BASIC SURVEYING

MODULE-1
Introduction
Definition of surveying, Objectives and
importance of surveying. Classification of
surveys. Principles of surveying. Units of
measurements, Surveying measurements and
errors, types of errors, precision and accuracy.
Classification of maps, map scale, conventional
symbols, topographic maps, map layout, Survey
of India Map numbering systems.
 Measurement of Horizontal Distances
Measuring tape and types. Measurement using tapes, Taping on level
ground and sloping ground. Errors and corrections in tape
measurements, ranging of lines, direct and indirect methods of
ranging, Electronic distance measurement, basic principle. Booking of
tape survey work, Field book, entries, Conventional symbols, Obstacles
in tape survey, Numerical problems.
 MODULE-2
Measurement of Directions and Angles:
Compass survey: Basic definitions; meridians,
bearings, magnetic and True bearings. Prismatic and
surveyor’s compasses, temporary adjustments,
declination. Quadratal bearings, whole circle
bearings, local attraction and related problems
Traversing: Traverse Survey and Computations:
Latitudes and departures, rectangular coordinates,
Traverse adjustments, Bowditch rule and transit
rule, Numerical Problems.
 MODULE-3
LEVELING:
Basic terms and definitions, Methods of leveling,
Dumpy level, Auto level, digital and laser levels.
Curvature and refraction corrections. Booking and
reduction of levels. Differential leveling, profile
leveling, fly leveling, check leveling, reciprocal
leveling.
 MODULE-4
Plane Table Surveying
Plane table and accessories, Advantages and
limitations of plane table survey, Orientation and
methods of orientation, Methods of plotting –
Radiation, Intersection, Traversing, Resection
method, Two point and three point problems,
Solution to two point problem by graphical method,
Solution to three point problem Bessel’s graphical
method, Errors in plane table survey.
 MODULE-5

Areas and Volumes

Measurement of area by dividing the area into geometrical figures,
area from offsets, mid ordinate rule, trapezoidal and Simpson’s one
third rule, area from co-ordinates, introduction to planimeter, digital
planimeter. Measurement of volumes- trapezoidal and prismoidal
formula.Contouring: Contours, Methods of contouring, Interpolation
of contours, contour gradient, characteristics of contours and uses.
SURVEYING - Surveying is the art of making
measurements of objects on, above or beneath the
ground to show their relative positions on paper.
Objectives of Surveying
• To determine the relative position of any objects or
points of the earth.
• To determine the distance and angle between
different objects.
• To prepare a map or plan to represent an area on a
horizontal plan.
• To develop methods through the knowledge of
modern science and the technology and use them in
the field.
• To solve measurement problems in an optimal way
APPLICATIONS OF SURVEYING

1 )Astronomical survey helps in the study of astronomical movements of planets and

for calculating local standard times.

2)Maps prepared for countries, states and districts, etc. avoid disputes.

3)Plans prepared record the property boundaries of private, public and government
which help in avoiding unnecessary
4)Topographical maps showing natural features like rivers, streams, hills, forests
help in planning irrigation projects and flood control measures.
5)Road maps help travelers and tourists to plan their programmers.

6)Locality plan help in identifying location of houses and offices in the area

7)Maps and plans help in planning and estimating various transportation projects
like roads, bridges, railways and airports.

8)For planning and executing water supply and sanitary projects one has to go for
surveying first.
9) Marine and hydrographic surveys help in planning navigation routes and harbors.

10)For making final payments in large projects surveying is to be carried out

11)Military surveys help in strategic planning

12)For exploring mineral wealth mine surveys are required.

13) Geological surveys are necessary for determining different strata in the earth’s
crust so that proper location is found for reservoirs.

14) Archaeological surveys are required for unearthing relics of antiquity

 PRIMARY DIVISIONS IN SURVEYING

The survey in which earth’s curvature is

considered is called geodetic surveying and the
survey in which earth’s curvature is neglected is
called Plane surveying.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

1) NATURE OF THE FIELD OF SURVEY

2) OBJECTS OF SURVEY
3) INSTRUMENT USED
4) THE METHODS EMPLOYED
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NATURE OF
THE FIELD OF SURVEY

LAND SURVEY:
It involves measurement of various objects on land. This
type of survey may be further classified as given below:

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS: They consist of measurement of

various points to plot natural features such as rivers, streams,

lakes, hill and forests as well as man – made features like roads,
railways, towns, villages and canals.
CADASTRAL SURVEY: These surveys are for marking

boundaries of municipalities, states, etc. the surveys

made to mark properties of individual also come under
this category.
CITY SURVEY: The surveys made in connection with the

construction of streets, water supply and sewage lines

fall under this category.
MARINE OF HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS: The survey
conducted to find depth of water at various points in bodies of
water like sea, river and lakes fall under this category of
surveying. Finding depth of water at specified points is known
as soundings.
ASTRONOMICAL SURVEYS: Observations made to
heavenly bodies like sun and stars to locate absolute position
of points on the earth and for the purpose of calculating local
times is known as astronomical survey.
BASED ON THE INSTRUMENTS USED, SURVEYING
MAY BE CLASSIFIED INTO THE FOLLOWING

1 ) CHAIN SURVEY
2) COMPASS SURVEY
3) PLANE TABLE SURVEY
4)THEODOLITE SURVEY
5) TACHOMETRIC SURVEY
6) MODERN SURVEY USING ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENT LIKE DISTANCE METERS AND TOTAL
STATIONS.
7)PHOTOGRAPHIC AND AERIAL SURVEY.
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON OBJECT OF
SURVEYING
On the basis of objective of surveying, the classification
can be as engineering survey.

1)MILITARY SURVEY

2)MINES SURVEY

3)GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

4)ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY
Military Survey: This survey is meant for working out points of strategic importance

Mine survey: This is used for exploring mineral wealth

Geological survey: this survey is for finding different strata in the earth’s crust.

Archaeological survey: this survey is for unearthing relics of antiquity

 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHODS EMPLOYED

Based on the methods employed, surveying may be classified as

triangulation and traversing.

1) TRIANGULATION:
In this method control points are established through a network of
triangles

2) TRAVERSING:
In this scheme of control points consist of a series of connected points
established through linear and angular measurements. If last line
meets the starting point it is called as closed traverse. If it does not
meet, it is known as open traverse.
 MEASUREMENTS

Linear measurements are horizontal ,vertical

angular measurements are also involved.
Commonly used linear units in surveying are
kilometer, meter and millimeters.
For measurement of angles system is used. In
this circumference
1 complete revolution= 360 degrees
SCALES
It is not possible and also not desirable to make maps to full scale.
All distances are reduced by fixed proportion and drawings are made.
The scale of a map or the drawing is the fixed proportion which every distance on
the map bears to he corresponding distance on the ground.
Thus, if 1 mm on the paper represents 1m on the ground, then the scale is 1 mm =
1 m or 1 cm = 10m or 1: 1000(1mm represent 1 meter).
.

•
 PLAIN SCALE:
On a plain scale it is possible to read two dimensions directly
such as unit and tenths.

DIAGONAL SCALE:
In plain scales only units and tenths could be shown whereas in
diagonal scales it is possible to show units, tenths and hundredths.
Units and tenths are shown as in plain scale. To show hundredths,
principle of similar triangles is used
 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

1)WORK FROM WHOLE TO PART

In surveying large areas, a system of control points is
identified and they are located with high precision. Then
secondary control points are located using less precise
methods. With respect the secondary control point’s details
of the localized areas are measured and plotted. This is called
working from whole to part. This principle in surveying
helps in localizing the errors. If the surveying is carried out
by adding localized areas, errors accumulate.
2)FIXING POSITIONS OF NEW CONTROL POINTS
For fixing new control points with respect to already fixed points, at
least two independent processes should be followed. If A and B are two
already located control points and with respect to them new control
point C is to be located, apart from the minimum two measurements
required, one more reading should be taken. Fixing of check lines and
tie lines will also serve this purpose.
 SURVEY OF INDIA AND TOPOLOGICAL MAPS
The survey of India is the oldest scientific department of Government of India. It
was established in 1767 by the East India Company which was ruling India at that
time. It works under the Department of Science and technology. It is assigned the
role of a principal mapping agency of the country. The survey of India ensures that
the countries domain is explored and mapped suitably and provides base maps for
expeditions and integrated development.
Bit by bit of Indian terrain was completed y pains taking efforts of batches of
surveyors appointed by East India Company. Efforts of batches lead by Lambton and
Sir George Everest are noteworthy. The topological maps prepared by the survey of
India are continuously updated adding more features and more precision by using
better equipment and mapping techniques
The maps prepared meet the needs of defense forces,
planners and the scientists in the field of geosciences, land
and resource management. The survey of India had five
directorates in 1950. Presently the number has grown to
eighteen. The topographical maps show details of natural
features like roads, railways, towns villages and canals.
They also show contour lines and position of Great
Trigonometric survey benchmarks. One can purchase
these topographic maps from the survey of Indian by
contacting survey or Generals office, Dehra Dun –
248001
NUMBERING OF TOPO MAPS OF INDIA

The entire area covered by India is divided into a 40 * 40 longitude and

latitude each grid .
Each grid is further divided in grid 40 * 40 of size 10 *10 longitude and
latitude
The scale used for 40 * 40 grid map is 1:25000 and the scale used for 10 *10
grid maps is 1:50,000 .
These maps are available in 1:50,000 to 1:25000 scales.
A map corresponding to 55th A of 6th grid is referred to as NH 55 A – 6,
where NH refers to Northern Hemisphere
 PHASES OF WORKS IN SURVEYING

Survey work has the following phases:

1)PLANNING THE WORK

2) CARE AND ADJUSTMENT OF INSTRUMENTS

3) FIELD WORK

4 )OFFICE WORK
 ERRORS IN SURVEYING

TYPES OF ERRORS:

1)MISTAKES

2)SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

3)ACCIDENTAL ERRORS
 MISTAKES:
Mistakes are the errors due to carelessness of the observer. They
may be due to wrong reading or recording of the observations.
These errors are very large and can be easily detected by the
following field procedures:
1)Carefully targeting objects before taking reading
2)Taking multiple scale readings
3)Recorded loudly announcing the readings so that reader hears
what he records.
4)Taking additional readings for checking.
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS:
The errors which follow a well – defined pattern are classified as
systematic errors. They can be determined by mathematical expressions.
They are regarded as positive, if they make result too great it is postive
and as negative if they make result too small. Examples of such errors
are use of a tape which is shorter than the actual as per marking or using
a steel tape at a temperature different from calibrated temperature. If
tape is short, makes each measured length longer, hence contributes
positive error. If the actual length of the tape is determined actual
measured length can be calculated. This type of errors is called
cumulative errors, since each measurement adds to the error in the same
sense.
 ACCIDENTAL ERRORS:
There are errors in measurements which cannot be
prevented, even with sufficient care.
1)These errors may be positive or negative their magnitude may vary
from reading to reading for example taking a reading with a survey
instrument with Human eye has a limitation of distinguishing between
two close readings.

2)Marking the end of a chain length is another common example of

accidental error.

3)The thickness of marking and its exact position contribute to

accidental errors.
 SOURCES OF ERRORS

Errors may arise from the following sources:

1)INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS
2)NATURAL ERRORS
3)HUMAN LIMITATIONS
4)CARELESSNESS
INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS: Instruments used for linear measurements
may not be having true length due to manufacturing defects and
instruments may not show true horizontal and vertical angles due to
manufacturing defects or out of adjustments. There are limitations on the

scales used which contribute to Instrumental errors.

NATURAL ERRORS: Errors will creep in because of the natural

phenomena like variation in temperature humidity refraction, curvature
of the earth and magnetic declination. They are to be properly accounted

to arrive at exact values.

HUMAN LIMITATIONS:

Human eye cannot distinguish between two points closer than 0.25 mm.
when ends of a chain/tape line is marked, the thickness of line

contributes to error, when next length is measured.

CARELESSNESS:

These errors are purely due to the mistakes. They are quite large.
They can be avoided by following good surveying practice by taking

precautions and check readings.

 INSTRUMENT USED FOR SURVEYING

CHAIN SURVEYING
is suitable when Area to be surveyed is comparatively small and the Ground is fairly
level. Chain survey can also be used when the Area is open and Details to be filled up
are simple and less. In chain surveying only linear measurements are made i.e. no
angular measurements are made.
Since triangle is the only figure that can be plotted with measurement of sides
Before the metric system was implemented in India, a 100-foot engineering chain, a
66-foot gutter chain, and a 33-foot revenue chain were used.
Now metric chains of 5, 10, 20 and 30-meter lengths are used. The survey uses more
of the 20 and 30-meter chains. The chains are 4 mm wide. They are made of a small
link of galvanized wire of diameter each link is made into a circular loop by bending
it and then connecting the links with rings to make the whole chain so that the chain
is flexible.
Usually, three rings are placed between the two links. The two rings are elliptical and
the middle ring round.
 A handle is pulled to both ends of the chain, and the handle is attached to the chain
with a sliding joint so that it can rotate around the ends of the chain.
The chain length is inscribed on the handle of the chain.
The length of the link of each metric chain is 20 cm. To have that is the( 5-meter chain
is made up of 25links), (10-meter chain 50links), (20-meter chain 100links), and (30-
meter chain 150 links). IS 1492-1970 details metric chains.
In each 5 meter chain, a meter of brass tile is attached at the end of each meter. It
has 1 tooth and 4-meter tally to one teeth, while 2 meters and 3-meter tally have
two teeth.
TAPES
are used for measuring lines and offsets and are
classified depending on the materials used as:

1 )CLOTH OR LINEN TAPE

2) METALLIC TAPE
3) STEEL TAPE AND
4 )INVAR TAPE
CLOTH OR LINEN TAPE:

12 to 15 mm wide cloth or linen is varnished to resist moisture and graduations are marked. They
are provided with brass handle at the ends. End to end length of brass handles is the total length of
tape. They are available in the length of 10 m, 20 m, 25 m and 30 m, these tapes are light and
flexible and hence easy to handle. However because of the following disadvantages. They are not
popular

1Due to moisture or dampness they shrink

2Extend due to stretching
3Not strong
4 Likely to twist and tangle
METALLIC TAPE:
These are made up of varnished strip of waterproof linen interwoven
with small wires of brass, copper or bronze. They are provided with
handle at the end. About 100 m lengths to tapes are provided with
leather or suitable strong plastic materials. Tapes of length 10 m, 20
m, 30 m and 50 m are available in a case of leather or corrosion
resistant metal fitted with a winding device. On one side of tape
markings are made to indicate distance from the end of handle. Red
and black coloured markings are used for indicating full metres and
its fractions in centimeters.
STEEL TAPE:
Steel tape consists of 6 to 10 mm wide strip with metal ring at free end and wound in well sewn
leather or a corrosion resistant metal case. A suitable winding device is provided. The tapes are
marked legibly on one side only indicating 5 mm, centimeters, decimeters and metres clearly. The
end 10 cm length is marked with millimeters also. The tapes are available in 1 m, 2 m , 10 m, 2 0
m, 30 m, and 50 m lengths. Steel tapes are superior to a metallic tape as for as accuracy is
concerned, however, they are delicate. Care should be taken to wipe the tape clean before winding.
They should be oiled regularly to prevent corrosion.
INVAR TAPE:

It is made up of an alloy of nickel (36%) and steel, which has very low
coefficient of thermal expansion. The width of the tape is 6 mm. it is
available in 30 m, 50 m and 100 m
 ACCESSORIES REQUIRED FOR HORIZONTAL MEASUREMENTS

.
ARROWS:
When the length of the line to be measured is more than
chain length, there is need to mark end of a chain length,.
Arrows are used for this purpose. They are made of 4 mm
diameter tempered steel wire with one end sharpened and
other end bent into a loop and length of arrow is 400mm.

.
• PEGS: To mark the station points wooden pegs are used they are
made of hard wood of 25 mm *25 mm section. 150 mm long with a
tapered. When driven in ground they project to about 40 mm
RANGING RODS:
For ranging intermediate points in measuring 2 to 3 m long rods are used. They are made of hard
wood and are provided with an iron shoe at one end. The rods are usually circular in section with
30 mm diameter. They are painted with 200 mm color bands of red and white or with black and
white. Sometimes they are provided with black, red and white in succession. They are easily
visible up to a distance of 200 m. if distance is more they are provided with 200 mm. square
multicolored flags at their top. Since they are painted with alternate colors of band 200 mm, they
may be used for rough measurements of short distances also.
RANGING POLES:
Ranging poles are similar to ranging rods except
that they are longer. They are 4 m to 8 m long and
their diameter varies from 60 mm to 100 mm. they
are made up of hard wood or steel. They are fixed
in the ground by making 0.5 m holes and then
packed to keep the pole vertical. They are
provided with larger flags at their top.
OFFSET RODS:

These rods are also similar to ranging rods, 3 m long. They are made up of
hardwood and are provided with an iron shoe at one end. A hook or a notch is
provided at other end. Apart from two narrow slits at right angle to each other
provided at height of the eye. The hook helps to pull chain through bushes. The
slits help in aligning offset lines which are to be at right angles to the main line.
The colored bands on the rod are useful for measuring offsets of
LATHS

Laths are 0.5 m to 1.0 m long sticks of soft wood. They are sharpened at
one end. They are provided with white or light colors.

WHITES

Whites are the pieces of sharpened thick sticks cut from the nearest in the
field. One end of stick is sharpened and the other end is split. White
papers are inserted in the split. The whites are used for the same purpose
as laths.
PLUMB BOB

In measuring horizontal distances along sloping ground plumb bobs are required to transfer the
points to ground. They are also used to check the verticality of ranging poles.
LINE RANGER:
It is an optical instrument used for locating a point on a line. It consists of two isosceles prisms
placed one over the other and fixed in an instrument with handle. The diagonals of the prisms are
silvered so as to reflect the rays. Thus, the desired point is located. It needs only one person for
ranging. The line ranger should be tested occasionally for its accuracy. For this a point should be
located between the two test points. Then line ranger is held in this position and tested. If the
images of the two ranging rods do not appear in the same line, one of the prisms is adjusted by
operating the screw till the two images appear in the same vertical lines.
 EDM or ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

In general is a term used as a method for distance measurement by electronic

means. In this method instruments are used to measure distance that rely on
propagation, reflection and reception of electromagnetic waves like radio, visible
light or infrared waves.
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE WITH EDM AND A REFLECTOR
As explained let the waves get transmitted from A and
reflected from B. If the received signal is out of phase
by a measure of , then equivalent distance is thus, the
distance
where n is the integral number of wavelength, in the
double path
CONVENTIONAL SYMBOLS
 BOOKING OF TAPE SURVEY WORK

Chain survey/surveying is a very old method of Surveying. This article

includes the definition of chain survey along with all detailed information
with necessary images about various aspects of chain surveying
The chain survey is the simplest method of surveying. In the chain survey,
only measurements are taken in the field, and the rest work, such as
plotting calculation, etc. are done in the office. Here only linear
measurements are made i.e. no angular measurements are made. This is
most suitably adapted to small plane areas with very few details. If
carefully done, it gives quite accurate results.
THE NECESSARY REQUIREMENTS FOR FIELDWORK ARE

1) CHAIN
2) TAPE
3)RANGING-ROD
4)ARROWS
5)CROSS STAFF

Suitability of Chain Survey

1. The area to be surveyed is comparatively small
2. The ground is fairly level
3. The area is open and
4. Details to be filled up are simple and less.
 PROCEDURE IN CHAIN SURVEY

1. Reconnaissance: The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called

reconnaissance. The surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, surveyor prepares index
sketch or key plan.
2. Marking station: The surveyor fixes up the required no stations at places from where maximum
possible stations are possible.
Some of the methods used for marking are:
• Fixing ranging poles
• Driving pegs
• Marking across if the ground is hard
• Digging and fixing a stone.
1. Then he selects the way for passing the mainline, which should be horizontal and clean as
possible and should pass approximately through the center of work.
2. Then ranging rods are fixed on the stations.
3. After fixing the stations, chaining could be started.
4. Make ranging wherever necessary.
5. Measure the change and offset.
6. Enter in the field the book.
 FIELD BOOK, ENTRIES

Double-line field book In this type of field book, two red lines, 1.5 cm apart,
are drawn through the middle of each page. This column represents the
chain line, and the chainages are written in it. The offsets are recorded,
with sketches, to the left or right of this column
There are two main types of the field-book:
1. Single Line Field-Book
2. Double line Field-Book.
SINGLE LINE FIELD-BOOK
The field measurements, sketches and relevant notes are
recorded for future reference in a note book, known as field-book.
The field-book in general use is about 20cm * 12cm and opens
length wise Every page of this kind of the field-book has a single red
line ruled down the middle. This line represents the chain line and
against it are entered the total length of the line and the changes at
which the offsets are taken. The space on either side of the line is
available for sketching the various features along the chain line and
for writing the offset distances.The offsets are noted opposite to the
changes from which they are taken to the right or left of the middle
line according as they are on the right or left of the chain line
DOUBLE LINE FIELD-BOOK:
It is similar to the single line field-book but instead of a
in the single red line centre, two blue or two red lines
about 1.5 cm apart are ruled down in the middle of
each page. The space between these lines represents
the chain line and is reserved for entering changes,
which are thus kept entirely separate from the other
dimensions
 OBSTACLES IN TAPE SURVEY

The three main obstacles in chaining of a line are of the following types:
1. CHAINING FREE, VISION OBSTRUCTED
2. CHAINING OBSTRUCTED, VISION FREE
3. CHAINING AND VISION BOTH OBSTRUCTED.

It sometimes happens that a survey line passes through some object such as a pond, a
building, a river, a hedge etc. which prevents the direct measurement of that part of the
line which the object intersects. The interfering object in such a case is called on
obstacle.
It is necessary to overcome obstacles so that chaining may be continued in a straight
line. Special methods are, therefore, employed in measuring distances across the
obstacles .
1)CHAINING FREE, VISION OBSTRUCTED:
In this type of obstacles, the ends of the lines are not intervisible Both
ends may be visible from any intermediate point lying on the line such as
in the case of a hill. The obstacle of this kind may easily be crossed over
by reciprocal ranging and length measured by stepping method of
chaining. other ends may not be visible from any intermediate point such
as in the case of a jungle. The obstacle of this kind may be crossed over
by “Random line method
2)CHAINING OBSTRUCTED, VISION FREE:
The typical obstacle of this type is a sheet of water, the width of which in the
direction of measurement exceeds the length of the chain or tape. The problem
consists in finding the distance between convenient points on the chain line on
either side of obstacle.
Two cases may arise:
(a) When the obstacle can be chained around, e.g. a pond, a thorny hedge etc.
(b) When the obstacle cannot be chained around e.g. a river.
3) CHAINING AND VISION BOTH OBSTRUCTED:
A building is a typical example of this class of obstacles. The problem in this case
consists both in prolonging the line beyond the obstacle and finding the distance across
it.
 RANGING A SURVEY LINE

When survey line is longer than a chain length, it is necessary to align

intermediate points on survey line. The process of locating
intermediate points on survey line is known as ranging. The methods
of ranging are classified as direct ranging and indirect ranging.
DIRECT RANGING:
This is possible. If the first and last point on the survey line are intervisible. Fig. shows the end
points A, B in a survey line which is intervisible. Now it is necessary to locate point C on line AB,
which is slightly less than a chain length from A. It needs two persons. At points A and B ranging
rods are erected. The assistant of survey positions himself as close to line AB as possible at a
distance slightly less than a chain length and hold a ranging rod. The survey or positions himself
approximately 2 m behind A and sights ranging rods at A and B. He directs the assistant to move
to the left or right of line AB till he finds the ranging rods at A,B and C in a line. The surveyor
should always observe at lower portion of the ranging rods. The signals used in instructing the
assistant at C while ranging.
INDIRECT RANGING:
If the two end points of the line to be measured are not intervisible, the surveyor
has to go for indirect ranging. This is also called reciprocal ranging. The
invisibility of points may be due to unevenness of the ground or due to long
distance Fig (a) shows cross – section of the ground which is a typical case of
invisibility of point B of the line from point A. Fig (b) shows the plan .M and N are
the two points to be fixed or AB such that both points are visible from A as well as
B. It needs four people to fix points M and N one person near each point A, B, M
and N
• Let A and B be the ends of a survey line to be measured as a rising ground
between them.
• Two chain men with ranging rods take the positions M1 and N1 such that
they are as nearly in line with A and B as they could judge. The chain men
at M1 could see N1 and B.
• And the chain men at N1 could see M1 and A.
• First chain men at N1 directs M1 to M2 so that he comes in the line with A
and N1.
• Then the chain man at M2 directs N1 to N2 such that he comes in line
with B and M2.
• The process is repeated so that they align each other successively
directing each other until they are both finally in the line AB.
 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES ON SLOPING GROUND

1) DIRECT METHOD

2) INDIRECT METHOD.

DIRECT METHOD
This method is known as method of stepping also, since the line is measured in smaller step length. Let AB be
the length of line to be measured on a sloping ground the surveyor holds the tape firmly at A and the leader
goes with a convenient length l1 of tape say, 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, and a ranging rod in hand. After ranging, the
leader holds the chain horizontally. He may be guided by the surveyor or others in the party for horizontality
of the tape. After stretching the tape, with the help of a plumb bob or by dropping a pebble, the leader
transfers the end of the tape to the ground and marks. The length of tape selected is such that the drop is
never more than the eyesight of the leader.
The length l1 is noted and they move to measure next step length. The two step
lengths need not be the same. The procedure continues till the total length is
measured. It is preferable to measure down the slope rather than up the slope,
since the surveyor can hold the tape firmly, if the measurements are down the hill.
In this method tape is preferred over chain since it is light and hence can be
stretched horizontally, keeping sag at minimum.
INDIRECT METHOD:

• If the slope of the ground is gentle these methods may be employed. In these
methods linear measurement is along the sloping ground and it involves
angular measurement also. The following three methods are in common

use:
 PROBLEMS
Example 1

A distance of 2000 m was measured by a 30 m chain. After the measurement, the

chain was found to be 10 cm longer. It was found to be 15 cm longer after
another 500 m was measured. If the length of the chain was correct before the
measurement, determine the exact length of the whole measurement.
Solution : For first 2000m length:
Average correction per chain length= (0+10)/2= 0.05 Correction for measured
length
Ca = L c/l= 2000*0.05/30= 3.33m
True length = 2000+3.33 = 2003.33 m
For the next 500 m length:
Average correction =(10+15)/2 =0.125m
Correction for measured length = 500*0.125/30 =2.08m.
True length = 500 + 2.08 =502.08 m
Exact length of the whole line = 2003.33+502.08=2505.41 m
Example 2
The length of a survey line when measured with a chain of 20 m, nominal length was found to be 841.5m when compared
with a standard, it was found to be 0.1 m too long. Compute the correct length of the line.

Soltuion:

Correction for chain length = 0.1 m

Measured length L = 841.5

Nominal length of chain = 20 m

Ca=841.5*0.1/20 =4.21
Actual length of line =841.5+4.21=845.71m
LEVELING:
Basic terms and definitions, Methods of leveling,
Dumpy level, Auto level, digital and laser levels.
Curvature and refraction corrections. Booking and
reduction of levels. Differential leveling, profile
leveling, fly leveling, check leveling, reciprocal
leveling
LEVELING
Leveling is the art of determining the elevation of given points
above or below a datum line or establishing in given points of
required height above or below the datum line. It evolves
measurement in vertical plane
Definition of basic term’s used in leveling:

Level surface: Any surface parallel to the mean spheroid of the earth is called level surface and the line
drawn on level surface is known as level line.
Horizontal surface: Any surface tangential to level surface at a given point is called - Horizontal
surface at point. Hence horizontal line is at right angles to plumb line.
Vertical surface: It is the line connecting the point & center of earth. Vertical & horizontal line is normal
to each other.

Datum: The point or the surface with respect to which levels of other points or planes are
calculated is called – Datum or surface.
•
• Mean sea level (MSL): Mean sea level is the average height of sea of all stages of tides. Any
particular place is derived by averaging over a long period of 19 years. In India the mean’s sea level
used is that at Karachi (Pakistan).In all important survey this is taken as datum.

• Reduced level: Levels of various points are taken as heights above the datum surface are known as
Reduced level.
•
Bench mark: Bench mark is a relatively permanent point of reference whose Elevation
w.r.t some assumed datum is known. There are four types of bench mark

1)Permanent bench mark

2)Arbitrary bench mark.

3)Temporary bench mark.

TYPES OF LEVELS:
1)Dumpy level
2)wye level
3)Cooke's – Reversible level
4)Tilting level
5)Auto level
6)Cushing's level
7)Laser level
8)Digitel level
Working principle of auto & dumpy level
Parts of figure
1. Telescope
2. Eye piece
3. Shade
4. Objective end
5. Longitudinal bubble
6. Focusing screw
7. Foot screws
8. Upper parallel plate
9. Diaphragm adjusting screws
10. Bubble tube adjusting screw
11. Transverse bubble tube
12. Foot plate.
 DIGITEL LEVEL
.
Digital levels use electronic image processing to evaluate the special bar-coded staff reading, This bar-coded
pattern is converted into elevation and distance values using a digital image matching procedure within the
instrument.

ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL LEVEL

• Correction of collimation error: Can be reliably determined and saved using the four integrated Check and
Adjust procedures or it can be entered manually
• Minimize human error: Fatigue-free observation as visual staff reading by the observer is not required.
• User friendly menus with easy to read, digital display of results.
• Earth curvature correction: The measurements made are automatically free of the influence of the earth’s
curvature.
• Measurement of consistent precision and reliability due to automation.
• Automatic data storage eliminates booking and its associated errors.
• We can operate in low light conditions.
• Fast, economic surveys resulting in saving in time (up to 50% less effort has been claimed by
manufacturers).
• Data on the storage medium of the level can be downloaded to a computer enabling quick data reduction for
various purposes.
COMPONENTS OF DIGITAL LEVEL
• Main components of digital level consist of two parts: Hardware (Digital level and levelling staff) and Software.
1. components of digital level Both digital level and associated staff are manufactured so that they can be used for both
conventional and digital operations.
2. Typically digital level has the same optical and mechanical components as a normal automatic level.
3. However, for the purpose of electronic staff reading a beam splitter is incorporated which transfers the bar code image to
a detector diode array.
4. The light, reflected from the white elements only of the bar code, is divided into infrared and visible light components by
the beam splitter.
5. The visible light passes on to the observer, the infrared to diode array.
6. The acquired bar code image is converted into an analogous video signal, which is then compared with a stored reference
code within the instrument.

TYPES OF DIGITAL LEVELS

1. Spinter 50
2. Spinter 150
3. Spinter 150m
4. Spinter 250m
5. Leica DNA10 Digital Level
6. Leica DNA03 Digital Level
LASER LEVEL
 laser level is a control tool consisting of a
rotating laser beam projector that can be affixed to a tripod.
The tool is leveled according to the accuracy of the device
and projects a fixed red or green beam in a plane about the
horizontal and/or vertical axis.
Laser Levels – Laser levels point or rotate to create a reference point, line, or plane. When used
outside, laser levels are almost always used with a receiver attached to a grade rod or mounted on
heavy equipment for laser machine control. When used inside, a visible beam guides construction
activity, but sometimes a receiver is used for large work areas. Some units have the ability to slope the
plane on one or two axes to set a grade or slope. Laser levels used for machine control are more
powerful.
Laser Receivers – Receivers can attach to grade rods. Larger laser receivers are mounted on heavy
equipment for machine control. Laser receivers are specific to the wavelength of light received. Newer
laser receivers are universal for the wavelength of laser light received
Pipe Lasers – Used to set precise grade of pipes, drains or sewers, and are typically used with a pipe
type- and size-specific target set.
3D Scanners – These devices use multi-point scanning to produce an accurate 3D model of any indoor
or outdoor man-made or natural structure, mostly for project design support.
Distance Meters – Whether a handheld device, part of a total station, or another type of surveying
instrument, distance meters bounce laser energy off a surface or a target to measure distances with
great accuracy.
Laser Guided Machine Control – Machine Control is a broad category of application where the base
technologies of laser, sonic and GNSS are applied individually or in combination to control heavy
construction machinery. Single to multidimensional solutions are possible. A laser guided machine
control uses receivers and sensors to either “indicate” by annunciation or they can “automate” to
achieve the desired grade.
 Advantages
1)Accuracy of measurements. If the marking is done only along the beam,
the constructions and measurements have the maximum accuracy. The
human factor that occurs when measuring with hydraulic levels is
excluded during operation.
2) High speed of work. Measurement of marking, for example, drywall
constructions can be done twice as fast.
3) Great use possibilities. The simplest levels create projections
horizontally and vertically.
 METHODS OF LEVELING
The following methods are used to determine the difference in elevation of
various points:
(i) Barometric levelling
(ii) Hypsometric levelling
(iii) Direct levelling and
(iv) Indirect levelling.
Barometric Levelling
This method depends on the principle that atmospheric pressure depends
upon the elevation of place.
Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure and hence
elevation is computed. However it is not accurate method since the
atmospheric pressure depends upon season and temperature also. It may
be used in exploratory surveys.
Hypsometric Levelling
This is based on the principle that boiling point of water decreases with the elevation of the place. Hence the
elevation difference between two points may be found by noting the difference in boiling point of water in the
two places. This method is also useful only for exploratory survey.
Direct Levelling
It is common form of levelling in all engineering projects. In this method horizontal sight is taken on a
graduated staff and the difference in the elevation of line of sight and ground at which staff is held are
found. Knowing the height of line of sight from the instrument station the difference in the elevations of
instrument station and the ground on which staff is held can be found. This method is thoroughly
explained in next article.
Indirect Methods
In this method instruments are used to measure the vertical angles. Distance between the instrument
and staff is measured by various methods. Then using trigonometric relations, the difference in elevation
can be computed. This is considered beyond the scope of this book. One can find details of such methods
 TYPES OF LEVELING
1)Simple levelling.
2)Differential levelling.
3)Fly levelling.
4)Profile levelling.
5)Precise levelling.
6)Reciprocal levelling.
7) Check levelling
SIMPLE LEVELLING
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
FLY LEVELLING
Number of BS readings = Number of FS readings
∑BS – ∑FS = RL of last point – RL of first point
PROFILE LEVELING
HI = BM + BS
Elevation = HI – IFS
Slope = change in elevation/100.
CHECK LEVELLING
RECIPROCAL LEVEL
PRECISE LEVELING
 Curvature Correction
a)For long sights the curvature of earth can effect
staff readings. The line of sight is horizontal but
the level line is curved and parallel to the mean
spheroidal surface of the earth. The vertical
distance between the line of sight and level line at
particular place is called the curvature correction
b)The effect of curvature is to cause the object
sighted to appear lower than they really are.

CURVATURE CORRECTION IS ALWAYS SUBTRACTIVE (-)

 Refraction

The ray of light pass through layers of air of different

densities and refract or bent down. The effect of
refraction is to make the object appear higher then
they really are. Refraction varies considerably with
climate conditions.
Refraction correction(Cr)= 0.0112 D2 m
Refraction is always additive(+)
True staff reading= Observed staff reading + Refraction
correction.
 Booking and reduction of levels.
A level filed book or a level book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points
in a systematic way. There are two methods for reducing the levels namely

THE HEIGHT OF THE INSTRUMENT METHOD

THE RISE AND FALL METHOD

Accordingly there are two types of level books. Both the methods are described below:
1. Height of the instrument method or height of collimation method (H.I method)
Below is a page of a level book for the height of the instrument method. There are seven
columns. The first column indicates the station at which the staff is placed. The second
column is for backsight (B.S). In the third column, the staff readings on intermediate stations
are shown.
Differential leveling using HI method
s the instrument is shifted after taking reading on the staff at D,
the reading is a foresight (F.S). This is entered in column 4. The
staff is maintained at D when the instrument is shifted to the
new position of the level (L2). The reading on the staff held at D
after shifting the instrument to L2 is entered as a Backsight for
station D. The new HI is written in the column 5. Thus, it can be
seen that for a turning point like D, both FS and BS are entered
whereas for other stations only one reading is entered
Column 1 Column2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7
Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks
Arithmetic check
The calculations made in the computation of the height of the
instrument (HI) and the reduced levels (R.L) can be checked by
applying the following checks.

ΣBS – ΣFS = LRL-FRL

 Rise and Fall method

Below table shows the page of a level book for the rise and fall
method. There are eight columns. The first four columns are the
same as in the first method. Instead of the column for HI, there
are two columns (5 and 6) marked as Rise and Fall respectively.
The last two columns are identical to that in the method one.
Arithmetic check
ΣBS-ΣFS =LRL-FRL,
Column1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7 Column 8
Station BS IS FS Rise Fall RL Remarks