in a formal situation.
Takeaways
• Common types of paragraphs in college include summaries and

evaluations.
• Summaries do not include your opinion; evaluations do.
• Critical thinking means actively analyzing something using obser-
vation, reflection, and reason to draw a conclusion.
• Writing must be appropriate in tone for the purpose of the docu-
ment and the intended audience.

6.3 Building with Paragraphs
Preview
• introductory paragraphs
• body paragraphs
• concluding paragraphs
Most documents are composed of three types of paragraphs: introductory para-

graphs, body paragraphs, and concluding paragraphs. This is true of a short story,
a scientific study, a business report, and a college essay or research paper.
All three types of paragraphs focus on a single idea, provide details that explain or
illustrate, and end with a final thought or transition to the next idea.
But introductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions have very different pur-
poses.
Introductory Paragraphs
Your introduction is an invitation to your readers to consider what you have to say
and then to follow along as you expand your point. If your introductory paragraph
is dull or unfocused, your reader will not care about continuing.
The introductory paragraph’s job is to attract the reader’s interest and present the
topic and the writer’s opinion about the topic (this is called the ““thesis
thesis”).
”). In a long
6.3 Building with Paragraphs | 152

paper, an introduction might also supply necessary background information or
preview major points.
When writing an introductory paragraph, your main goals are to be interesting

and clear. Following are several techniques for strong introductory paragraphs:
• Begin with a broad, general statement of the topic, narrowing to the thesis.
For example: “Voting is a responsibility, but one that is not always easy to
accomplish…” Add some detail, then end with the thesis: “Mail-in ballots
would make voting cheaper, easier, and less prone to fraud.”
• Start with an idea or a situation the opposite of the one you will develop.
For example: “In some countries, people have to risk their lives to cast a vote.
In the U.S., it is usually just inconvenient.” Add detail that leads to the the-
sis.
• Convince the readers the subject applies to them or is something they
should know about. For example: “Conversations about politics happen on
the bus, at the dinner table, in the classroom. One topic of concern is voter
turnout.” Add detail that leads to the thesis.
• Use an incident or brief story–something that happened to you or that you
heard about. For example: “I remember the first time I voted.” Add more
details, then end with the thesis: “Everyone should have the same chance I
had to cast their vote. Mail-in ballots would help.”
• Ask questions so the reader thinks about the answers or so you can answer
the questions. For example: “How many people complain about politics?
Why do they just talk? Why don’t they vote? Mail-in ballots would make
voting easier for many people.”
• Use a quotation to add someone else’s voice to your own. For example:
“Franklin D. Roosevelt once said, ‘Nobody will ever deprive the American
people of the right to vote except the American people themselves and the
only way they could do this is by not voting.’ A key objective in a democracy,
then, is to make it easy to vote. Mail-in ballots would do that.”
Notice that each technique starts with some sort of hook to grab the reader’s atten-
tion, follows with details, then ends with the thesis. A good introduction will lead
the reader to that point.
153 | 6.3 Building with Paragraphs

Exercise 1
Go to Ch. 8 and read just the first paragraph in these student-written

essays:
• “Being Safe: An Informed Approach” by Angela Godfrey

• “Remembering My Beginnings at Mt. Hood Community College”
by Jennifer Steimer
• “Calming the Butterflies” by Brittany McLaughlin
Answer these questions:
1. Which of the techniques listed above did the writers use in their
introductions?
2. Did you find yourself wanting to know more after reading these
introductions? Did you at least clearly understand the subject of
the rest of the essay?
3. Which introduction most engaged you? Why?
Body Paragraphs
A body paragraph is just like the stand-alone paragraphs we worked on in Ch. 6.2,
except most body paragraphs end with a transition to the next paragraph or begin
with a transition from the previous paragraph (one or the other, never both!).
Topic sentences are vital to body paragraphs because they tie the paragraph to
your thesis and remind readers what your essay is about. A paragraph without a
clearly identified topic sentence will feel unfocused and scattered.
The information in body paragraphs should do the following:

• Be specific. The main points you make and the examples you use to expand
on those points need to be clear and detailed. General examples are not
nearly as compelling or useful because they are too obvious and typical. To
say “students worry about exams” is not as effective as saying “the average
community college student often feels overwhelmed during finals week.”
• Be selective. When faced with lots of information that could be used to
prove your thesis, you may think you need to include it all. Effective writers
resist the temptation to overwhelm. Choose wisely. If you have five reasons
why exercise programs fail, pick the best three.
Exercise 2
Read Jennifer Steimer’s essay “Remembering My Beginnings” all the way

through.
1. Look at the introductory paragraph and find the thesis statement.

Write it down.
2. Read the second paragraph (the first body paragraph), find the
topic sentence, and write down what that paragraph’s topic is.
Below that, briefly list the examples Jennifer uses to support her
topic sentence.
3. Do the same for the third and fourth paragraphs.
If you did this correctly, your assignment should look like an outline for
Jennifer’s essay.
Concluding Paragraphs
Conclusions are more than just stopping. A strong concluding paragraph should

convey a sense of completeness or closure. What do you conclude based on the
points you made? Leave a good final impression.
There are several ways to write an effective conclusion:
• Philosophize
Philosophize. What does this all mean? End with a thought-provoking
insight that asks your reader to think further about what you have writ-
ten–why the subject is important, what should be done, what choice should
be made.
• Synthesize
Synthesize, but don’t summarize and don’t repeat yourself. Show the reader
how the points you made fit together.
• Predict (what may happen) or make a recommendation (what should be
done). Help your reader see the topic differently.
It might be easier to consider what NOT to do in a conclusion:
• Do not use the phrase “In conclusion.” Readers can see that your essay is
about to end. You don’t have to point it out. That is a clumsy transition.
• Do not simply restate your original point. You have referred to it throughout
the paper; repeating it one more time can actually be annoying to the reader.
• Do not introduce a new idea. A conclusion can expand the reader’s sense of
the topic, but it shouldn’t jump to a different topic altogether.
• Do not make sentimental, emotional appeals. If your argument is well-
argued, the reader already agrees with you (or at least has agreed to consider
your point).
• Do not directly address the reader. An essay is written for the general reader.
Do not use “you.” If you want to claim your position, say “I.” If you want the
reader to feel included, say “we.” If you want to look objective, say “most
people” or “students in college.”
Think of an essay like this:
introduction + body paragraphs = conclusion
The equal sign is important. Your point and your support should lead to the con-
clusion, just like 2 + 2 = 4.

Exercise 3
Look at Jennifer’s essay again. Compare her introductory and conclud-

ing paragraphs. Explain how she returned to the idea that introduced
her essay, but expanded it in a meaningful way.
Takeaways
• Most documents are built with three types of paragraphs: intro-

ductions, body paragraphs, and conclusions.
• The job of introductory paragraphs is to engage the reader and
present the paper’s topic in a thesis.
• Body paragraphs develop the topic with supporting details.
• Concluding paragraphs wrap the paper up gracefully.

CHAPTER 7: ESSAYS
7.1 The Writing Process
7.2 Getting Started
7.3 Organizing Ideas
7.4 Writing the Draft
7.5 Polishing the Draft
7.6 Correcting the Final
Chapter 7: Essays | 158

7.1 The Writing Process
Preview
• using a writing process

• misconceptions about how to write
• the importance of planning
Effective writing is simply good ideas expressed well and arranged clearly. But that
is more difficult than it sounds. Writing is not something one just sits down and
does. You can write a diary like that or a text or a shopping list, but anything
you are going to submit to a reader for evaluation–a job application, an essay, a
report–should be planned and polished.
How does effective writing happen? Great writers use a writing process. Students
who want to improve their writing learn that a writing process will help them
achieve that goal. It also reduces stress and improves grades.
The Writing Process

The writing process outlined in this chapter is not difficult, but it takes several ses-
sions. Here are the five steps of the writing process:
1. Prewrite: generate and begin developing ideas

2. Outline: identify the document’s purpose and determine the thesis, the basic
content, and the organizational structure
159 | 7.1 The Writing Process

3. Draft: develop the points identified in the outline, add detail, examples, and
commentary, then write an engaging introduction and a useful conclusion;
after this step, the writer has a first draft
4. Revise: review and reshape the draft; this involves moderate to major
changes: adding or deleting sentences or even paragraphs, expanding an
important idea, replacing a vague word with a more precise one, reorganizing
points to improve the document’s quality and clarity
5. Edit: make final changes to ensure adherence to standard writing conven-
tions–fix errors in grammar and spelling–then apply formatting guidelines to
ensure correctness
Once these five steps have been completed, a careful writer will seek the
advice of knowledgeable others before considering the project complete. In
college, this advice usually takes the form of peer editing groups and tutors.
Then, a writer takes the feedback and repeats Steps 4 and 5, re-revising and re-
editing until she is satisfied. How long this takes depends on how long the writer
has. In a timed exam, this step has to be done quickly. For a major paper, the writer
should expect to do multiple revisions. (This textbook was revised and edited
dozens of times with feedback from 4 editors!)
We will go over each step in detail. For now, notice the steps are similar to those in
any creative project, not just writing. You’d follow the same steps to design a house
or build a robot or paint a painting: come up with ideas (often vague at first), give
them some structure, make a first attempt, figure out what needs improving, then
refine and polish until you are satisfied.
Common Misconceptions
Some students have had good experience with a writing process in the past. Some
have never even heard of a “writing process.” Others are doubtful that anything
can help. A few are hopeful.
Following are some common misconceptions students have about the writing
process:
• “I do not have to waste time on prewriting if I understand the assignment.”
7.1 The Writing Process | 160

Even if the task is straightforward and you feel ready to start writing, taking
time to develop ideas before you write a draft gives you an opportunity to
consider what you want to say before you jump in. It actually saves time
overall.
• “It is important to complete a formal, numbered outline for every writing
assignment.” For some assignments, such as lengthy research papers, a for-
mal outline can be helpful. For other assignments, a scratch outline like the
one recommended in this process is sufficient. The important thing is that
you have a plan.
• “My draft will be better if I write it when I am feeling inspired.” By all means,
take advantage of moments of inspiration. But understand that “inspired”
work is often disorganized, incomplete, and unclear. Also, in college you
often have to write when you are not in the mood.
• “My instructor will tell me everything I need to revise.” It is your job, not
your instructor’s, to transform a rough draft into a final, polished piece of
writing.
• “I am a good writer, so I do not need to revise or edit.” Revising and editing
are what make good writers into great writers. Shakespeare revised his work.
So did Jane Austen and George Orwell. Here is what Ernest Hemingway said
when asked about revision:
Interviewer: “How much rewriting do you do?”

Hemingway: “It depends. I rewrote the ending of Farewell to Arms,
the last page of it, 39 times before I was satisfied.”
Interviewer: “Was there some technical problem there? What was
it that had stumped you?”
Hemingway: “Getting the words right.”
—The Paris Review Interview, 1956

Graphics
Here is an example of one famous writer’s revisions. This is the first page
of Charles Dickens’ hand-written manuscript of his classic novel A
Christmas Carol. If Dickens had to revise and edit, you probably need to
do so as well…
For examples of edits by other famous authors, check out this article:
https://www.buzzfeed.com/alanamohamed/13-drafts-from-famous-
authors-that-only-writers-can
Planning Backward
Using a writing process requires multiple sessions of writing time. Do not try to
7.1 The Writing Process | 162

move from Step 1 to Step 5 too fast. Trying to work fast is stressful, and it does not
yield great results.
When your instructor gives you a writing assignment, write the due date on your
calendar. Then work backward from that date to today, setting aside blocks of time
when you will work on the assignment. For an essay, try to schedule a work session
for each step in the writing process plus an extra session for drafting. Each session
should be an hour or two. Less time won’t let you get any important work done,
but too much longer is exhausting, and exhausted writers don’t write well.
Stick to your schedule. If you find you need additional time, add it in small chunks
throughout the process rather than trying to do a lot of work the night before the
deadline. If things go smoothly and you end up with extra time, spend it on addi-
tional revision and editing.
Takeaways
• This writing process helps students complete any writing assign-

ment more successfully.
• The process includes five steps: prewriting, organizing, drafting,
revising, and editing.
• The writer should submit a finished draft, not a rough draft, to
peer editors or a tutor for feedback.
• Allow enough time to complete each step.

7.2 Getting Started
Preview
This section of Ch. 7 will introduce the following topics:
• the purpose of prewriting

• four types of prewriting
• choosing a good topic
If you think a blank sheet of paper or a blinking cursor on a blank computer screen
is scary, you are not alone. Beginning to write can be intimidating. However, expe-
rienced writers remind themselves that writing is a process. Any big project can be
accomplished if you take it a step at a time.
Step 1: Prewriting
Prewriting is the first stage of this writing process. Prewriting can help you get
started if you don’t know where to begin, it can help you narrow a topic that is too
broad, and it can help you explore what you know about your chosen topic and
find interesting examples and details to use in your paper. Prewriting is just brain-
storming in writing.
We get our ideas from many places: what we read, what we hear, what we see
and experience, our imagination. Prewriting helps us turn all of that information
into words on a page. Prewriting is a way to think about what you think, to break
7.2 Getting Started | 164

through mental blocks, to get ideas out of your head and down on paper so you
have something with which to work.
There are a few, very simple rules for prewriting:
• Use pencil and paper or a computer, whichever allows you to write more
quickly.
• Write your topic at the top of the page to remind yourself to stick to it. If you
wander off, just look at your topic and wander back.
• Don’t worry about spelling, punctuation, repetition, or exact wording. Your
goal is to simply get as much information on the page as you can.
• Write for 10 minutes. More is unnecessary; less is not enough time to find
unexpected ideas.
Don’t stop and start. The value comes from writing uninterrupted for 10 minutes.
Keep pushing your brain to come up with one more idea and one more idea. That
is when you find interesting and even surprising stuff.
Types of prewriting explained below include Freewriting, Questioning, Listing,

and Clustering. Try them all, then use the technique that works best for your
thinking process or for the specific assignment you’ve been given.
Freewriting
Freewriting is when you jot down thoughts that come to mind in rough sentences
or phrases. Try not to doubt or question your ideas. Allow yourself to write freely.
Don’t be self-conscious. Nobody is going to grade this. Once you start writing
without limitations, you may find you have more to say than you thought. If you
get stuck, look at your topic again and continue.
Here is an example of Freewriting on the topic of “the media.” Notice the writer
isn’t worrying about grammar, fragments, or even staying on topic. She is just writ-
ing down everything that comes to mind about the media.
165 | 7.2 Getting Started

Listing
Listing is like Freewriting, but instead of writing across the page, you go from top
to bottom, listing topics or details, one after another, without trying to sort or
organize.
Here is an example of Listing on the topic of “the media.” Notice the ideas bounce
from one to another, then off in a different direction. The point is to get as many
ideas on the page as possible.

Questioning
Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
In everyday situations, we pose these questions to get information. Who will be

my partner for the project? What do I need to get at the grocery store? Why is my
car making that noise? We seek answers to these questions to gain knowledge, to
better understand our experiences, and to plan for the future.
In prewriting, answering these questions can help you recall ideas you already
have and generate new thoughts about a topic.
To do Questioning, write the words “who, what, when, where, why, how” down
the left-hand side of a sheet of paper, leaving space between the words. Then, in
the blank space, answer the questions as they relate to your topic in as many ways
as you can. Jump down to answer a question, then jump back up to answer a dif-
ferent one. Fill up the page.

Here is an example of Questioning on the topic of “the media”:
Questions Responses
Students, teachers, parents, politicians, employees–almost everyone

uses media. Who creates media? Journalists, reporters, big companies,
Who?
political groups. Who else? I guess anyone who wants to share
information with others.
Lots of things. Television, radio, e-mail (?), newspapers, magazines,

books. Is that good? Well, information is good. But how do we know if
What? it is true? I guess we don’t. Maybe we have to know more about who is
writing the information. Is Dear Abby media? Are advertisements
media? What about false advertising?
Media has been around a long time, but seems a lot more important
When? now. Is that because of computers? When did the news move from
newspapers to TV to online?
The media is almost everywhere now. In homes, at work, in cars, on

Where?
cell phones, even on watches and glasses!
Hmm. This is a good question. I don’t know why there is mass media.
Why? Maybe we have it because we have the technology. But even in the
1700s we had newspapers, I think.
Well, media is possible because of technology but I don’t know how

How? they all work! How does a news article go from the event to my
computer. Do I need to know? Probably.
Clustering
Clustering allows you to visualize related ideas. Many writers like this method
because it shows how ideas connect.
To do Clustering, write your general topic in the center of a blank sheet of paper.
Then brainstorm specific ideas around it and use lines or arrows to connect them.
Add as many ideas and sub-ideas as you can think of. Write for 10 minutes; fill the
page.
Note: You can do this on a computer (like the example below) but it’s much easier
on paper. On a computer, you spend too much time making little circles and
choosing colors. On paper, you spend the time coming up with more ideas.

Prewriting can be used when you begin a project to brainstorm possible topics.
Or it can be used as you are writing to come up with details on a topic and expand
what you want to say. If you hit a dead end on your first prewrite, go do something
else for a while (math homework or the laundry), then try again, using a different
type of prewriting. The goal of prewriting is to get information out of your head
and onto a piece of paper where you can work with it.

Writing Process, Step 1
You will do two prewrites for your essay.
First:
Do a prewrite on the assigned topic. The goal is to explore a

broad, assigned topic to narrow it and make it your own. Use one
of the prewriting styles explained above. You should end up with
a least two pages full of words and ideas.
After you finish, read over what you wrote. Identify one or two
narrowed topics that might make a good essay. If you did not find
a good topic, do another prewrite using a different style. Do not
move on to the next task until you have a narrow, potential topic
for your essay.
Then:
Take your narrow, potential topic and do a prewrite on it, using a

different style of prewriting. The goal of this second prewrite is
to generate lots of details that you can use in your essay. Again,
you should produce at least two pages full of words.
If you succeeded with these prewrites, you should have a good topic, one
that interests you and is narrow enough to cover thoroughly in a short
paper, and lots of details to help you explain your point. Keep doing
prewrites until you reach that goal.
Prewriting can be used when you begin a project to brainstorm possible topics. Or
it can be used to come up with details on a topic to expand what you might want
to say. If you hit a dead end on your first prewrite, go do something else for a while
(math homework or the laundry), then try again, using a different type of prewrit-

ing. The goal of prewriting is to get information out of your head and onto a piece
of paper where you can work with it. Hopefully, you will feel less anxious about
starting to write. With a few ideas on paper, writers are often more comfortable
continuing to write.
Choosing a Topic
Before you decide firmly on your topic, put it through a simple test. Answer these
questions:
• Am I interested in this topic? Would my audience be interested?

• Do I have prior knowledge of or experience with my topic, or do I have the
time to learn more about it?
• Is this topic narrow enough to dig into deeply, but large enough to provide
me with ideas to explore?
• Does it meet the assignment requirements?
When you can answer “yes” to all those questions, you are ready for Step 2 of the
writing process.
Takeaways
• Prewriting is the first step in successful writing. Don’t skip it!

• Prewriting is the transfer of ideas from abstract thoughts and feel-
ings into words, phrases, and sentences on paper.
• Types of prewriting include Freewriting, Listing, Questioning, and
Clustering.

7.3 Organizing Ideas
Preview
This section of Ch. 7 covers the following topics:
• developing a thesis
• using a critical question
• constructing an outline
• options for organizing
Prewriting helps a writer explore possible topics for a paper and figure out what to
say. But to communicate ideas to someone else, they have to be organized. That is
the goal of Step 2: developing a thesis and an outline.
Step 2: Organizing
Organizing begins with articulating your purpose. What are you going to say in
this essay?
Thesis Statements
A thesis is a clear statement of the essay’s main idea. It is the essay topic and the
writer’s position or opinion on that topic. It’s sort of like the topic sentence of a
paragraph, but it’s the topic sentence for the entire essay.
Here is an example thesis:
7.3 Organizing Ideas | 172

Urban trees are key to a healthy environment for humans. (The topic
is “trees in the city” and the opinion is that they are crucial to human
health.)
A thesis is not just the essay’s topic; it is what the writer has to say about that
topic, their point. Each thesis states an opinion. It is not just a fact; it is the writer’s
thoughts, feelings, or position on the topic.
The job of a thesis is to generate and govern the essay. To generate something is to
cause it to be created. To govern something is to control it. A thesis statement first
creates, then controls the essay.
Following are guidelines for a strong, clear thesis statement:
• A thesis is one sentence. The subject of the thesis is the subject of the essay.
Write it first. (For example: “Mail-in voting…”)
• A thesis must include an opinion, the point you will make about your sub-
ject. Write that second. (For example: “…should be required in every state.”)
If the thesis is simply a fact (“Americans over the age of 18 can vote.”), you
have nowhere to go.
• A good thesis should generate a “critical question,” either “How?” or
“Why?” This is the question you will answer in the body of the essay. A
good critical question for our example thesis is “Why?” The body para-
graphs will explain why mail-in voting should be required.
• A good thesis is clear and specific. Avoid vague language (“interesting,” “ter-
rible,” “good”). Can you prove that? In our example, “should be required” is
much clearer than “would be a good idea.”
• A good thesis is short and simple: Make sure your position is not too broad
or too narrow. Don’t tackle two or three ideas at once. Our example thesis
does not say mail-in voting should be “encouraged and monitored”–it picks
one focus: “required.”
• A good thesis is a statement, not a question (not “What should we do
about…?”) or an announcement (not “The subject of this paper is…”).
• Be aware of your audience. Take a stand without insulting the reader. (“Only
anarchists support mail-in voting” is unnecessarily offensive.) If you can’t
make a point without insulting people who disagree with you, you will never
173 | 7.3 Organizing Ideas

persuade anyone.
The thesis is usually presented in the essay’s introductory paragraph, often as the
last sentence.
Create a thesis statement for your essay using the topic you identified in
Ch. 7.2.
• First, write down the topic you’ve chosen.

• Then, finish the sentence by stating your opinion or position on
that topic.
• Identify which critical question (How? Why?) you intend to
answer in your essay. If the thesis doesn’t easily lead to a critical
question, it needs more work.
• Test your thesis against all the guidelines above. Is it clear and spe-
cific? Short and simple? Is it a statement rather than a question or
an announcement? Is it phrased in a way that will reach a diverse
audience?
Save this information for the follow-up exercise below.
Outlining
An outline is a written plan for the essay. Without clear organization, your reader
can become confused and lose interest.
We use the critical question generated by the thesis to create the outline. Remem-
ber that the critical question will usually be “Why?” or “How?” For example:

Thesis: Mail-in voting should be required in every state.
Critical question: Why?
Answer: Because it is cheaper, easier, and safer.
Those three answers become the three main points in the outline and, eventually,
the topic sentences of the body paragraphs. The answers to the critical question
become the body of your essay.
An outline does not have to be complicated or formal. A short, informal “scratch”

outline, where you list key ideas in the order you will present them, will help you
visualize your argument and ensure the structure will be clear to a reader.
Here is a basic structure for a 5-paragraph essay:
Paragraph 1: introduction, thesis statement
Paragraph 2: main point, supporting detail
Paragraph 5: conclusion
Here is an example scratch outline on the topic of mail-in voting:
• Introduction: quote from Obama on voting, develop idea, lead to thesis:

Mail-in voting should be required in every state.
• First body paragraph: less expensive (cost of running polling places & voting
machines vs. postage)
• Second body paragraph: eliminates barriers (work conflicts, family responsi-
bilities, disabilities, long lines; increases number who vote)
• Third body paragraph: safer (paper trail, eliminates potential voting machine
interference, no health risk during a pandemic)
• Conclusion: lots of benefits, few downsides

Notice how easy it would be to turn this outline into an essay draft by simply
adding explanations and details to each paragraph?
Ordering Information
We know that the introduction comes first, the conclusion comes last, and the
body of the essay is in the middle. But how do we organize the middle?
There are three basic patterns used to organize the body of an essay: chronological
order, emphatic order, and spatial order.
Chronological order is when events are arranged in the order they actually hap-
pen. Chronological order is used for the following purposes:
• explaining the history of an event or a topic

• telling a story or relating an experience
• explaining how to do or to make something
For example, an essay about the history of the airline industry would begin with
its inception and progress through the essential events up to the present day. This
method uses transition words such as “then,” “after that,” and “finally.”
Emphatic order is when your points start with the least important and build to the
most important argument last. Emphatic order is best used for the following pur-
poses:
• persuading and convincing

• ranking items by their benefit or significance
• illustrating a situation, problem, or solution
The example outline above on mail-in voting is organized emphatically: it moves

from a good reason, to a better one, to the best one. Emphatic order is common in
persuasive essays because it allows the writer to increasingly strengthen his argu-
ment.
Key transitions might be “one important reason is,” “just as importantly,” and “but
the most important.”

Spatial order means explaining or describing objects as they are arranged in space.
Spatial order is less common in college writing and best for the following pur-
poses:
• helping readers visualize something you want them to see

• evoking a scene using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, sound)
For example, an essay that describes the parts of a guitar would use spatial order.
You create a picture for the reader. The view must move in an orderly, logical
progression, giving the reader clear directional signals (“to the left is…,” “above
that…,” “on the back is…”)
This might be a good time to go back and look at the student example essays in
Ch. 8. Which organizing structures did these students use? Why was that a good
choice for their topic?
These three options–chronological, emphatic and spatial–are often combined in a

long paper, but usually used alone in short essays. The key is to choose a pattern
consciously, one that will best help the writer achieve their purpose.

Writing Process, Step 2 (cont.)
Create an outline or your essay:
• Look at the three organizational patterns listed above. Choose the

pattern that will best help you explain your point.
• Then, beneath your thesis (from Ex. 1 above), answer your critical
question three times briefly, following the organizational pattern
you chose and using details from your prewrites. For example:
◦ If you chose a chronological pattern, identify three

moments in time and list them in order of when they hap-
pened.
◦ If you chose an emphatic pattern, list three examples and
order them from least important to most.
◦ If you chose a spatial pattern, list three physical areas of
your topic.
Outlining is how you figure out if the essay is going to work. Is your the-
sis clear enough? Do you have sufficient details? Is the structure you
chose the best option to explain your point? If not, do some more
prewriting or organizing. This process may take you a couple of hours to
do well, but the time is well spent.
The final product (thesis and outline) should be no longer than half a
page. This is an outline, not a draft.
Do not proceed to Ch. 7.4 until your thesis and outline have been
approved by the instructor.

Takeaways
• A thesis statement is your topic and your position on that topic.

• An outline is the plan for structuring your essay.
◦ Chronological order is commonly used in expository writ-

ing.
◦ Emphatic order is most appropriate in a persuasive paper.
◦ Spatial order is best for helping readers visualize something.

7.4 Writing the Draft
Preview
• turning the thesis and outline into a draft

• using topic sentences to generate content
• choosing a title
If a writer just sits down and starts writing a draft, it is likely to be disorganized
and unfocused. The purpose of prewriting and organizing is to get started, provide
a clear direction, generate lots of details to use, and figure out the best organiza-
tional pattern to make your point before putting a ton of time into drafting. With
that start, writing the draft is much easier and the resulting document is clearer
and more interesting.
Step 3: Drafting
Drafting is the stage of the writing process when you develop the first complete
version of the document. A draft essay will include the following:
• an introduction that stimulates the audience’s interest, tells what the essay is
about, and motivates readers to keep reading
• a thesis that presents the main point of the essay
• a topic sentence in each body paragraph that states the main idea of the para-
graph and connects that idea to the thesis statement
7.4 Writing the Draft | 180

• support (facts, examples, explanations) in each body paragraph that develops
or explains the topic sentence
• a conclusion that reinforces the thesis and leaves the audience with a feeling
of completion
This basic format is valid for most essays you will write in college, including long
ones.
The Body Comes First

Although many students assume an essay is written from beginning to end in one
sitting, most well-written essays are built one section at a time, not necessarily in
order, and over several sessions.
Write the body of your essay first, before you write the introduction.
This may seem odd. Why write the middle before the beginning? Because the
body of your essay IS the essay. Think of the introduction and conclusion as an
appetizer and dessert for the main course. The body of your essay is the meat, pota-
toes, and vegetables. Besides, how can you write an introduction if you don’t yet
know what you are going to introduce? Write the body first.
The body of your essay is where you explain, expand upon, detail, and support
your thesis. Each point in your outline can be turned into a topic sentence, which
then becomes a paragraph or two by adding details that clarify and demonstrate
your point.
Work on the body of your essay in several separate sessions. You’ll be surprised
the kind of changes you want to make to something you wrote yesterday when you
look at it again today. Keep working on the body until it says what you want.
181 | 7.4 Writing the Draft

Using the thesis and outline you created in Ch. 7.3 and following the
instructions above, write the body of your essay.
Before you finish, review the information in Ch. 6.3 on topic sentences,
supporting ideas, transitions, and body paragraphs. Be sure that informa-
tion is reflected in your body paragraphs.
Save this information to use in the following drafting steps.
Write the Introduction Second

The introductory paragraph has a very specific job: it attracts the reader’s interest
and presents the thesis. In a long paper, it can also supply any necessary back-
ground information or preview major points.
There are lots of ways to write a good introduction. Read through the body of
your essay one more time and think about what you could say to invite your reader
in. How could you make the reader curious? Remember the different options for
introductions that we looked at in Ch. 6.3:
• Begin with a broad, general statement of the topic, narrowing to the thesis.
• Start with an idea or a situation the opposite of the one you will develop.
• Convince the readers that the subject applies to them or is something they
should know about.
• Use an incident or brief story–something that happened to you or that you
heard about.
• Ask questions so the reader thinks about the answers or so you can answer
the questions.
• Use a quotation to add someone else’s voice to your own.

As with the body draft, it is a good idea to schedule at least two sessions to write
your introduction. Coming back to reconsider what you’ve said gives you a new
perspective.
Now, write your introductory paragraph.
• Decide which technique from the list in Ch. 6.3 would work best
to introduce your essay.
• Draft your introduction, starting with a hook and ending with
your thesis.
Work on your introductory paragraph until it is clear, focused, and

engaging. Then, insert it above your body paragraphs.
Save this information for use in the following drafting steps.
The Conclusion Is Next

Once you have put together your body paragraphs and attached your introduction
at the beginning, it is time to write a conclusion. It is vital to put as much effort
into the conclusion as you did for the rest of the essay. A conclusion that is unor-
ganized or repetitive can undercut even the best essay.
A conclusion’s job is to wrap the essay up so the reader is left with a good final
impression. A strong concluding paragraph brings the paper to a graceful end. We
discussed several approaches in Ch. 6.3: philosophize, synthesize, predict.
Do not do any of the following:
• use the phrase “In conclusion”

• repeat your thesis
• introduce a new idea
• make sentimental, emotional appeals
• directly address the reader
Write a concluding paragraph for your essay. Check Ch. 6.3 for guidance
on what a conclusion should do. Work on your conclusion until it is
clear, focused, and engaging. Then, insert it after your body paragraphs.
The Title
Titles are a brief and interesting summary of what the document is about. Titles
are generally more than one word but no more than several words.
Like the headline in a newspaper or magazine, an essay’s title gives the audience a
first peek at the content. If readers like the title, they are likely to keep reading.
Caution: don’t be too clever. A clear title is better than something creative but
confusing. Also, remember that “Essay 1” is not a title.

Go to Ch. 8 and read the titles of all the essays listed there. Which title is
the most interesting to you? Which is the least interesting or most con-
fusing? Ask yourself why.
Then, pick a title for your essay, one that follows the guidelines above,
and put it on the first page of your draft, below your heading and above
the introductory paragraph.
You should now have a complete first draft of your essay to submit.
The first draft of your essay is a complete piece of writing, but it is not finished. A
first draft gives you a working version to improve. The best writing goes through
multiple drafts before it is complete.
The final steps of the writing process–revising and editing–are crucial to the qual-
ity of the final document (and the grade you receive). During the final steps, you
will have the opportunity to make changes to your first draft.
Even if your draft is great, put it away overnight and look at it one more time
before going on to the next step: revising.

Takeaways
• The key structural parts of an essay are a thesis in an engaging

introductory paragraph, body paragraphs with supporting details,
and a concluding paragraph that ends the essay gracefully.
• Your outline guides the development of the body paragraphs. Each
main idea becomes the topic sentence of a new paragraph that is
then developed with supporting details.
• Write the introduction after the body paragraphs. Write the con-
clusion last.
• Titles should be clear and concise.

7.5 Polishing the Draft
Preview
• the difference between revision and editing

• the steps of revision
• effective word choice
You may think a completed first draft means you are finished. Experienced writers
know that a draft is just half-way to the finish line.
Revising and editing are the final two steps in the writing process, and completing
those steps successfully are the difference between substandard work and excel-
lent writing.
• When you revise, you add, cut, move, or change information to make your
ideas more accurate, more interesting, or more convincing. The goal of revi
revi--
sion is clarity.
• When you edit, you fix problems in grammar, punctuation, and sentence
structure. Then you format the document according to the guidelines set by
your instructor. The goal of editing is correctness.
This section of Ch. 7 covers revision. The next section will cover editing.
187 | 7.5 Polishing the Draft

Step 4: Revising
The word “revision” tells you what the
process is: “vision” is seeing, and you will re-
look at or re-see your draft during this step. Tip
When you revise, your job is to look at your
draft critically and find things to improve.
When you finish a
Many people hear the words “critical” and
draft, you are too close
“criticism” and think of negative feelings
to it to make changes.
that make them blush or grumble. However,
Put the draft away,
as a writer and a thinker, you need to be crit
crit--
preferably overnight
ical of yourself in a positive way. You need to
but at least for several
train your eye to see problems and learn to
hours, before attempt-
trust your ability to fix what needs fixing.
ing to revise.
“Critical” also means “important and cru-
cial.”
When revising, look at organization, clarity, and writing quality.
First Read: Organization

All the ideas in each paragraph and the entire essay should be arranged in a way
that makes logical sense.
The following tasks do not have to be done in order. In fact, mixing up the order
might help you focus better. Look at one of the body paragraphs, then skip back
to the introduction, then skip forward to the conclusion, then do a different body
paragraph. That way, your mind can focus on one segment at a time.
• Read the introductory paragraph. Ask yourself if it is as strong as you can

make it. Is it engaging? Is the thesis clearly stated?
• Read the topic sentence of each body paragraph and ask yourself if it is tied
to the thesis.
• Read each body paragraph and ask yourself if you have provided adequate
details and examples to explain the topic sentence, without repeating your-
7.5 Polishing the Draft | 188

self.
• Be sure the body paragraphs are logically organized. Read the three topic
sentences, one after the other, and ask yourself if the order is effective.
Would your point be clearer if you changed the order?
• Read the concluding paragraph. Does it provide a sense of closure rather
than just repeating what has already been said?
Second Read: Pruning

Trees grow well with sufficient sunshine and rain. Sometimes, though, they grow
so vigorously that their roots invade the foundation of the house, branches knock
against windows, and leaves fall into rain gutters, clogging them. To ensure the
tree remains attractive and healthy, it often needs pruning.
That is true about writing too. Many student writers are worried about not having
enough to say. A more serious problem with student writing is wordiness. Three
problems common in student writing are focus, transitions, and clarity.
Problem #1: Focus
Sometimes writers cannot resist a good digression

digression. Even though you might enjoy
such detours, unplanned digressions usually harm a piece of writing.
Read the following paragraph twice. The first time, include the words that are
lined out. The second time, skip them. Notice the information about the shop-
ping experience gets the reader off track. The paragraph is clearer and more
focused without the digression.
Buying a television can be confusing. The first important decision as the

shopper walks around the sales floor is whether to get a plasma screen or
an LCD screen. The salespeople may give you decent info. Plasma flat-
panel television screens can be much larger in diameter than their LCD
rivals. Plasma screens show truer blacks and can be viewed at a wider angle
than current LCD screens. But be careful and tell the salesperson you
have budget constraints. Large flat-panel plasma screens are much more
expensive than flat-screen LCD models. Don’t let someone make you buy
more television than necessary!

It takes time to learn to prune your own writing. But practice makes perfect. As
you revise, see if you can spot digressions.
Problem #2: Conciseness
Sometimes writers use too many words when fewer words will appeal
more to their audience and better fit their purpose in a given piece of writ-
ing.
The sentence above is much clearer without the crossed out words and the mean-
ing is the same. Our goal is not simply to make sentences shorter; it’s to make them
stronger.
Here are some common examples of wordiness to look for in your draft.
• Sentences that begin with “There are” or “It is”
◦ Wordy: There are two major experiments that the Biology Department
sponsors.
◦ Revised: The Biology Department sponsors two major experiments.
• Sentences with unnecessary modifiers
◦ Wordy: Two extremely famous and well-known consumer advocates

spoke in favor of the legislation.
◦ Revised: Two well-known consumer advocates spoke in favor of the leg-
islation. (“extremely famous” and “well-known” mean the same thing)
• Sentences in the passive voice or with forms of the verb “to be”
◦ Wordy: It can be said that using a GPS device is something that is a ben-
efit to drivers who have a poor sense of direction.
◦ Revised: Using a GPS device can benefit drivers who have a poor sense
of direction.
• Sentences with round-about phrases
◦ Wordy: The e-book reader, which is a recent invention, may become as

commonplace as the cell phone. My grandfather bought an e-book
reader, and his wife bought an e-book reader, too.
◦ Revised: The e-book reader, a recent invention, may become as com-
monplace as the cell phone. Both my grandparents have bought e-book

readers.
Here are some wordy phrases to avoid; use the simpler, clearer option:
Wordy Concise Replacements
a majority of most
at this point in time now
based on the fact that because
during the course of during
in connection with about
in order to to
in the event that if
a number of some/many
at the conclusion of after
despite the fact that although
on a daily basis daily
so as to to
prior to before
take into consideration consider
until such time as until
George Orwell, a perceptive and deliberate writer, once wrote, “Never use a long
word where a short one will do.” Student writers often think fancier words are bet-
ter just because they are fancy. They aren’t.
Fancy Words Plain Replacements
accompany go with
accomplish do
advise tell
attempt try
benefit help

Fan
anccy W
Words
ords Plain R
Reepla
lacem
cemen
ents
ts
demonstrate show
due to because of
finalize end/finish
furnish provide, give
initiate begin
perform do
utilize use
Problem #3: Appropriateness
College essays should be written in formal English suitable for an academic situa-
tion and should be accessible and appropriate for any reader.
• Avoid slang and language that is overly casual. Write about “men” and
“women” and “children” rather than “girls” and “guys” and “kids.”
• Avoid contractions. Contractions such as “can’t” and “aren’t” are considered
casual speech.
• Avoid clichés. Overused expressions such as “rule of thumb” or “skill set”
have been used so often they are empty of meaning.
• Use specific rather than overly general words. Find concrete synonyms for
“thing,” “nice,” “bad,” “interesting,” and other such words.
• Use nonsexist language. Writing to avoid offense is polite, but language also
affects attitudes. Replace male-gender words with non-gender words when
possible (“chair” instead of “chairman,” “police officers” instead of “police-
men”). Alternate “he” and “she” or use genderless plurals like “they.”
• When referring to people with disabilities, put the person first (“a woman
who is blind” rather than “a blind woman”). A disability is something a per-
son has, not what a person is.
Thorough and detailed revision is what differentiates weak writing from strong
writing. Professional writers know this and dedicate the majority of their time to
revising.

How long should you spend on revising? As long as you can. This step can take
longer than all the other steps combined.
Revise your essay. Polish it, prune it, make it clearer and stronger.
Then, cut-and-paste your introductory paragraph from your first draft

and your introductory paragraph from this revised draft into a document
to submit to the instructor. In a few sentences, explain the changes you
made.
Remember that a revision should not simply be the first draft with a few
mechanical corrections. There should be obvious differences in things
like content, organization, or clarity between the two versions.
Takeaways
• Revising and editing are the stages of the writing process when
you improve your work.
• A polished essay is clearly organized and concisely worded.
• Revision takes time.

7.6 Correcting the Final
Preview
• editing for grammar, usage, and punctuation

• formatting
• peer editing and using tutors
Readers do not notice correct spelling, but they notice misspellings. They look
past your sentences to get to your ideas, unless the sentences are awkward and
poorly constructed. They do not cheer when you use “there,” “their,” and
“they’re” correctly, but they notice when you do not. Readers (including class-
mates, teachers, bosses, and customers) are impressed by an error-free document.
The chapters of this book on word use, parts of speech, sentence errors, punctu-
ation and capitalization will help you eliminate mechanical errors in your writing.
Track which topics you master and keep working on the ones that challenge you.
Don’t hesitate to ask for help from your instructor, peer editors, or MHCC tutors.
Step 5: Editing
The final step after revising content is editing. When you edit, you examine the
mechanical parts of the paper: spelling, grammar, punctuation, sentence structure,
and formatting. The goal of editing is correctness.
Do not begin editing until you are sure the content is complete. Then, do your first
7.6 Correcting the Final | 194

round of edits on the computer so you can fix problems as you go. Always do a
final read-through on the printed page; you will see things that you miss on the
computer.
Look for problems you know you have, as well as the following common errors:
• Check capitalization and punctuation,

especially commas, apostrophes, quo-
tation marks, and italics. Tip
• Use words correctly. Avoid clichés and
generalizations. Avoid words like
“aspect,” “amount,” “things,” “interest-
ing,” and “flow”; they are vague and
Use the spell checker
often used incorrectly. Don’t use
on your computer. It
“you.”
will catch most of your
• Be sure sentences are complete, no
misspellings.
run-ons or fragments.
• Look for common grammar problems, Turn off the grammar
including parallel structure, pronoun checker and automatic
use, subject/verb agreement, misplaced fill funtions on your
or dangling modifiers, and verb tense computer. They are
inconsistency. wrong about half the
• Run a spellcheck, but be sure it hasn’t time.
overlooked words.
Formatting
The format of a document is how it is laid out, what it looks like. An instructor,
a department, or a college will often require students to follow a specific format-
ting style. The most common are APA (American Psychological Association) and
MLA (Modern Language Association). Guides like Diana Hacker’s A Pocket Style
Manual and websites like the Purdue Online Writing Lab can help you understand
how formatting works. Most writing classes, including this one, use MLA.
Below is an example of MLA formatting:
195 | 7.6 Correcting the Final

Here is a description of the formatting displayed above:
• Use standard-sized paper (8.5” x 11”).

• Double-space all of the paper, from the heading through the last page.
• Set the document margins to 1” on all sides.
• Do not use a title page unless requested to do so by your instructor.
• Create a running header with your last name and the page number in the
upper right-hand corner, 1” from the top and aligned with the right margin.
Number all pages consecutively.
• List your name, the instructor’s name and title, the course name and section,
and the assignment’s due date in the heading on the top left of the first page.
(Notice the date is written day, month, year without commas.)
• Center the essay title below the heading. Follow the rules on capitalization
in Ch. 3.2. Do not increase font size, use bold, or underline.
• Begin the paper below the title. No extra spaces.
• Indent paragraphs 1” from the left margin.
Proofreading
Proofreading requires patience; it is very easy to miss a mistake. Wait at least a day
after you have finished revising to proofread. Some professional proofreaders read
a text backward (the last paragraph, then the one before that, and so on) so they
can concentrate on mechanics rather than being distracted by content. Another
helpful technique is to read a paper aloud, paying attention to every word, letter,
and punctuation mark.

Proofreading takes time, but the benefits can be seen in the quality of your work,
the response of your readers, and the grade you earn.
Getting Feedback
After working closely with a piece of writing, we need to step back and show our
work to someone who can give us an honest response about its strengths and
weaknesses. Every professional writer does this. Every student writer would ben-
efit from doing this. Getting feedback is your opportunity to learn what confuses
and delights a reader so you can improve your work before sharing the final draft
with a wider audience. The best feedback for college students is from tutors and
classmates.
Using Tutors
The best time to get help from a tutor is…any time. Tutors can help with challenges
along the way or by providing final feedback before you submit work for a grade.
They can help you spot, understand and fix grammar or mechanical problems.
They can provide suggestions on clarity and organization.
What tutors won’t do is fix your paper for you. Don’t expect that. But they will
help you fix your paper. One of the best gifts you can give yourself is to take advan-
tage of tutoring support.
Peer Editing
A college instructor rarely has time to go over drafts in detail with students. Your
mom and your best friend aren’t going to say anything bad. Even a tutor is only
going to give you one opinion. But a small group of students who are working on
(maybe struggling with) the same assignment, learning the same information, and
as invested as you are in succeeding is a perfect group to give helpful feedback.
How many peer editors do you need? Three or four is plenty. Fewer, and you will
have a hard time separating subjective reactions from objective advice. More, and
you will just get duplicate information.

“Peer editing” is more than just asking someone for feedback. You should trade
papers with your peers and edit their work as they edit yours. Trading papers has
a hidden benefit: the best way to become a good editor of your own writing is to
practice editing someone else’s work. It is much easier to see problems in someone
else’s writing and your editing “muscles” get exercised and trained. You will learn
almost as much from doing a peer edit as you will from getting one.
Remember that the purpose of peer editing is to receive constructive criticism, not
just compliments. Although you may be uncomfortable sharing your writing at
first, it gets easier and the value is immeasurable.
Becoming a good editor does not happen spontaneously, but the more you do it,
the better you get. Our initial tendency may be to say only what is wrong with a
piece of writing, to praise it excessively, to remain silent, to argue every point, or
to say what we think the writer wants to hear. Try to avoid those pitfalls.
The following guidelines will help you become a better editor and a better writer.
First, as the writer
The version of your essay that you share for feedback should be what you think
is a finished document. When you give your essay to a reader for editing, you are
saying, “I think I am done. Do you see any problems I have missed?” Giving an
unpolished draft to a reader is lazy; you are basically saying, “Will you finish my
assignment for me?”
When you give your work to an editor, don’t apologize for how bad or unworthy
it is. (If it’s that bad, it isn’t ready for peer editing.) Don’t explain your intention;
it should be clear. In fact, it can be helpful to ask your peer editor to tell you what
they think your intention is. You may ask an editor to pay particular attention to
something that has caused you problems. Otherwise, just say, “Thank you” and let
go.
Then, as a reader

• Be respectful. Don’t criticize in a way
that makes a writer feel stupid. Believe
in the possibilities of the essay. Avoid
sweeping judgments (“this is good,” Tip
“this is bad”); if you can’t say why, the
writer won’t know what to do. Give
specific input (“I can’t find the thesis,”
“The transitions were easy to follow.”) These steps for editing
Avoid the word “you”; talk about the the work of another
essay, not the writer. person can also be used
• Write on the essay. In fact, write all by you on your own
over it! work.
• Read the essay at least twice. The first
time, get familiar with the topic and
note mechanical errors. Then, go over
the essay a second time. Look deeper. Consider organization, clarity, and
writing quality. Note anything that confuses you, interests you, or bores you.
• Here are some questions you could answer, but don’t hesitate to offer any-
thing that seems useful.
◦ Is the formatting correct?

◦ Is the title interesting?
◦ Is the introductory paragraph engaging and does it indicate the direc-
tion of the paper?
◦ Is the thesis clear and specific?
◦ Does the body of the essay develop and support the main idea?
◦ Are transitions clear?
◦ Does the essay include extra, unnecessary material, or is more detail
needed? If so, where?
◦ Does the conclusion feel meaningful?
• Finally, answer these next two questions. Every writer needs to hear some-
thing good, but nobody ever produces a perfect document on a first try.
◦ What one thing most needs to be improved in this essay?

◦ What one thing did you like best or remember most clearly?

We won’t be doing peer editing as a class, but you are encouraged, invited, and
applauded if you want to set up a peer editing group on your own.
After Feedback
After your essay has been critiqued, whether by a tutor or peer editors, read the
input you receive.
• If the mechanical suggestions are correct, make those changes. Always dou-
ble check; do not simply take an editor’s word for a grammar or punctuation
rule!
• Decide which suggestions on the content will improve your essay and which
will not. Incorporate the ideas you like. If several readers note the same prob-
lem, take the advice seriously. However, you are always the final judge about
what you do in your own essay.
Edit your essay. Deal with mechanical correctness, formatting, and any
changes you want to make based on feedback you received. Submit it for
grading.
Am I Done?
The writing process is “recursive.” That means you can repeat steps at any point if
you need to do so. If you start drafting and realize your thesis needs to be clearer,
go back and work on Step 2 again. If you are in the middle of revising and think a
paragraph needs more detail, do a quick prewrite to see what other details you can
discover.

When should you consider your essay finished? Donald Murray wrote this in
“The Maker’s Eye”:
“A piece of writing is never finished. It is delivered to a deadline.”
The best writers always have an urge to keep tinkering. If you give yourself enough
time to work through this process, however, you WILL reach a point where you
have a good product, and you will do so before the assignment is due.
Takeaways
• Editing is a skill that improves with practice.

• Using feedback requires you to be open to input but also able to
identify what will help you achieve your purpose.
• If you use this writing process, your final document will be much
better than it would have been otherwise.

CHAPTER 8: READINGS
8.1 Example Essays
Chapter 8: Readings | 202

8.1 Example Essays
Preview
This chapter provides links to example essays from both professional

and student writers.
Reading excellent writers is not just entertaining or informative. It also introduces

you to new styles, vocabulary, and structures. Analyzing what you read expands
your own writing skills. Reading is the easiest way to become a better writer.
Professional Essay Examples

These essays by published writers demonstrate the skills necessary to write well. I
will refer to them when I talk about writing and reading, and we will use them in
several assignments.
“How to Mark a Book” by Mortimer Adler is a great little essay with simple
instructions for how to learn the most from what you read. It is available
at https://www.unz.com/print/SaturdayRev-1940jul06-00011/
“I Won’t Hire People Who Use Poor Grammar. Here’s Why” by Karl
Wiens. This essay was published in the Harvard Business Review, where
big employers get information, and is available at https://hbr.org/2012/07/
i-wont-hire-people-who-use-poo.
“The Maker’s Eye” by Donald M. Murray is about the revision process.

It might be comforting to know that professional writers spend a lot of
time revising. The essay is available through the MHCC library database
203 | 8.1 Example Essays

in Academic Search Complete at https://login.ezp.mhcc.edu/
login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/
login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=cookie,ip,cpid,url,uid&custid=s37074
48&db=a9h&AN=1075085&site=ehost-live
“Freedom Denied” by Samantha Nutt, a snapshot of the lives of Afghani

women in 2003, is an interesting historical contrast as the Taliban take
control once again in that country. Published in Macleans, it is available at
https://archive.macleans.ca/article/2003/6/30/freedom-denied
“Athletes Speaking Out” by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar was published in The

Los Angeles Times, and is available at https://www.latimes.com/opinion/
story/2020-09-24/kareem-abdul-jabbar-some-athletes-spouting-nonsense
“Breaking My Own Silence” by Min Jin Lee was published in The New
York Times, and is available at https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/20/opin-
ion/confidence-public-speaking.html?searchResultPosition=33
Student Example Essays

These essays were all written by students at Mt. Hood Community College–stu-
dents just like you.
This first essay was written in WR115 by Pablo Medina. The assigned subject was
“Mt. Hood Community College.” He narrowed the subject to an appropriate size
and stayed focused throughout the essay. He provides three examples of why his
thesis is true, with each example more important than the previous one (emphatic
order). His thesis is clearly stated in the introduction, his body paragraphs each
have a topic sentence and specific details, and the conclusion is relevant without
being repetitive. https://saintsmhcc-my.sharepoint.com/:b:/g/personal/mon-
teveg_mhcc_edu/EWn-
ShSZ6lolHn_QRNYUbgcwBF7gEIBxmlN40ryx_pTIbJQ?e=kojj1U
This essay by Jennifer Steimer was written in WR121. She deals with the same
topic as Pablo, but in a more complex way. She used a chronological structure to
organize the essay, then revised and edited to correct mechanical errors. One thing
that makes the essay excellent is the quality of her details. https://saintsmhcc-
8.1 Example Essays | 204

my.sharepoint.com/:b:/g/personal/monteveg_mhcc_edu/
EfOf3UyoKv9KvX_v0BNVIgIBLnCt2KzsnCLSyIMVGKhZxA?e=NVVIr1
This essay by Brittany McLoughlin is another example of how specific detail

makes an essay come alive. Her thesis is the last sentence in the introduction. Her
body paragraphs all begin with topic sentences. Notice how she comes back to
her original image of the butterflies in the conclusion, but she isn’t just repeat-
ing what she already said: she is expanding upon it. https://saintsmhcc-my.share-
point.com/:b:/g/personal/monteveg_mhcc_edu/
EcpacGGkDj1ArJZXo7-ltZ0BCxu3WMIsJqnEoyKLxJiY2A?e=OoGOW7
This last essay by Angela Godfrey is another great example of organization and
detail. Her concluding paragraph is especially good. Like all the other writers,
Angela went over and over her essay–first on her own, then in a peer editing group,
then again on her own–until she was confident it had no grammar or usage errors.
https://saintsmhcc-my.sharepoint.com/:b:/g/personal/monteveg_mhcc_edu/
Ec05SQKpiRJIjmHM-L6NMCABvZx9gpTRpBLIQYGDa7ZE0w?e=oDKP07
Tip
When you log in to an essay, consider printing it out. Why?
• Some sites limit the number of times you can access materials on
their site before they require you to subscribe. Often a subscrip-
tion is free, but sometimes it is not. If you log in to check out an
essay, then log in again later to read it, then log in again to check
something, you may find the site won’t let you back in.
• Also, it’s always better to read print copies and take notes on the
document as you read rather than to try to remember what you
thought about the reading.
205 | 8.1 Example Essays

APPENDIX: RESEARCH
Formatting Research
Appendix: Research | 206

Glossary
adjective
a word used to describe a noun or pronoun
adverb
a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
annotate
add notes to, comment on
antecedent
a word the pronoun refers to
antonym
a word that means the opposite of another word
article
a specific type of adjective; there are three articles in English: “the," “a," and
“an."
articulate
express an idea fluently and coherently
avid
interested, enthusiastic
barbarous
uncivilized, discordant, harsh
207 | Glossary
brackets
a pair of marks, like square parentheses [ ], that enclose words or numbers to

separate them from the rest of a sentence
chronological
according to time
cited
to identify the source of an idea or phrase
clause
a group of words that includes both a subject and a verb
cliché
an overused or unoriginal word or phrase
comma splice
when a comma is used incorrectly between two independent clauses
compound noun
a noun made up of more than one word
comprehension
the act of understanding
concisely
briefly
condense
shorten
Glossary | 208
conjunction
a word that joins or connects
connotation
ideas or feelings generated by a word that go beyond its literal meaning
consonant
any letter other than a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y
contraction
a word created by combining two words, deleting some letters, and adding an
apostrophe
criteria
the standard or model used for comparison
dependent clause
a group of words that contains a subject and a verb but is dependent on the
rest of the sentence to finish the thought
digression
a departure or a shift from the main point
document
record evidence
draft
the preliminary or early version of a document
edit
correct errors
209 | Glossary
ellipses
a set of three periods . . . that means words have been removed
emphatic
based on importance
essay
a short, subjective piece of writing that analyzes or interprets a topic
expository
a type of writing that investigates, evaluates, and explains an idea or topic
format
arrangement on the page
fragment
an incomplete sentence, missing a subject, a verb, and/or a complete thought
generate
create
glossary
a list of words and their meanings
govern
control
grammar
the system and structure of a language
Glossary | 210
homonym
words that sound like each other but have different meanings
independent clause
a group of words that includes a subject, a verb, and a complete thought
integrate
combine with other information
interjection
a word inserted into a sentence to express surprise or emotion
irregular
different from other, more common forms
isolate
separate, remove from the context
literal
actual
misplaced modifier
a phrase or clause that is awkwardly placed in a sentence so that it seems to

refer to an unintended word
modify
add information to
noun
the name of a person, place, thing, or idea
211 | Glossary
object
a noun, noun phrase, or pronoun affected by the action of the verb
paraphrased
to rewrite something in your own words but without changing the meaning
parentheses
rounded brackets (like this), used to mark off or separate out words or phrases
in a sentence
parts of speech
the system used to classify English words based on what they do in a sentence
past tense
a verb form that expresses an action which took place in the past
phrase
a groups of words that does not include the sentence subject or verb
Plagiarism
taking someone else's idea or words and presenting them as if they were yours
possessive
words that show ownership
predicate
the part of the sentence that contains the verb and that tells what happened
to the subject or what state the subject is in
Glossary | 212
preposition
a word that describes the relationship between a noun or a pronoun and

something else in the sentence
prepositional phrase
a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pro-
noun
procrastinate
delay or postpone
pronoun
a word used in place of a noun
proofreading
examining writing carefully to find and correct mechanical errors such as

spelling, grammar, punctuation, and typing errors
purposeful
not accidentally or randomly, but with a goal
revise
re-examine for clarity and quality
run-on
two or more independent clauses merged together with insufficient punctua-

tion between them
sentence
a group of words that contains a subject, a verb, and a complete thought
213 | Glossary
spatial
as arranged in space
strategy
plan of action
subject
the main noun or pronoun which performs the action in a sentence
summarize
a brief statement of the main points of a longer work
synonym
a word or phrase that means exactly or almost exactly the same thing as
another word or phrase
thesis
a brief statement of the essay's main point
unethical
lacking moral principles
verb
a word that expresses action or a state of being
verb phrase
a verb comprised of two or more words
verb tense
the form of the verb that tells us when the action is occurring
Glossary | 214
vowel
the letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y
works
something done or made
215 | Glossary

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MHCC LIBRARY PRESS

Attribution and OER Revision Statement vii

Chapter 1: Getting Started

1.1 Reading and Writing in College 2

2.1 Word Confusion 10

Chapter 3: Parts of Speech

3.1 Nouns and Capitalization 30

4.1 Basic Sentence Structure 80

5.1 End Punctuation 97

6.1 The Structure of a Paragraph 134

7.1 The Writing Process 159

8.1 Example Essays 203

Cover image provided by Designed by Bluelela / Freepik.

Cover design by Anne Sigrun.

Attribution and OER Revision

1 | Chapter 1: Getting Started

This section of Ch. 1 will cover the following topics:

• using this textbook

Using this Textbook

1.1 Reading and Writing in College | 2

The following supplemental information is also available in the text:

• Blue underlined text is a link to outside materials. Click on it to view the

College vs. High School

High School College

Teachers often provide study Reviewing is primarily your

Your grade is determined by a Your grade may depend on just a few

3 | 1.1 Reading and Writing in College

Writing assignments include Except in creative writing courses, most

Teachers try to help students who Although teachers want students to

Knowing what you want to get out of a reading assignment–your purpose–helps

1.1 Reading and Writing in College | 4

5 | 1.1 Reading and Writing in College

Scan the annotated essay as a PDF or take a correctly-oriented photo of

1.1 Reading and Writing in College | 6

7 | 1.1 Reading and Writing in College

• College reading and writing assignments differ from high school

1.1 Reading and Writing in College | 8

This section of Ch. 2 will cover the following topics:

• frequently misspelled words

Frequently Misspelled Words

2.1 Word Confusion | 10

11 | 2.1 Word Confusion

Find the 10 misspelled words in the following paragraphs. List them,

(Note: “Lenapi” is not misspelled; it is the name of a native American

Brooklyn is one of the five boroughs that make up New York

When European settlers first arrived, Brooklyn was largely

2.1 Word Confusion | 12

13 | 2.1 Word Confusion

Quite, Quiet, Quit

2.1 Word Confusion | 14

• Than (conjunction) is used to connect two or more items when comparing:

Their, They’re, There

To, Two, Too

• To (preposition) indicates movement: Let’s go to the circus.

15 | 2.1 Word Confusion

2.1 Word Confusion | 16

• Lessen (verb) means to reduce in number, size, or degree: My dentist gave me

• Principle (noun) is a fundamental concept that is accepted as true: The prin