Quality of Life in Cities

EEA Report No 5/2009
Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Tackling the environmental challenges driven by European and global change
ISSN 1725-9177
EEA Report No 5/2009

Tackling the environmental challenges driven by European and global change
Cover design: EEA
Cover photo: © Birgit Georgi
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ISBN 978-92-9167-994-2
ISSN 1725-9177
DOI 10.2800/11052
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Contents
Contents
Acknowledgements........................................................................................ 4
Preface........................................................................................................... 5
What is this report about?.............................................................................. 6
1 Quality of life in European cities and towns............................................... 8

1.1 Quality of life — the urban crossroads of all policies....................................8
1.2 Quality of life — visions or preferences?.................................................. 10
1.3 Health, environment and social equity: basic quality of life indicators ......... 13
1.4 Cities and towns determine Europe's quality of life .................................. 19
1.5 EU and urban policies interaction........................................................... 20
2 Quality of life and drivers of change........................................................ 26

2.1 Demographic changes.......................................................................... 26
2.2 Consumption and urban lifestyles........................................................... 34
2.3 Urbanisation....................................................................................... 43
2.4 Air pollution and noise ......................................................................... 56
2.5 Climate change .................................................................................. 67
2.6 Cohesion policy .................................................................................. 78
3 Towards integrated urban management.................................................. 89

3.1 EU and cities partnership...................................................................... 89
3.2 Integration gaps.................................................................................. 90
3.3 Barriers ............................................................................................. 90
3.4 Integrated urban management defined................................................... 93
3.5 Steps towards implementation . ............................................................ 95
4 Summary and conclusions..................................................................... 102
References................................................................................................. 104
Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 3

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
This report was written and compiled by: The report team also wishes to thank the
many further experts consulted throughout
• the European Environment Agency (EEA): the development of this report, in particular:
Birgit Georgi, Dorota Jarosinska, Almut Reichel, Michelle Dobré (University of Caen‑Normandy,
Jaroslav Fiala, Anke Lükewille, Colin Nugent, researcher in Centre Maurice Halbwachs);
Josef Herkendal, Stéphane Isoard, Gorm Pierre Laconte (Foundation for the Urban
Dige, Elena Cebrian Calvo, David Delcampe, Environment, Member of the EEA Scientific
Peder Gabrielsen; Committee); Sivia Brini, F. Moricci, A. Chiesura,
• EEA Topic Centre on Land Use and Spatial and M.C. Cirillo (all ISPRA Italia); Giovanni Fini
Information (ETC-LUSI): Jaume Fons, (Municipality Bologna); Antonín Tym (Healthy Cities
David Ludlow, Stefan Kleeschulte; Czech Republic ); Daniel Skog (Municipality Malmö);
• ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability: Florian Ismaier (Municipality Karlsruhe); Eduardo
Holger Robrecht, Cristina Garzillo ; Miera (URBAN Programme San Sebastián‑Pasaia);
• the Network of European Metropolitan Regions Toni Pujol (Municipality Barcelona); Karen Hiort
and Areas (METREX): Vincent Goodstadt, (Municipality Berlin); Monika Gollnick (Municipality
Will French; Ludwigshafen); Dieter Teynor (Municipality
• Energie-Cités: Kristina Dely; Mannheim); Torun Israelsson (Municipality
• Council of European Municipalities and Regions Växjö); Thierry Lavoux (French Ministry of
(CEMR): Marie Bullet, Boris Tonhauser; Sustainable Development & Environment);
• Union of Baltic Cities (UBC) Environment Josiane Lowy (Conseillère régionale de la Région
and Sustainable Development Secretariat: Basse Normandie); Teodora Brandmueller,
Anna Granberg, Niina Salonen; Corinne Hermant‑de Callataÿ and Marcel Rommerts
• Ambiente Italia S.r.l. — Research Institute: (European Commission); Simone Reinhart (European
Maria Berrini, Lorenzo Bono; Parliament); Didier Vancutsem (International
• Architects' Council of Europe (ACE): Society of City and Regional Planners [ISOCARP]);
Adrain Joyce; Hedwig Verron and Christoph Erdmenger
• Joint Research Centre of the European (Umweltbundesamt, Dessau); Tatiana Bosteels
Commission — Institute for Environment and (Hermes Real Estate Investment Management
Sustainability: Carlo Lavalle; Limited, London).
• Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency:
Judith Borsboom, Rob Folkert, Stefan Berghuis, Finally, we would like to thank the Swedish
Ton Dassen. Environment Ministry for its financial support.
Additional contributors: EUROCITIES Environment The report was coordinated and edited by
Forum: Eva Baños, Jan Meijdam, Henk Wolfert, Birgit Georgi and Ronan Uhel (EEA), supported
information on noise (Section 2.4) and climate by David Ludlow (University of the West of
change (Section 2.5); Beate Arends (Province of England, Bristol) and Michelle Dobré (University
South‑Holland) and Simone Goedings (Association of Caen‑Normandy, researcher in Centre Maurice
of Dutch Municipalities [VNG] for CEMR), Halbwachs).
information on air pollution (Section 2.4).
4 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Preface
Preface
In May 2008, the Council of Europe's Congress The notion of 'quality of life' normally implies
of Local and Regional Authorities captured the broad and long‑term societal objectives and
concerns and desires of urban policy‑makers indicators, which can be at odds with the
and citizens in the title of its new European short‑term, sectoral targets that guide much
Urban Charter: Manifesto for a new urbanity. policy‑making. With that in mind, the prime aim
Like numerous other international and European of this report is to explore the many perceptions
charters, conventions and declarations, the of quality of life in order to help define urban
manifesto describes with some apprehension the problems more clearly, identify options for
'unprecedented environmental, democratic, cultural, remedial action and construct evaluations of
social and economic challenges' facing urban centres effectiveness. All these areas are relevant to
and their inhabitants. improving the governance of today's urban realities
throughout Europe.
Our report on quality of life in Europe's cities and
towns reiterates these concerns but also unravels the This report highlights the connections between the
many apparent paradoxes of urban development different dimensions of quality of life and analyzes
and the sometimes perplexing realities of urban the inherent causal relationships. These range from
Europe today. The report defines a vision for clear linkages such as the health benefits of green
progress towards a more sustainable, well‑designed open space for urban populations to less evident
urban future, and in doing so inevitably raises many relationships such as the way that individual choice
questions: of housing has environmental impacts that affect
quality of life. In this way, the report addresses the
• why call for a new urbanity at a time when sustainable design and development of Europe's
Europeans' living standards, notwithstanding cities, perceiving environmental quality as a
the current global economic downturn, have on fundamental building block of social well‑being
average and over decades progressively risen? and urban quality of life.
• why call for a new urbanity when it is evident
that urban governance measures have improved Realising the vision of a more sustainable urban
living conditions? future requires mobilising action and resources
• why call for a new urbanity to be delivered by to reconstruct towns and cities. The aim should
our political leaders, the construction sector be to create new social, cultural and economic
and ordinary citizens, when the vast majority foundations that conserve the environmental
of urban areas have benefited from this new underpinnings and so offer long‑term benefits for
prosperity? Europe's future generations.
The simple answer to these apparent paradoxes is With humility, our report is the result of the
evident in the many concerns expressed by the vast endeavours and expertise of many individuals
majority of policy‑makers, professionals and civil collectively representing a number of
society. They point out that the current urban model pan‑European organisations and it attempts
delivers higher living standards and prosperity but to cover the many issues inherent to urban
fails to deliver 'quality of life'. Unsurprisingly, the complexity. Cities and towns are essentially bodies
complex interaction between the many determinants of coexistence; calls for a new urbanity may thus
of quality of life means that efforts to promote one reflect a shared awareness that fragmented and
element can have unexpected impacts elsewhere. short‑term policies are hindering urban areas from
However, understanding these apparent paradoxes fulfilling that core function.
is vital to realising the vision of a vibrant urban
future in which economic, social and environmental
aspirations can be delivered concurrently. The authors

What is this report about?
Quality of life is a term broadly used both by the

general public and amongst policy‑makers. Everyone
agrees on its importance, but a definitive meaning
cannot be assigned to it — the term can mean many
things to many people. In recognition of this diversity
of perspectives, a range of partners with distinct
backgrounds dealing with urban issues across Europe
discussed their views and provided their results in
this joint report.
Aims of this report
This report aims to raise awareness of the various

perspectives on, and perceptions of, quality of life.
It stresses the challenges ahead to ensure quality
of life in the long run for all social groups, and Photo: © Pavel Šťastný
the crucial importance of sustainability and the
environment as our life‑supporting system. The
report sheds light on certain aspects of the current
quality of life discussions but without attempting to Whilst interconnected with rural areas, cities and
provide a finite scientific definition, as the authors towns also interact with each other, and function
recognise that the many subjective aspects of quality in regional, national and European frameworks.
of life do not permit the derivation of an objective, For example, European policy sets the framework
universal definition. It is the role of individuals and in which national, regional and local governments
political representatives to formulate and agree on a act. Similarly the impact of local policies, such as
concept for quality of life for their needs and for their the reduction of local greenhouse gas emissions,
purposes. The report aims to illustrate how different influences the European situation by reducing overall
conceptions of quality of life influence the quality of emissions and so contributing to climate change
life of others, and provides ideas for ways to meet mitigation. In conclusion, concepts to ensure quality
the challenges that lie ahead; and by doing so aims of life in cities and towns need to consider these
to support individuals and politicians to discover a interlinkages and require the participation of all
balanced concept for quality of life compatible with administrative levels.
sustainable development.
Policy focus
Urban perspectives
Accordingly, this report in particular addresses the
The spatial focus of this report is on cities and concerns of policy- and decision-makers in cities and
towns in Europe. Urban dwellers represent the towns, as well as those at European level who deal
overwhelming majority of the European population. directly or indirectly with urban issues. The report
Cities and towns are therefore the places where, also provides useful information and arguments for
for most people, quality of life is experienced regional and national authorities and other interested
and delivered. However, cities and towns, whilst stakeholders and groups, including business,
providing many services for the rural population, non‑governmental organisations (NGOs) and the
also consume rural services. This means that urban general public.
and rural areas are strongly interlinked. As a result,
quality of life in urban areas also impacts on that in In summary, this report aims to raise awareness of the
rural areas. remarkable potential of cities and towns to deliver

quality of life, not only for their own populations, • for some, the Chapter 1 overview may be
but also for all European citizens. In addressing sufficient;
the problems cities and towns face in realising this • others may have an interest in the more detailed
potential, the report focuses on the network of local, specification of drivers of change and the
national, European and global interactions and the challenges faced at the urban level, together with
impacts of global change and other environmental ideas for remedial action set out in Chapter 2;
challenges as they impact on quality of life. Finally, • Chapter 3 provides specific ideas on the
the report provides ideas and good practice examples establishment of an integrated policy approach
of integrated action, policy responses and governance linking thematic areas and all administrative
to tackle the problems and master the challenges. levels as a major initiative to deliver quality of life
in a balanced way.
Ways to read the report
The report offers different opportunities for review

according to the specific background, responsibilities
and interests of the reader:

Quality of life in European cities and towns
1 Quality of life in European cities and

towns
1.1 Quality of life — the urban in 2003 caused tens of thousands of premature
crossroads of all policies deaths. Continuing growth in mobility generates
more noise and air pollution and increasing land
The desire for quality of life is universal and consumption has negative impacts on biodiversity
generates consensus across political and popular and ecosystems.
arenas. This common goal can assist all responsible
agencies and citizens to overcome their differences There is notable conflict between individual
and coordinate their responses. short‑term quality of life benefits and collective,
longer‑term needs for sustainable development that
Now, more than ever before, Europe's wealth, forms the basis for quality of life in the future.
innovation potential, creativity and talent are
centred in its wide range of towns and cities. Quality Quality of life is a concern for every social group,
of life and quality of the environment underpin but significant inequalities persist; for example, in
how well these towns and cities function. Cities degrees of exposure to pollution and industrial risks,
are business hubs, attracting investment to create and access to better living conditions. However,
jobs, and provide the focus of service provision and the privileged in society are often able to improve
exchange. Urban areas are also the focus of many their quality of life, for instance by moving to better
environmental challenges, where quality of life is neighbourhoods or to the countryside in order to
determined by a wide mix of socio‑economic and escape from unhealthy conditions.
political factors. Therefore, our towns and cities are
where the interwoven challenges of quality of life Political consensus but competing conceptions
and sustainable development must primarily be
addressed. Quality of life is a feature of many political (Box 1.1)
and scientific agendas. However, because perception
Progress towards quality of life of quality of life, particularly in urban areas, differs
so much, local policies are often very diverse. The
Undoubtedly, quality of life has improved in many fact that quality of life is rarely adequately defined
areas over the past 50 years. Today we benefit from in official documents only serves to exacerbate
more welfare and more living space per person, the situation, and results in policies that focus on
own more cars, travel more and further in our work specific areas such as income, housing or local
and holidays, enjoy luxury goods and live longer. environment, without taking a broader view. This
However, in other areas, particularly health, quality can generate contradictory development paths. For
of life has deteriorated. For example, there have example, prioritising jobs and economic growth
been marked increases in allergic reactions and to secure quality of life can result in negative
lifestyle‑related diseases, such as cardiovascular environmental impacts.
disorders caused by obesity, physical inactivity or
stress. Similarly, differing perceptions can affect
policy‑making at government level and result
Individual searches for a better quality of life, such in distinct and different views on the priorities
as a better quality of domestic living environment, for socio‑economic development and diverging
drive urban migrations and urban sprawl. This recommendations on what, if anything,
has unintended negative consequences for society governments should do in order to promote the
as a whole. Growing consumption is putting our quality of life in Europe's cities and regions. The
environment under increasing pressure with challenge is understand these differences and to
consequences for quality of life. Excessive energy formulate a simple definition of quality of life. By
consumption exacerbates harmful climate change, doing so, policy‑makers will gain public support
for example heat waves such as the one in Europe and be better able to work with all stakeholders to

Box 1.1 Political committments to quality of life
The Treaty on European Union (consolidated version 2008)

The Union's aim is to promote peace, its values and the well‑being of its peoples.
Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) 2006

The overall aim of the renewed EU SDS is to identify and develop actions to enable the EU to achieve
continuous improvement of quality of life both for current and for future generations, through the
creation of sustainable communities able to manage and use resources efficiently and to tap the
ecological and social innovation potential of the economy, ensuring prosperity, environmental protection
and social cohesion.
Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities and Bristol Accord

The Charter gives no definition but aims at '… a high quality in the fields of urban design, architecture
and environment'. It builds on the Bristol Accord which define sustainable communities as 'places where
people want to live and work, now and in the future. They meet the diverse needs of existing and future
residents, are sensitive to their environment, and contribute to a high quality of life. They are safe and
inclusive, well planned, built and run, and offer equality of opportunity and good services for all'.
EU Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment

Four out of five European citizens live in urban areas and their quality of life is directly influenced by the
state of the urban environment. A high quality urban environment also contributes to the priority of the
renewed Lisbon Strategy to 'make Europe a more attractive place to work and invest'.
The Aalborg Charter of European Cities and Towns towards Sustainability

Aims to 'integrate environmental with social and economic development to improve health and quality of
life for our citizens'.
agree on a coherent and comprehensive vision of is therefore vital to raise public awareness of
quality of life to support targeted policies. the impacts of the pursuit of short‑term quality
of life at the expense of longer‑term sustainable
Tackling the mismatch development.
The current mismatch between popular conceptions Unifying quality of life and sustainability
of quality of life now and the longer term needs for
sustainability as the basic fundament to quality of All the above highlights the critical links between
life in the future (Box 1.2) is a critical issue. Policies environmental sustainability, quality of life and the
need to distinguish between quality of life that future success of cities expressed in terms of social
produces demands for general basic needs, for and economic as well as environmental factors.
example access to services, and demands arising The Stern Report (Stern, 2006) on the economics
from individual lifestyles that encourage higher of climate change, for example, demonstrates that
consumption. Policies must be based on an equitable the real economic costs of unsustainable living and
vision of quality of life and balance priorities for further climate change are much higher than the
today without comprising the global environment cost of investments in climate change mitigation
and the lives of future generations. Clearly, some and adaptation. The shift to more sustainable
aspects of our current ways of life require shifts lifestyles is therefore not simply a matter of putting
toward more socially and environmentally oriented the environment first but also about recognising
priorities and, as a consequence, adaptation to more that the economic viability of cities must built on a
sustainable lifestyles at both individual and societal sustainable basis of long‑term social, environmental
level. and economic stability and equity. This issue goes
to the heart of the mismatch of conceptions of
A major problem is that this mismatch is rarely quality of life, and the vital need to make fully clear
transparent. This can undermine the political the real costs of the pursuit of short‑term quality
support necessary to secure both sustainable of life at the expense of longer term sustainable
development and a sustained quality of life. It development, and so to demonstrate that the shift

Box 1.2 Quality of life and sustainability
Undoubtedly, environmental and sustainability factors have great significance for quality of life, even
if people are not always aware of it in daily life. Illustrating this point, Brundtland's definition of
sustainability, the definition of sustainable development most commonly referred to, begins with human
needs: 'Sustainable development meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.', and the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WECD) further defines sustainable development as: 'A global process development that
minimizes the use of environmental resources and reduces the impact on environmental sinks using
processes that simultaneously improve economy and the quality of life.' Here, 'sustainability is the
continuation of the quality of life for generations to come also including the proper distribution of quality
of life between groups and with other parts of the world' (WCED, 1987).
The concept of sustainable development

Figure 1.1 What should be sustainably
emphasizes the maintenance of natural resources
managed?
and the natural environment as a prerequisite
for developing any economic activity to achieve
human well‑being and quality of life. Nature Quality of life
Quality of life
provides 'life support mechanisms and services' (individual needs)
(Individual needs )
as a basis for society. Economic activities are
the means to utilize these resources and to
release their potential value to society in order
to meet human needs. According to this model, Economic
Economic
activities
activities
&
economizing is the human activity that continually and
behaviour
converts natural resources into quality of life behaviour
as expressed in terms of goods and services
(Figure 1.1). Clearly, a healthy environment and
the wise use of natural resources are indispensable
Natural
Natural
resources
resources
for sustainable development which provides the (commongoods
goods))
(Common
basis for long‑term quality of life.
Source: ICLEI — Local Governments for Sustainability, 2008.
to a more sustainable way of life does not involve majority of citizens seem satisfied with their quality
a loss but rather a real increase in quality of life for of life in the city. The precise alchemy of quality of
all population groups as well as future generations. life in a town or city remains obscure, apparently
This clarity can then provide support for the defying definition. One definition is that quality of
policy‑makers and the means for cities and towns life exists when people can live a healthy, pleasant
to deliver more sustainable ways to achieve quality and safe life, 'can be who they want to be and do
of life. what they want to do' (Sen, 2003). But individuals
have their own visions and preferences, leading to
a great diversity of personal definitions, as some
1.2 Quality of life — visions or examples from France demonstrate (Box 1.4).
preferences?
Nevertheless, the basic idea of what constitutes
Almost three quarters of European citizens live in quality of life is much the same throughout Europe.
urban areas today, and this is expected to increase to There are common concerns for all, including
80 % by 2020. In many respects the European Union making a living and having an income, enjoying
can be seen as a Union of cities, as approximately a satisfactory family life, and having good health
1 600 urban areas with more than 50 000 inhabitants (see also Box 1.5). Although at the individual level,
are defined as functional urban areas (Box 1.3) assessments of the importance of these factors vary
(ESPON, 2005a). (Eurofound, 2004 and 2007).
According to the results of a survey of 75 cities Urban dwellers have only subtly different views
across Europe (EC, 2007a), the overwhelming on quality of life. Asked to give a definition of

Box 1.3 Definitions of urban areas
Urban areas can be defined according to different

criteria. Apart from population thresholds these
S. Anastasia
include: Cercola
Administrative area: constitutes the territorial Po

l le
expression of the political and technical framework Naples na
Tr
of governance, forming the focus for, and critical Ma ch
oc
to the understanding of, the development and s
sa ia
di
implementation of policies to secure both quality S. Sebastiano So
mm
a
of life and sustainable development.
S. Giorgio
Morphological area: constitutes, irrespective
of administrative borders, the spatial dimension Ercolano
and form of cities and towns in physical terms, Portici
comprising urban fabric with buildings, roads and
artificially surfaced area, industrial and commercial 0 1 2 3 Km
units, green urban areas within urban fabric, and

in addition port areas, airports, and sport and
Photo: © Image 2000
leisure facilities if included or continuous to other
urban land use.
Functional urban area: constitutes the socio‑economic reality of town and cities expressed in terms of
the territorial influence of the town or city across its hinterland, and identified in the relevant structures
of the built environment. The functional urban area normally embodies contrasting town — suburb
and rural areas and forms the focus for the socio‑economic and environmental forces that mould the
development of towns and cities. These forces include, for example, the decentralising trends within the
functional urban area that generate the intra–regional migration patterns.
Using different delineations: the relationships between administrative, morphological and the
functional urban areas and their appropriate consideration by decision-makers is critical to the effective
governance of the forces creating the social, economic and environmental challenges posed by towns
and cities. Due to inertia in the re‑definition of administrative areas, the functional urban area typically
extends well beyond the administrative and morphological boundaries of the town or city. These
considerations, which concern the relationships between the socio‑economic driving forces of change and
the administrative units of governance designed to manage change, highlight the need to secure both
vertical and horizontal policy integration for the effective governance of towns and cities.
their own quality of life apart from income, most therefore a matter of trade offs: paying less for a
people emphasise public services, employment, bigger house, but spending more time in traffic
shopping, transport, green open space, culture and jams or sacrificing urban amenities for a better
sporting facilities, as well as space to live. All of environment.
these factors make a city attractive. When people
are further asked 'What could be done to improve In conclusion, the dimensions of quality of life are
the quality of life in your town?', they tend to diverse, and some factors are undeniably more
mention problems they face on a daily basis, such important drivers of change in towns and cities than
as traffic, noise and air pollution. Environment is others, but these diverse dimensions and drivers are
seldom mentioned directly as poor environment always interrelated.
is mainly seen as a price to they have to pay for
the advantages of the big city. Nonetheless, the Definitions of quality of life?
search for a better environment is a reason people
give for moving out of the city itself while staying Another aspect to consider when describing
close enough to benefit from urban facilities. The quality of life is that it has an objective and a
individual search for a better quality of life is subjective perspective. The concept of quality of

Box 1.4 French definitions of quality of life
In replying to the interview question: 'What comes first to your mind when I say quality of life in your
city and region?' people gave different answers; among these:
• 'Quality of life… purity… environment also. Nuisances, no nuisances, the calm … green, birds' (Woman,
40 years old, Paris region);
• 'This would be about living in a nice green, small town, like Chaville (Paris region). Well connected with
transport, by bus or train. Not so far from Paris, but still far enough. We are near to forests, which is
good for having a good air, and we have all the shops, markets, public services, everything at hand'
(Woman, 55, Paris region);
• '… having good human relationships' (Man, 35, Paris);
• 'It means money, to have enough money for a living, also the surroundings, the environment where we
live' (Woman, 28, Vélizy, Paris region);
• 'I live in Marseille, that's why. I wish I lived outside of the town, I prefer nature. The traffic, the noise.
To go for a walk, to go to the sea shore, it takes 30 minutes by car, traffic jams included. In a small
town, it would take five minutes to be in the nature' (Man, 27, Marseille);
• 'The most important: health, human environment, nature, that everything be respected, that pollution
would stop, that we would take care of nature as we must. Beyond all, health — this is the most
important' (Woman, 72, Nice);
• 'The relation to the working environment, even if I am now retired, seems important to me, also the
leisure, and everything around social relations, more generally the relationship to the others' (Man, 68,
Cachan, Paris region);
• 'It makes me think of the sun, this is very important for me. Further having a nice little garden, try to
avoid big town pollution, try to have a hygienic life, avoid the stress of big towns, so having a nice little
house at the countryside (his house is 120m2!), not far from the commodities of the modern world, to
be able to use them without being dominated by them, such as supermarkets, cinemas, restaurants or
other leisure possibilities' (Man, 45, countryside 30 km outside of Nice).
Source: Results of research interviews lead by Michelle Dobré in 1999 in Paris, Nice, and their regions with the support of the
DRIRE IdF and PACA.
Box 1.5 Domains of quality of life
The first Survey on Quality of Life in Europe 2003 investigated 8 domains of individual life situations in
25 Member States. These do not cover all aspects but the most relevant for a complete description of
quality of life in both its objective and subjective dimensions.
• Economic situation;
• Housing and the local environment;
• Employment, education and skills;
• Household structure and family relations;
• Work‑life balance;
• Health and health care;
• Subjective well‑being;
• Perceived quality of society.
Source: Eurofound, 2004. www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2004/105/en/1/ef04105en.pdf.

life was popularised from the early 1950s, and in Citizens, local authorities, politicians and businesses
the context of economic growth, quality of life are all sensitive to city rankings, even though
referred to individual happiness and well‑being. it is commonly acknowledged that ranking is
The concept emerged as a response to objective virtually impossible, providing at best only a
measures of material progress including gross partial picture of reality. Rankings can be biased
domestic product (GDP); it provides indicators and/or contradictory, dependent on the ranking
for other, material and non‑material criteria and criteria. City rankings as communication tools
of subjective views on the human condition. Early reflect a desire to simplify complexity and to guide
studies on quality of life demonstrated that growth action. Consequently, they can be useful tools for
in objective material comfort was not necessarily policy‑makers but must be viewed in context.
matched by similar growth in satisfaction,
well‑being or happiness (Campbell et al., 1976;
Andrews & Withey, 1976) and therefore indicates 1.3 Health, environment and social
the need to consider both perspectives. equity: basic quality of life
indicators
The objective perspective highlights issues such
as income level, living conditions, job situation. Together with growing incomes, better paid jobs and
The subjective approach focuses on individual rising levels of education, good health and secure
appreciation of these issues (Box 1.5); for example, family and social relations remain key determinants
40 m2 of living space per person might be perceived of individual happiness and fulfilment (Eurofound,
as luxury in one country and seen as only standard 2008). The urban environment influences human
in another country. From an urban planning physical, social and mental well‑being, therefore, a
perspective, quality of place (Massam, 2002) healthy, supportive environment is indispensable to
describes the state of the external environment quality of life in cities. People need to breathe clean
and the requirements for good quality of life. air, have access to clean drinking water and adequate
This approach to quality of life deploys various housing conditions, and enjoy quiet and peaceful
socio‑economic and environmental indicators, such places. Accessible, good‑quality, well‑maintained
as air or water quality and material welfare. green spaces and playgrounds, modern transport
systems and safe, walkable neighbourhoods that
City rankings encourage physical activity and social interactions are
key constituents of urban quality of life.
To aid understanding of the underlying reasons for
differences, and thereby support policy definition Urban design and planning
and implementation, there have been many
attempts, some more scientific than others, to rank Characteristics such as population density and
cities in terms of quality of life. In June 2008 the the extent of sealed areas are comparable for and
Copenhagen Post reported proudly 'Copenhagen define urban areas. Such areas differ from the rural
best city to live'. This was in response to an article environment and generate, for example, the urban
in the UK magazine Monocle, which ranked heat island effect. However, the actual impact on the
Copenhagen as the best city in the world to live urban environment is dependent on specific local
for quality and design compared to 25 other cities. characteristics, which differ from city to city.
However, the newspaper also commented that
whilst Copenhagen is clearly a great city, '…even Well‑designed buildings and public spaces in a
the city's most enthusiastic residents should take well‑planned urban environment can provide
it … with a grain of salt… Anyone who lives here attractive, secure, quiet, clean, energy‑efficient and
for more than a week will tell you that its recent durable surroundings, in which prosperous and
ranking as the 'world's best city for quality of life' is healthy communities can thrive in the long term.
absurd.' This one example illustrates the difficulties The World Health Organization (WHO) considers
with quality of life ranking of towns and cities. urban planning an important determinant of
Reviewing the various city rankings from health, and also economic development — as the
Mercer, Readers Digest and many others reveals attractiveness of a city or town is becoming an
that the rankings can differ widely according to increasingly important factor in the decision‑making
the index criteria. While the rankings highlight process. However, the realisation of a healthy
useful similarities and differences, the evident urban environment in which all determinants of
contradictions also question the validity of simple healthy living are integrated in a holistic manner is a
comparisons. challenging objective, as Chapter 2 of this report will

demonstrate. Urban design and building regulations tend to be more active in leisure time (Kavanagh et al.,
are both very important in this respect. 2005). Accordingly, feeling safe in the neighbourhood
is likely to increase levels of physical activity.
The following paragraphs provide some illustrations Natural features, especially in underprivileged
of health, environment, social equity and urban neighbourhoods, can encourage people to walk, cycle
design features, from both objective and individual and play outdoors and socialise, so facilitating social
perspectives as basic elements of individual quality integration.
of life. However, these illustrations are only partial as
the impacts of the urban environment on health and Adequate housing conditions are also important
quality of life are not distributed equally; frequently, determinants of quality of life. People living in low
children, the elderly and those living in deprived standard buildings with poor energy performance
urban neighbourhoods are disadvantaged. and in 'fuel poverty' (2) experience problems with
both excessive cold and heat. Cold is a major cause of
Social equity and housing conditions winter death, particularly amongst the elderly. Cold,
poor ventilation and inadequate heating contribute
Environmental and health impacts are not equally to dampness and consequent health problems.
distributed throughout Europe or within cities. In the Poor indoor air quality, poor construction, poor
United Kingdom in 2004, 20 % of those in the lowest maintenance of housing and individual lifestyles all
income groups lived in poor quality environments influence residents' health.
compared to 11 % of those in the highest income
groups (1) (UK Office for National Statistics, 2007) Impacts of air pollution
emphasising the fact that inequalities in quality of
life reflect inequalities in economic, social and living The EU estimates that human exposure to fine
conditions. Poorer people, immigrants, and other particulate matter (PM2.5) (3) causes about 350 000
disadvantaged groups typically inhabit the worst premature deaths each year. In other words, at
parts of the city, for example near contaminated sites, these exposure levels the average life expectancy
and are more affected by the lack of green space and is reduced by almost a year — almost two years
public transport services, by noisy and dirty roads in the most affected urban areas of Belgium, the
and by industrial pollution. Netherlands, Northern Italy and parts of Poland
and Hungary (EEA, 2007b). The major air pollutants
Perceived safety and the socio‑economic status of an in urban areas are particulate matter, ozone and
area seems to play a key part in determining urban nitrogen oxides (NOX). These pollutants pose
quality of life and also influences physical activity, serious threats to human health, as they can cause
obesity and related health problems. Studies in respiratory disorders, aggravate asthma, and
eight European cities found that residents in areas impair development of lung function in children.
with high levels of graffiti, litter and dog mess were Measurements of air quality show that almost
50 % less likely to be physically active and twice as 90 % of the inhabitants of European cities where
likely to be overweight (Sustainable Development PM10 concentrations are measured are exposed to
Commission UK, 2008). Furthermore, the 2003 Health concentrations that exceed the WHO air quality
Survey for England suggests that perceptions of guideline level of 20 μg/m3.
social disturbance in neighbourhoods are associated
with higher risks of obesity and poor health, whereas The overwhelming majority of people surveyed
positive perceptions of the social environment in 62 of the 75 European cities participating in the
have the opposite association. Areas with a high urban perception survey (EC, 2007a) agreed that air
socio‑economic status tend to have better quality pollution is a major problem. Compared with the
recreational environments when compared to low measured data on NO2 and PM10, these perceptions
status areas, and people who live in high status areas correspond closely with the objective situation.
(1) In the United Kingdom, a special multidimensional index of deprived areas is used to identify the 'critical locations in urban setting',
based on information on employment, health, income, education and skills, barriers to services, crime and living environment,
including air quality, distance from a waste disposal site, proportion of people living near the regulated industrial source, and
proportion of people at significant risk of flooding.
(2) A household is in fuel poverty if it has to spend more than 10 % of total household income on energy in order to sustain
comfortable conditions.
(3) PM2.5 is particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of up to 2.5 µm and PM10 up to 10 µm The estimate is based on model
calculations using anthropogenic primary PM and PM precursor emissions as an input (year 2000, EU‑25) EU Clean Air for Europe
(CAFÉ) programme http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28026.htm.

Figure 1.2 Perceived and reported air pollution
Perceived as a problem Reported as a problem

μg/m3 NO2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Białystok
Aalborg
Frankfurt (Oder)
Oviedo
Rennes
Hamburg
Leipzig
Malmö
Wien
Cardiff
Dortmund
Stockholm
Málaga
München
Helsinki
Kosice
Ostrava
Berlin
Glasgow
Tallinn
Manchester
Gdańsk
Lille
Bratislava
København
Ljubljana
Liège
Antwerpen
Amsterdam
Kraków
Graz
Palermo
Warszawa
Barcelona
Rotterdam
Bruxelles/Brussel
Budapest
Praha
London
Vilnius
Lisboa
Napoli
Paris
Madrid
Torino
Bologna
Bucuresti
Roma
Burgas
– 100 – 75 – 50 – 25 0 25 50 75 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
% surveyed citizens Number of days with PM10 > 50 μg/m3
Strongly agree Somewhat agree NO2 annual average
Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree Number of days with [PM10] > Limit value
Source: EC, 2007a and AirBase.
However, a number of discrepancies (Figure 1.2) Impacts of noise exposure

suggest that additional factors such as the general
image of the city, its attractiveness, available green Environmental noise affects health and urban
space or levels of noise also play a role and influence quality of life by interfering with sleep rest, study
individual perceptions. and personal communication. Chronic exposure

to noise is associated with increased risk of heart of more than 55 dB — a level associated with
disease, hearing impairment and impacts on significant annoyance. However, as with air quality,
mental health. These effects may be enhanced by Figure 1.3 shows that perception of noise can
interaction with other environmental stressors, differ markedly from that reported. Furthermore,
such as air pollution. For example, in Germany whilst the perception of noise as a problem is more
approximately 3 % of acute myocardial infarctions or less the same in Malmö, Ostrava, Leipzig and
may be attributed to road traffic noise (Babisch, Munich, in reality, a much larger percentage of
2006). Also in Germany, 60 % of the population are people are affected by high-noise levels in Malmö
adversely affected by road traffic noise, and 10 % and Ostrava than in Leipzig and Munich. Some
are highly affected (UBA, 2005). In the Netherlands, of these apparent differences may, of course, be
29 % of the participants in a national survey are attributed to differences in noise modelling or
troubled by road traffic noise, mostly from mopeds survey methods.
(RIVM, 2004). The most troublesome sources of
noises are transport, primarily roads, railways and Impacts of climate change
aircraft. Furthermore, noise problems are often
worse in areas of high density housing, deprived Climate change raises new, complex challenges
neighbourhoods and in rented accommodation. for the urban quality of life and the health of
European citizens. High population densities
Figure 1.3 shows the variance of noise levels in means that cities are highly aware and concerned
some European cities. In some cities the majority of problems associated with climate change. Cities
of residents are living in areas with a noise level rely on complex systems to deliver power, water,
Figure 1.3 Perceived and reported noise pollution
Perceived as a problem Reported as a problem
Budapest
Bucureşti
Praha
Warszawa
London
Kraków
Málaga
Vilnius
Cluj-Napoca
Tallinn
København
Gdańsk
Berlin
Manchester
Glasgow
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Helsinki
Hamburg
Belfast
München
Ostrava
Stockholm
Leipzig
Cardiff
Malmö
– 100 – 75 – 50 – 25 0 25 50 75 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% surveyed citizens % of people living in the urban
agglomeration affected by noise levels
Strongly agree Somewhat agree 55–65 dB
Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree Above 65 dB
Source: EC, 2007a and 2007 data reported under the Directive on environmental noise (EEA, 2008). Note that the noise exposure
data are that which has been reported by Member States in accordance with the END until 31 October 2008. At the time of
writing, some of this data may not have been subject to a full quality assurance check.

Map 1.1 Number of tropical nights over Europe
No of days
< 10
10–20
20–30
30–40
40–50
50–60
60–70
> 70
Tropical nights, average 1961–1990 Tropical nights, average 2071–2100 Change in days of tropical nights
for June, July and August for June, July and August from control to scenario period
for June, July and August
Note: Number of tropical nights (i.e. minimum temperature > 20° C) over Europe for the control period (1961–1990) and the
scenario period (2071–2100) during summer seasons (June–August) and change between periods (right panel).
Source: Dankers and Hiederer, 2008.
communications, transport and waste disposal, and The urban perception survey (EC, 2007a)
soil sealing increases the risk of flooding, drinking demonstrated that the majority of respondents in
water shortage and the spread of infectious disease. Northern European cities were satisfied with the
Health impacts of heat waves are more pronounced supply and quality of green areas. However, there
for vulnerable groups, such as infants, children, can be large differences between the perceptions
the elderly, and those living in deprived areas and and the actual proportion of the urban area
are unable to take remedial action. More extreme devoted to green open space. For example, in the
weather events including floods, droughts, and municipality of Brussels, where there are few
heat waves are already more evident throughout areas of green space, most respondents expressed
Europe: it has been estimated that the 2003 heat satisfaction with the supply of green open space;
wave caused more than 52 000 premature deaths whereas in Bratislava, where there are large areas
(EPI, 2006). of green open space, the level of satisfaction was
much lower (Figure 1.4). Some of the discrepancies
Green urban spaces may be the result of statistical sampling effects and
cultural differences; however, these results do seem
Studies in the Netherlands demonstrate that to indicate that it is not only the total area that is
children with good access to green open space, important in individual satisfaction, but also the
fewer high‑rise buildings and more outdoor sports quality of green open space, including accessibility,
facilities are more physically active. Similarly, possibilities for outdoor recreation, distribution
studies of eight European cities show that people and the overall design of the urban area.
who live in areas with abundant green open space
are three times more likely to be physically active Space for pedestrians and cyclists
and 40 % cent less likely to be overweight or obese
(Ellaway et al., 2005). School children who have Good quality, accessible and safe walkable
access to, or even sight of, the natural environment neighbourhoods encourage daily physical activity
show higher levels of attention than those without such as walking and cycling. These factors help
these benefits (Velarde et al., 2007). combat the health impacts of sedentary lifestyles,
especially in relation to obesity and cardiovascular
Green areas are important for health because they: disease. Public green open space provides
opportunities for exercise. People are more likely to
• allow for contact with nature, promote recovery walk, cycle and play in natural spaces, enjoying the
from stress, are beneficial for mental health benefits of physical activity and social interaction.
and help improve behaviour and attention in For example, in Maastricht in the Netherlands
children; neighbourhoods with nearby sports facilities or
• improve air quality and help reduce heat stress; parks are positively associated with time spent
• encourage people to be physically active. cycling (Wendel‑Vos et al., 2004).

Figure 1.4 Perceived and reported green space
Perceived as satisfactory Reported green space

Bratislava
Palermo
Košice
Antwerpen
Liège
Tallinn
Rotterdam
Gdańsk
Bologna
Frankfurt an der Oder
Kraków
Warszawa
Torino
Essen
Amsterdam
Berlin
Bruxelles/Brussel
Groningen
Dortmund
Helsinki
Białystok
Hamburg
Leipzig
München
– 80 – 60 – 40 – 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% of surveyed citizens % of green area of the total area
Rather unsatisfied Rather satisfied
Not at all satisfied Very satisfied
Source: EC, 2007a and Urban Audit Database, data 2004 on core cities (Eurostat).
The provision of cycling and pedestrian below 1 % of people cycling to work to around 36 % in
infrastructures is both quantitatively and qualitatively Copenhagen. The quality of transport infrastructure
important. Figure 1.5 illustrates major differences has a major influence on walking and cycling in cities,
throughout Europe leading to big differences in rates but it does not explain all differences. Other factors
of both walking and cycling — the latter ranging from such as city structure, safety, geography and cultural
Figure 1.5 Cycling paths and lanes in European cities
Cycling paths and lanes per city area in km/km2

8.9
6
0
g
us
Br n
Co us l
H rg
Lo ki
G n
M n
rid
M n
N h
s
ris
Pr s
ue
ga
kh e
Ta olm
re
ra o
za
de er
Br sto
nh ls
D en
le
St om
on
Za sl
or
or
rli
G de
o
yo
ila
ic
rk
ie
n
pe
H nov
tr
go
pe se
rh
Pa
Ri
ag
nd
ad
ap
O
un
si
W
ag
Be
lb
Tu
lb
eb
M
i
.L
el
Pa
R
Aa
m
el
re
Aa
rc
an
ot
oc
Ba
ei
H
Source: Ambiente Italia, 2007.

needs should be considered as well. Fundamentally, individual city dwellers tend to have a lower average
as explored in the next chapters, different local ecological footprint than those living in rural areas.
responses can be explained by different conceptions This is primarily because most city residents have
of quality of life, leading policy‑makers to diverging shorter distances to travel to work, while many
recommendations on what should be done in order to rural residents commute long distances to work,
improve quality of life in Europe's cities and regions. typically by car. Also, urban housing is normally
more efficient in terms of energy consumption. As
a result, urban lifestyles can offer the potential to
1.4 Cities and towns determine Europe's lower the overall regional or national footprint and
quality of life environmental impact. These conclusions are critical
to the arguments that cities and towns offer the best
The fight to tackle climate change will be won or lost in hope for living more sustainably and reinforce the
cities, Ken Livingstone, Mayor of London, 2007. argument for compact cities, as clearly demonstrated
by the London transport ecological footprint
The potential of cities is there… (Box 1.6). Conversely, urban sprawl, growing
transport demands, in particular road transport, as
Growing cities and changing lifestyles demand an well as current urban lifestyle choices demanding
ever‑increasing supply of natural resources. Cities goods and services from a global hinterland, tend to
occupy just 2 % of the world's surface, but at the same increase the ecological footprint of cities.
time, are home to half of the world's population,
which is responsible for three quarters of natural Revitalising actions by cities and towns
resources consumed globally (UNEP, 2008). Cities are
hugely reliant on regions and nations well beyond It is clear from the above that the nature of cities
their own boundaries and have many interactions substantially influences the quality of both urban and
with local and global hinterlands. A city depends on rural life, and that quality of life can be enhanced by
resources produced outside the city and transported improving the way cities are managed. City mangers
to the city for consumption, and the waste products have the power to drive forward change and reduce
of consumption in the city are disposed of elsewhere. the negative impacts of urban development such as
Consequently, cycles of production and consumption urban sprawl and growing demands for car‑based
and their environmental impacts cannot be separated. urban transport. They can do this by developing and
Europe is already highly urbanised, and cities implementing policies for urban planning, urban
and towns, by virtue of these relations with their design, housing and local transport, thereby offering
hinterlands, substantially determine the potential for new opportunities for more sustainable lifestyles
sustainable development and quality of life for both and quality of life. Urban planning and urban design
urban and rural areas. are fundamentally local responsibilities. City and
regional planning guides the functional organisation
…but cities perform differently! of the city, which in turn sets the framework for the
patterns of urban consumption and the basis for
The ecological footprint of a city provides a means of realisation of quality of life in cities. The compact
assessing how much land and water any individual city based on efficient public transport, provision for
city virtually requires to produce the services and walking and cycling allied with high quality public
resources it needs and to absorb the waste generated. and green open spaces can provide the model for
The footprint is normally expressed in terms of enhanced quality of life and sustainable development.
spatial extention of land and water from the city,
which in the case of London extends to over twice the Cities are also the focus of the consumption of energy
area of the United Kingdom. This indicator can reveal and other resources. Cities can therefore act decisively
differences in performance, prompting questions to combat resource depletion and mitigate climate
about the underlying reasons and so stimulating change by, for example, avoiding energy‑intensive
further investigation of the causes and potentials for transport and promoting energy‑saving housing
action. From a European perspective, cities' ecological policies, as well as containing urban sprawl.
footprint can raise awareness of their overall impact
on the European environment. Local authorities have the legal power, and
responsibility to regulate and manage urban policy
The concentration of population, consequent levels and implement effective planning strategies in the
of service provision and urban lifestyles mean the interests of their population. However, it is clear that
ecological footprint of cities is generally higher cities cannot be managed in isolation from the many
than that of rural areas of the same size. However, powerful forces and decisions originating outside

Box 1.6 London transport ecological footprint
Londoners have the second-lowest transport

footprint per resident out of 60 British cities
despite coming 44th in the list of overall
footprints. This is because London has a good,
well‑used public transport system at affordable
prices. London is at an advantage because it has
such a large number of people concentrated in a
small area, which makes running public transport
a more attractive proposition. There are also
disincentives to car ownership in the city, such as
limited car‑parking and the congestion charge for
central London. In contrast the Home Counties
have very large transport footprints. This is most
likely due to people commuting into London, as
well as the relative level of affluence (which is
related to higher levels of car ownership) in the
Home Counties.
Photo: © Jens Georgi
Figure 1.6 UK city transport ecological footprints
Salford
London
Newport
Gloucester
Glasgow
Sheffield
Leicester
Bradford
Norwich
Edinburgh
Southampton
Oxford
Cambridge
Canterbury
Winchester
St Albans
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Global hectares
Note: Selection from 60 cities including the cities with the lowest and highest transport footprint. See more in the study
mentioned as source.
Source: WWF‑UK, 2007, http://www.wwf.org.uk/oneplanet/cf_0000004481.asp.
their boundaries. Local policies must therefore be and settlements of their hinterland, as well as with
complemented by regional, national and European other cities in their region, in Europe and globally.
policies to effectively address these current and future Cities are therefore subject to many European and
challenges as outlined in the next section. global challenges driven by forces outside their direct
control, which they must respond to in order to
ensure quality of life for their inhabitants.
1.5 EU and urban policies interact
The major drivers of these European and
As described in Section 1.4, cities are no longer global challenges include the new potentials
isolated and self‑sustaining units but are strongly of information technology, which are rapidly
linked via their functional urban areas with the towns transforming the accessibility of cities, as well

as major demographic changes, including the local level is in fact undermined by policy initiatives
general aging of the European population and at EU level. Some of these effects are illustrated in
continued migration. Cities and towns need to Box 1.17 and Table 1.2.
respond to the economic, social and environmental
consequences of the individual highly material More and better concerted action is key
lifestyles of their citizens fostered by a political
climate in which growth in welfare and enhanced Cities are now demonstrating an increasing
quality of life is still equated with growth in GDP understanding of the significant roles that they
(see also Section 2.2). Overall, cities and towns find can perform in not only fulfilling EU regulations,
themselves in an extremely complex situation. but also in wider engagement in initiatives to
secure sustainability in urban areas. These wider
European policy — a clear role engagements include participation in the Local
Agenda 21 processes, support for the Aalborg
European policy combined with policy initiatives at Commitments and the development of the
the local level have the potential to drive and direct Healthy Cities Network. These initiatives have
these major trends towards an enhanced quality of provided a number of positive outcomes, including
life in European cities. European climate change guidelines for policy development, as well as the
policy, for example, aims to mitigate the effects of exchange of good practice experience — although
climate change on urban areas. European cohesion direct influence upon the evolution of EU urban
policy supports the EU Lisbon Strategy for growth policy has so far been limited. The ethos of these
and jobs, and aims to improve the economic developments is expressed by the Leipzig Charter on
attractiveness of European regions. Together with sustainable European cities as follows: 'We must stop
other policies at various levels, the Lisbon Strategy looking at urban development policy issues and
aims to strengthen the economic basis of the decisions at the level of each city in isolation'.
regions and cities of Europe (Table 1.2). In support
of the Lisbon Strategy the Green Paper on territorial Nonetheless, there remains much to do in fulfilling
cohesion (EC, 2008c) aims to transform territorial these objectives. Despite a growing awareness
diversity into a key driving force for sustainable of the contributions that cities can make to the
development. realisation of sustainable development, in many
cases, cities still remain in relative isolation in
Certain European policies, such as the EU Directives the development of policy at the local level,
on ambient air quality and on environmental apparently unaware of the need for a positive
noise, also address the urban level directly. Other European dimension in city action. The Thematic
EU policies provide guidance for cities, including Strategy on the urban environment (EC, 2006d) offers
the Community strategic guidelines of cohesion policy direct guidance on the sustainable management
2007–2013 (EC, 2006b), the Thematic strategy on of cities, but does not explicitly require the
the urban environment (EC, 2006d) and the Leipzig development of integrated policy approaches that
Charter on sustainable European cities. are linked to those at European level. However, the
implementation of the Action Programme for the
Typically, European policy influences the urban level Territorial Agenda, and the follow up to the Leipzig
indirectly, and aims to support positive developments Charter at local and member state levels offers
at the local level. However, due to a variety of factors, real possibility for a new recognition of the need
including inadequate policy coordination, there to adopt a more active and integrated approach to
remains the risk, that policy implementation at the urban governance.
Box 1.7 European policy — positive and negative local impacts
Cohesion policy aims to support and strengthen cities and regions. Stronger cities and regions will provide
their citizens with higher incomes increasing their material quality of life. At the same time this leads to
changes in life style: Cars are more and more available and more used. People spend more time in leisure
activities and make more vacation trips per year etc. with likely unintended negative environmental effects.
Economically successful European and national funding which leads to stronger cities can also contribute to
unbalanced price developments in particular for land, encouraging urban sprawl.

It is clear that cities exchange information and share offer some further lessons on how to realise these
best practice to support local sustainability, but joint potentials (Box 1.8).
and concerted action remains more the exception.
A new approach adopted by the initiative of the The scenario of cities acting in isolation neglects
Covenant of Mayors, in which major cities commit not only the potential for concerted action, but also
to reduce their CO2 emissions by 20 % by 2020, may compounds the negative impacts of the common
Box 1.8 Covenant of Mayors act on climate change
On 29 January 2008, Commissioner Piebalgs launched the Covenant of Mayors, the most ambitious
initiative of the European Commission involving cities and citizens in the fight against global warming.
The Covenant of Mayors will be a result‑oriented initiative in which participating local and regional
authorities will formally commit to reduce their CO2 emission by more than 20 % by 2020. In order to do
that, they will develop and implement Sustainable Energy Action Plans and communicate on measures
and actions taken their local stakeholders.
More information: http://ec.europa.eu/energy/climate_actions/mayors/index_en.htm.
Box 1.9 German Länder — competing municipalities
After German reunification in the early 1990's,

East German municipalities prepared a large
number of sites for commercial real estate
development to attract major investments
and jobs, with European and national funding.
There was also a race between municipalities to
obtain the highest share of the cake, but against
expectations, no relation was found between
the numbers of commercial real estate areas
and economic development. Instead, the areas
provided exceeded demand by three to four times.
Today 30–40 % of the areas still lie idle and the
remainder can easily satisfy the demand over the
coming decades and even, sometimes, the next
100 years (BBR, 2005).
Photo: © Google Earth
Table 1.1 Länder of East Germany — commercial real estate capacity

Commercial real estate area Available commercial real
(brutto) in ha estate area in ha
Mecklenburg‑Western Pomeranian 9 785 4 070
Brandenburg 9 227 3 550
Saxony‑Anhalt 4 500 1 840
Saxony 16 130 6 450
East Germany 49 570 1 920
Instead of improving the quality of life of their inhabitants by creating new jobs, many municipalities
and funding authorities have wasted resources and even caused negative effects in the form of declining
image and attractiveness, loss of biodiversity and ecological services — burdens that now have to be
carried by the whole society.
Source: BBR, 2005.

tendency for cities to compete for limited economic Integration: time to walk the talk
resources, including industrial investments and
national or EU funding. Competition tends to drive European, national and city policies can have a
negative outcomes and unbalanced development, major impact on the quality of life in cities and
a game in which some individual cities win, towns (Table 1.2) demonstrating that cities and
but typically the net result is unsustainable towns are not simply at the mercy of external drivers
development and lower quality of life for all and processes. However, to date these potentials
(Box 1.9). are not yet fully reflected in management and
governance practice at the local level. Chapter 2 of
These negative impacts can be avoided by this report further explores these issues in relation
cooperation between cities in a regional policy to specific challenges, and Chapter 3 provides some
framework that supports a holistic approach, ideas and examples of the integrated approach to
integrating all agencies and government levels, policy formulation and implementation that aim to
as with the example of Berlin in cooperation with fill the gaps evident today, and so provide the basis
the neighbouring municipalities in Brandenburg for the realisation of improved quality of life in the
(Box 1.10). longer run.
Box 1.10 City-hinterland — cooperation Berlin and Brandenburg
From competition to inter‑municipality cooperation
Initial situation
The fall of the Berlin wall and the reunification
of Germany at the beginning of the 1990s led to
massive suburbanisation over a wide area. This led
to numerous conflicts of interest between Berlin
and the neighbouring municipalities.
Solution
In 1996 the outer Berlin sub‑districts and
the neighbouring districts and municipalities
in Brandenburg established the Municipal
Neighbourhood Forum Berlin — Brandenburg. A
series of working groups, presided over by the
mayors and other stakeholders such as private
companies and NGO's, provided a form for
information exchange and discussion of spatial
planning and development questions in the area.
A secretariat of the Berlin government with its own
budget supports the different activities, although
Source: Kommunales Nachbarschaftsforum, 2008.
the municipalities implement and fund them
locally.
Results
Long‑term cooperation between the different stakeholders at the same level promoted the growth of
understanding and awareness of spatial and cross‑border interrelations, and supported the creation of
joint responsibility for a balanced development of the area. Up to now, the partners have developed
11 structural concepts for different sub‑areas, created the concept of a common bicycle route, and
analysed the suburbanisation processes since 1990 in order to be prepared for future challenges such as
demographic change. Generally speaking, the development has achieved a more rational and balanced
basis than 15 years ago. Long term experience of transparent processes and mutual credit are the key
factors for success.
Note: More information: http://kommunalesnachbarschaftsforum.berlin‑brandenburg.de/.
Source: BMVBS, 2006.

24
Lisbon Strategy and Gothenburg Strategy
Policy areas Regional policy/ Transport and Enterprise Environment Employment and Health and Agriculture Research
cohesion energy social affairs consumer and rural
protection development
Table 1.2
Aim Improving the Providing European Making the EU the Ensuring a high level Contributing to the Ensuring a high Promoting a robust and Contributing to attain
attractiveness of the citizens and businesses most competitive and of environmental development of a level of protection of competitive agricultural the objectives of the
European regions, to with competitive dynamic knowledge- protection. modern, innovative and consumers' health, sector. other Community
encourage innovation, energy and transport driven economy. sustainable European safety and economic policies.
entrepreneurship, systems and services. Contributing to a high social model with more interests as well as Contributing
growth of knowledge level of quality of life and better jobs in an of public health at to sustainable
and to create more and and social well‑being inclusive society based European Union level. development of rural
better jobs. for citizens on equal opportunities. areas.
Commitments 2008 36.6 2.8 0.6 0.4 11.5 0.7 54.1 4.0
total in billion EUR
Strategies and major Community Strategic Green paper on urban Communication: Thematic Strategy on Social Agenda White paper: Together Common Agricultural FP 7 — Seventh
directives with a Guidelines 2007–2013 transport (2007). Putting knowledge into the Urban Environment. 2005–2010. for Health: A Strategic Policy Framework Programme
relation to urban for the Structural practice: A broad‑based Approach for the EU
issues Funds. Directive on the innovation strategy for Several directives on: European Employment 2008–2013.
energy performance of the EU. • ambient air quality; Strategy and
Green paper on buildings • environmental noise; Employment guidelines. European Environment
territorial cohesion 2002/91/EC. Communication: • the Water Framework and Health strategy.
(2008). Implementing • Directive;
Strategy for the the Community • Urban Waste water • Consumer Policy
Communication on simplification Lisbon Programme • treatment; Strategy 2007–2013.
Cohesion policy and of the regulatory — More Research • Waste Management;

cities: the urban environment (2005). and Innovation — • Emission standards,
contribution to growth Investing for Growth • etc.
and jobs in the region and Employment: A
(2006) Common Approach.

Programmes, Structural Funds Trans-European Multiannual Programme EAP-The Sixth Structural Funds programme of EARDF 2007 to 2013 The FP7 bundles all
instruments 2007–2013 (explicitly Transport Networks for Enterprise and Environment Action 2007–2013: Community action — Rural development research-related EU
and funding including urban (TEN) — Financial Entrepreneurship. Programme 2002– in the field of public (12.9 billion EUR). initiatives together
(commitments for development): support 2008: 2012. European Social Fund health 2008–2013 under a common
2008) 0.9 billion EUR). ETAP — Environment (11.1 billion EUR). (0.045 billion EUR). AGF — direct aid, roof playing a crucial
Cohesion Fund Technology Action Plan. LIFE+ programme — market support role in reaching the
Major EU policy areas related to the urban level
(8.1 billion EUR) Intelligent Energy — Financial Instrument Action programme (36.8 billion EUR). goals of growth,
Europe programme Competitiveness and for the Environment environment and health competitiveness and
ERDF — European (0.07 billion EUR in Innovation Framework — 2007 to 2013 (0.25 2004–2010. employment.
Regional Development 2008). Programme billion EUR).
Fund (27.5 billion EUR). (0.1 billion EUR). Consumer Programme
2007–2013
(0.02 billion EUR)
Linked to other Support other policies: Regional policy Regional policy, Basis of life — Links to Regional policy, Public health is basis of Regional policy, Supporting the other
European policies transport, energy (accessibility), energy, employment, nearly all policies economy life — Links to nearly employment, policies with new
economy, employment, environment, health, environment all policies environment, health knowledge
environment enterprise and consumer
protection
Policy areas Regional policy/ Transport and Enterprise Environment Employment and Health and Agriculture Research
cohesion energy social affairs consumer and rural
protection development
Potential impacts
on the urban
situation
Improving quality Stronger, attractive Better accessibility Support Reduce climate Reduce the economic, Setting the framework Ensure different Support cities by
of life and competitive of cities by road, rail, eco‑innovation in change impacts and social and territorial for high level services of rural areas providing necessary
cities; air, ship. cities. background pollution disparities and of protection of for cities: food supply, knowledge.
Renewal of cities; levels, ensuring a strengthen the consumers' health, water availability,
Polycentric territorial Setting the framework Improvement of healthy environment economic and social safety and economic nature, recreation etc.
development. for better urban energy efficiency. at all. cohesion. interests as well as of
transport. public health.
Setting a framework Support the free
Promotion of to support sustainable movement of workers.
sustainable energy urban development
systems and e.g. sustainable
equipment and their consumption pattern,
market penetration. right prices etc.
Possible unintended Can promote Can encourage longer Can lead to Can hinder some Likely effects on Can hinder the Rural development,
side effects unsustainable commuting distances development of new specific unsustainable e.g. the environment production and low prices for
Western-European life and urban sprawl residential areas and economic depend on the distribution of some agricultural land,
styles all over Europe. leading to even more infrastructures around development or way how growth (dangerous) products better accessibility
transport. the new industrial consumer behaviour. and employment and services. can stimulate longer
Higher transport clusters. promoted. commuting and urban
demand, higher Unbalanced sprawl redefining the
energy and material implementation of interaction with the
use, urban sprawl. TEN can increase cities.
the share of road
Competition between transport in relation
cities, regions. to other modes.
Urban contribution Cities are motor Organising an efficient Cities are motor Support with their Provide the majority Contribute by their Provide socioeconomic Provide the practical
to the European of European and environmentally of European own environmental of jobs and other own measures to high and cultural services case for research.
situation development. friendly urban development and the performance a high socioeconomic levels of public health. for the rural areas.
transport. place where most environmental quality services.
business takes place. across Europe. Market of agricultural
Tables 1.2 Major EU policy areas related to the urban level (cont.)
Increasing energy products.

efficiency in housing
and urban transport.
Note: Budget numbers from the Official Journal of the European Union L 71, Volume 51, 14 March 2008.
Source: European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu, 2008.

25
Quality of life and drivers of change
2 Quality of life and drivers of change
Frequently, processes and policies outside 2.1 Demographic changes

the direct control of cities and towns drive
and determine their quality of life. Individual In 2008 the International Herald Tribune included
municipalities may feel at the mercy of such the following quote from a speech by Miklos
processes, but given the fact that in Europe urban Soltesz, member of the Hungarian Parliament, on
areas contain nearly 75 % of the population, it is 9 September 2008 'The demographic situation in
clear that they collectively posses the mandate to Hungary borders on the catastrophic, threatening
progress beyond mere reactions to the initiation of our economic sustainability'. According to Eurostat,
actions to positively manage change. Chapter 2 of Hungary's population is expected to decrease
this report aims to illuminate global and European by 13 % by 2060. East German cities and towns
drivers in relation to quality of life and the roles of have already experienced similar or even greater
cities and towns, regions, states and the EU, and population losses, changing life in these areas
considers: dramatically.
• demographic development; Trends like these, in tandem with general ageing

• changing consumption patterns; of the population, decreasing household size and
• urbanisation. migration, are similar across many parts of Europe,
influencing the material conditions and quality of
This section further highlights related life in cities and towns as well as people's needs and
environmental challenges critical to quality of life expectations. However, this section demonstrates
and urban areas, including: that at each policy level, from local to European, it
is possible to influence these demographic trends or
• air pollution; their impacts and take action quickly.
• noise;
• climate change. Nature of changes
Chapter 2 also demonstrates the interlinkages By 2065 almost one third of the EU's population will
with European policy as exemplified by European be older than 65, according to a forecast published
cohesion policy. by Eurostat (2008a). The combination of trends in
fertility, life expectancy and migration will leave the
This selection of drivers, challenges and policies total population size roughly unchanged by 2050,
is clearly far from complete. Cities face many but will transform Europe's population structure.
challenges. The selected examples aim to explore The number of young people in the EU will continue
the effects of the processes listed above on to decline; the population of working age will peak
quality of life, and in particular, on the quality of in 2010 but subsequently decline until 2050. Within
place, with a healthy environment as one of the this overall European picture of general trends there
prime requirements. The key drivers of change is, of course, significant variation at the regional
demonstrate the extremely complex and multiple level (see also Berlin-Institut, 2008).
interlinkages between all levels of governance in
Europe. The proportion of Europeans living in urban
areas is set to increase from the current Figure of
Each section provides a description of the driver around 75 % to around 80 % in 2020 (EEA,
or challenge related to the urban situation and its 2006a; UN, 2008). In the short term, most of the
interlinkage with European, national and regional increase will be due to rural to urban migration,
levels, identifies gaps and barriers for more but increasingly urban areas will experience
efficient policy‑making and describes options for immigration also triggered by the effects of climate
action. change (EC, 2008a). However, cities and towns all

over Europe again demonstrate local variations growth are those with the smallest share of elderly
within this overall pattern. According to the State people. However, in many Mediterranean cities
of European cities report (EC, 2007b), a third of cities population growth has continued in parallel with an
grew between 1996 and 2001, a third witnessed aging population due to retired newcomers: the 'sun
stable populations, and a third experienced a seekers'. Many central and eastern European cities
notable decline in population (Map 2.1). In general, have comparatively few elderly residents and many
large cities have been expanding more quickly children. This may be due to the high birth rates of
than smaller ones. Growth has been greatest in the late 1980s, but it is expected that in the future
peripheral urban areas, while core cities within these cities will also follow the general European
these urban agglomerations have experienced a trends.
decrease in population.
Throughout Europe there is also a trend towards
Population changes at national and local levels smaller households, and therefore more households.
correlate mostly; however, statistics show variations Household size is smallest in northern Europe
between cities (Figure 2.1). These results indicate (1.6 in Stockholm), slightly larger in Central and
that there is opportunity for local policy to influence Eastern Europe and highest in Southern Europe (up
urban population development, at least partially. to 3.4). Developments in cities show that one‑person
households gravitate towards urban centres, while
Urban population mix in most cities families with children are leaving the
urban core and settling in the surrounding suburbs.
Also, at the micro scale of single cities, the
composition of population groups has changed and Migration and immigration affects all cities across
will continue to do so. The State of the European cities Europe (Map 2.2). In general, larger cities have
report (EC, 2007b), based on audits of more than higher immigration rates than smaller cities, which
250 cities, shows that the number of elderly people attract newcomers mainly from surrounding areas.
(65+) rose overall in most European cities with Around three quarters of migration takes place
few exceptions. Cities with the fastest population within national borders. However, the percentage
of non‑nationals is rising, in particular in bigger
cities, especially in Spain, Greece and Northern
Italy. In part this is attributed to wealthy retired
Figure 2.1 Population change in cities migrants from north‑western European countries,
compared with national change who, attracted by nature, culture and mild climate,
between 1991–2004
settle there on a more or less permanent basis, but
it is also due to work‑oriented migrants from poor
Population change in %
30
countries in and outside the EU seeking work in
the tourist industry along the Mediterranean coast
(ESPON, 005b). Migration and mobility are likely
20 to have an even greater role in urban population
change in the coming decades.
10
Drivers of demographic change

0
Demographic development in cities is driven by
many factors that affect economic, cultural, social
– 10 and environmental dimensions of quality of life in
Europe and its regions. Globalisation, rising mobility
– 20 and continuing high population growth in Europe's
immediate neighbourhood, especially in Africa,
combined with poor economic performance and
– 30
political instability may fuel further immigration
a
us
m
k
ia
y
nd
an
ar
(EC, 2007c). The impacts of climate change may

an
iu
an
pr
la
m
u
lg
m
Cy
m
th
Po
en
Be
er
also further reinforce these developments. At the

Ro
Li
D
G
City (larger urban zone)

European level, cohesion policy, economic policy,
social policy, immigration policy and responses to
Country value globalisation influence these demographic trends.
Similarly, at local level, quality of life is determined
Source: Eurostat, Urban Audit Database. by policies relating to socio‑economic development,

Map 2.1 Urban growth and population development 1990–2000
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
Canary Is.
60°
60°
50°
50°
40°
40°
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km 10° 20° 30°
Urban growth and population development 1990–2000
Decrease of population density Increase of population density
Population + < Urban + Population + > Urban + + Increase to below 10 %
Population + < Urban ++ Population ++ > Urban + ++ Increase 10 % and more

Population ++ < Urban ++ Population ++ > Urban ++ Decrease to below 10 %
-
Population - < Urban + No data -- Decrease 10 % and more
Population -- < Urban ++ Outside data coverage
Source: GeoVille GmbH. Produced in the frame of ESPON 2.4.1.

Map 2.2 Urban Audit cities — number and origin of newcomers, 2004
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

Proportion of newcomers
moving into core cities
over the previous two
years, 2004
60°
60°
%
Nationals
Other EU nationals
Non EU nationals
50°
50°
40°
40°
0 500 0° 1000 1500 km

10° 20° 30°
Note: For Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, France, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Poland and Portugal the data are from 2001.
Source: Eurostat, Urban Audit Database.
culture, urban planning and design, and affordable Section 2.2). At the same time, a higher urbanisation
housing, and also by the environment, for example level and relatively high population densities
good air quality, low noise levels and access to green offer the possibility of living more efficiently
space. with respect to energy, water and urban land use
per inhabitant. Cities are also transport‑energy
Quality of life determines whether population efficient, as demonstrated by London's low transport
groups — the young, elderly, families, immigrants, footprint compared to that of other English cities
poor, rich etc. — are attracted by the city and decide (see Section 1.4) and as shown in the graph of energy
to live there; or, if conditions are unfavourable, they consumption in cities (Figure 2.2). People living in
leave. Cities therefore have, through their policies, densely populated areas are more likely to walk,
the potential to influence European and global cycle and use public transport (UITP, 2006). In short,
demographic trends in their locality. population growth in cities will increase cities'
impact on the environment, but a higher proportion
Impacts of growth and decline of people living in relatively dense urban areas
offers potential for increased sustainability.
When the urban population grows, land‑take
increases as does consumption of energy, water, In contrast, shrinking cities face different problems.
material and food. All this is potentially harmful to Economic and social activity is normally decreasing
the environment, and may contribute to or inhibit and there is generally lowering of consumption
sustainable development and quality of life (see and its related pressures on the environment.

Figure 2.2 Energy consumption for passenger transport versus density
Annual energy consumption (at the source) for passenger transport (mégajoules/habitant)
100 000
R² = 0,64
90 000
80 000
70 000
60 000
50 000
40 000
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Inhabitants and jobs per ha
Source: Mobility in Cities Database, © UITP, 2006.
However, whilst there is no significant reduction Smaller households

in urban land use, urban sprawl continues, leading
to a reduced efficiency in terms of urban land use, The number of smaller household European cities
transport, energy and water use per inhabitant. is increasing. Smaller households tend to consume
Declining populations lead to decreasing use of the more resources per head than larger ones, as
existing infrastructure, which then has overcapacity. demonstrated by the example from the Netherlands
Underuse of water and sewage systems and the (Figure 2.3). However, in regions of declining
extended storage of water and sewage in the pipe population, the number of households may remain
systems can causes hygiene problems. Additional unchanged. If specific measures to restore areas
flushing necessary to maintain the infrastructure to open space are not put into place, there is no
results in higher water and energy use per capita. As consequent reduction in urban land and living
another example, vacant flats in apartment buildings space.
lead to higher energy consumption — up to 31 %
more than for a fully occupied building (UBA, 2007). Households with fewer members also tend to use
Shrinking cities and towns can no longer effectively more energy and water per person. For example,
provide services like schools, hospitals and in the United Kingdom the water consumption per
shopping. Also, public transport becomes inefficient, capita is 40 % greater in single households compared
resulting in more use of cars, which in means that to that in two‑person households and 73 % greater
social groups are excluded from services as well as than in four‑person households (POST, 2000). Also,
employment. although the number of persons per household is
declining, the average living space in new dwellings
Population changes and consumption is tending to increase across Europe (Figure 2.4).
Different population groups — old and young, Older people

poor and rich, native and immigrant — have
individual lifestyles, and different ideas, perceptions The consumer behaviour of older people is not
and expectations of quality of life. All influence the same as that of other younger groups as they
urbanisation and consumption patterns (see also generally have different needs and different
Sections 2.2 and 2.3). financial and physical capacities. For example, some

Figure 2.3 The Netherlands — expenditure Immigration and migration

per head according to household
size, 2000 Movement of groups with other national or
non‑European backgrounds contributes to new
Expenditure per person in EUR consumption styles by introducing aspects of the
16 000 migrants' own cultures to their new community.
Social and cultural factors largely determine lifestyle
14 000 and individual behaviour. Immigrants have different
cooking habits and buy different foods; they may
12 000 have different household sizes and demands on
living space. They also spend their leisure time in
10 000 different ways, for example they may be less likely
to travel abroad but more likely to meet frequently
8 000 with family and friends, and have special needs
for public open space. Meat consumption in India,
6 000 for example, is far below the levels of western
Europe and pig meat is not eaten at all in Turkey
4 000 (Table 2.1) — behaviours that immigrants bring to
Europe. In southern Europe the average household
2 000 size is larger than in northern Europe due to
people's socio‑cultural background. Although this is
0
1 2 3 beginning to change, for example Portugal, Slovenia
Household size (number of persons) and Spain have recently experienced the largest
Food Leisure
decreases in household size (EC, 2007b).
Housing Transport
Clothing Other
Hygenie and health
Source: CBS, 2004. Figure 2.4 Rising average size of newly

completed dwellings
Average size of newly completed dwellings (m2)

older people buy second homes and move over long 160.0
periods to mountain or coastal areas, which are
particularly vulnerable in terms of environmental 140.0
pressures. According to a study in the United
Kingdom (UK Office for National Statistics, 2007), 120.0
the proportion of household expenditure on food,
drink and transport rises with age. In France people 100.0
over 65 spend 19 % of their income on these items
compared to the national average of 15 %. 80.0
However, it is anticipated that the next generation 60.0

of elderly people will follow a different pattern
of consumption. The baby boomers of the 1980s 40.0
will probably continue to drive cars when retired.
Eurostat statistics show, that older people on 20.0
holiday make on average the most and longest
trips (Eurostat, 2008b). Nevertheless, a sizeable 0.0
1995 2000 2003 2004
proportion of the older population will have some
type of disability, and will benefit from alternative Bulgaria Finland Lithuania
transport modes that meet their individual needs Cyprus Germany Romania
supported by intelligent land‑use planning to Czech Republic Hungary Slovakia
provide the necessary services and facilities for Denmark Latvia Spain
elderly people in their neighbourhoods (OECD,
2001). Source: UNECE, 2006.

Table 2.1 Consumption of selected foods in these challenges. Recommendations are based on
2003 assessment of the impacts on the labour market,
productivity and demographic growth, as well
Western Turkey India as on social security and public finances. The
Europe assessment and related policy are oriented towards
Meat in
90.86 20.57 5.23
the stabilisation of the socio‑economic situation
kg/capita/2003 in Europe but do not consider the environmental
Pig meat in
43.95 0.00 0.46
aspects of demographic change.
kg/capita/2003
Milk products in
256.50 122.25 67.99 Cities are also beginning to develop strategies to
kg/capita/2003
respond to current and future demographic changes.
Different measures aim to attract certain population
Source: FAOSTAT, 2003. Statistical database of the UN Food
and Agriculture Organization http://faostat.fao.org/. groups by providing financial benefits, for example
affordable flats or tax reductions for skilled
workers from abroad, and the provision of services
Changing demographics or appropriate urban design, including green
open space or playing grounds. Eastern Europe,
Many more groups based on gender, families versus in particular East Germany, having experienced
single or childless couples, rich and poor households, massive population losses, has gained much
highly educated etc. can be identified and show experience in dealing with these situations and other
different consumption behaviours at the micro scale. cities can learn from this (Box 2.1).
Consumption patterns change as demography shifts,
but also overlap and are further mixed by European Policy gaps
and global trends as well as general trends in lifestyle
and individual choice. As cities show different More and more consideration is being given to
responses to the general demographic trends, they demographic change in European, national and
also consume in different ways, and have different local policy‑making. As local trends can differ
impacts on the local environment and quality of life. significantly from general regional or European
trends, European policy to influence demographic
Policy for demographic change change will sometimes not meet local needs and,
rarely, may be counterproductive.
Cities and towns in Europe can avoid the negative
environmental impacts of demographic change, and Environmental policy hardly ever deals with
reinforce the positive effects, by: the negative effects of changing demography
and consumption. Typically, it focuses on single
• influencing the demographic changes in a environmental issues and is seldom connected
positive direction; to policies influencing demographic change.
• adapting to inevitable changes. Discussions on the consumption patterns of different
social groups and their environmental impacts have
The European Commission's Communication The only just begun, mainly at the level of research.
demographic future of Europe — from challenge to
opportunity (EC, 2006a) identified five key policy areas Overcoming barriers to action
where constructive responses to the demographic
challenges could be developed: Demographic changes and their impacts are not
only driven by European and global trends. Europe
• promoting demographic renewal; and its cities and towns can aim to influence
• promoting employment in terms of more jobs and demographic changes in positive directions and
longer working lives of higher quality; facilitate adaptation to inevitable changes.
• promoting a more productive and competitive
Europe; At the same time, it is clear that not all demographic
• receiving immigrants; developments can be driven in the desired
• sustaining public finances to guarantee directions. The situation is complex as it is not
adequate social security and equity between the always possible to determine whether specific
generations. demographic developments are favourable
or not. However, from a local perspective,
The European Union therefore supports the Member environmentalists need to link their work with
States as part of a long‑term Strategy to address other policy areas to actively drive demographic

Box 2.1 East German Bund–Länder-Programme — urban conversion
Initial situation
After German reunification in 1990, many regions in East Germany experienced a massive population
loss. This overlaps with the general aging process and population loss in Germany as a whole. The supply
of flats in such areas is much higher than the demand and has resulted in high vacancies especially in big
apartment building blocks. This situation has the potential to lead to deprived neighbourhoods.
Solution
The German government and the German Länder have initiated the Stadtumbau Ost (Urban Conversion
East) programme, which aims to improve the attractiveness of the East-German cities and towns. It aims
to support the renewal of the town centres, the reduction of the oversupply of flats, and the revaluation
of cities which are affected by shrinking processes. The demolition of 350 000 of the 1 million flats that
remained unoccupied until 2009 is planned in municipalities where there is an above average vacancy
rate and which have a revitalization concept. At the same time, the municipalities will take actions for
renewal, such as the revaluation of existing buildings and quarters with particular cultural and historical
value, the adaptation of the urban infrastructure, the reuse of areas of open land, and the improvement
of neighbourhood quality.
An amount of EUR 2.5 billion was available for the years 2002–2009. So far 342 municipalities took part
in the programme between 2002 and 2005.
Results
Example Dresden Gorbitz:
Development of a quarter with large apartment blocks to a quarter with more differentiated and
attractive structures.
Before After
Photo: © Archive photos of Eisenbahner Photo: © Archive photos of Eisenbahner

Wohnungsbaugenossenschaft Dresden e.G. Wohnungsbaugenossenschaft Dresden e.G.
Example: Aschersleben — contraction of the

settlement
Ascherleben's strategy is to downsize the town
after a decrease in population of 19 % between
1990 and 2000. The town renovated central
areas and increased their attractiveness while
demolishing large areas of unattractive peripheral
multi‑storey apartment areas dating from
East‑German times. Although demolition is costly
it will save money in the long run by the removal
of underused infrastructure and the improvement
of the town's general appearance and image.
Furthermore, the town relocated schools and other Photo: © Stadt Aschersleben
administrative offices back into the centre.
Source: http://www.stadtumbau-ost.info/. http://www.aschersleben.de/index.asp?MenuID=27.

development in the desired direction to ensure stabilisation; policy must also allow for population
quality of life not only in economic terms. In all decline in some regions and manage these
other cases, European and national governments, declines to secure the most positive outcomes. The
as well as the cities, must monitor demographic inclusion of environmental impacts in demographic
developments. These procedures will permit timely assessments at the European level, like the biannual
adaptation to changing needs and the opportunity assessment of Europe's demographic future
to develop accompanying measures, which aim to (EC 2007c), would help with this.
reduce environmental pressures and ensure quality
of life. More Europe‑wide research is needed to identify
the trends in consumption patterns of the various
Cities and towns demographic groups across Europe, and to
identify the potentials within each group to reduce
Urban areas can provide favourable environments environmental pressures. Guidance should be
and enhanced quality of life for certain population provided to cities and towns to develop sustainable
groups, for example by providing high quality consumption patterns by considering and adapting
child care and creating safe and child friendly to demographic changes.
environments for young families. In general, the
greater the diversity of social groups within urban
society, the greater the potential for the realisation 2.2 Consumption and urban lifestyles
of the long‑tem sustainable development of the city.
To attain these objectives, municipalities need to Consuming food, buying clothes, having a warm
analyse local demographic development and the and dry shelter are indispensable for our lives.
needs of different population groups, so that they A higher income enables us to buy more food and
can determine the best strategies for sustainable clothes, bigger apartments and many other goods
development. and services; meaning not one only television for
the family but others for the children, the bedroom
Shrinking cities can create greener and safer or the kitchen. These new goods and services can
single‑housing areas to encourage population provide us with more choices and a means to enjoy
retention. By preventing urban sprawl, such cities our lives more fully. In the search for a higher
can create urban quality and compactness, and so quality of life we push the limits further and further.
become more transport and energy efficient (see We can travel further to enjoy remote and new
example in Box 2.1). At the same time it is necessary places, yet even the Antarctic is no longer remote. In
to adapt the technical infrastructure and services to doing so we consume more, highly processed food,
population decline. and travel everywhere by car, resulting in alarming
rates of obesity and serious health problems. So is
Growing cities and metropolitan areas will similarly consumption really providing us with a new and
need to investigate the needs and interests of their better quality of life?
new population groups, and develop strategies
to manage growth in a sustainable way, based This section demonstrates the importance of
on an integrated approach to local sustainable consumption in urban lifestyles as a socio‑economic
development (see also Chapter 3). driver that significantly influences the possibilities
for a more sustainable quality of life in cities, and
Policies on a wider scale the ways in which inappropriate consumption
can undermine quality of life. Action at the
European and national policies to influence individual level to secure more sustainable forms
demographic change require more differentiation of consumption is critical in providing decisive
and effective connection with regional and local contributions to collective efforts. If governments
policies. offer citizens the opportunity to live sustainably, the
possibilities for the realisation of improved quality
European policy needs to integrate the of life are enhanced.
environmental impacts of demographic change
within its policy frameworks. These impacts differ Consumption provides quality of life
widely at the regional and local levels, and so a
much more differentiated policy is required to Consumption is the use of goods and services to
cope with the variety of demographic changes and fulfil our basic needs and demands. As such it is
their impacts on the environment. For example, crucial for quality of life. People consume energy,
the focus cannot only be on population growth or resources, food, water, and land for nutrition,

housing, mobility, recreation, communication, Many factors drive consumption patterns in

education and entertainment. In addition to private Europe. A major factor is the availability of
consumption, public and business consumption income and budgets that determine to a large
have an equally important role. A high level of extent the availability and affordability of goods,
material consumption is generally seen as an infrastructures, services and technologies. Most
indicator of advanced development and well‑being, people tend to follow general societal trends.
therefore the conventional economic development Moreover, business, in order to maximise profit,
model builds upon rising consumption. creates new markets and stimulates demand beyond
basic needs.
European consumption is rising as measured in
terms of the expenditure of households (Figure 2.5) Trends across Europe
and public entities on goods and services.
Lifestyles and related consumption are also
influenced by culture and history as well as
Figure 2.5 Changing household consumption individual values and preferences. The growth of the
patterns in EU‑10 and EU‑15 wealthy middle class throughout Europe contributes
to changing values and the associated consumption
Household consumption expenditure PPP
(constant 2 000 USD International) patterns, also called 'hyper‑consumption'
16 000 (Lipovetsky, 2006) and 'age of access' (Rifkin, 2000).
Consumption has shifted from the simple purchase
of particular products to the purchase of integrated
14 000
packages that provide access to specific experience.
For example, people charge products such as cars
with symbolic and social meanings, primarily
related to social status, making the statement —
12 000
'I am rich'. Today's consumers are also paying for
access to the meaning beyond the product and thus
buy an entire lifestyle and identity associated with
10 000 a particular product. They choose houses, holidays
and cars to make a statement — 'I am dynamic',
'I am smart' etc. These cultural trends are reinforced
8 000 by business strategies, and often result in increasing
material consumption.
6 000 Policy influences trends
Beyond these general trends, and because of

4 000
different social patterns, cultural and governance
traditions as well as the economic situation, the
way we consume and the related impacts differ
substantially across Europe, its regions, cities and
2 000
towns (Box 2.2). So, for example, even cities of
similar size and wealth show substantial differences
in transport choices — from 58 % of the population
0 using public transport in Prague to fewer than 25 %
1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005
in Naples and in Rome, or from 29 % using the
EU-10 EU-15 bicycle in Copenhagen to fewer than 5 % in most
Alcohol, tobacco, narcotics
other cities (Ambiente Italia, 2007). Furthermore,
Transport and communication
demographic characteristics influence consumption
Housing, water, electricity, gas Furniture and equipment both now and in the future (see Section 2.1).
Recreation, culture, Clothing and footwear European, national and local policies can actively
restaurants and hotels
influence these drivers, for example the availability
Health and education Food and non-alcoholic
beverages
of products and services or prices, or increasing
Other goods and services
consumers' awareness of the (hidden) environmental
and social costs of products. However, other policies
Source: EEA, 2007b. can also have indirect and unintended effects on

Box 2.2 Differential consumption patterns in urban Europe
Map 2.3 Average floor space per Figure 2.6 Car registration rates and
resident in core cities, 2004 travel to work by car
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

m2 per person Number of registered cars per 1 000 inhabitants, 2004
< 20
1 000
60° 20–30
60°
30–40 800
> 40
600
50°
400
50°
200
0 %
0 50 100
40°
40°
Journeys to work by car as percentage

0 500 1000 1500 km 10°
of all journeys to work
0° 20° 30°
EU-15 New Member States

Note: For Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia,
Estonia, France, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Norway Note: For Austria, Czech Republic, France, Italy, Slovenia
and Switzerland the data are from 2001. and Switzerland, the data are from 2001.
Source: Eurostat, Urban Audit Database. Source: Eurostat, Urban Audit Database.
Figure 2.7 Public transport passengers
Public transport passengers (passenger/inhabitant)

800 Metropolitan Big cities Medium-size cities Small cities
700 areas
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
s
Ro e
N *
M els
ra p
F on
rc ce
M n
us d
ga
re o
G nn n
tw *
Br a
H Aar l
de hus
m *
Tu e
Aa ku
Le org
ia
Vi e
nb r
na
H urg
to
le
Pr a
u
he e
ila
r
m
z
D sl
Za er
Br dri
rli
de
An nki
Ta erg
os
on
ol
pe
ot ov
ag
Ba ran
go
ap
ic
Ri
r
de nd
St Ly
is
en
O
Be
M
lb
s
kh
a
un
fk
si
el
lb
Ile r Lo
el
oc
a
H
ei
e
at
re
G
Note: * Figure refers to a public transport network that serves twice the amount of the city's population.
Figure 2.8 Per capita urban waste production

Urban waste production per capita (kg/inhabitant/year)
800 Big cities Medium-size cities Small cities
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
us n
Vi on
Co n a
Br a
H olm
H ur i
de es
Aa rg
Tu s
Pa u
Le tra
Aa sia
g
r
na
ra n
h
nh rg
Ly e
an l o
M n
M a
Lo n
en
oc rp
D k
Ro s
rid
rc ris
l
re e
ls
ve
u
he Rig
or
o
rk
An to
Za age
ic
on
rli
er ila
n
le
D m
e
H Os
r
go
rh
pe bu
se
nd
St twe
en
o
ag
sd
si
un
no
Ba Pa
lb
lb
is
ad
ap
Be
kh
fk
el
el
Pr
M
N
Br
ei
ot
at
G
re
G
Separated Residual

consumption patterns. For example, European pressures such as greenhouse gas emission, material
cohesion policy will contribute to higher incomes use, ground‑level ozone‑forming emissions and
in the new member states in the longer run, and so acidifying substance emissions arise from the
alter consumption patterns there. Similarly, if local consumption of food and drink, housing and
communities focus only on new or upgraded roads mobility (EEA, 2009a). Although Europeans
while neglecting public transport needs, people are consume differently in the various regions, the
indirectly encouraged to use the car. overall consumption patterns and the associated
use of resources and generation of emissions are not
Paradox of affluence? sustainable (Box 2.3). Furthermore, consumers in
other parts of the world are increasingly adopting
There is no question that the production of goods European lifestyles. Figure 2.5 shows that levels of
and services and their consumption provide essential consumption are not only generally rising in the
elements of quality of life. The problem is the fact that EU, but also that the consumption patterns in the
consumption can equally have negative impacts on new member countries are approaching those in old
other facets of quality of life, for example: Member States, reflecting a change in lifestyle and a
general increase in disposable income (EEA, 2007b).
• social impact, for example by excluding low
income households from certain goods or Impacts on urban environment
services;
• environmental impact due high usage use of Apart from overall consumption patterns, the
resources such as land, energy, water, materials way city dwellers prefer to live, enabled by the
(including food) and the generation of waste organisation and design of their city, influences the
and emissions such as air pollutants, noise and urban environment in many ways; for example,
greenhouse gases. different urban transport systems and methods in
place for the delivery of goods can have different
As a consequence, there will be health problems, impacts with respect to urban air quality and noise
economic losses and social inequity. As an example, emissions (see also Section 2.4 Air pollution and
energy use contributes in several ways to a higher noise, Box 2.13). Transport‑related problems will be
quality of life in cities. It illuminates and heats our generally greater in cities with a high proportion of
homes, shops, public buildings and streets and individual motorised transport, compared to cities
enables the supply of public services. On the other with good public transport and high levels of walking
hand, energy generation based on fossil fuels causes and cycling. The scale of the problems also depends,
considerable environmental pressures in the form of course, on the car fleet and city design. Cities with
of emissions of greenhouse gases and acidifying well‑organised systems for separate collection of
substances. waste have lower impacts on the environment than
those relying mainly on landfill. Compact cities,
Of the consumption categories illustrated in where most people live in multi‑storey buildings,
Figure 2.5, around two thirds of environmental take up less land per inhabitant than cities where
Box 2.3 European consumption patterns
• Around 15 tonnes/capita of materials (fossil fuels, biomass, metal ores, minerals) are used each year
to produce the goods and services (including energy) that we consume in Europe, and this amount is
expected to grow by around one quarter by the year 2020.
• At the same time, the amount of municipal waste in the EU is also expected to grow by around one
quarter. Even with better recycling and less landfilling, the overall growth in waste amounts still poses
a major challenge.
• The constant growth of consumption volume often outweighs environmental efficiency gains, e.g. the
total fuel consumption by private cars in EU‑15 has grown by 20 % between 1990 and 2004 in spite of
fuel efficiency improvements of more than 10 % per car, due to the increase of kilometres travelled.
Source: Eurostat/IFF, 2007; EEA, 2007b.

single houses prevail. This conserves land for Energy Services, and the European Strategy for the
agriculture, forestry, nature and biodiversity, and prevention and recycling of waste, all of which can
housing and transport are more energy efficient (see have considerable influence at the local level.
also Section 2.3).
Urban policy makes a difference
Global dimensions of consumption
Some cities already actively aim to secure more
Europe's citizens use many resources from locations sustainable consumption patterns based on the
far away from the city, and produce waste and application of a variety of policy instruments,
emit pollutants and greenhouse gases that have including Local Agenda 21 processes initiated in more
impacts far outside the municipality, often in other than 5 000 European municipalities (ICLEI, 2002).
parts of the world. For instance, urban traffic is
responsible for 40 % of greenhouse gas emissions Some cities implement 'demand‑side management
and 70 % of pollutants of European road transport schemes', with actions focused on providing choices
(EC, 2007d). It is obvious that the geographical area for more sustainable consumption, and stimulating
of a city cannot deliver the necessary resources and behavioural changes. Such measures include more
services. However, depending on the local level of pedestrian areas, bicycle lanes, car‑ and bike‑sharing
consumption, the ecological footprint (4) varies widely schemes, public transport integrated fares, parking
between cities and countries all over the world, in and congestion charges. Other cities actively support
particular between the developed and the developing the uptake of renewable energies and promote
world. In 2005 7.5 % of the world's population lived energy efficiency, directly involving individual
in the EU‑27 — mostly in cities — but generated 13 % consumers (Box 2.4). Separate waste collection and
of the world's ecological footprint (WWF, 2008). green public procurement schemes also aim to make
citizens as well as local government officials aware
Consumption in European cities is high; 69 % of all of sustainable products and lifestyles. However,
energy consumed is used in cities. However, the all these existing solutions require widespread
average urban dweller consumes only 3.5 million implementation. To date they have only been applied
tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in relation to by a few pioneering local authorities.
the 4.9 Mtoe consumed by a rural dweller (IEA,
2008). Exploiting this potential is key to more Barriers to effective policy‑making
sustainable development. Finally, the extent to which
consumption contributes to or threatens quality In general these approaches are only the first step
of life depends on choices taken and the level of towards the reduction of the impact of Europe's high
consumption. More sustainable consumption ensures and unsustainable consumption. Our current model
quality of life now and for future generations and of economy and social welfare still builds to a large
reduces social inequalities. extent on rising consumption and GDP growth.
Success in realising more sustainable consumption
Europe sets the frame will be limited as long as this paradigm remains
unchanged. An alternative model of smart growth
In July 2008, the European Commission published can ensure a socially balanced quality of life in the
an action plan on sustainable consumption and longer term, based on the integration of policy fields
production, and sustainable industrial policies. This including those relating to economy, social and
action plan includes proposals to make products and demographic issues.
services more sustainable, for example by extending
the Directive on the eco‑design of energy‑using Distorted prices and limited or ineffectual choices
products to more product categories, reviewing the produce the wrong incentives. For example, in the
Eco‑labelling Directive and the Energy Labelling case of land take for housing, many stakeholders —
Directive, as well as establishing a harmonised basis local government, land owners, regional planning
for green public procurement. authorities, land developers, banks, households,
and infrastructure providers — all take their own
Other EU policies seek to influence consumption; for individual and too often unconnected decisions (see
example, the Directive on the energy performance also example in Box 2.11). All these single decisions
of buildings, the Directive on Energy Efficiency and make full economic sense from the individual
(4) 'The ecological footprint measures humanity's demand on the biosphere in terms of the area of biologically productive land and sea
required to provide the resources we use and to absorb the waste.' (WWF, 2008).

Box 2.4 Nyíregyháza (Hungary) — improving housing energy efficiency
Initial situation
Nyíregyháza is situated in the north east of Hungary. It is the 7th largest town in the country with
120 000 inhabitants. Almost one-third of the cities' housing stock was built using concrete panels in the
1960s and 1970. The energy consumption within these buildings is extremely high: they suffer from very
poor insulation, with numerous thermal bridges, poor air-tightness and severe water infiltration. The
depreciation of this building stock can also lead to severe social problems and to the creation of urban
slums.
Solution
There are 44 000 households in Nyíregyháza, half of them in blocks of flats, of which 12 644 are
connected to a district heating system. The city decided to modernize its district heating system and
housing stock. In 1997 the first programme 'Opening', started to upgrade the thermal distribution circuits
for more than 12 800 flats. In 2001 the 'Panel programme' involved retrofitting panel blocks. Most of
the flats involved in the programme were privately owned, which presented a challenge in securing
agreement to retrofit.
Results
The Panel Project has resulted in energy savings of 26.8 TJ/year. An evaluation of the retrofitting
measures has shown that an overall energy saving of 68 % can be achieved. The projects were the most
cost-effective measure possible.
Source: http://www.display-campaign.org/rubrique682.html.
perspective, but without coordination the result is perceived by households (Figure 2.9). In addition,
typically urban sprawl with low population densities the maintenance of infrastructure used below its
creating massive follow‑up costs for society — an capacity leads to higher costs per user. These costs
outcome nobody would have chosen. must be met directly by all citizens in the form of
higher charges or else the municipality has to pay.
Fragmentation of responsibilities as well as extreme As a result, all society has to pay for the greater
decentralisation expressed in inappropriate environmental costs. Overall, this leads to an
institutional structures provide a further barrier. unsustainable situation, economically, socially and
For example, energy‑efficiency actions often occupy environmentally (UBA, 2009).
only a marginal place in Member States' Operational
Programmes for the EU Structural Funds. One reason Lifestyles are a domain of individual action highly
is that energy authorities are often responsible for influenced by policies measures. Thus, in spite of
energy supply and energy efficiency at the same general public awareness of major environmental
time. This can lead to business conflicts and typically problems like climate change, only a minority of
the authorities focus on energy supply rather than Europeans take individual action for ecological
managing demand. Energy efficiency is often reasons (Eurobarometer, 2008). People expect change
perceived as being more complicated to implement from the 'others' before changing themselves. This
than measures for energy supply; thus hindering or situation can persist if there is no action at the
delaying such measures. collective level. Often, policy intervention contributes
to unblock the situation, for example the use of
People's perception can add further challenges. bicycles after the implementation of cycling lanes and
For example, by living in low density suburban the city bike system VELIB in Paris, or waste sorting
areas, where housing and land is cheaper, in France adopted by more than 70 % of households
individual households can save a lot of money. after municipal equipment became available.
On the other hand, they need to invest more in
transport to reach work places, schools or other Overcoming barriers to action
services. These additional personal costs, apart
from costs for reduced biodiversity and ecosystems Consumption patterns will continue to have adverse
services, typically fully neutralise the savings impacts on the environment and social equity,
over a longer period; yet, this fact is often not unless the society moves to lifestyles that use fewer

resources and build upon ecosystem principles role of the local level to transform the European
that emphasise, for example, the greater share of situation is often underestimated. Local authorities
renewable resources. are indeed those responsible for renovating and
developing new districts, managing land‑use,
It is the responsibility of policy at all levels planning and organising mobility, and thereby
to set the framework that provides the basic substantially influencing the ecological footprint of
conditions for sustainable consumption. Only cities. Box 2.5 on energy‑efficiency policies shows
then will individual citizens be able to choose an example of how government action at multiple
more sustainable lifestyles and meet their personal levels can be integrated in order to achieve success
responsibilities. Equally, if cities and towns can — in this example, to achieve the objective of
provide high quality environments, which fulfil greenhouse gas reductions and thereby mitigate
the needs of citizens for safe areas, green and other dangerous climate changes.
public spaces, as well as for short distances to
facilities and services, then city centres can become Fundamentally, there is a need for broad
sufficiently attractive to counter urban sprawl. participation by all relevant stakeholders,
In this way, cities can also reduce their energy including citizens and NGOs in order to manage
and transport use and help protect areas outside the inevitable conflicts between the interests of
the city for agriculture, recreation or wildlife individuals and groups, and to meet societal needs
without degrading the quality of life. The role of for quality of life for all, now and in the long term.
governments is to provide the right framework
conditions, incentives, and facilitate the debate Foundations of choice
amongst different interest groups at the relevant
levels. Policy, based on coordinated initiatives at every
level, needs to provide the right infrastructures
Integrated multilevel policy‑making to enable consumers to choose more sustainable
lifestyles expressed in the consumption of
Every governance level, from local to European, sustainable goods and services, for example use
needs to take responsibility and cooperate in order of energy‑efficient appliances, consumption of
to develop horizontally integrated and multilevel sustainably produced food, use of public transport
approaches supported by appropriate management systems, recycling of waste, etc. (see examples of
structures and appropriate governance. The crucial urban action in Box 2.6).
Figure 2.9 Greater Hamburg (Germany) — modelled costs for transport and housing in
residential areas
Definition of seven location Kaltenkirchen Sum of housing and transport costs in EUR per year
classes in Greater Hamburg 25 000
(Germany)
Elmshorn
Class 1
20 000
Class 2 Stade
Hamburg
Class 3 15 000
Büchen
Class 4
10 000
Class 5
Tostedt
Class 6 Lüneburg 5 000
Class 7 100 km
0
Leibniz-Institut für ökologische
1
7
s
Raumentwicklung e.V., Dresden (IÖR)

as
as
as
as
as
as
as
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
All housing costs All transport costs
Source: UBA, 2009.

Box 2.5 Interaction of different policy levels — energy efficiency in buildings
The EU needs action at the local level to increase energy efficiency to mitigate climate change and to
ensure energy safety. These include, low energy buildings, efficient heating systems, efficient urban design
and transport. The municipalities need a supportive legislative framework and appropriate revenues from
EU, national and regional levels in order to carry out these kinds of action. For instance, only the proper
participation of the local level in the elaboration and implementation of the Operational Programmes of
the EU Structural Funds will ensure the selection of the best local energy efficiency projects and sufficient
financial means for the municipalities to implement such projects for the benefit of all.
EU level
• EU targets on climate change/energy

• Providing a regulatory framework, e.g. energy performance standards for buildings, labels for
energy-efficiency of products
• Providing guidelines
• Providing Structural Funds
National/regional level
• National climate-protection programmes, targets to reduce greenhouse

gases and increase energy efficiency
• Legislative framework for energy efficiency and buildings
• Energy taxes and price-support measures for energy efficiency
• Including energy-efficiency projects into the Operational Programmes of the Structural Funds
Local level
• Local targets to reduce greenhouse gases and energy consumption

like the Covenant of the Mayors initiative
• Enhance energy efficiency of public buildings
• Support energy-efficiency projects by using tax revenues, Structural and other funds
• Limit urban sprawl by effective urban and spatial planning
Source: EEA, 2009.
Securing the 'right' prices strategy for the internalisation of external transport
costs and is thus a step in the right direction. Cities
The inclusion of all environmental and social can, for instance, introduce congestion or parking
costs will ensure that consumers are encouraged charges (see also Box 2.5).
to choose products and services with low
environmental and social impacts. Many products Cultures of change
sourced from remote locations may not be
cheaper than local products if, for example, the Just as the car industry succeeded in associating
environmental costs of transport or adequate certain cars with feelings of freedom, high status and
labour rates in the developing countries were fully desirable lifestyles, governments can, in addition
reflected in the price. At the EU level, the Greening to providing choices, support the development of
Transport Package (COM(2008)435) includes a a culture of sustainable choices and smart growth,

Box 2.6 Promoting cycling, walking and developing new city cultures
Copenhagen (Denmark)
Initial situation
For Copenhageners it has long been a tradition to cycle to work every day. However, in the 1960s cars started
to take over more and more space in the city.
Solution
From that time the city administration dedicated more and more streets and places to pedestrians and greatly
extended and upgraded the cycling infrastructure. In parallel they put a high price on parking in the city and
were among the first to provide city bikes free of charge — a model copied in more and more cities across
Europe. People can take their bike by public transport as well as in taxis. Many areas in the centre, like the
waterfront, benefited from an attractive people-friendly urban design.
Results
All measures together supported the development
of a new culture in the city — Copenhageners
and their guests like to cycle, walk and meet in
outdoor cafés, which was not a Scandinavian
culture. Copenhagen is probably the city with
the highest share of cycling to work (36 %)
and walking is the dominant transport in the
centre during most days. Many rankings indicate
Copenhagen as one of the best cities in the world to
live. The new culture strongly encourages politicians
to continue this pattern of development. The boost to
cycling after the introduction of free and fashionable
city bikes in cities like Paris, Barcelona or Luxembourg
shows the potential of cultural measures to change
behaviour.
Photo: © Jens Rørbech Photo: © Jan Gehl and
Lasse Gemzøe
More information: www.kobenhavn.dk.
Skopje (Macedonia)
Initial situation
Rising car ownership became a big challenge after the fall of the iron curtain in all the eastern and
south‑eastern European countries. A car became a status symbol for many who consider cycling as outdated
or only for people who cannot afford a car. Measures to limit car traffic and promote walking and cycling are
therefore not easy to implement.
Solution
Nevertheless, Skopje is making an effort to change the trend with its transport plan. It is promoting
alternative modes with an accent on bicycle riding. The city will focus on:
• improving bicycle paths;

• increasing public awareness with the Car Free Day and other campaigns;
• promoting educational events in primary and secondary school.
Since 1999, the city has participated in the annual 'Spreading Bike Riding Culture' event from March to
September. So far, however, the development of infrastructure is lagging behind.
Results
Although the bicycle master plan was developed in 2003 and promotional activities and campaigns found a
broad interest, the situation is still unsatisfactory: cars park on pedestrian lanes and the few bicycle lanes;
the construction of cycling infrastructure is often not appropriate and is aggravated by financial problems,
insufficient coordination and a changing traffic culture towards cars. As a result there is only a small increase
in the number of cyclists.
This example well illustrates the need to follow a broad integrated approach and to develop the culture and
supporting infrastructure in parallel. This task has proved to be difficult, in particular in cities where cycling is
perceived as outdated or as something limited to activists or sportsmen, so it is hard to win support for the
infrastructure. However, Skopje keeps working to solve the problems; for instance, it started to implement
two pilot cycle lanes in 2008.
More information: www.skopje.gov.mk.

where quality of life is no longer defined by high of globalisation, demographic transformations and
material consumption (Box 2.6). As people expect climate change, and the impacts of many other
change from the 'others' before changing themselves, 21st‑century challenges.
government initiatives to encourage a change to
sustainable lifestyles can have positive effects if they This section discusses the main drivers of the
create the impetus and desire for change. urbanisation process, its various manifestations,
and its effects on environment and liveability in
cities. The discussion proceeds to focus on the
2.3 Urbanisation various elements of urban governance, at different
policy levels, and their impacts on the development
Europe's many cities and towns, the products of a of cities. The section aims to provide ideas and
long history of urbanism and trade, are top travel gives specific examples of the options available to
destinations for tourism throughout the world and minimise the negative impacts of urban living on the
from Europe itself. Historical charm and richness, fundamentals of quality of life.
urbanity, and a diverse culture provide major
tourist attractions as well as an inspiration for city A Europe of cities and towns
planners worldwide seeking to define the compact
city with human scale. However, for the vast Although, urbanisation estimates are plagued by the
majority of the urban population of Europe this diversity of statistical definitions of cities and urban
picture of Europe's cities is very far from the reality areas (Bretagnolle et al., 2002), it still draws attention
they experience today. Urban areas are expanding to the fact that the vast majority of Europeans
more and more across Europe, increasing at a — around 75 % — live in urban environments.
much faster rate than the growth of population. A more comparable indicator of urbanisation in
More and more city dwellers are moving outwards Europe is the Functional Urban Area developed
from the city centres into low density urban in the 2005 ESPON study (ESPON, 2005a). About
areas or the countryside but continuing to live an 1 600 settlements in Europe are considered
urban lifestyle facilitated by car‑based mobility. functional urban areas, with over 50 000 inhabitants
Questions are clearly raised as to the future of (Figure 2.10), the 75 largest and most important ones
Europe's cities and towns, and the quality of life are identified as Metropolitan European Growth
that they can provide given the ever‑present forces Areas.
Figure 2.10 Number of cities greater than 50 000 inhabitants by country
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
v nd
ria
er sn um
Cy ia
en s
Es rk
ce
un e
ry
ia
he ta
Po s
nd
al
ia
ia
ia
Sw n
en
m
Bu ina
nd
an
al
ec
ni
ni
an
an
ai
ar
tv
ug
an
ak
en
do
al
a
ga
an
pr
go a
ed
la
st
It
to
ua
Sp
H Bo lgi
re
rla
m
nl
el
La
M
lg
ov
ov
m
rt
ze ia
ng
Au
Fr
Ir
G
th
Fi
Be
er
Po
Ro
Sl
Sl
Ki
H
Li
D
et
d
N
te
ni
U
> 500 000 100 000–500 000 50 000–100 000
Note: Cities within each country have been differentiated according to the number of inhabitants.
Source: EEA/ETC LUSI Corine Land Cover, 2000.

Differing patterns of urbanisation exurbia, peri‑metropolitan areas and extended

metropolitan regions (Champion & Hugo, 2004), all
Urban land use has expanded nearly everywhere in of which raise fundamental questions regarding the
Europe, even in areas with a declining population. real nature and real limits of the city.
Between 1990 and 2000, urban land expanded by
three times the size of Luxembourg. This means an Box 2.7 shows these different urbanisation patterns
average 5.5 % increase in built‑up areas, but this across Europe. Some regions are experiencing
rate varies regionally between 0.7 % and up to 40 % compact forms of urbanisation, often accompanied
This expansion is not expected to halt in the near by rapid population growth, but urbanisation
future because it is rooted in profound long‑term patterns are mainly characterised by rapid urban
socio‑economic changes, which deeply influence the growth and decreasing population densities in
nature, pace and pattern of urbanisation. residential areas. Accordingly, the general trend
has been the expansion of urban land use, with
Urbanisation is evident in many different forms, fewer people inhabiting more urban land and thus
sometimes in concentrated compact centres but contributing to urban sprawl.
typically in low density developments associated
with planned or spontaneous urban sprawl (PBL, Multiple drivers of urbanisation
2008 and 2009). A range of individual and only
partially linked unidirectional processes influence Urban change can be defined in terms of five
urban systems. Consequently, there is a complex main components or domains: society, economy,
mosaic of urban growth and decline as, for instance, built environment, natural environment and
described in Section 2.1. Furthermore, new concepts governance. Figure 2.11 shows the main factors
of urbanisation have emerged, including edge cities, driving changes in these domains. Economy and
Figure 2.11 Main European drivers of urban change
National/regional
context
development path
▪ Population growht ▪ Economic growth

▪ Income/wealth growht ▪ Internationalisation
▪ Individualism ▪ Innovation
▪ Ageing ▪ Sectoral shift ▪ European integration
▪ Immigration ▪ Globalisation
▪ Growth in high-tech
companies
▪ Smaller households Society Economy ▪ Growth in advanced
▪ Diverging lifestyles services
▪ Polarisation Domains ▪ Knowlegde industries
▪ Segregation of urban ▪ Creative industries
Built Govern-
change ▪ Leisure and turism
environ- ance
ment
Natural
▪ Real estate market environment ▪ Legislation and
▪ Location/environmental
regulation
preferences
▪ Privatisation
▪ Design/building styles
▪ Decentralisation
▪ Accessibility and mobility
▪ Participative planning
▪ City marketing
▪ Network and hubs
▪ Transport and ▪ Pollution and noise
communication ▪ Accessibility of
▪ Technologies urban green space
▪ Sustainable
development
Source: PBL, 2008.

Box 2.7 Urbanisation in European regions
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
Very rapid urbanisation

60°
Regions of this type, which experienced the largest population growth in Europe,
can be found along the Portuguese coastline, in Madrid and its surroundings as well
60°
as in some coastal regions in Spain, in the north of the Netherlands, and north-
western Ireland. Some regions in Italy (especially the north of Sardinia) and Greece
50°
50°
also belong to this group. Urban land cover has been increasing between four to six
40°
times faster than the European average, but the population density in residential
areas declined six times faster than the European average. This suggests a pattern
40°
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km
10° 20° 30°
of low-density housing construction.
Rapid urbanisation with a declining population

-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
60°
Regions on the Iberian peninsula around large cities such as Madrid, Porto and
Lisbon are typical of this type of urbanisation, as are a few regions in Italy, Erfurt
60°
and Rostock in Germany, Tallinn in Estonia and Arcadia in Greece. The urban land
cover in regions in this category increased about three to five times faster than the
50°
50°
European average. As in regions which have experienced very rapid urbanisation,

40° the population density in residential areas fell, six times faster than the European
average. But, unlike the former category, the total population also fell by an average
40°
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km
10° 20° 30°
of 0.6 % per year. Urbanisation here demonstrates not only population decline, but
at the same time continued peripheral growth of the built-up area, highlighting the
power of the forces of sprawl.
Compact urbanisation with rapid population growth

-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
60°
This category can be found all across Europe: in the western parts of Germany, in
Paris and the coastal regions of France and Spain, Austria, northern Italy, Greece,
60°
southern UK, Scotland, the east of Ireland, and some regions in the south of
Poland and Hungary. The regions of this cluster are characterised by an average
50°
50°
increase in built-up land cover; however, population increased very rapidly, the
40°
most rapid growth in all types of urbanisation. Consequently, the population growth
in residential areas increased most rapidly as well. This densification suggests
40°
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km
10° 20° 30°
high‑rise inner city construction as well as increases in inner city populations.
Rapid urbanisation but low density

-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
60°
Most regions in the Netherlands belong to this category, as well as southern Ireland
and a number of regions in Spain, Portugal and Italy, mainly on the coast. The
60°
regions in this group are characterised by rapid urban growth, which is two to three
times faster than the European average. Nevertheless, the population density in
50°
50°
residential areas has declined relatively fast, probably due to urban expansion
40°
with relatively low density. Regions with very rapid urbanisation have the same
characteristics, though development takes place at a faster pace.
40°
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km
10° 20° 30°
Slow urbanisation
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
60°
This form of urbanisation is characteristic of many countries in Eastern Europe as
well as in peripheral regions in almost all other European countries, most notably
60°
in the United Kingdom, Denmark, Belgium, France, parts of Austria and Italy. There
is a relatively slow increase in urban land cover and population growth, both about
50°
50°
one third of the European average. The population density in residential areas has
40°
declined slowly, about half as fast as the European average.
40°
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km
10° 20° 30°
Slow urbanisation with a declining population

-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
60°
This type of urbanisation is characteristic of most regions in the Baltic States and
eastern Germany, as well as regions in Romania, Bulgaria and isolated regions in
60°
the United Kingdom, France, Austria, Italy and on the Iberian Peninsula. The urban
land cover in this category grows particularly slowly, accompanied by a rapid decline
50°
50°
in population. Unlike other clusters, the population migrates towards other regions,
40°
40°
leading to lower population densities in residential areas.
0 500 0°
1000 1500 km
10° 20° 30°
Source: PBL, 2008.

changes in demography, like ageing, migration or

the trend to smaller and more households with
new demands for housing and land consumption
(see in more detail Section 2.1) compete as prime,
often interrelated drivers. In some parts of Europe,
population growth is an important driver of urban
growth, for example Madrid; but more important
is the enormous growth of the number of (small)
households as a result of ageing and broad
individualisation trends, such as the increase in
the number of divorces and young people leaving
the parental home at an earlier age. In addition,
economic development attracts population by
domestic and international migration. However,
whilst the environmental components seem to
be less significant in the short term, they tend to
become increasingly important in the longer term
as preconditions for attractive and healthy places
Photo: © Google Earth
to live and work. Finally, governance is both a
facilitating and a steering driving force.
Shifts to service economy Business services, including financial services,

form the largest economic sector in the EU, and
Over the past decades, major changes in the EU accounted for more than a quarter of the EU‑25's
economy have occurred due to globalisation. gross value added in 2005 (Eurostat, 2007). These
In combination with technological change, changes in urban economic structures have had,
rationalisation, and European integration, this has and still have, a major impact on urbanisation
led to the transfer of much of the production of through the creation and loss of employment
capital and consumption goods to regions both opportunities and economic growth in cities. A
within and outside Europe that can offer cheaper flourishing economy creates a demand for offices,
labour (Dicken, 2004; Eurostat, 2007). Consequently, industrial buildings, houses and other activities
many European urban economies have made to accommodate the population and business
a further shift towards service‑oriented urban sector, and will also support more and better
economies. public facilities. Conversely, urban areas offer
agglomeration advantages, which attract and
can stimulate further economic activities (Porter,
Figure 2.12 Built-up area, road network and 1990). Economic stagnation has reverse effects. The
population increases economic situation of urban regions, and income
distribution within them, are therefore important
1980 = 100
determinants of both objective and subjective views
125
of quality of life and place.
120
New mobility stimulates suburbanisation
115
The steady growth of net income during the last
110 decades and the increased share of earnings that
could be spent on other than basic needs meant that
105
people could afford bigger and remote places to live.
100
Building styles, types of house and neighbourhood
lay‑outs have varied throughout Europe and in
95 time, depending upon economic situation, housing
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 culture, and population composition. Nevertheless,
Built-up area Road network Population
residential preferences have typically shifted towards
Note: Selected EEA countries: Belgium, Czech Republic,
low density housing in greener environments.
Denmark, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, the
Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and Spain. The realisation of these low density urban
Source: EEA, 2006. expansions — urban sprawl — has been helped

along by the enormous rise in car ownership that and quantity. There may not be enough clean tap
began in the 1960s. Rising net income and mass car water locally to meet demand and urban water
ownership have resulted in continuous waves of usage may have induced salinisation in coastal
suburbanisation throughout Europe, fluctuating regions (BPL, 2005). In some areas with great
according to the waves of urban growth and pressures for urban growth, construction has
expansion of the road networks. The construction taken place in areas that are vulnerable to flooding
of new infrastructure, in particular motorways (Sagris et al., 2006; Barredo et al., 2005). Also,
— the total length of the motorway network has building on the flood plain, increases the risk and
tripled in Europe over the last 30 years — has severity of flash floods (see Box 2.8).
substantially enhanced the accessibility and thus
the attractiveness of specific localities for single Sprawl triggers transport growth
family houses, second homes and business. A good
example is the Compostela–La Coruña–Porto–Lisbon Many problems in cities are strongly related
motorway, which follows the coast of the western to issues concerning urban density and urban
Iberian Peninsula. Many new urban and business containment. Lower residential densities often offer
areas have developed along its length. It has lower noise levels, less air pollution and better
considerably improved accessibility in a north‑south access to (private) green space. On the other hand,
direction, making this axis highly attractive to many low densities also result in greater demands on
companies, facilitating economic growth in the the transport system, particularly road transport.
region, and forming a new market for labour force Hence urban sprawl and transport infrastructure
recruitment (Lois‑González, 2004). have a reciprocal relationship and a positive
feedback loop develops (ESPON, 2004) — more
Similarly, developments in air and rail transport building requires more roads, which leads to more
have also stimulated further urbanisation and building (see simulation in Box 2.9). Transport
influenced the shape of urbanisation. Between Paris volumes have increased substantially throughout
and Brussels urban growth has occurred around Europe over the last decades driven by urban
'beetroot' stations on the TGV railway (EEA, 2006b). sprawl and a large number of other socio‑economic
factors (Stead & Marshall, 2001).
For economic reasons, investors target greenfield‑sites
for new developments. Agricultural land allocated Growth in transport demand has increased the
for development is significantly cheaper than emission of greenhouse gases from urban areas,
the expensive land and apartments in core cities, and has exacerbated the problems of climate
dilapidated residential areas and brownfield sites. change (Section 2.5). Many cities, especially the
larger ones, also suffer congestion on their roads
Compromising life‑support systems and the amount of space that is set aside for roads
means that there is a lack of public space for leisure
Urban expansion is often perceived as a route to a activities, walking and cycling. Transport‑related
better quality of life as it offers affordable, greener noise and air pollution increase health risks and
places to live. But related transport infrastructure reduces the quality of life in cities (Sections 1.2
developments may lead to further deterioration and 2.4).
and fragmentation of natural areas and valuable
landscapes, thus resulting in a less biodiversity and Challenges of compact cities
the deterioration and loss of ecosystem services
— flood prevention, water clean‑up, climate In contrast to the general lowering of urban
regulation etc. (EEA, 2006a). Land take may also densities, some cities experience growth in the
reduce the area available for food production. inner city, which results in areas of high population
The increasing pressures on the food market due densities. On the positive side this generates the
to growing worldwide demand, and competition potential to reduce transport demand and overall
with bio‑mass production related to high fuel emissions, but on the negative side there is a risk
prices, may heighten the importance of the loss of that more people are exposed to higher levels
agricultural areas in the future. All this impacts of air pollution and noise. Urban design, spatial
the quality of life of all Europeans dependent on planning and other administrative measures
these basic life supporting services now and in the can reduce these impacts to some extent, as has
future. been demonstrated by the revitalisation of many
inner cities in the 1980s and 1990s. However,
In addition, urban expansion goes hand in hand unfavourable living conditions in inner city areas
with a range of problems concerning water quality associated with excessively high population

Box 2.8 Dresden-Prague corridor (Germany, Czech Republic) — urban expansion and the
impact of flooding
The German reunification and the collapse of the communist block led to major changes in economic
regime from a planned to a market economy in both the former East Germany and the Czech Republic.
These changes have created completely new driving forces for urban development in the transport
corridor between Dresden and Prague. As a result, the built up area has grown substantially since 1990
(EEA, 2006a).
The corridor mainly follows the Elbe river that is plagued by major flood events, such as the dramatic
flooding in 2002 which had high human and economic costs. The analysis below shows that the
vulnerability of urban areas has increased and the effects are at least partially man made.
Map 2.4 shows the land‑use and flood hazards in the Elbe river catchment area. The changes in
the exposure to floods during the period 1990–2000, which is given by the total surface (in km2) in
flood‑prone areas, indicate an increase of urban areas of about 50 km2 (Figure 2.13). That means that
many new residential areas have been built in flood-prone areas and are more vulnerable now.
Map 2.4 Elbe catchment area: the Figure 2.13 Elbe catchment area: evolution
Dresden-Prague corridor of exposure to flood in the
period 1990–2000
Km2
100
50 Mines
and
dump sites
0
Residential Industrial Sport
urban areas and and
– 50 service areas leisure facilities
(incl. roads)
– 100
– 150
– 200
Flood hazard in the Elbe river catchment area
Moderate flood hazard
High flood hazard Very high flood hazard
In different projections (Figure 2.14), even more built-up areas are expected to become vulnerable.
Commercial areas are projected to be the most exposed to floods in all scenarios. So far no prevention
actions have been considered in the simulations.

Box 2.8 Dresden-Prague corridor (Germany, Czech Republic) — urban expansion and the
impact of flooding (cont.)
Projections
Figure 2.14 Projected estimate of exposure
To model future impacts three different
to flood for artificial land-use
development scenarios were simulated for the
classes
Dresden-Prague corridor:
Relative growth (%) in the period 1998–2020

• Business-as-usual: extrapolates moderate 180
1990s trends of land‑use change, indicating
160
that the land‑use patterns of the area will
not change considerably over the next two 140
decades. 120
• Built-up expansion: elaborates the
100
socioeconomic projections of the European
Environmental Agency. 80
• Motorway impact: evaluates the impact of
60
motorway development (A17/D8 part of TEN
Corridor IV). 40
20
0
Business as usual Built up expansion Motorway impact
– 20 Projected scenarios
Land-use classes
Residential continuous dense
Residential continuous medium dense
Residential discontinuous
Residential discontinuous sparse
Industrial areas
Commercial areas
Services
Source: JRC, 2009.
densities can also contribute to suburbanisation have promoted segregation and polarisation along
and ex‑urbanisation and thus reinforce the ethnic or socio‑economic lines (see PBL, 2008 and
tendency to urban sprawl. 2009). The real estate market plays a central role
in these intra‑urban developments, resulting in a
A further problem of urban living is the lack of qualitative spatial sorting of employment sectors,
green areas in many highly urbanised regions. population groups and public space. Lower income
Urban expansion and higher densities have often households cannot afford homes in high price
led to growing separation of home and recreational areas, and usually live in areas of dense housing
areas, and the reduction of parks and playing fields, with less green and good quality public space,
limiting the possibilities for outdoor recreation. higher noise and air pollution levels or far away
Finally, the deterioration of landscapes and natural from attractive urban areas. These segregation
areas surrounding the cities as the low density urban trends lead to temporary and more permanent
expansion impinges on the countryside is associated unequal developments, loss of social balance
with adverse impacts on social life, physical activity and cohesion. The resulting imbalances show
and mental health (see also Section 1.2) themselves socio‑economically in the exclusion
of specific groups from employment and services
Social inequalities like culture and education, and by accumulation
of socio‑economic and environmental problems
Urban growth also affects the spatial organisation of in deprived areas. Other factors exacerbate the
cities. Typically, suburbanisation and urban sprawl situation: growing urbanisation is accompanied by

Box 2.9 Scenario for the Dresden-Prague corridor — transport growth driven by

increasing urbanisation
As described in Box 2.8 East Germany and the

Map 2.6 Max road-traffic intensity
Czech Republic underwent major economic
(no of cars/hour)
changes, creating new driving forces for urban
development after the collapse of the communist
block. Moreover, EU membership has led to a 0–1 200
growing engagement with European markets and 1 200–2 500
access to EU development schemes e.g. TEN-T, 2 500–4 500
4 500–8 800
Structural Fund. Scenarios show that the share
8 800–24 000
of urban areas is expected to grow in every case,
although the amount differs depending on the
assumed development path: business-as-usual, the
strong expansion of built up areas or the impact of
the motorway development (A17/D8 part of TEN
Corridor IV) (EEA, 2006).
1998 2020
Map 2.6 shows the modelled transport growth
caused by new residential and business areas in
the Dresden-Prague corridor (Map 2.7), which is Map 2.7 Development of Prague (2020)
substantial in many areas. The increase of traffic according to the EEA Outlook
intensity is particularly evident in the centres of scenario
Dresden and Prague.
Map 2.5 Dresden-Prague corridor,

scenario location
Germany
Dresden
El
b e
Decin
Teplice Usti nad Labem
Most
Elbe
Chomutov Ohr
e
Residential areas in 1998 Agriculture
Industrial/commercial/ Forest
a
service areas in 1998

Vltav
Additional residential areas Green/natural

Czech Republic in 2020 areas
Kladno
Additional industrial/ Airport and other
commercial/service areas
in 2020 infrastructure
Praha
Water
u nka
Be ro
Vltava
0 10 20 30 Km 0
Km
Dresden–Prague corridor
Motorway A17/D8 Study area
Source: JRC, 2009.
kkk
an increasing share of young adolescents, ethnic and was a result of a Member States initiative during the
socio‑economic segregation, increasing crime and 1990s. The document advocates the development
reduced levels of personal safety (Dij, 1999; Hideg of a polycentric and balanced urban system and
and Manchin, 2007). strengthening of the partnership between urban and
rural areas; parity of access to infrastructure and
knowledge; and wise management of natural areas
Planning sustainable cities and the cultural heritage.
The extent to which urbanisation is managed Recently, the Green Paper on territorial cohesion
depends upon the planning system in each Member (EC, 2008c), the 2007 EU Territorial Agenda and
State. It is predominantly the domain of local and Leipzig Charter on sustainable European cities built
regional governments, and in some countries also further on the ESDP. Today the leading theme
that of national government. A range of instruments, of regional and urban‑oriented policies at the
including land and housing prices, spatial planning, European level is cohesion, which aims to promote
urban design, building regulations, taxation and socio‑economic convergence and coherence among
urban planning, play a central role providing the and between the regions, and in the cities of the
basis for an integrated spatial approach. A large union, thus ensuring a high quality of life. The
variety of urban planning systems and cultures European Commission supported many urban
are evident throughout Europe; however, their projects via the Structural Funds and will strengthen
effectiveness depends on the level of liability, their its support for urban rehabilitation over the next
scope, the planning culture and history, and also on funding period (see more in Section 2.6).
the extent of influence of national governments on
spatial planning (Haskoning, 2008). The EU Transport Policy promotes effective and
sustainable transport systems. The realisation of
Some cities and towns have started to develop the Trans European Transport Networks (TEN‑T)
more comprehensive strategies for sustainable aims to create improved accessibility for all cities
development (Box 2.10). In the context of the and regions in Europe (Ravesteyn and Evers, 2004;
pioneering work of the Aalborg Charter (5) and the High Level Group, 2003). Other EU policy provides
Sustainable Cities and Towns Campaign (6) the aim guidance on the development of more sustainable
is to secure the integration of social, economic, and urban areas, in particular, the Thematic Strategy on the
environmental dimensions. An important element of urban environment (EC, 2006d) and the Green Paper
this work is the exchange of good practice between Towards new culture for urban mobility (EC, 2007d).
municipalities maintained via the supportive Furthermore, several EU programmes promote and
activities of the various pan‑European city networks. fund sustainable urban development, including
Many comprehensive rehabilitation measures in the LIFE+ programme for the environment, the
cities and towns over the last decades, such as EU Seventh Research Framework Programme, and
pedestrian zones, redevelopment of brownfield sites, the CIVITAS Initiative for clean and better transport
public places and green areas of high urban quality, (see also synthetic Table 1.2). Competitions like the
and affordable housing, have contributed to making European Green Capital Award stimulate more
city centres more attractive as places to live. action.
Supportive European policy Barriers to effective policy‑making
Spatial planning is not a formal competence of the Notwithstanding all these positive approaches,
EU; nonetheless, the allocation of Structural Funds, Europe and its cities and towns must still meet the
the EU Transport Policy and other policies have a challenges of unsustainable urbanisation patterns,
big impact in stimulating and restructuring existing including ongoing urban sprawl, and there are still
urban areas and supporting the development of new important gaps in current policy‑making.
urban centres.
European policy also influences urbanisation
The 1999 European Spatial Development Perspective patterns indirectly, and these indirect influences can
(ESDP), a non‑binding framework that aims to be both supportive and inhibiting of sustainable
coordinate various European regional policy impacts, urban development. For example, as a result of
(5) http://www.aalborgplus10.dk/default.aspx.
(6) http://www.sustainable-cities.eu/.

Box 2.10 Bologna master plan (Italy) — integration of energy policies
Context of Municipality and initial situation

Bologna is a city of 390 000 inhabitants at the
centre of a larger metropolitan area. Its economy
is based mainly on knowledge (university) and
mechanical industries. The city is situated at the
heart of freight and passenger traffic transiting
between the Mediterranean area and other
European regions.
During the last 15 years, the city's CO2 emissions

have been constantly increasing at a yearly rate of
about 1.3 %. Energy consumption data show that
the housing sector is responsible for about 62 %
of overall emissions and is caused by an average
efficiency of existing buildings that is far below
modern standards.
The case
In order to introduce policies for a substantial
emission reduction, Bologna developed the new
City Energy Programme (2007) with the goal of a
28 % reduction of greenhouse gases emissions.
Its energy‑saving measures and promotion of
renewable energy sources are based on the close
integration of an analysis of energy issues and the
development of appropriate urban planning tools.
The underlying CO2 emission analysis is based
on bottom-up reconstructions, and considers the
census figures and consumption by individual
buildings using available GIS databases. The data
are collected in the Energy Atlas, and the resulting
Photo: © Daniele Zappi
geographical platform allows for the:
• identification of urban areas with the highest

energy intensity;
• identification of specific areas and buildings that may be the object of direct improvement;
• assessment of the energy-related environmental impacts of new urban developments.
When developing the broader Municipal Structural Plan, the city integrated these results. The plan was
approved in July 2008 after a complex process, including public and institutional participation, and sets
the principles that will guide the development of the city over the next fifteen years. By using the energy
analysis, areas affected by highly significant urban transformation have been organised in clusters, called
Urban Energy Basins. They form homogeneous areas in which the city applies specific energy policies.
The 11 energy basins identified cover about 15 % of the city's territory. The energy impact of predicted
transformations has been calculated in detail for each area.
The Municipal Structural Plan provides for specific sustainability measures in any urban development area,
enabling lower energy consumption and sustainable energy supply by recommending appropriate urban
population densities and reductions of transport demand in particular. A set of building rules provides a
comprehensive technical tool for professionals working on city development projects to integrate energy
savings measures. The energy standards contained in these rules have been set at even higher levels in
the Urban Energy Basins according to their characteristics.

Box 2.10 Bologna master plan (Italy) — integration of energy policies (cont.)
Results, lessons learned and transfer potential

The energy standards will affect both new constructions as well as the rehabilitation of existing
buildings, achieving a 20 % reduction of CO2 emissions in the housing sector in 15 years. The
integration among different urban planning instruments is generally replicable because it is based on
commonly available GIS tools.
The broader integrated approach allowed for the inclusion not only of measures to reduce the energy
consumption of buildings but also measures in other professional areas such as urban design to further
reduce Bologna's overall energy consumption. This work won the first prize in the Sustainable Energy
in Cities in the 2008 contest promoted by the Italian Ministry for the Environment and the National
Institute of Urban Planning within the Sustainable Energy Europe campaign (SEE).
Source: New city master plan (PSC) http://www.comune.bologna.it/psc, Energy Programme (PEC).
http://www.comune.bologna.it/ambiente/QualitaAmbientale/Energia/PEC/Programma.php.
Sustainable Energy in Cities award promoted within SEE campaign.
http://www.campagnaseeitalia.it/news/concorso-energia-sostenibile-nelle-citta.
Box 2.11 Fragmented decision making — motivations of actors involved in land development
Municipalities maintain the hope that new inhabitants will lead to a tax surplus, when in fact studies
have shown that this is seldom the case. Therefore they generally favour the development of land.
Costs are transferred as far as possible to the investor and as the municipality bears no costs the
project is regarded as beneficial.
For landowners a plot represents an economic asset in whose increasing value they hope to profit.
Therefore, owners of agricultural land with prospects for development become highly active.
For project developers high unit costs to connect new dwellings or commercial premises to supply
networks are often more than offset by the much cheaper land prices in areas at the edge of existing
settlements. The extra transport costs are countered by other sales arguments (e.g. property prices,
'living in the countryside').
Utility companies have little motivation to influence the location and density of use of newly
constructed or newly connected areas as the associated costs are reimbursed by users in the form of
construction subsidies or by a general raising of charges for all users.
Householders seeking a new location are often ignorant of the high costs for technical infrastructures
associated with low density peripheral areas. The low price of suburban land hides the rising
infrastructure costs per housing unit which is caused by low settlement densities.
Mixed motivations of actors in the development of land supports fragmented decision-making and
unsustainable land‑use development: the individual decisions are rational, but when actors ignore the
high follow up cost for transport, infrastructure, loss of land, biodiversity and ecosystem services they
transfer these costs to others and eventually to every resident.
Source: UBA, 2009.

EU Transport and Common Agricultural Policy, development of such an integrated cross‑thematic

some rural areas have become more accessible, policy framework, supported by a comprehensive
which has encouraged urban sprawl and hence knowledge base about the potential and real
increases in commuting. So far, these indirect impacts of EU policies.
impacts have not assessed.
Horizontal and vertical integration
Given the significant interlinkages between
local development and the impacts of European Given the many drivers that influence urban
policy, it is clear that a narrow interpretation development and urbanisation, it is clear that
of the subsidiarity principle (7), restricting the issue of policy integration is a key concern.
effective engagement of the EU at the local level, The need for horizontal integration is widely
is inhibiting the development of solutions to recognised, but effective implementation remains
urban problems. Many problems, including those problematic in many cases, as the example
of urban sprawl, definitely have a European in Box 2.11 demonstrates. In particular, the
dimension, which requires adequate consideration. sustainable development strategies and action
plans provide a good basis for integration, but
Furthermore, practical decision‑making is often they need to be backed by stronger political
fragmented. Typically individual decisions are commitments, the real participation of all relevant
supportable, but taken together they can lead stakeholders and institutional integration.
to contrary effects and unsustainable urban
development, as evident in the example of Problems associated with urban sprawl and
decisions related to land use (Box 2.11). climate change cannot be solved at the local level
alone. The principle of subsidiarity needs to be
Spatial planning, if used properly, can be an reinterpreted so that administrations recognise that
appropriate way to balance disparate demands on urbanisation problems require active participation
land use. However, traditional top‑down spatial at various administrative levels in order to generate
planning, in the form of zoning, is not in itself integrated policies.
sufficient to steer urbanisation. Such planning is
unable to manage, for example, effectively those Complementing traditional spatial planning
drivers that cannot be expressed in spatial terms,
it does not engage effectively with 'bottom up' The management of urbanisation also needs to
and participation processes, and is relatively static influence non‑spatial issues. Thus, spatial planning
and not responding sufficiently rapidly to the needs to become part of a broader governance
dynamic of many urban processes. It needs to be approach that includes participation, mediation
complemented with other instruments and be part and changing lifestyles, and balances the economic,
of a much broader management approach. environmental, social and cultural aspects (see
example in Box 2.12). Beyond plan zoning, the
Overcoming barriers to action development of economic tools is necessary to close
the price gap between agricultural and urban land.
Despite the many problems seen today, urbanisation
is manageable, and more sustainable development Increasing urban attractiveness
should always aim to provide opportunities for
more efficient urban living and quality of life. Making cities more attractive by enhancing
the factors — social, cultural, economic and
European policy impacts environmental — that contribute to quality of life
— stimulates people to live in the cities themselves,
The European Commission, to counter the different which keeps cities compact and avoids urban
intended and unintended impacts of European sprawl. Local measures supported by regional,
policies on urbanisation, needs to cross‑check for national and European policies include safe and
negative impacts in all its policy areas and aim usable public places of high aesthetic quality, green
to find integrated solutions. The new approaches areas and corridors, low noise and air pollution
embodied in the territorial cohesion initiatives may levels, good quality and affordable housing,
provide the major impulse needed to support the integration of immigrants and other social groups,
(7) The subsidiarity principle requires that matters in the EU are handled by the lowest competent administrative level.

Box 2.12 Participatory land-use planning in Freiburg (Germany)
Initial situation and context of the municipality

In spring 2001, the municipal council of Freiburg, a
city situated in the South-west Germany, between
the Black Forest region, Switzerland and the Alsace
region, decided to review the land‑use plan for
2010, paying particular attention to the needs of
citizens. This attention was due to an outcome of
previous participatory processes that had failed,
resulting in growing mistrust of citizens in the
transparency of the government. The result was a
clear call for more active public participation from
the very start.
Solution
To engage the public, the council established a
systematic process in which citizens were involved
in the decision‑making processes and thus able to
actively participate in the development of Freiburg's
land-use plan. To allow for maximum input, the
land-use plan was extended up to the year 2020
and a cross‑departmental project steering group
for integrated urban development was set up in the
Mayor's office.
In the two years that followed, Freiburg

succeeded in continuously integrating citizens
in the development of Freiburg's land‑use plan,
thereby eliminating any mistrust. Ongoing public
participation in the land‑use plan was organised
into three stages:
Photo: © Holger Robrecht, ICLEI

Stage 1: Development of planning guidelines
Stage 2: Information events
Stage 3: Facilitation of working groups and extended civil participation
Results, lessons learnt and transfer potential

The citizens' opinions about the land‑use proposal were introduced to the public and passed on to the
mayor as a 'vote' by Freiburg's citizens. Consequently, the administration changed the draft land‑use
plan and the municipal council approved most parts of the citizens' land‑use proposals. The number of
citizens involved and their ongoing commitment to the process was notable.
This process has shown the value of an accurate review of the issues and roles in the preparatory
phase. The administration was able to realistically outline the planning process, thereby anticipating
potential conflicts and allowing for solutions to be found. Furthermore, external facilitation helped
in establishing the concept of the 'Freiburg model' and supported mediation between the citizens
and the administration in conflict situations. In addition, the involvement of competent citizens
as voluntary facilitators led to many positive results in the short amount of time given. From all
angles — participants, citizens, the administration, and the municipal council — the process of public
participation is rated as a success and Freiburg plans to apply it in planning processes in the future.
Source: Bürgerbeteiligung zum Flächennutzungsplan 2020, www.stadt.freiburg.de/1/1/121/index.php.

jobs, mobility, a rich cultural life and a positive Many European urban areas experience daily
sense of identity. average PM10 concentrations higher than 50µg/m3 on
more than the permitted 35 days per year (Map 2.8).
The highest urban concentrations were observed in
2.4 Air pollution and noise cities in northern Italy (Po valley), Spain, Portugal,
the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary, Romania,
Sounds such as a train in the distance, church Bulgaria, the Benelux countries, Greece, and the
bells, the shouting of market traders and children cities of the West Balkan countries.
playing are, generally speaking, accepted as a
welcome fact of life. All these sounds, the natural, As a result, the exceedance of air quality standards
social and urban sounds, connect you with the seriously increased respiratory and cardiovascular
world around you and contribute to quality of life. diseases, in particular in young children and the
But what if the soundscape is dominated by traffic elderly. There seems to be a strong relationship
noise, the noise of aircraft and nearby trains? between the amount of heavy traffic and the health
effects; epidemiological studies in the Netherlands,
Despite past measures and many improvements, for instance, show a greater incidence of respiratory
noise and air pollution in many Europe's cities and cardiac disease in people living near major
is still high and above healthy limits, leading roads (Hoek et al., 2002). In the European Union,
to various types of disease and shortening life
expectancy. These challenges for human health,
the environment, and finally people's quality of
life are very complex and must be tackled at every Figure 2.15 Percentage of the urban
administrative level. This section gives an overview population in EEA member
of the problems and suggests how they should countries (except Turkey)
be managed and the action required at the local, exposed to air pollution above
regional, national and European levels. the limit and target values
% of urban population
Air pollution is still a serious threat
70
Across Europe, people are exposed to levels of air
pollution that exceed air quality standards set by 60
the EU and the World Health Organization (WHO).
This occurs mainly within urban/suburban areas
(Figure 2.15). In the period 1997–2006, 18–50 % of 50
the urban population was potentially exposed to
ambient air concentrations of PM10 higher than 40
the EU limit value set for the protection of human
health. There was no discernible trend over this
period (EEA, 2007a). 30
For ozone (O3) there was considerable variation 20

over the years. During most years, 14–61 % of the
urban population was exposed to concentrations
10
above the target value. In 2003, a year with
extremely high ozone concentrations due to specific
meteorological conditions, the exposure to high 0
concentrations increased to about 60 %.
05
06
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
In the period 1997–2006, 18–42 % of the urban NO2 PM10 O3 SO2

population was potentially exposed to ambient
air nitrogen dioxid (NO2) concentreations above Note. Limit values are: PM10 — 50 µg/m3 24-hour average
not to be exceeded for more than 35 days;
the EU limit value. The percentage of the urban NO2 — 40 µg/m3 annual average; SO2 — 125 µg/m3
population exposed to SO2 concentrations above 24-hour average not to be exceeded for more than
four days;
the short‑term limit values decreased to less than O3 —120 µg/m3 8-hour daily maximum not to be
1 % and the EU limit value is thus close to being exceeded for more than 25 days averaged over
three years.
met (EEA, 2007a).
Source: AirBase.

Map 2.8 PM10 showing the 36th highest daily values at urban background sites
superimposed on rural background concentrations, 2005
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

Particulate matter (PM10)
36th highest daily value
Reference year: 2006

Combined rural and urban map
60°
< 20 µg m-3
20–30 µg m-3
60°
30–50 µg m-3
50–65 µg m-3 > limit value
> 65 µg m-3
Non-mapped countries
Poor data coverage
Rural background station

50° Urban background station
50°
40°
40°
0 500 0° 1000 1500 km

10° 20° 30°
Source: EEA, AirBase.
the number of premature deaths that can be Road traffic is the dominant source of exposure in
attributed to anthropogenic PM2.5 due to emissions major urban areas. The EU Thematic Strategy on the
from traffic and other sources is estimated have urban environment (EC, 2006d) reports that exposure
been about 350 000 in the year 2000 (CAFÉ, 2005). to continuous road traffic noise affected:
These health effects are linked to high economic
losses in the form of higher costs for medical • 160 million people in the EU‑15 (40 % of
treatment and losses for employers because of the population) at an 'averaged' level above
sickness of the workforce. 55 dB(A) — associated with significant
annoyance;
Noise — an underestimated problem • 80 million people (20 % of the population) were
exposed to continuous road traffic noise above
European cities have become increasingly 'noisy'; 65 dB(A) — associated with cardiovascular
not necessarily because the noisy places have effects.
become noisier, but rather because there are fewer
quiet places left. People are affected by noise In 2002 the European Commission introduced
from traffic, leisure activities and the general the Environmental Noise Directive relating to the
neighbourhood at all hours of the day and night. assessment and management of environmental
Detailed data on noise in Europe are scanty; noise. Exposure data are not currently available for
however, a general picture is given below. all Member states. Figure 1.3 in Chapter 1 of this

report presents data on traffic noise for selected Quality of life means healthy air and less noise,
cities. but also employment, possibilities for recreation
such as shopping, entertainment and cultural
Data obtained in 2008 from a questionnaire sent outings. Therefore, in addition to the promotion
out by the EUROCITIES Working Group on Noise of clean air and public health, local and regional
to the network's cities show that about 57 % of authorities have to pursue many other objectives
the inhabitants of responding European cities that contribute to the well‑being of their citizens,
are living in areas with noise levels above 55 dB, such as economic prosperity, mobility, jobs and the
and approximately 9 % experience noise levels preservation of the economic, social and cultural
of above 65 dB (Figure 2.16). Extrapolations of functions of inner cities. Cities cannot simply
these percentages all over Europe would suggest shut down all transport activities and industries
that more than 210 million people in Europe are in order to realise clean air and a better acoustic
exposed to levels above 55 dB and 38 million to environment.
levels above 65 dB.
The challenge for cities is to find acceptable and
Due to progressive growth in traffic levels and the smart solutions for environment and health
general urbanisation of Europe (see Section 2.3) the problems; to strike a balance between different
situation will worsen; particularly if measures at kinds of policies and to integrate them into a single
local, national and European levels are not put in city plan that gains public support.
place. As an example: the Randstad (area including
Rotterdam, Amsterdam, The Hague and Utrecht) in Cross‑border dimensions
the Netherlands is one of the most urbanised areas
in Europe with consequent noise pollution across Air pollutants, such as fine particles and ozone
the whole area despite noise abatement measures (precursors), can travel thousands of kilometres
previously implemented. Given this, one might through the air and move from Member State
assume that noise quality in other European cities to Member State and beyond; in other words,
is superior, which is not the case. Member States export and import air pollution.
This is a problem for local and regional authorities
Data show that noise is a serious problem as a proportion of pollution in cities derives from
in Europe. Persistent high levels of noise are neighbouring regions. In Vienna for example, only
associated with learning difficulties, loss of a quarter of air pollution is generated by the city;
memory, inability to concentrate as well as
irreversible damage to health, such as heart attacks
and strokes (Stansfeld et al., 2005; van Kempen,
2008; Babisch, 2006; Jarup et al., 2008). In the Figure 2.16 Noise data for 52 European cities
Netherlands, between 20 and 150 people every
year suffer from heart attacks brought on by traffic
% of people exposed to traffic noise in EU cities
noise (van Kempen, 2008) (see also noise impacts 35
in Section 1.2). Gjestland (2007) reports that 'in
Norway, the 'cost' of one extremely annoyed person 30 60–64 dB
has been estimated to be approximately EUR
1 600 per year. Due to the linearity, the 'cost' of a 25
moderately annoyed person thus equals EUR 800
55–59 dB
per year.'
20
Complex problems require smart solutions 15
The solution is not simple, as the situation is a

10
complex result of our lifestyles, in particular as 65–69 dB
related to transport of people and goods. Cities
5
and towns are lively places, where people live 70–74 dB
and work; where all kinds of economic, social >75 dB
0
and cultural events take place; where trade
and industries are established and where roads
converge. Although most city dwellers wish Note: The questionnaire asked how many people were
to live in a healthy environment, this is not exposed to what noise classes.
the only demand on their living environment. Source: Noise Questionnaire EUROCITIES, 2008.

the rest originates from other geographical areas. Figure 2.17 Rotterdam region — contributions
In the German city of Coburg (43 000 inhabitants), to NO2 and PM10 concentration
limit values are exceeded during the night when from different sources, 2000
most people are asleep; this pollution is therefore
not caused by urban traffic. Another challenge is
NO2 PM10
the mixture of contributors to air pollution in the
city, which vary from local to large‑scale and can 6%
56 % 26 % 8%
include background contributions from many other 10 %
8%
sources such as industry, agriculture, shipping, and
7%
activities in other cities, regions and countries. For 11 %
particulate matters (PM10) for example, up to 80 % 8%
4%
derives from sources that are not local.
13 % 14 %
The local contributions in cities, mainly caused
29 %
by traffic, form a layer over the city with highest
concentrations in the streets with most traffic.
Natural Houses
Nitrogen oxides (NOX) and particulate matter (PM10,
Road traffic Rest of the Netherlands
PM2.5 and soot) emissions of cars and heavy vehicles
Shipping Europe
lead to higher levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Industrial plants
particulate matters in ambient air. The contribution
caused by traffic can be the source of half or more of
Source: The Province of South Holland, 2005.
the current concentration of NO2; as in Rotterdam
(Figure 2.17). Here, road traffic and shipping
contribute about 70 % of NO2, while for PM10, the vehicle emissions. In addition, at the Member State
concentration in ambient air is mainly determined level it anticipated that the revision of the National
by sources from abroad. The local emission, together Emission Ceilings Directive will introduce stricter
with the background concentrations, leads to overall limits. The IPPC directive and BREF documents
ambient air concentrations above the limit values have also assigned limits for industrial emissions.
of the European Air Quality Directives (Directive It is important that such emission standards are
2008/50/EC) (see also Box 2.13) adopted in time for Europe to be able meet the
quality standards.
Compared to air pollution, noise is perceived as a
local and temporary problem since noise emissions The EU Environmental Noise Directive aims to
mostly affect areas close to the source. Transport is define a common approach intended to avoid,
the main source of noise but this derives not only prevent or reduce the harmful effects of exposure
from local traffic but also from regional, national to environmental noise. It requires Member States
and European traffic — heavy goods vehicles to determine exposures to noise in major urban
from the same companies can be seen everywhere agglomerations through means of noise mapping
in Europe; aircraft come from all over the world. (Box 2.14). This requires Member States throughout
Regulations of emission values are European rules, Europe to assess the number of people disturbed
but noise has a cross‑border dimension and needs during the day and at night, inform the public of
to be tackled at a high administrative level. the results and where necessary, prepare and adopt
action plans with a view to preventing and reducing
EU policies tackling problems environmental noise. This information is also used
to develop a long‑term EU strategy to reduce the
As the sources of air pollution and noise and number of people affected and provide a framework
the drivers behind these sources are multiple, for developing existing Community policy to reduce
actions need to be taken in many sectors and at all noise at source. Improved standards for vehicles,
administrative levels. In most cities, road transport is including tyres, will help with this.
clearly the main source of air pollution and noise.
Cities acting
At the European level, limit values for air quality
are set in the Air Quality Directives. Since the There are numerous examples of cities and towns
CAFÉ programme suggested emission standards combating air pollution and noise. Promoting public
for cars, ships, agricultural farms and industry, a transport, walking and cycling by calming streets
number of actions have been taken; for example, the and restricting road travel; and introducing parking
introduction of stricter Euro standards to reduce fees or local regulation can be very effective. For

Box 2.13 Italian urban areas — air quality (8)
An analysis of urban air-quality data in major Italian urban areas with more than 150 000 inhabitants,
shows that PM10 (particulate matter with dimension less than 10 micrometer), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) and
O3 (ozone) are the most critical atmospheric pollutants.
Regarding PM10, exceedance of both the annual-limit value and daily-limit value, which should not to
be exceeded more than 35 times in a calendar year (9), occurred in almost all urban areas, and for the
majority of years between 1993 and 2006. Figure 2.18 shows the maximum number of PM10 daily limit
value (50 µg/m3) exceedance that occurred in 24 Italian urban areas in 2006. Data show that in 13 of
them more than 35 days of daily limit value exceedances were measured. Long term urban air quality
data for PM10 show that, after a decrease in air concentrations up to the early 1990's, the effectiveness of
measures and actions adopted to reduce PM10 pollution have only a limited effect.
Figure 2.18 Maximum number of PM10 daily limit value (50 µg/m3) exceedance in the
24 Italian urban areas occurred, 2006
Days of exceedances
250
200
150
100
50
0
s
#
ua
du a,
o ,
#
Ca R to
ia io
na
a
e
le
at ce
i la
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Fl a #
*
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Li #
ri
gn
rn
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m
Pa n
rm
ni
rin
en
Ba
br g
ap
Pa *
ia
a
ia
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si
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M
ta
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ie
Ro
ra
vo
en
ci
lo
gl
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G
Tu
es
gg
ce Ve
Ca
es
Bo
Ca
o
od
M
Fo
Pa
Br
M
ni
Ve
Days of exceedances Limit value 24h
Note: # Data refer to background monitoring stations; * No data available.
Figure 2.19 shows that road transport is the biggest source of PM10 emissions in 19 cities (out of the
24 analysed), accounting for more than half of the emissions in 11 of them and reaching peaks of more
than 60 % in cities like Rome, which scored the highest emissions levels of all.
Road transport also represents a major source of NOX emissions in urban areas, amounting to more than
50 % of the current concentrations in 18 Italian cities. Other notable sources of this pollutant are the
industrial sector (74 % and 91 % in Venezia and Taranto, respectively), domestic heating (more than 20 %
in Northern cities like Milan, Brescia and Bologna) and maritime transport in seaports (i.e. 41 % in Cagliari).
Practical measures and instruments in the fields of road transport and mobility, e.g. related to car
ownership or car fleet composition, can play a major role in improving the air quality and quality of life.
The number of cars per 1 000 inhabitants in Italian cities, for example, shows that the values are the
highest in Europe, after Luxembourg.
(8) Moricci, F.; Brini, S.; Chiesura, A.; Cirillo, M. C. (ISPRA — High Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (former APAT)).
(9) EU Directive 99/30.

Box 2.13 Italian urban areas — air quality (cont.)
Figure 2.19 PM10 municipal emissions per macro-sectors in 2005
%
100
80
60
40
20
0
Li ce
rin
Fo s
Br n
Pa a
Ve ia
Ve a
Pa e
Pr o
o
ia
gg ar i
Ca to
Pa ria
es o
Ca na
Ca ia
ri
y
G e
Bo a
Fl na
r
le
rm
m
n
st
en
rm
du
rn
at
ila
al
Ba
ia
gg
n
c
en
an
ni
Tu
si
ro
g
en
b
ap
es
ta
gl
ie
Ro
It
M
vo
od
lo
la
le
or
Tr
N
M
M
T
io
Re
Other Maritime transport Domestic heating
Agriculture and forestry Road transport Industrial sector
From 1996 to 2000 this value has steadily grown, and from 2000 onwards registered a slower rate of
growth which has been compensated with higher mobility within large metropolitan areas. The city of
Rome had the highest levels of car ownership per 1 000 inhabitants in 2000, 2005 and 2006 for the
whole of Italy (Figure 2.20); the corresponding high levels of PM10 are clearly attributed to car usage in
the city (Figure 2.19).
As far as the quality of the urban car fleet is concerned, there has been a general growth of more
environmentally friendly cars responding to EU emissions-related directives, though the distribution is
not homogenous across the national territory (Figure 2.21). Although this could be certainly considered
a positive trend, the benefits generated might be offset by the high number of cars per 1 000 persons,
the increase of diesel cars (more than 30 % of the car fleet in many cities in 2006) and of those with big
engine displacement (> 2 000 cubic centimetres), and by the increase in the length of journeys due to
urban sprawl.
Moreover, measures and instruments in the fields of urban transport and mobility are important but
cannot solve urban air quality problems alone, as one could easily see from the non‑urban contributions
(for example Figure 2.19). Cities need support from European and national policy, and an integrated
approach involving different sectors and different government levels.

Box 2.13 Italian urban areas — air quality (cont.)
Figure 2.20 Number of passenger cars per 1 000 inhabitants in the 24 municipalities

(1996, 2000, 2005, 2006)
Passengers car per 1 000 inhabitants

800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
y
iti 4
a
G te
a
en a
or a
ia
Ca na
Ca ia
e
o
Ro o
Ca Re to
M mo
Ta ri
Pa ria o
ic ot ri
a
ua
n
rin
Pa e
Fo s
ce
al
al 2
It s
on
en
Fl g n
at
ci
rn
rm
b i
Ba
un T g l i a
du
le
ila
ic
gg
n
la gg
s
e
n
si
en
en
es
ie
ip al
ta
Tu
Pr
ra
r
ap
vo
od
er
lo
Pa
es
le
M
Tr
Br
Bo
N
V
Li
M
m
1996 2000 2005 2006
Figure 2.21 Car fleet composition per emission standards in 2006
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
y
Ve ia
Ca ia
CaReg to
G e
na
o
Ta ari
Fo s
Ve a
or a
a
Ro o
It i
ia
ce
ce
o
ua
a
e
rin
r
al
le
st
at
n
en
Fl gn
rm
rn
la gi
rm
Pa bria
ia
du
m
c
n
ila
gg
n
en
ni
si
ro
B
es
en
ap
ta
ie
Tu
Pr
ra
gl
vo
od
lo
Pa
es
Pa
M
le
Tr
Ca
Br
N
Bo
Li
M
Euro 4 Euro 3 Euro 2 Euro 1 Pre-Euro
Source: APAT, 2007.

example, in London the congestion charge greatly single buildings, so helping protect open spaces
reduced the number of cars in the city. However, against noise from sources at the surface (Box 2.14).
air quality was not improved measurably for Furthermore, technical measures like noise barriers
some substances (PM and NO2). Therefore, in 2008 or tunnels support the reduction of noise and at
London introduced a low emission zone for a much the same time help limit local air pollution. These
larger area, in which only lorries with a well-defined solutions can be developed to meet specific local
emission standard are permitted. In Copenhagen the problems of air quality and noise. However, the
promotion of a walking and cycling infrastructure emissions in total remain the same, as they do not
and very restrictive parking policies in the centre has address the problem at source. Also, such measures
led to 36 % of Copenhageners now choosing to cycle often incur high and permanent maintenance costs
to work (see also Box 2.6). Local administrations (Box 2.14).
plan compact cities enabling the reduction of
transport demand and shifts to public transport, To further improve air quality, some cities invest in
walking and cycling. In such cities, the objective is to improved insulation of houses and efficient, low
ensure that everyone is within 1 km of green space emission heating systems like district heating (see
— 5 minutes by bike or 10 minutes on foot. A good example in Box 2.4). Energy management of houses
example is Stockholm (Map 2.9) where the 'red and combustion plants is a means to secure low
fingers' of the town sit side by side with the 'green emissions in buildings. Green public and private
fingers' — rivers, parks and other green spaces. procurement and the procurement of clean vehicles,
environmentally certified buildings and applications
Over the longer term inner cities can be built more offer local government opportunities to demonstrate
compactly, based on closed blocks rather than good practice to citizens.
Map 2.9 Stockholm, Sweden: green and red finger zoning plans
Stockholm, Sweden
Urban areas
Green urban areas
Forest
Agricultural areas
Sea and water bodies
0 10 20 30 Km
Source: EEA, Corine Land Cover 2000.

Box 2.14 Rotterdam — examples of protection against noise and air pollution
Map 2.10 Traffic noise map of Rotterdam, the Netherlands
Traffic noise map of Rotterdam 2007

dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
Gemeente Rotterdam
50
75
–5
–6
–6
–7
–7
<
>
50
55
60
65
70
Source: DCMR, 2007.
The Map of Rotterdam shows very high and high noise level on nearly every major road.
Map 2.11 shows a typical situation where there is a high level of noise at the front of the dwellings, but
the backs are quiet due to the compact building frontages. The noise action plan for Rotterdam proposes
the use of quiet road surfaces in this area, and future replacement of the road with a tunnel.
Such a tunnel will also affect the air quality situation as described in Maps 2.12 and 2.13.

Box 2.14 Rotterdam — examples of protection against noise and air pollution (cont.)
Map 2.11 Closed blocks keep noise out
Source: DCMR.
Maps 2.12 and 2.13 demonstrate the improvement of air quality when tunnels are used for large roads
in residential areas. However, there is a problem at the entrance and exit of the tunnels, where the air
quality can be worse than without the tunnel (left figure). At this point, there either needs to be a larger
area where no one is exposed to the polluted air or the adoption of an expensive technical solution, such
as cleaning the air flow by filters. The maps show the results of a calculation on NO2 concentrations made
by TNO.
Map 2.12 No tunnel Map 2.13 With tunnel
Source: TNO, 2003. Source: TNO, 2003.

Barriers to effective action emission standards for vehicles, including ships and
aircraft, and industry; exposing the external costs of
Despite all that is known and has been done, noise and pollution sources; and providing incentives
air pollution and noise in cities remain serious for cleaner and quieter alternatives, including the
problems. This is because while air pollution and shift to other transport modes, and support for the
noise are recognised as major public concerns, introduction of environmental zones and other local
changes in the organisation and structure of environmental policies.
urban areas to reduce air pollution and noise are
not always popular. Individual interests collide European legislation should also enable practical and
with societal interests to provide clean air and flexible solutions. In the case of tunnels (Box 2.14), air
quiet environments for all citizens. For example, quality can be improved significantly where roads are
individual car owners want to use their car, but driven underground but levels are typically exceeded
better air and acoustic quality for all citizens elsewhere. EU legislation does not permit such
requires more environmentally friendly modes; measures as the air pollution at the end of the tunnel
or, business urges policy‑makers to provide more increases above the limit value. Local and regional
road access presenting it as a basic condition for authorities should be encouraged to adapt European
investment in jobs. These conflicts are difficult to standards to the specifics of the local geographical,
resolve at a local level. environmental, social and economic situation. Only
then, they will they be able to tackle air pollution
The case study of Italian cities (Box 2.13) and the effectively.
case of the German city of Coburg mentioned earlier
demonstrate clearly that the problems of air pollution National policy
cannot be solved by one administrative level alone.
Too many sources of air pollution lead to a high Policies at national level can also influence individual
background concentration, which often requires choice, for example whether to drive a car at all and
relatively small contributions from local roads before if so what type of car. Measures to influence these
limit values are reached. A similar situation applies choices could be based on taxation according to the
to noise, in particular from transit transport. The pollution levels of the vehicle, and the provision of
improvement of air quality must be a joint effort by alternatives to the car such as public transport.
all government levels; otherwise cities will not be
able to meet the standards for air quality and ambient Cities
noise. While road transport demand has been
increasing progressively in the past decades — in At a local level cities need to strengthen their efforts
particular in the new EU Member States — in many to make the available good practice to reduce air
cities the speed of introduction of responses to new pollution and noise levels not only for their cities,
Euro standards for vehicle emissions was too slow to but also to support mainstreaming throughout
meet the air quality limit values of the EU directive Europe. This requires working with other sectors
before they became even stricter. — otherwise it remains an isolated solution that
cannot be fully developed and will not achieve its
Overcoming barriers to action full potential. Major areas of necessary cooperation
include urban planning to reduce sprawl, decrease
Local, regional, national and European policies must transport demand, and facilitate the construction
go hand in hand to achieve the values of the Air of more compact cities (see also Section 2.3).
Quality and the Ambient Noise Directives. Only an Public participation is also essential to ensure the
integrated approach will be successful. This means representation of the interests of all societal groups. In
integration of policy, legislation and measures at all these ways air and sound quality policies can become
levels (local, regional, national and European) and fully integrated into urban and transport planning.
extended beyond air and sound quality to include
energy, safety, urban design, public space etc. It is Strong political commitment
also crucial to include business and industry in this
approach. The improvement of air and acoustic quality
in Europe's cities requires a strong political
The European level commitment and a shared future vision for the
city and all citizens. The vision facilitates the
Europe as a whole must set the framework, provide assessment of single measures and their effects
basic conditions and aim to reduce background in a wider context and provides the platform to
emissions. This must be done primarily by setting convince people of the benefits of changes that are

initially unwelcome. Achieving good air quality and resources to protect their coastlines, but others
and acceptable noise levels while maintaining may not be so fortunate and will require ongoing
socio‑economic and cultural infrastructure requires support and guidance. Even for those cities that
a well‑balanced approach and cooperation at all have some knowledge or experience in flood
administrative levels and of all stakeholders. risk management, the potential severity of some
predicted impacts means that without innovative
solutions, the effects may be unmanageable.
2.5 Climate change Map 2.16 shows the risks of flooding in other areas
of Europe due to extreme weather events.
In 2008 Barcelona ordered huge quantities of
water delivered by tanker to serve its population Droughts and heat waves are most associated with
and tourists. In 2003, the summer heat wave the southern parts of Europe. However, a simple
killed 14 800 people in France, 18 000 in Italy, and geographic division of threat will not suffice
all together around 52 000 across Europe (EPI, explanation, as shown by the Paris heat waves of
2006). In 2002 pictures of flooded Dresden and recent years. The effects of climate change are also
other German cities showed extreme flooding of dependent on the specific characteristics of the
the River Elbe. All such events may occur more locality. For example, the 'urban heat island' effect
frequently because of climate change. is a well‑known result of urbanisation. The case of
Zaragoza (Spain) shows that differences in urban
The impacts of climate change are increasingly a density and vegetation cover account for 37 %
serious threat to people's quality of life; but our of the thermal variation between the city and its
lifestyles, the way we consume and produce goods surrounding rural areas. Temperature also differs
and services, continue to trigger further climate across the city, with green urban areas clearly
change. As a key policy objective, the EU has cooler than high density urban areas (Cuadrat
stated that to avoid major irreversible impacts on Prats et al., 2005). Another example is vulnerability
society and ecosystems the temperature must be to floods: weather events play a part but so does
stabilised to below 2 °C above pre‑industrial levels. the way urban areas are built, as shown in flood
Global action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions simulations for the Dresden‑Prague corridor
is needed, but even if the EU target is achieve, (Box 2.8) and Stockholm and Göteborg (Box 2.15).
impacts of climate change will persist and we will
need to adapt to these new conditions. The new risks of droughts, heat waves and floods
further exacerbate the existing environmental
The concentration of population and activities in problems of many cities and towns, including
urban areas means that cities and towns must play low air quality and water supply problems. High
a major part in mitigating climate change both population density and their physical structure
locally and globally. Europe requires that cities make cities highly vulnerable to the impacts of
contribute to the battle against climate change but climate change.
also needs to complement and support actions the
cities take. This is a twofold challenge for cities Climate change and quality of life
as they will also have to adapt to the effects of
inevitable climate change. Climate change will have significant impacts on
the environment, public health and the economy.
Cities and upcoming changes Climate change will cause deaths during heat
waves, increase health problems as a result of
In addition to a rise of the mean annual additional particle emissions during droughts,
temperature in Europe (Map 2.14), projections exacerbate ozone and air quality related health
indicate an increase in the severity and frequency problems, and intensify the distribution and
of droughts, floods, heat waves, and other extreme spread of infectious diseases. It will also affect
weather events that are expected to have major the basic elements of life and hence our economy.
impacts during this century (IPPC, 2007; EEA, The Stern Review argues that if no action is taken,
2008). Also, as Map 2.15 shows, the expected the overall costs and risks of climate change will
impacts differ widely across the European regions. be equivalent to losing at least 5 % of global GDP
each year worldwide. In contrast, the costs of
In coastal areas sea levels are predicted to rise action — reducing greenhouse gas emissions to
between 10 and 45 cm and by 2050 many cities face avoid the worst impacts of climate change — can
the serious risk of flooding. Some countries, for be limited to around 1 % of global GDP each year
example the Netherlands, may have the knowledge (Stern, 2006).

Map 2.14 Apparent southward shift of European cities — due to climate change, 2070–2100
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° Projected mean annual
temperature and
temperature-equivalent
southward shift for the
period 2070–2100
according to the IPCC A2
60° Scenario
Present position
60°
Position corresponding
to mean annual
temperature for
scenario period
Oslo Helsinki 50°
50°
London Warsaw
Paris
40°
40°
Madrid Rome 0 500 1000 1500 km

0° 10° 20° 30°
Source: Hiederer et al., 2009a — Original data source: Danish Meteorological Institute, PRUDENCE Project — Data elaboration: JRC.
The burdens and benefits of climate change are new technologies in efficient energy production,
not equally distributed (EEA, 2008). The type and renewable fuels and heating. The vulnerability
location of threat will have significant economic of cities and increasing awareness are a driving
implications, as some cities will suffer great impacts force to find innovative solutions for adaptation to
and others will enjoy positive effects. Within urban climate change and ensure quality of life. Financial
areas climate change can aggravate social inequalities, benefits from a shift towards the development of
as typically the poor live in climatically less favoured new technologies could, at least in part, balance
areas and do not have the resources to adapt their the costs of necessary changes in production and
housing to deal with the effects of climate change. consumption.
The consumption patterns and lifestyles related to
our quality of life also drive climate change and The role of cities in the mitigation of change
threaten the ecological, economic and social basis of
quality of life in the longer term. Emissions of greenhouse gases are linked to the
material consumption of goods and services, and in
However, apart from its serious negative effects, particular the fossil energy resources used to produce
climate change and the fight against it can create these goods and services and make them available to
new opportunities to develop the local and regional the consumer (see Section 2.2). The urban population
economy and new employment through, for in Europe accounts for 69 % of European energy use
example, the development of the global market for (IEA, 2008) and thus most greenhouse gas emissions;

Map 2.15 Climate change impacts for the main biogeographic regions of Europe
-60° -50° -40° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
70°
Arctic
Decrease in Arctic sea-ice
sea ice coverage
coverage
Greenland ice
ice-sheet
sheet loss
European seas Northern Europe (boreal region) 60°

Sea-level rise Less snow, lake and river ice cover
Higher sea surface temperatures Increased river flows
Northward movement of species Higher forest growth
Increase in phytoplankton biomass Higher crop yields
Higher risk for fish stocks Northward movement of species
More energy by hydropower
Lower energy consumption for heating
More (summer) tourism
Higher risk of damages by winter storms
60°
North-western Europe (maritime climate) Central and eastern Europe
Increase in winter precipitation More temperature extremes
Increase in river flow Less summer precipitation
Northward movement of freshwater species More river floods in winter
Higher risk of coastal flooding Higher water temperature
Higher crop yield variability
Increased forest fire danger
Lower forest stability
50°
Mountain areas
High temperature increase
Less glacier mass
Less mountain permafrost
50° Higher risk of rock falls
Upwards shift of plants and animals
Less ski tourism in winter
Higher soil erosion risk
High risk of species extinction
40°
40°
Mediterranean region
Decrease in annual precipitation 30°
Decrease in annual river flow
More forest fires
Lower crop yields
Increasing water demand for agriculture
30° Higher risk for desertification
Less energy by hydropower
More deaths by heat waves
More vector-borne diseases
0 5 00 1000 1500 Km Less summer tourism
Higher risk of biodiversity loss
-10° 0° 10° 20° 30°
Main biogeographic regions of Europe (EEA member countries)
Arctic North-western Europe Mountain areas
Arctic — Greenland Central and eastern Europe Mediterranean region

(not EEA member)
Boreal region
Source: IPPC, 2007; EEA, 2008.

although on average, because of the effects of sustainable supplies of energy to provide the
population density, the individual city resident economic activity underpinning increasing energy
consumes less energy than the rural resident. demand and expectations. This is becoming more
and more difficult in times of tight energy markets,
Overall, final energy consumption in EU‑27 has expanding global energy demand and complex
risen by 10 % between 1990 and 2006. Transport geopolitical circumstances. In order to mitigate
has been the fastest‑growing sector since 1990 the various risks while maintaining quality of life,
and is now the largest consumer of energy. Urban efforts must continue to reduce the urban as well as
transport alone accounts for 40 % of the CO2 overall demand for energy and energy services.
emissions produced by European road transport
(EC, 2007d). EU‑wide energy projections anticipate Despite the fact that today, most of the emission
a continued growth in energy consumption to 2030 reduction plans and measures are under the
in all sectors and hence increasing emissions of control of the Member States, and implementation
greenhouse gases (Figure 2.22). takes place at national and regional level, cities
have by virtue of their population size a great
Underlying the challenge to maintain quality of potential and specific competence in mitigation
life in urban areas is the need for sufficient and policies; in particular, the potential to plan the
Map 2.16 Climate change impacts — exposure to flood risk under the climate change
scenario A2
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° Flood risk in European
cities
Portion of urban land
exposed to potential floods
under climate change
scenario A2 (high emission)
60°
<3%
60° 3 %–6 %
6 %–10 %
10 %–20 %
> 20 %
50°
50°
40°
40°
0 500 0° 1000 1500 km

10° 20° 30°
Note: Several major European cities (> 100 000 inhabitants) are potentially exposed to flood events (return period 100 years). This
is a no-action scenario and coastal floods are not included.
Source: Hiederer et al., 2009b.

Box 2.15 Threat of flooding — examples from Stockholm and Göteborg (Sweden)
Lake Mälaren runs into the sea at Stockholm

and the Vänern Lake at Göteborg. They provide
drinking water for these cities. The consequences
of flooding corresponding to the 100-year return
level would be:
Mälaren:
• Buildings would be flooded (housing, offices
and service = area of 360 000 m2, other
buildings = area of 480 000 m2)
• Tunnels might be flooded, e.g. the
Riddarholms-tunnel through which all train
traffic through Stockholm passes, tunnels for
water, electricity and telephone. Photo: © Jens Georgi
• Contaminated areas would be flooded leading
to leakage of harmful substances which might
affect drinking water quality.
• Roads and rail roads would be flooded.
Vänern:
• Buildings (housing, offices and service = area of 1 200 000 m2, other buildings = area of
1 500 000 m2), roads and rail roads would be flooded.
• Shipping might be cancelled between the lake and the sea.
• Contaminated areas would be flooded leading to leakage of harmful substances which might affect
drinking water quality.
Source: Miljödepartementet, 2006.
Figure 2.22 Final energy consumption by city in a way that facilitates sustainable urban
sector in EU‑27 transport, low energy housing, etc. City design
should facilitate further lowering of average
Shares in 2006 individual energy consumption. New technologies
Million tonnes of oil equivalent for energy efficiency and renewable resources,
1 200 3.7 % such as solar energy, wind energy and alternative
1 100 11.4 % fuels, are also important, as is the provision of
1 000
opportunities for individuals and organisations
900 25.9 % to change their behaviour. Frontrunner cities are
800
700
already beginning to act as catalysts for change
600
and provide excellent examples of best practice
500
27.6 % (see Boxes 2.16 and 2.17).
400
300 Reducing energy consumption
200 31.5 %
100 In response to the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol
0 and also to increasing concerns about the security
19 0
19 1
19 2
19 3
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
19 8
20 9
20 0
20 1
20 2
20 3
20 4
20 5
06
of energy supply, European Member States have

9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
19
Agriculture and other sectors Industry adopted various national programmes aimed at
Services Transport reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and various
Households
policies and measures have been adopted at the
EU level, in particular through the European
Source: EEA; Eurostat, 2008. Climate Change Programme, for example:

Box 2.16 Barcelona (Spain) — Plan for Energy Improvement(PEIB)
Initial situation
In Barcelona it has been recognised that a shift
towards sustainable energy systems in cities is
urgently required. The promotion of a rational
use of energy, together with the development
of renewable energy strategies became a clear
priority in Barcelona.
Solution
The City Council established the Plan for Energy
Improvement in Barcelona (PEIB) covering the
period 2002–2010 with the following goals: to
increase the use of renewable energy (especially
solar energy); to reduce the use of non‑renewable
energy sources and to lower the emissions Photo: © Agència d'Energia de Barcelona
produced by energy consumption. The plan
comprises promotion policies, demonstration projects, legal and management instruments, and the
integration of energy measures into urban development.
A relevant initiative within the plan has been the further implementation of a Solar Thermal Ordinance,
which was approved previously and aims at regulating, through local legislation, the implementation of
low-temperature systems for collecting and using active solar energy for the production of hot water for
buildings. New buildings and buildings undergoing major refurbishment are required to use solar energy to
supply 60 % of their running hot water requirements. Since its enforcement until the end of 2006 a total
of 40 095 m2 of solar panels have been installed with annual savings of 32 076 Megawatt hours per year,
corresponding to the amount of energy needed to provide hot water for 58 000 inhabitants per year.
To promote the Ordinance and its acceptance, Barcelona has implemented a broad communications
program. The city has published an explanatory guide for the Ordinance in several languages, held
periodic round tables and meetings with stakeholders (contractors' associations, engineers, architects,
environmental organisations, neighbourhood
associations, citizens), promoted the Ordinance in
neighbouring cities, implemented demonstration Figure 2.23 Renewable energy, Barcelona
projects (such as solar thermal installations at (Spain)
swimming pools), and supported community based
initiatives such as the 'Solar Day' in Barcelona. GWh
25

As a result of the PEIB the generation of renewable
20
energy produced by both thermal and photovoltaic
solar power installations in Barcelona increased
dramatically. The communications program is 15
crucial to encourage adoption of the different
measures and of the Solar Thermal Ordinance.
The plan is turning Barcelona into one of the cities 10
that make most use of solar energy and its Solar

Thermal Ordinance has become a model for more
5
than 50 Spanish municipalities and was a major
input to the new Spanish building code.
0
Despite these remarkable achievements, further 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
efforts are necessary to reduce and reverse the Photovoltaics Thermosolar
tendency to increase energy consumption.
Source: Agència d'Energia de Barcelona.
Source: Agència d'Energia de Barcelona, http://www.barcelonaenergia.cat; http://www.bcn.cat/mediambient.

Box 2.17 Västra Hamnen in Malmö (Sweden) — carbon neutral residential area
Initial situation
Structural changes in Malmö's economy have
transformed the city from its traditional industrial
background. The city decided to build a new
attractive and sustainable residential area in a
former harbour area. Part of the concept was the
aim to provide 100 % of the energy for the area
from locally renewable sources.
Solution
In the project area 1 000 homes get their energy
supply from renewable sources; solar energy,
wind power and water, the latter through a heat
pump that extracts heat from seawater and an
aquifer — a natural water reserve in the bedrock
that facilitates seasonal storage of both heat and
cold water. 1 400 m2 of solar collectors, placed on
top of ten of the buildings complement the heat
produced by the heat pump to supply the area. A
large wind power station (2MW) placed in Norra
Hamnen (the north harbour) and 120 m2 of solar
cells produce electricity for the apartments, the
heat pump, fans and other pumps within the area.
The 100 % renewable energy equation is based on

an annual cycle, meaning that at certain periods
of the year the city district borrows from the city
systems and at other times the Västra Hamnen
area supplies the energy systems with its surplus.
An important part of the concept is low energy use

Photo: © Birgit Georgi
in the buildings. Each unit is only allowed to use
105 kWh/m2/year, including household electricity.
There are many technical solutions to achieve this.
Urban density and a sustainable transport concept complement the activities to contribute to the
mitigation of climate change
Results
The project has been a major success. Today, after a few of adjustments, most houses have reached the
target or are close to it. The energy system has worked excellently from an overall perspective and the
new technologies, where solar collectors are connected to the district heating system grid, have worked
well. The only problem arose in the areas with heat pumps, a generally known technology. Seven years
after its inauguration the area still attracts thousands of international visitors underlining its international
significance.
An important factor in the success of the project was early and open dialogue with the construction
companies. Together common goals were established with which everyone could agree, instead of relying
on legislation.
More information: www.ekostaden.com.

• the EU Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading developing efficient public transport, and
Scheme, which forms the cornerstone of EU increasing the production and use of renewable
efforts to reduce emissions of large industries energy (Boxes 2.16 and 2.17). It is also essential
cost effectively; that local and regional governments adopt more
ambitious local and regional targets to bring down
• increased use of renewable energy sources such CO2 levels. Some cities for example Rotterdam,
as wind, solar or biomass (Directive 2001/77/EC) the Hague, London (Box 3.6) and Newcastle have
and combined heat and power installations made commitments to become carbon neutral.
(Directive 2004/8/EC); City administrations working with sectoral partner
organisations are promoting reduced energy
• improvements in energy efficiency in, for use, renewable zero emission energy and energy
example, buildings (Directive 2002/91/EC), efficiency to mitigate the negative impacts of climate
industry (Directive 2006/32/EC), household change.
appliances (Directive 2005/32/EC).
Acknowledging the fact that a city alone cannot
More information can be obtained from http:// tackle the challenge of climate change, cities are also
ec.europa.eu/environment/climat/climate_action. developing joint actions to mitigate climate change,
htm. for example the Nottingham Declaration on Climate
Change (Box 2.18) and the Covenant of the Mayors
In March 2007, the EU leaders endorsed an Initiative (Box 1.8).
ambitious climate change and energy plan to reduce
EU greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by 2020 as
compared with 1990 levels. Adaptation to climate change
Low carbon options for cities include planning The key question in adaptation to climate change is
efficient city structures, controlling urban sprawl, how cities and regions can secure the functioning
Box 2.18 Nottingham Declaration on Climate Change
Initial situation
Climate change poses a genuine threat to our planet. The scale of the challenge means that all sectors
of the community have to be involved if we are to meet targets for reducing emissions and adapting to
climate change. Local Authorities in particular have a crucial role to play in responding to this challenge.
Solution
The declaration is a voluntary pledge to address the issues of climate change. It represents a high-level,
broad statement of commitment that any council can make to its own community. The declaration was
originally launched in October 2000 at a conference in Nottingham with 200 leaders, chief executives
and senior managers of UK local government. To mark the fifth anniversary of the declaration it was
re-launched on 5 December 2005 at the Second National Councils Climate Conference. The new version
of the declaration is broadly similar to the original, but better reflects current thinking. The process
of revising and re-launching the declaration was undertaken by a steering group that includes all the
main national agencies concerned with the different aspects of climate change along with IDeA, LGA,
Nottingham City Council and ICLEI, as well as the worldwide association of local governments concerned
with sustainability.
Results
So far, over 200 local authorities have signed the declaration but it is vital that all local authorities
commit themselves to the process. The declaration is an important starting point, but local authorities
are encouraged to develop an action plan to ensure that their good intentions turn into reality. This new
declaration is accompanied by an online action pack that outlines the milestone activities that should be
undertaken, together with a range of options on how to do this.
More information: http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/nottingham.

of essential infrastructure for energy provision, Multiple coordinated actions require a broad
electricity and heating, wastewater and water integrated approach.
distribution, reduce of health risks, and avoid loss
of biodiversity, green open spaces and space for • The lack of understanding and knowledge
the production of food, while the risks presented present other challenges. In general, there is
by storms or floods increase. The upcoming only a low level of awareness in cities of the
unavoidable climate changes therefore require concrete impacts of climate change and what
cross‑sectoral thinking and new strategies. Public they must do to reduce emissions and adapt
spaces including squares and parks may need to be to the impacts. The Eurobarometer (2008b)
used differently and will require mechanisms for showed that 75 % of the population believes
cooling and ventilation (Box 2.19). Buildings must that climate change is a very serious problem,
be able to cool and heat more efficiently. Space for but only just over half of the people feel
locally produced energy sources must be found. informed about the causes and consequences.
Cities vulnerable to drought or excessive rainfall In addition, precise information on energy
need to act in tandem with their regions to increase consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and
water storage capacity. Others may need to adapt their sources exist for only a few cities, and this
their city structure to rising sea levels (Box 2.20). clearly complicates target setting and action.
Cities do acknowledge the need to rethink the
nature of the urban fabric but concrete action is still • Current policy lacks sufficient level of long
very limited. term commitment, in particular economic,
to initiate the necessary measures, although
At the European level, the Green Paper on awareness of the likely effects of climate change
adaptation to climate change (EC, 2007f) and a has grown since the publication of the IPCC
White Paper (EC, 2009) as well as various plans at reports (IPCC, 2007) and the Stern Report
national level provide general adaptation strategies (Stern, 2006).
and options.
• Only a few of the most advanced cities have
Barriers to effective action experience of implementing measures that
allow adaptation to the 'new' climate change
Current efforts may be at a scale previously conditions (Box 2.20). The development of
unimagined but are still not enough to respond solutions and the exchange of experience and
adequately to the problems of climate change. best practice in these areas are most valuable,
but are often limited to small scale pilot projects.
• Individual cities may feel that acting alone will
have limited effect and that they are not in a Overcoming barriers by cooperation
position to implement all the changes they need
to make. Climate change is a global challenge Europe cannot expect to achieve its major climate change
and must be addressed through the United objectives without contributions from the major European
Nations, the EU and national governments, urban centres towards achieving these goals, said Ronan
so the actions taken by cities also depend on Dantec, Vice Mayor of Nantes, in 2008.
national actions and actions by other cities and
regions worldwide. As tackling climate change requires many different
actions across many sectors, involving different
• The role of urban areas in mitigating climate actors at all levels, connections with policies other
change is not yet reflected in current policy than climate change are critical. An integrated
documents, such as those within the framework approach is required that links policies on air
of the European Climate Change Programme, quality, road safety, noise, energy, urban sprawl,
and is rarely included in national strategies and accessibility and liveability, social balance and other
plans related to the Climate Change Framework urban issues.
Convention and the Kyoto Protocol.
Europe and the Member States need to consider
• Coordination of many different sectors and fully the potential of cities and towns and develop
actors poses another challenge. There are stronger, and perhaps more formal cooperation.
a number of existing technical solutions to The Covenant of the Mayors initiative is a step in the
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, for example right direction. To be fully effective, cities need to
enhanced renewable energy and energy combine their efforts with those of other cities and
efficiency, but there is no single major solution. with national and European initiatives.

Box 2.19 UK adaptation of 19th century houses to climate change
Problem
Projections for climate change in the United Kingdom indicate that peak summer temperatures could be
up to 7 °C warmer than today by the latter decades of this century, but buildings in the United Kingdom
have evolved to provide thermal comfort in a temperate northern Europe climate. The following modelled
case explores possibilities to adapt 19th century family houses, typical of many towns and cities in the
United Kingdom.
Situation
The house as built has four bedrooms and is semi-detached. It has a brick and render façade and a slate
roof. The building is poorly insulated, with solid wall construction and single glazed windows. Ventilation
is provided by opening windows.
During the summer indoors, the 'warm' and 'hot' discomfort temperatures are increasingly exceeded
for house interiors over the next decades, putting the rooms into a heat stress zone (Figure 2.24). The
failure of the building to regulate indoor temperatures is a consequence of a number of factors but
particularly the lack of shading from the sun and poor control of ventilation.
Solution
The adapted house has solar shading: external blinds or shutters capable of screening out 95 % of
sunlight during the day, and ventilation: a secure means of ventilation, capable of providing ventilation
rates similar to those provided by opening the windows. Here, it is assumed the ventilation system is
mechanical, but it could potentially use natural ventilation. The ventilation system provides maximum
ventilation whenever indoor temperatures are above 24 °C, and above the outside temperature.
Results
The adaptation measures considerably reduce the proportion of hours in which the discomfort
temperatures are exceeded (Figure 2.24). However, the 1 % overheating limit is exceeded from the
2020s onwards in the bedroom (3 % exceedance) and from the 2050s onwards in the living room.
The adaptation measures have a limited effect on reducing peak temperatures.
Figure 2.24 Discomfort temperature as built (left) and as adapted (right)
% occupied hours per year % occupied hours per year

40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
1980s 2020s 2050s 2080s 1980s 2020s 2050s 2080s
Living room (T > 28 °C) Living room (T > 28 °C)

Bedroom (T > 25 °C) Bedroom (T > 25 °C)
Since the adaptation measures are only applied during the summer they have no affect on heating
energy. In summer, additional energy is required to power the fans for the ventilation system, but the
predicted energy consumption of the fans is relatively small. The house's greenhouse gas emission is
expected to decrease.
The house could alternatively be kept cool using air conditioning, but this increases the greenhouse gas
emissions more than the reduction in emissions resulting from lower winter heating offsets.
Source: Hacker, J. N.; Belcher, S. E. and Connell, R. K., 2005; more information: www.ukcip.org.uk.

Box 2.20 The Netherlands — learning from bad and good practice
Bad practice — new settlements 1970–1990
Various new urban settlements in the Netherlands between 1970–1990 implemented ambitious
sustainable building practices (DUBO), but they all neglected efforts to prevent the effects of flooding,
drought, increased energy consumption for cooling, etc.
Some of these suburban areas have already been demolished and rebuilt due to social problems. In most
cases the original ambitions of providing quality of life were never met due to a lack of money as well as
lack of interest from developers and local public government for future end user needs. They wanted a
quick return from investment and had no time for realizing sustainable solutions.
Lessons learnt
Integration of know how and knowledge in the decision‑making process would be more effectively
enabled by the active participation of stakeholders (learning by doing) instead of more instruments or
new regulations.
Good practice — building with Water Haarlemmermeer
Problem
In the Haarlemmermeer polder area (Schiphol area), there is concurrently an increasing demand for
housing and for water peak and seasonal storage in the same space.
Solution
The municipalities of the area developed an efficient and effective plan for multifunctional climate proof
urban development, based on the storage of water. Public agencies at all levels, together with private
agencies (building, developing and corporate housing) joined forces with various knowledge institutes
throughout the Netherlands.
Results
The plan to designate a large part of the Haarlemmermeer polder (Schiphol area) for experimenting with
adaptation principles achieved a broad acceptance. The approach also contributes to solving problems at
regional and European scale by accumulated knowledge on adaptation towards flooding and droughts risks.
More information: www.bouwenmetwater.nl.
The European Commission should provide Developing and distributing tools

assistance to Member States in the development
of national adaptation strategies with a local Many tools can help in combating climate change
dimension, and a local role should be defined for and its effects. Some key elements include:
the different actors at the local level, with special
focus on small and medium-sized initiatives. The • Awareness-raising campaigns at the EU and
Commission can support cities and regions by local level to address citizens' attitudes towards
providing tools, promoting information exchange both the mitigation and adaptation to climate
and cooperative approaches and by helping them change. These campaigns must provide very clear
produce and implement action plans on climate messages to citizens on their contributions to the
change. These plans should include actions on both reduction of emissions and their impacts, but also
mitigation and adaptation, based on robust and clear provide a clear message about the consequences
objectives, and a defined time plan. One method of if attitudes and behaviour remain unchanged.
support is to provide better access to information Indeed, this is common in many countries,
on climate change mitigation and adaptation such as the United Kingdom, where national
actions and good practice at city level. Information agencies provide information and guidance
on adaptation actions could be provided by the on ways to reduce the carbon footprint, whilst
proposed European Climate Change Impacts and local authorities work with partner agencies to
Adaptation Clearinghouse. provide information and services. An increased

understanding of the context and science behind transport, and to reducing transport needs by
the climate change debate and the probable appropriate city planning and design.
impacts of inaction could prove invaluable in
gaining support for acceptance of potentially
controversial measures (see also example in 2.6 Cohesion policy
Box 2.16). Awareness raising and increase
of knowledge is equally important among In 2004, when ten new Member States joined the
decision‑makers at the city level if they are to get European Union, it was anticipated that the benefits
broad support for climate-friendly developments. of stability, higher economic growth and improved
quality of life would be achieved by these countries,
• Compulsory sustainability impact assessments in the same way that recently Ireland, Portugal,
at the EU level to help provide answers to Spain and Greece had benefited. These shining
questions concerning the future model of the success stories of European integration over the last
sustainable urban environment. Given the years transformed some of the continent's poorest
need to reformulate urban planning, these members to wealthy economies. However, economic
assessments should be made with the climate success has come at a price. The highest increases
change projections for 2050 in mind. of greenhouse gases, doubling in the case of Spain
between 1990 and 2006, accompanied this economic
• Structural Funds checked against their impact transformation, and so undermined the quality of
on climate change. This is essential, and can life. Europe policies in the pursuit of the necessary
be used to support cities' adaptation to climate economic growth and regional convergence must be
change. Structural Funds will include specially based on a balanced approach, integrating social and
designated adaptation funds at the local level, environmental considerations and recognising that,
to help ensure that, for example, both new and in Europe at least, quality of life is mostly but not
existing buildings can be made climate neutral wholly dependent on higher incomes (Eurofound,
and climate proof. 2007).
• Regular and systematic involvement of cities The preceding sections advocated the need for a
and regions in discussions on how to integrate strong integration of policy levels and actors. This
climate change adaptation measures into all section focuses on European cohesion policy as
policies. There is a need for more involvement one illustration of the interdependencies between
of stakeholders as mentioned in the Commission European and local policy and its likely impacts
Green Paper on adaptation to climate change on quality of life. This chapter explores options
(EC, 2007f). to avoid the negative side effects of sustainable
development and maximise the positive effects in
• Improved knowledge base, in particular on order to improve quality of life in cities and regions
the local and regional level information across across Europe in economic, social, cultural and
Europe. Integrated climate change research, environmental terms.
including research on micro-climates and
urban heat island effects can also reduce the Overcoming disparities
uncertainty with respect to adverse climate
change impacts. Research and action should also Due to its historic development, Europe
focus more on the social and cultural dimension demonstrates economic, social and territorial
of the impacts of climate change. disparities between its regions apart from natural
disparities such as geographic or climate specifics.
• Exchange of good practice information, and Today, development is also driven by global forces
in particular that concerning climate change and enhanced competition between regions on a
adaptation, as well as discussion of the means global scale, major demographic trends, and climate
to implement good practice (Box 2.20). The change. The Treaty of Rome (1957) recognised
mainstreaming of such key exchanges through these differences and set out the vision that 'the
city networks and programmes like Interreg, as Community shall aim at reducing the disparities
well as the proposed European Climate Change between the levels of development of various
Impacts and Adaptation Clearinghouse can regions'. Determined action backed by real resources
provide a robust platform for future work. only began with the creation of the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF) in 1975. Today
• Making transport policy a priority. There must the Fund operates in liaison with the European
be a shift towards more sustainable modes of Social Fund (ESF); the two funds, together known

as the EU Structural Funds, represent the major providing cities huge opportunities to develop
instruments of EU cohesion policy. sustainably. Although there are no programmes
directly targeted at cities in the Structural Funds, the
Over the years, many disparities between the Operational Programmes can include such projects.
regions have been eroded; although, some may Hence, for the period 2007–2013 the Operational
have persisted, hidden within statistical averaging. Programmes funded by the ERDF have allocated
However, the accession of the ten Member States in the EUR 10 billion to Specific Priority Axis on urban
2004 doubled the development gap between Europe's development and many other projects indirectly
regions, and greatly increased the population subject related to urban areas (EC, 2008b).
to social exclusion. Most beneficiaries of cohesion
policy are now located in central and eastern Europe, Broader policy frameworks
and these changes required a major overhaul of
cohesion policy resulting in new guidelines for the EU cohesion policy should not stand in isolation but
period 2007–2013 (EC, 2006b) (Box 2.21). Cohesion must form a major part of a complex combination of
policy also supports other sectoral EU policies to meet policies at all administrative levels. The Structural
the aims of the Lisbon Strategy for jobs and economic Funds provide financial support and leverage effects
growth while respecting the needs of the Gothenburg for regional economies. The main interventions
and the renewed Sustainable Development Strategy, affecting territorial development, in particular the
which target the material basis of quality of life. urban environment, are shown in Table 1.2 and EC,
2007h. Successful implementation of cohesion policy
Urban dimensions depends on macroeconomic stability and structural
reforms at national level together with a range of
In 2006, Danuta Hübner, Commissioner for Regional other conditions favouring investment (EC, 2006b).
Policy, said: 'Europe's towns and cities have a vital Cohesion policy can, therefore, only be effective
role to play.. They are the motors of growth and with the full support of the legal systems affecting
jobs and centres of innovation and the knowledge land-use and land planning, such as taxation —
economy. At the same time, urban areas are the particularly taxation related to property — and
frontline in the battle for social cohesion and zoning or land ownership registers at the local
environmental sustainability.' (Hübner, 2006) level. However, decisions on these policy areas
remain the preserve of national, regional, or local
The Communication on cohesion policy and cities authorities.
(EC, 2006c) stresses the importance of cities and
towns. The current regulations applicable to the The implementation of cohesion policy is therefore
Structural Funds explicitly include the urban the responsibility of all partners, in particular the
dimension and territorial cooperation. The aim managing authorities at national or regional levels.
is also to strengthen polycentric development in The EU acts in accordance with the Treaties, but
Europe and cross‑border cooperation by promoting the principle of subsidiarity guides community
joint initiatives at the local and regional level, thus interventions, which requires that matters are
Box 2.21 Three pillars of EU Cohesion policy 2007–2013
Convergence
Supports the least developed member states and regions with more than 80 % of total expenditure,
funding amongst others, projects in environment, risk prevention, energy, and transport.
Competitiveness and employment

Supports the more developed regions, funding projects including protection of the environment and risk
prevention, for example the cleaning up of polluted areas, supporting energy efficiency, and clean public
transport.
Territorial cooperation
Aims at cross border activities, transnational and inter-regional cooperation. Programmes funded
via INTERREG and URBAN II support, for example, exchanges between cities on sustainable urban
development (examples Boxes 2.24 and 3.3).

handled at the lowest competent level. Successful environment by, for example, projects concerning
cohesion policy requires broad participation of urban transport and the revitalisation of city
stakeholders at all levels. centres (Box 2.22). Approximately 30 % of the
Structural Funds is allocated for environmental
Cohesion policy and quality of life programmes. The decoupling of economic
development and environment degradation is a
Cohesion policy is one of the most powerful EU fundamental challenge that must be met.
policies, deploying 35.7 % of the total EU budget
for the period 2007–2013. The wide range of Notwithstanding the clear and positive objectives
supported activities drives positive change and of cohesion policy, in some cases projects supported
aim to enhance quality of life and the environment by EU Structural Funds may cause unintended
of cities and towns in Europe. Cohesion policy is side-effects. For example, measures to increase
at the very core of issues concerning sustainable accessibility, which cities and towns can benefit
development, as it aims to support economic from, also lead to increases in transport demand
and social development whilst safeguarding the and exacerbate problems of noise, air pollution,
Box 2.22 Wrocław (Poland) — Structural Funds supporting public transport projects
Situation
Public transport still faces major problems in
Europe. The transport policy of the new EU
member states, in particular, focuses strongly
on road infrastructure, and in many of these
countries the national government has transferred
responsibility for public transport to municipalities.
National or regional funds in public transport, such
as those in Germany, are usually not available. As a
consequence, important imbalances remain among
cities and regions across Europe in terms of the
financial resources to provide high quality public
transport and its availability.
Another problem concerns the fact that effective

public transport concepts often require much
greater coordination than road projects. As a Photo: © Krystyna Haladyn
result, the implementation of such concepts is often
delayed or frozen. In both contexts, support from EU funds is crucial in giving the necessary impulse, in
particular in cities and regions that are lagging behind in both old and new Member states.
Solution
The city of Wrocław, Poland, faced such problems when it, together with environmental groups, started to
develop a concept to improve and increase the attractiveness of its public transport system. This concept
included a tramline expansion and the purchase of new vehicles as a pilot project, but implementation
failed because of a lack of resources. However, Wrocław and its partners further developed the concept
and implemented many smaller, low-cost measures.
Results
The low-cost measures have already led to an improvement of the public transport system of the city and
its neighbouring municipalities. Moreover, the integrated concept finally convinced European institutions
to dedicate EU funding to Wrocław in order to realize this and a further tram line. This EU support will
help to increase further the attractiveness of the city's public transport system and will offer a real
alternative to car travel that can contribute to limiting and reducing negative environmental effects from
transport.
More information: www.wroclaw.pl.

additional land take and fragmentation, and climate Avoiding negative impacts
change (Box 2.23). Possible side effects must be
considered in evaluations of the overall effectiveness Operational Programmes (10) form the basis for
of cohesion policy. requesting Structural Fund support. Through these
Box 2.23 European cohesion and transport policy — improving regional competitiveness with
unintended side effects
Improving the accessibility of regions and cities through the European Cohesion and transport policy,
as well as through national and local transport policies is seen as a key factor underlying regional
competitiveness and growth. Structural and Cohesion Funds have been used intensively to improve
accessibility and support the development of transport infrastructures.
For the period 2007–2013, more than EUR 80 billion are allocated for transport in the Structural Funds.
51 % of this budget is foreseen for road and air transport projects, 47 % for sustainable modes — rail,
shipping, cycling, multimodal and intelligent transport systems and clean urban transport, 2 % for
urban transport. Two thirds of the EU‑27 budget
is allocated for the 12 new Member States where
transport is given a high priority amounting to
20–38 % of the Structural Funds. In most new Figure 2.25 Distribution of the Structural
Member States road projects are prioritized Funds 2007–2013 allocated to
highest; meanwhile in many older Member States, transport
sustainable transport projects have a higher
EUR
priority, as many road projects were completed in 25 000 000 000
the last period.
Greater accessibility typically increases movement 20 000 000 000

between cities and enables wider commuting areas,
thus increasing demand for transport. Depending
on the mode of transport, it can involve more traffic 15 000 000 000
congestion, air pollution, noise, impacts on human
health and safety, and support urban sprawl, which
further increases the demand for road transport in
10 000 000 000
particular (see case study in Box 2.9). It will also
contribute further to the emission of greenhouse
gases and climate change effects, and reduce areas
5 000 000 000
for biodiversity and ecosystem services upon which
our quality of life and future development depend.
Furthermore, unbalanced project implementation, 0

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development and built environment, especially of Road and air transport
the new Member States, will orient their logistics Sustainable transport
and infrastructure towards the road infrastructure
Note: Sustainable transport is defined as: rail, shipping,
that is already available. A later shift back to rail
inland waters, cycling, multimodal transport,
will be costly and complicated, especially if it is intelligent transport systems, and clean urban
to be of good quality. The increased share of road transport.
transport will therefore contribute even more to Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Finland,
Ireland, Malta, the Netherlands, Sweden and
noise and air quality problems in cities and their United Kingdom are not shown due to only
environs and can counteract local activities to marginal fund allocations.
promote public and non‑motorized transport. Source: DG Regio, 2009.
(10) For a state of play of the submission and approval of National Strategy Frameworks and programmes, see http://ec.europa.eu/
regional_policy/index_en.htm.

funds, regions are able to support projects in cities projects financed by Structural Funds. This is
and towns. The Community Strategic Guidelines particularly relevant for urban development, as the
2007–2013 (EC, 2006b) request an integrated approach effective combination of the different dimensions of
and imply compliance with the precautionary sustainable development is a major challenge.
principle, efficient use of natural resources and the
minimisation of waste and pollution, thus including Past Community initiatives have also supported
quality of life in all its dimensions. The Commission the promotion of sustainable urban development,
guidelines on cohesion and cities (EC, 2006c; EC, including the URBAN initiative, URBACT,
2007h) provide further urban-specific guidance INTERREG, ESPON, Leader+ and Equal. The
on these issues. In addition, the EU Directives on URBAN initiative is particularly noteworthy, as it
Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic aimed specifically to tackle urban areas in crisis and
Impact Assessment require the assessment and promoted integrated and partnership approaches not
minimisation of any potential negative environmental only increasing and distributing knowledge but also
impacts of the projects, plans and programmes. cooperation among different stakeholders instead of
competition (Box 2.24 and Box 3.3).
As environmental projects are included under
different expenditure chapters of cohesion policy, a Barriers to policy implementation
number of studies have explored the effectiveness
of environmental interventions financed by the The strong engagement of cohesion policy with
Structural Funds (EEA, 2009b) and have identified other policies and actions at all administrative levels
key issues, including the importance of the horizontal obviously requires an integrated approach. This
perspective of environment policies and their should apply to the development of the Operational
integration in sectoral policy interventions such Programmes and to the individual projects although
as the Operational Programmes and investment often this does not occur in practice. For example,
Box 2.24 URBAN II Initiative in Mannheim and Ludwigshafen (Germany) —

cooperative urban development
Urban II was the Community Initiative of the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) for
sustainable development in urban districts that promoted the design and implementation of innovative
models of development for the economic and social regeneration of urban areas. It played a role in
strengthening information and experience-sharing on sustainable urban development in the European
Union, in particular by creating the URBACT network.
Situation
Ludwigshafen and Mannheim are at the centre of the Rhine-Neckar Triangle, Germany — a densely
populated urban region with 2.4 million inhabitants. The Rhine River separates the cities and also forms
the border between two federal states, yet Mannheim and Ludwigshafen are interlinked due to their
spatial proximity. During the 1990s both cities experienced negative economic development and declining
population.
Solution
To overcome the declining trend Ludwigshafen and Mannheim pooled their efforts and started a cross
regional project under the EU URBAN II programme, supported financially by Structural Funds. In
addition to the two cities, the two federal states of Baden-Wuerttemberg and Rheinland-Pfalz and other
local, regional and national authorities coorperated in the broad participatory approach of the project
(2000–2006).
The project focused on a comprehensive approach across all policy areas — economic, social, cultural
and environmental — in order to support integrated sustainable urban rehabilitation. Good practice,
developed in several pilot projects, should spread over the entire region, become the normal way of
conducting business and trigger an ongoing revitalization process.

Box 2.24 URBAN II Initiative in Mannheim and Ludwigshafen (Germany) —

cooperative urban development (cont.)
Photo: © Stadt Mannheim
Examples of such projects include:

• targeted support to small and medium enterprises thus creating new jobs;
• clean-up of inner-city brownfield areas as sites for business and other uses;
• rehabilitation of pedestrian zones and creation of new high quality public spaces along the rivers
increasing their attractiveness for people and thus for business activities;
• many small social projects supporting the integration of disadvantaged social groups
Results
Despite the fact that it is too early for the project to show any reversal of the overall trends, the actions
that have been initiated have shown early effects, in stopping the downward trend and increasing the
attractiveness of the cities, and have even led to a slight increase in population. The public information
activities also supported people's awareness and identification with their city, and increased their
voluntary engagement. This has already enabled some of the small projects, like an internet café for
pensioners in Ludwigshafen or two cultural events in Mannheim, to operate further with their own
resources.
Ludwigshafen and Mannheim have cooperated very closely in the economic area, against the trend of
competing regions and cities. The joint approach avoided wasting financial resources in competition and
led to benefits for both cities. The URBAN project even stimulated further cooperation in other areas like
construction and infrastructure.
The URBAN project enabled the testing of innovative approaches. For instance, it increased awareness
of the important effects that can be achieved by small social projects. The cities had developed these
projects consciously to enable citizens' active participation and to support larger projects with higher
investments. The will to cooperate, openness and a comprehensive participatory approach were the
important factors in the success of this project.
More information: http://www.ludwigshafen.de/standort/3/urban_ii/, www.mannheim.de.

particularly in the new Member States, Operational Overcoming barriers to action

Programmes include sectoral urban projects rather
than integrated 'URBAN II like' projects (EC, 2008b). When national progress is evaluated, social and
The example of wastewater treatment (Box 2.25) environmental indicators should be considered
demonstrates the potential benefits in the form alongside economic indicators. A recent survey
of effective as well as efficient solutions that can showed that 67 % of people in Europe think that
be delivered through more coordinated actions. progress should be measured in terms of these
One problem to date is that no common or precise objective elements of quality of life (Eurobarometer,
definition, guidance or standards for the integrated 2008a).
approach exists, and it is up to individual countries
and regions to define their own approach including EU cohesion policy takes into account the fact that
the level of integration and the participation in the long term high income and economic growth
of relevant stakeholders. Poor planning and alone do not ensure a socially balanced quality of
implementation of programmes and projects at local life, for which a healthy environment and enhanced
and other levels can result in ineffectiveness and low cultural and societal values are equally important.
uptake of public funds. This highly challenging balancing of priorities
requires further discussion and innovative responses,
In spite of their important role, cities and other local along with further insight into the issues associated
stakeholders are not necessarily directly involved in with territorial cohesion — a debate rekindled by the
the development of the Operational Programmes, Commission's Green Paper on territorial cohesion
though many projects concern urban issues. The (EC, 2008c) and the Beyond GDP conference and
level of stakeholder involvement depends on initiative. For example, is it appropriate to focus on
administrative practices and processes in place, and growth, in particular if measured in GDP terms, in
varies between Member States. every region given the legacy of historically diverse
development in Europe and the reality of an ageing
Some projects require the involvement of only and declining population? How can we turn the
a few cities and some the involvement of many. diversity of Europe's regions into an asset and how
Coordinating those involved can be complicated can we ensure that cities and regions in Europe
and can delay projects, leading to imbalance in collaborate to tackle current and future challenges,
the implementation of Operational Programmes instead of competing with each other?
(Box 2.23).
Bearing in mind the many interlinkages and the fact
In assessing the environmental impact of projects, that problems like climate change or urban sprawl
instruments such as Environmental Impact cannot be solved at one administrative level alone, the
Assessment and Strategic Impact Assessment are stakeholders of cohesion policy implementation need
available, but again, there are insufficient comparable to develop further and apply effectively an integrated
standards at the community level to ensure approach.
high environmental standards following project
implementation in all Member States. EU and integrated approaches
Plans, programmes and projects eligible for The European Commission needs to integrate
cohesion funding must comply in principle with its policy areas and support administrations in
EU environmental legislation (cross‑compliance the Member States so that they can fulfil their
principle). Apparent contradictions are not the result responsibilities for integrated action. With respect
of cohesion policy, rather the causes lie primarily in to cohesion policy, this requires the development of
EU environmental legislation itself, and the way it is better guidance on how to formulate an integrated
implemented and enforced by the Member States and approach that takes into account the EU Territorial
supervised by the Commission. Another cause lies in Agenda and the Leipzig Charter on sustainable
the absence of clear environmental conditions in the European cities. The Commission should further
cohesion framework (Box 2.26). promote the application of such guidelines and,
as far as possible, strengthen the development of
The actual impacts of cohesion policy and projects an integrated approach in regions and cities when
on other than the target areas; for example, by granting Structural Funds, as requested recently
contributing to urban sprawl or urban and regional by the European Parliament in its report on the
transport growth, are only partially understood, Territorial Agenda (European Parliament, 2008) (see
which hinders the adaptation of policies to minimise also Chapter 3). Creating awareness amongst regional
these adverse impacts. and local stakeholders based on the aims of the

Box 2.25 Integrated action to improve the efficiency of Structural Funds
The case of urban wastewater treatment

The urban wastewater sector had the largest share of the allocation to the environment through the
Structural and Cohesion Funds (ENEA 2006). The discharge of urban wastewater into rivers, lakes
and the sea is a matter of great concern in most countries. The EU Urban Waste Water Treatment
(UWWT) Directive (Council Directive 91/271/EEC) requires that all communities above a certain size
install adequate collection, treatment and sludge management systems to dispose safely of the urban
wastewater they generate.
However, despite three decades of effort only about 54 % of EU‑15 cities complied to the wastewater
treatment levels required by the Directive. Cohesion Funds can help to close this gap but need to be
applied efficiently.
Land use and wastewater treatment

Urban population and urban sprawl are important factors when planning the development and positioning
of urban water treatment plants. For example, in Spain about 55 % of the population is connected to
urban wastewater treatment plants, with the lowest connection rates in coastal areas (EEA, 2005).
Meanwhile the map of urban sprawl shows that urbanisation had primarily taken place in these coastal
areas. This raises the question as to whether fewer people will be connected to the UWTP at the end of
2006 than in 2000.
Map 2.17 Distribution of Cohesion Funds spent in sewerage and purification compared

to urban sprawl in Spain
Distribution of Cohesion Funds spent in sewerage Annual urban sprawl by NUTS 3,

and purification (environmental projects) by NUTS 3 between 1990 and 2000
Period 2000–2006 (*) (**)
< 5 mio euro Decrease

5–15 mio euro 0–0.75 %
15–30 mio euro 0.75–1.5 %
30–50 mio euro 1.5–3
> 50 mio euro >3%
No expenditure
(*) Data available until 2005.

(**) Projects from the previous period extended or executed during the period 2000–2006 are also included.
Source: EEA, 2005.

Box 2.25 Integrated action to improve the efficiency of Structural Funds (cont.)
Complementary economic instruments and incentives

The results of an EEA study (EEA, 2005) for some European countries indicate that there is a risk
of excessive investment in sewage-treatment capacity in the absence of complementary economic
instruments to provide industries with an incentive to promote eco-efficiency and to reduce pollution
at source. For example, the share of population served by public treatment in Spain was relatively
low compared to the total expenditure. In contrast, the Netherlands showed that the use of economic
instruments as an incentive to industry to reduce discharges at source has reduced the need for public
sewage-treatment plant capacity, and public investment, to a level well below that in other countries.
Conclusion
All these results contain interesting signals as to how to make Cohesion Funds in wastewater treatment
services even more effective. The data and results in both cases should be further analysed. A broad
integrated approach is absolutely necessary.
Source: EEA, 2005.
Box 2.26 Transport and cross‑compliance principles
The cross‑compliance principle means that the Operational Programmes concerning transport should
undergo a strategic environmental assessment and that most transport projects should undergo an
environmental impact assessment. However, these regulations do not set any measurable environmental
limits or targets and mostly focus on procedural aspects, which leave a large margin for manoeuver
by the Member States and their authorities regarding the selection of the mitigation measures.
Unfortunately, these laws are often seen as a bureaucratic exercise rather than a tool to deliver a better
environmental outcome. Furthermore, EU environmental legislation does not set targets and limits
directly applicable to the noise and air emissions brought about by transport plans and projects. The
setting of such standards is at the discretion of the Member States.
An unsustainable transport plan or project may therefore be given consent without breaching EU law in
a heavily polluted area. For instance, if the emissions arising from the plan or project are anticipated to
cause exceedance of EU air quality limits or to increase pollution in areas where the limits are already
exceeded. In the absence of EU standards on ambient noise, transport plans and projects may also be
given consent without breaching EU law on ambient noise, even if they bring about noise levels above
WHO guidelines. Implementation of EU environmental laws thus raises a number of concerns which
hamper the efficient control of environmental outcomes by the Commission.
guidelines for Structural Funds (Hübner, 2008a) and Impact Assessment in order to avoid negative effects
encouraging participation in the development and on the environment and must support the Member
implementation of the Operational Programmes States in their move towards a more homogeneous
can help maximise overall benefits and minimise implementation.
negative side effects. The integrated approaches
developed in URBAN projects have proved Cities and participation
successful but need further promotion if they are to
become mainstream. To benefit from cohesion policy and Structural
Funds cities and towns must participate in the
The Commission will also need to analyse the process of elaborating the Operational Programmes
effectiveness of current instruments, such as at the regional level. They must ensure that their
Environmental Impact Assessment and Strategic projects are integrated into a carefully planned

sustainable development concept and future vision Regulations alone, at whatever level, are not
for the city or region. Their participation should guarantees of success. Good work by the managing
comprise not only measures that address the city or and certifying authorities is crucial to ensure correct
town directly, but also proposed measures that might policy implementation and use of taxpayers' money.
have indirect impact. For example, similar projects If not, subsequent audits by the authorities and the
in nearby cities that could increase competition and Commission will not indicate satisfactory outcomes
hence will lower the success rate (see Box 1.9, bad (Hübner, 2008b).
practice and Boxes 1.10 and 2.27, good practice) or
European and cross‑regional transport projects, Improving knowledge
which can substantially change the local situation.
Box 3.5 on the Magistrale für Europa initiative, which Assessing the effects of cohesion policy in urban
can be found later in this report, provides another areas, both positive and negative ones, is a complex
good example of cities' participation in European task, and it is not always possible to identify
Transport policy and its implementation. This is also cause–effect relationships. Because of this, research
a good example of the success of cohesion policy. programmes and knowledge exchange should
Active participation is rewarded by more sustainable be targeted towards closing information gaps, in
and balanced development to the benefit of the particular those relating to unintended impacts.
majority. The newly created instrument of European The Commission needs to find ways anticipating
Grouping for Territorial Cooperation might provide what these effects may be. This will need to be done
an appropriate tool for better participation. in particular at high level as it would appear that
most questions cannot be answered at regional level
Enabling participation alone.
Integration and a participatory approach based on An improved knowledge base across Europe would
a sustainable development strategy at the regional also form the basis for the spatial approach required
level is a key factor of long‑term success. The regions if territorial cohesion is to respond more effectively
have considerable responsibility for enabling their to the specific territorial needs and characteristics,
cities and towns to improve their situation and geographical challenges and opportunities of
minimise disparities. Regions should also make sure regions and cities. A more robust 'urban approach'
that the implementation of cohesion policy meets would enable EU cohesion policy, as well as EU
all the requirements of sustainable development, policy in general, not only to support cities via
that assessment tools are applied appropriately, and urban projects but also help to assess the likely
should enable broad participation of all relevant impact of other projects.
stakeholders.

Box 2.27 Czech Republic — improved integration of urban issues in the Operational

Programmes
Initial situation
Cities need to participate in the Regional
Operational Programme for the new period 2007–
2013 in order to increase the take up of Structural
Funds in these regions.
Solution
The Healthy Cities network of the Czech Republic,
together with the Jihomoravský and Vysočina
regions organized a series of local forums in the
respective cities within the framework of the
Regional Operational Programme. During these
forums, local partners, including more than
1 200 people in 18 cities and their administrative
territories — politicians and decision‑makers,
citizens, businesses, NGOs etc. — proposed those
sustainable development projects that they wish
to implement, discussed how these fit into local
community strategy, identified and agreed on the
priority projects and adapted local community
strategies accordingly. Several local partnerships
were established in the course of the local forums
that will serve as platforms for further discussion in
the future.
Results
The priority projects selected were used to
influence the future Regional Operational
Programme so that its priorities best reflect
local needs. According to the consultations,
the participants would like to invest in new
Photo: © HCCZ
infrastructure, mainly roads, water treatment
plants or in the area of tourism. More than
2000 project proposals were collected from all
partners, both public and private, in the Vysočina region and the regional office is still working with
these proposals. To accommodate and to analyze such a huge number of proposals, the Vysočina region
used an Internet information tool DataPlan provided by the Healthy Cities association. All information is
therefore accessible to the public and can be used for further procedures according to actual needs —
connecting with budgets, creating more complex projects of regional importance etc.
Despite the many hard outputs, soft results were also achieved. Vysočina succeeded to create
communication channels between various partners, local governments and the regional government. The
communication channels are still in use, for instance for the implementation of successful projects. Mrs.
Marie Cerná, former deputy chief executive officer and HCCZ vice chairman, concluded that long‑term
dialogue between those who have concrete ideas about the development of their living space and
those who are able to fulfil these ideas was also established, owing to the fact that the key principle of
partnership was filled with real content.
More information: www.nszm.cz.

Towards integrated urban management
3 Towards integrated urban management
'Partnership between the local, regional, national strategies in the interests of the local population;
and European levels of government will ensure however, no city is self-contained. Urban Europe is
we can cope better with common global challenges a mosaic of overlapping and complex polycentric
ahead,' said Luc Van den Brande, President of the metropolitan regions in which context urban
Committee of the Regions at the Brussels Open development is driven and guided at all government
Days of the European Regions and Municipalities levels as described in the chapters before.
2008.
The European ideal is based upon the central
Most of Europe's population living in major concept of a common future. The Lisbon Treaty
metropolitan regions is at risk. City dwellers builds on this concept and has reinforced a
have high expectations, and most expect their culture of cooperation and integration between
lives to be more pleasant over the next five years governments and their communities. This vision
(Eurobarometer, 2005). But the current patterns of cohesion and cooperation has never been more
of urbanisation and forms of most new urban essential or urgent than now in meeting the many
development are unsustainable and becoming challenges facing cities, including globalisation,
increasingly so, putting at risk the quality of life of the need to secure sustainable energy sources,
inhabitants. These conflicts and tensions in urban the impacts of demographic shifts, as well as the
development can become a source of increasing growing threats of climate change and to national
pressures on city governments to deliver a better way security. Urban areas are also central to EU economic
forward. The integrated and collective response to and social policies and programmes as key drivers
urban governance provides the potential to reverse of economic growth (EC, 2006c).
these trends. If the EU is to tackle these issues, and
in particular the over‑riding challenge of climate Table 1.2 in Chapter 1 of this report identifies a
change, then it must increasingly be an active partner selection of the large number of relationships that
in the governance of Europe's towns and cities. exist between European and local policy in different
policy areas and shows where financial resources
Building on the outcomes of the previous chapters, and other incentives steer urban development. In
this chapter summarises the needs for an integrated particular the Structural Funds of EU cohesion
urban approach and provides ideas about how to policy have had and will continue to have, major
develop and implement it collaboratively across all direct and indirect impacts on urban development.
administrative levels. Also, the implementation of the Trans-European
Transport Networks (TEN-T) has been key in
redefining the relationships between the cities of
3.1 EU and cities partnership Europe, the patterns of movement, logistical systems
and economic activity. European policy together
The preceding chapters highlighted some of the with the policies of the member states and regions,
important challenges facing Europe's cities and provide the framework and general conditions for
towns in securing a long‑term and socially balanced the realisation of quality of life in cities and towns.
quality of life. Local city‑based programmes, Cities and towns implement measures on the
policies and projects remain key to delivering the ground and create the conditions for quality of life
required action, and numerous local initiatives and sustainable development.
demonstrate that European urban areas are already
strongly committed to the need to improve the In a globalising world, cities and towns in once
quality of life of Europe's towns and cities. peripheral regions are becoming increasingly
accessible, and locational choices, including
Urban areas have the responsibility to regulate those for new urban investments, are generally
and manage urban policy and effective planning more inter‑changeable. As a consequence the

scale and scope of action required is no longer create perceptions of unequal distribution of
the responsibility of any single sector or level of benefits between competing cities and regions;
government. Furthermore, European integration
has not simply shifted authority upwards to • between administrations and functional urban
European institutions; rather authority has become regions:
increasingly dispersed through a variety of different few urban administrative areas relate effectively
levels, actors and agencies, creating a multilevel to travel to work, or labour market areas,
basis for governance (Rosamund, 2004). As a result or indeed natural regions. As a result urban
cities seek to reinforce action at the local level by and rural areas are frequently planned in
engagement in wider city regional networks and isolation, and the associated competition
directly at the European level. between municipalities generates a resistance to
collaborate on the development of the necessary
Nonetheless, the challenge remains to overcome common policy framework. This reluctance to
isolated action at the local level and competition collaborate is reinforced by the perception that
between cities and between regions by collaboration economic growth merely diverts or displaces
and integration from local to European level to the growth between urban areas. There are,
long‑term benefit of all. however, excellent examples that demonstrate
the benefits of joint working to achieve policy
integration to learn from — see Stuttgart Box 3.1.
3.2 Integration gaps
Policy‑making needs to reflect and respond to the 3.3 Barriers

many interconnections that lie in the fundamental
drivers of urban development, yet the reality is that Effective urban policy demands an integrated
major gaps still need to be filled including: approach as endorsed in different documents (11).
In some cases specific guidance is given, as with
• between sectoral policies the EC Guide Integrated environmental management
typically a plethora of plans and strategies exist (EC, 2007g) that supports the implementation of the
for major urban areas, concerning transport, Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment, but
housing, environment, economic development all too frequently such guidelines and in particular
etc. Policies within these different documents concrete criteria are not developed.
are often based on different assumptions
and timescales, and with no regard for the Local governments have developed integrated
unintended impacts on other policy fields; management approaches to improve consistency
and coherence between policies also supported
• between plan-making and implementation: by a variety of EU‑funded programmes (12). The
the power to implement plans often lies with many municipalities that signed the Aalborg
other agencies, and increasingly the private Commitments (13) address all dimensions of
corporate sector. The challenge is to achieve sustainability using the framework of the
the integration of plans and programmes and Commitments and an integrated management
to engage all stakeholder interests, including for the implementation of local sustainability (see
small business and the community, without Box 3.2).
compromising effective implementation;
Despite the widely recognised need, general
• between resources needed and available: commitments and the availability of many tools and
this particularly applies where major new good practice examples, the reality is that integrated
infrastructure is required, for example management across Europe is still a matter for a few
transportation systems. The frequently high pioneers. Isolated policy and individual interests
levels of new investment required for major still threaten sustainable development and longer
projects often distort the political debate and term quality of life. Integrated management needs
(11) Territorial Agenda, the Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities, the Cohesion Policy guidelines 2007–2013, the Thematic
Strategy on the Urban Environment and many others.
(12) Including Managing Urban Europe-25, European ecoBudget, localsustainability.eu, Liveable Cities, and Dogme 2000
(localsustainability.eu; www.localmanagement21.eu; www.ecobudget.com).
(13) See www.aalborgplus10.dk.

Box 3.1 Greater Stuttgart Region (Germany) — tackling integration gaps between city
and region
Initial situation
The greater Stuttgart region has 2.7 million
inhabitants and is the centre of industrial science
and research organisations in Germany. To
sustainably maintain its competitive status, it was
necessary to adopt an integrated approach to the
development of the 179 independent municipalities
that made up the region.
Solution
The Verband Stuttgart was, therefore, founded in
1994 with 93 directly elected representatives in
the Regional Assembly and an annual budget of
EUR 260 million.
The range of joint responsibilities undertaken by

the Verband Region Stuttgart included:
• a 10–15-year Regional Plan

• business promotion and tourism marketing
• transport planning and investment
• landscape and parks
• large infrastructure and investment
(e.g. Paris-Munich high-speed train) Photo: © Stuttgart-Marketing GmbH
• waste disposal
In addition the Verband can take on other tasks voluntarily, such as trade fairs and exhibitions. Some
examples of joint actions include:
• Landscape planning and parks: the Verband created the 'Greater Stuttgart Landscape Park', showing
where open areas are to be improved, redesigned, and linked together. The combined commitment of the
Region, the municipalities, and all the various authorities is necessary to implement these plans.
• Traffic and transport planning: the traffic programme represents a blueprint for county and municipal
planning and will ensure that the Verband is able to influence the investment programmes of the State of
Baden-Württemberg and the German Federal Government. 85 % of its budget is devoted to local public
transport. The region of the Verband is 'buying in' transport services from transport companies, such as
suburban electric services from Deutsche Bahn AG (German Railways).
• Waste disposal: along with the rural districts and the City of Stuttgart, the region of the Verband is
responsible for a segment of waste management (dump category II). In 1997, the Verband established
standardized conditions across the region for waste disposal, leading to a considerable reduction in
charges.

The lessons of this joint regional governance for the greater Stuttgart region have demonstrated the
importance of providing a unified picture inwardly as well as to the outside world. There have been many
direct outcomes. For example, for the first time, the region now has an integrated traffic and transport
concept allowing buses to become part of an 'extension' of the suburban electric railway network
and 24/7 timetabling. Similarly, whereas the region of the Verband was only able to plan the green
infrastructure in the past, it now invests in specific projects together with local authority partners, providing
a network of open spaces, ecologically valuable green areas and small parks combined with landscapes.
As a result of long-term cooperation and the joint and integrated approach, the implementation of
measures became more effective and efficient e.g. the cooperation enabled larger and more complex
infrastructure projects, avoiding competing measures which would have led to a waste of resources, and
thereby increasing the attractiveness and quality of life for the whole region.
More information: http://www.region-stuttgart.org.

Box 3.2 Växjö (Sweden) — sustainable energy award, a successful integrated approach
Context of the municipality and initial

situation
During the 1960's, two lakes of the Swedish City
of Växjö became seriously polluted. A huge lake
restoration project was launched in the 1970's and
since then, many other measures have been taken
in favour of the environment.
The case: fossil fuel free Växjö through

ecoBUDGET
In Växjö integrated and cyclic management is
designed to achieve high environmental standards.
In particular, 'Fossil Fuel Växjö' is an overall
community programme that takes an integrated
and cooperative approach to achieving its Photo: © Mats Samuelsen
objectives. These include a wide range of activities
aimed at generating more energy and heat from
renewable energy sources and technology, improving energy efficiency in all areas, and achieving
sustainable patterns of mobility. A major activity was replacing oil in the municipal district heating
system with biomass — wood waste from the local forest industry. More than 90 % of the heat used in
Växjö comes from district heating, and the network has been extended to outlying villages.
In 2001, Växjö began to introduce the integrated management system ecoBUDGET to ensure
environmental improvement and efficient working arrangements. Through the system, the city can
control the environmental resources in the municipality and monitor the implementation of goals in the
Environmental Programme and the financial system. Within the ecoBUDGET framework, Växjö's political
boards legitimize ambitious time-related targets supporting their objective to become fossil fuel free.

By 2006, CO2 emissions per capita were already reduced by 30 % compared to 1993 — 3.5 tonnes
of CO2 annually. The biggest reduction in carbon dioxide emissions has been achieved by replacing oil
in the municipal district heating system. The goal is to reduce fossil fuel carbon dioxide emissions per
inhabitant, by at least 50 % by the year 2010 and by at least 70 % by the year 2025, compared to 1993.
The city won the Sustainable Energy Europe Award in 2007 for its environmental efforts.
Växjö has become a role model, both nationally and internationally, for those seeking proof that
sustainability pays. Collective environmental thinking over the last few decades has resulted in economic
profits as well as cleaner air and water. According to Växjö officials, the municipality is well on its way to
further achievements.
More information: www.vaxjo.se/english, http://ecobudget.com/.
to become mainstream across Europe. Transforming administration and budgets are fragmented
best practice in some municipalities to better (lacking institutional integration) and
practice everywhere requires keen examination of decision‑makers are not aware of the benefits
the barriers to wider exploitation of existing skills of an integrated approach (see also Box 2.11).
in, and experience of, implementation of integrated In general, governments are free to apply
urban management. Examples of these barriers are integrated management, and there are no
given below. penalties for failing to implement an integrated
management system.
• Even if overall sustainable development
strategies based on an integrative concept • Despite all the benefits that have arisen
are in place, sectoral and vested interests from EU policies and programmes, it must
remain dominant where decision‑making, be recognised that these have been mostly

sectoral in nature and project driven. More too often unclear what exactly is expected.
effective application requires more integrated No common standards exist, and at best only
— both horizontally and vertically — and recommendations exist, to assist policy and
comprehensive approaches to systematically decision‑makers to define minimum criteria for
address the common challenges; there is a an integrated approach.
need for 'urban-proofing' of policies and
programmes. • Socio‑economic and geospatial data describing
the existing state of urban areas are collected
• There is an over-riding governance deficit in by municipalities and at higher administrative
the development of systematic approaches levels but this information remains sectorally
to EU policy to improve the management of specific. Sectorally specific formats differ,
towns and cities. The common challenges time series and spatial units inhibit effective
to the quality of life in towns and cities are application in the description and analysis
increasingly beyond the control of local agents of the urban system, how it is driven and the
alone. Nonetheless, it is fully understood that impacts of different trends and policies.
the EU has no direct mandate for urban affairs,
and its involvement in urban affairs must • Municipal networks including EUROCITIES,
always be sensitive to the subsidiarity principle. ICLEI, METREX, Energie‑Cités, CEMR, and
However, the performance and development the Union of Baltic Cities are active with their
of cities and towns clearly has a European member cities in the development of innovative
dimension, which must be addressed with approaches to the sustainable development of
supportive action. cities. Whether cities and municipal networks
collaborate or compete depends amongst
• At the same time, it is also evident that cities other things on both national and EU policy.
and towns tend to resist greater engagement in When municipalities can apply for funds
local affairs from European and national levels. independently they tend to compete. On the
Subsidiarity requires that decision‑making is other side, if national government or European
undertaken at the lowest appropriate level. Union funding permits collaborative action,
This risk of excessive parochialism needs to be they tend to cooperate and integrate (Kern &
recognised since there is not a single uniquely Bulkeley, 2009), as witnessed by the European
appropriate level for decision‑making as most Sustainable Cities and Towns Campaign, and
issues are linked via other levels and sectors. projects in the context of the Interreg, URBACT,
An emphasis on localism needs to recognise URBAN programmes. A good example is
the risk of a 'democratic deficit' in society described in Box 3.3, another one earlier in
whereby those who are affected by decisions Box 2.24.
are excluded by administrative geography from
those decisions.
3.4 Integrated urban management
• Existing spatial legislation can generally defined
provide the basis for an integrated approach.
However, the unsustainable development of The management of urban issues is complex and is
the majority of urban areas demonstrates that influenced by a multitude of issues and stakeholder
planning legislation focusing on a traditional interests. The following description of the integrated
planning approach alone is often insufficient. approach to urban management provides general
The current legal planning system is mostly criteria applicable to all administrative levels,
not suited to deal with the wide range of from local to European. Application in practice
sustainability issues evident today. It cannot requires specific tailoring to individual and thematic
sufficiently take into account the rapidly circumstances.
changing environment and the need to adapt
plans and the planning system so they are Considerations for integrated urban management:
more comprehensive and spatially sensitive,
embracing cyclical, integrated, inclusive and • Urban (towns, cities, conurbations, metropolitan
participatory approaches. areas):
• Even where policy documents like the Strategic – functional in terms of employment, housing
Guidelines for Structural Funds (EC, 2006b) or retail areas or the areas within which
request an integrated approach, it remains people seek jobs or homes (larger area

Box 3.3 Bay of Pasaia (Spain) — integrated urban development across municipal borders
Situation
The Bay of Pasaia lies within the metropolitan
area of San Sebastian, which is demographically
the second-most important area of the Basque
country (Spain) with 240 000 inhabitants in the
municipalities of San Sebastián, Rentaría, Lezo
and Pasaia. It encompasses a complex area with
economic problems, high population densities,
environmental damage, as well as port and rail
infrastructures intermixed with residential areas.
Its municipalities are fragmented, and competences
dispersed hampering the application of integrated
approaches.
Solution Photo: © URBAN, San Sebastián-Pasaia

Given this complexity, and building on a broad
political consensus through the participation of
all the municipalities since 1994, the PIC URBAN II San Sebastián-Pasaia project started in 2001. The
project philosophy was ambitious: on the one hand initiating changes which had the greatest chance of
success and on the other hand finding new and innovative opportunities for development. To achieve
this, the project focused on 4 areas:
• Urban regeneration: new urban planning for the renovation of places and areas, which contribute
significantly to the attractiveness of the area, and which add environmental quality to the bay.
The focus is on new locations for the development of innovative activities, parks and green areas,
pedestrian zones, improved accessibility, and the establishment of cycle paths etc.;
• Creating jobs by developing new economic activities with the support of business: Developing new
leisure and culture activities, meanwhile continuing to support new business opportunities based on an
adequate financial structure;
• Socio-economic reintegration: countering social exclusion requires a multidisciplinary emphasis that
enables the integration of people on the basis of personalised treatment by developing infrastructures
expanding social engagement;
• Developing the potential and access to information technologies by improving infrastructures and by
personalised training measures.
Results
The improvement of the situation is evident: more than 20 million Euros were invested in new
infrastructure, parks, public places etc. There has been an unprecedented increase in the numbers of
tourists to the area and the creation of more than 7 000 jobs in the IT area.
Although the full range of achievements can only be assessed from a longer term perspective, the
approach adopted has initiated the wide ranging public participation necessary to achieve the renovation
and improvement of the region in the near future.
The financial investments necessary to achieve a profound transformation of the region are great. In
this respect ERDF URBAN funding has proved invaluable in establishing inter-institutional collaboration
involving local governments, the County Council of Gipuzkoa, as well as the Basque and the Spanish
governments; a cooperation which focuses on public companies as instruments of implementation.
More information: http://www.bahiadepasaia.com.

than the city or town), or in terms of urban leadership, organisation, resourcing — human,
networks, for example transport systems; financial, technological as well as natural
– typology including the distribution of urban resources — monitoring and evaluating the
services, different forms of urban society, and process of sustainable urban development to
variation in population densities; enable corrections and adaptations. It needs to
– administrative according to the boundaries of be spatially coherent in order to take the right
government agencies; decisions not only at the right level but in ways
– morphological according to the actual area that reflect the spatial functionality of Europe.
covered by urban land use.
The integrated urban management approach
addresses all urban processes, whether 3.5 Steps towards implementation
they are governed by the city or town
administration or other administrative levels All sectors of society and all administrative levels
including the regional level, state, EU, and can gain long‑term benefits from applying and
global levels. Such an approach includes also being part of an integrated approach, creating good
city to city, urban‑rural and local to global governance for urban areas. Instead of cities and
interactions considered from the urban towns competing for jobs, tax and other funding,
perspective. local government can mobilise more resources,
creativity and support in delivering desired outcomes
• Integrated and managing unwanted change. However, such
The development of a holistic perspective on an approach requires strong political support. As
urban management, that considers the various claimed by the European Parliament (2008), the EU
interlinkages within the urban environment, should not only financially support the use of such
and seeks to combine the related processes in approaches at national, regional or local level, but
order to develop greater coherence and mutual also analyse, when providing funding, to what extent
reinforcement of planned responses to the a binding requirement is feasible. Equally, it should
challenges generated by the key drivers of urban apply these principles in its own policy‑making. This
development. Of particular importance is the would make funding of local and regional projects
integration of plan-making and plan-delivery more efficient and better enable the integration of
mechanisms. supportive measures, such as standard setting and
The different dimensions to be considered taxation, at EU and national level.
include:
New governance through partnership
– horizontal integration between different
policy and programme areas including As problems can seldom all be solved at one level or
economy, social affairs, environment, within one policy sector, successful implementation
culture…; of the integrated approach requires the active
– vertical integration between levels of participation of all actors, which can range from
governance ranging from local to global; individual citizens to the European Union.
– spatial connection of towns, cities, rural Therefore, governmental action needs to shift to
hinterland and regions; new forms of governance through partnership.
– temporal linkage of the impacts of current Integration of individual action programmes with
developments in relation to the potentials for other interdependent areas and administrative levels
future development; must become a basic and natural principle of all
– balancing individual and group interests bodies.
with societal needs.
This involves:
Integrated management requires appropriate
integrated institutional structures and • new governance arrangements;
information bases in respect of all the above • inter-governmental relationships and
dimensions. connections between areas of concern, regardless
of jurisdiction;
• Management • engagement in more coordinated
Getting people, stakeholder groups, business decision‑making;
and administrations to act together towards • new partnerships and approaches to action with
a common goal, for example achieving a local organisations and citizens;
certain quality of life. This includes planning, • more accountability in fulfilling commitments.

Box 3.4 Effective governance — metropolitan spatial planning for self-assessment

(InterMETREX project)
Initial situation
With most of the population of the EU living in urban
areas and the need for the harmonious, balanced
and sustainable development of metropolitan
regions, it is essential to have the capacity to audit
the effectiveness of governance of these major
regions and the urban areas within them.
Solution
Under the INTERREG IIC and IIC programmes the
METREX network developed a set of benchmarks
for self-evaluating the effectiveness of strategic
planning and governance, based on the principle
of self diagnosis and continuous improvement. The
adoption of this strategy reflected the fact that no
one system suits all urban regions and that no area Photo: © METREX
had an ideal system.
The project identified those factors which could be systematically evaluated and were capable of being
detached from political judgements. The first relates to the ability of the planning mechanisms to take
effective decisions — i.e. what are their 'powers' or 'competences'? The second relates to the ability of
the organisation to take informed decisions — i.e. what are its technical resources or 'capabilities'? The
third relates to the ability to make decisions which are accepted by those affected by them — i.e. what
opportunities are provided for engagement in the planning processes'?
Results
The project concluded that an incremental approach was probably required but that there are common
issues which help explain the differences in the effectiveness of city regions including the following:
• The coherence of the areas as a Functional Urban Region (FUR); More coherent areas in terms of social
economic geography are less dependent upon decisions taken by adjoining areas and have greater scope
for resolving conflicts locally.
• The ability to deliver large projects, both in terms of financial resources and organisational skills: Large
projects are often introduced for the transformation or re-engineering of a region's infrastructure and for
stimulating public interest in the plan. If, however, they are not deliverable this can generate blight and
loss of credibility in governance generally.
• The existence or not of a national planning framework: Increasingly, local decisions are dependent upon
national policy and commitment.
• Planning for uncertainty: Strategic Planning seeks to set out the vision to provide longer term confidence,
to safeguard the interest of communities affected by change, and for those who risk their investment in
new development. The practical response to this dilemma is a commitment to phasing, monitoring and to
a five-year review.
• The available technical capacities: the lack of effective technical and professional capacities undermines
the credibility and deliverability of EU goals for sustainable cities.
As a concrete result, the experience gained over the course of the project was summarized and
transformed to deliver the guide 'METREX Practice Benchmark of Effective Metropolitan Spatial Planning'
which contains 25 benchmarks of effective competence, capability and process. In the form of a checklist,
the guide enables metropolitan regions and areas to easily self assess their current practice, identify
potentials for improvements, and plan further steps to achieve better governance.
More information: http://www.eurometrex.org/ENT1/EN/Activities/activities.asp.

The new forms of governance need to improve the can also justify actions that will be successful in
linkage of stakeholders to policy processes, through the long term, and only in combination with other
consensus-building, participation and coordination. partner actions. The potential for local councils
Instruments for supporting governments in to lead the debate and promote change is well
evaluating their sustainability processes are already illustrated by the London Climate Change Action
well‑established (14), with practical expert‑led Plan (see Box 3.6).
management complemented by bottom-up
community visioning (Box 3.4). Management cycle
Involvement and participation of the different levels A crucial aspect of successful integrated urban
and stakeholders should be continuous and vary management is the application of a cyclical
according to the requirements of the integrated approach, consisting of five major steps that are
management cycle. Participatory decision‑making is repeated in regular cycles, according to the specific
desired and demanded by citizens who wish to play circumstances. A baseline review documenting the
a more active role in the governance of their society. current environmental and administrative situation,
Regional, national and local governments, NGOs, as legal requirements and political priorities prepares
well as the scientific community and business interests the ground. On this basis, objectives and targets are
are also increasingly eager to reap the benefits of discussed, agreed, set and approved and actions
engaging actively in decision‑making processes. and initiatives are identified according to current
Enabling wide participation ensures the acceptance technologies and life styles. The timeframes related
and sustainability of policy implementation. to these targets provide for future monitoring, review
and evaluation of the process.
Good governance in relation to vertical integration
requires the reinterpretation of the subsidiarity New information permits the validation of established
principle. Section 2.1–2.6 of this report have policies, and if necessary for new decisions are taken,
demonstrated that major urban problems cannot and the cycle recommences. Once the mechanism is
be solved at only one administrative level. established, in subsequent years the entire process
Responsibilities need to be defined in relation to the is repeated. All the above steps are linked in a
many interlinkages between European, national and continuous process; the targets set are (re)defined as
local policy (for example Box 3.5). The EU needs an an essential element of government procedure with
urban approach that is neither a new policy area nor increasing effectiveness and coherence. The European
a top down 'one size fits all' administrative process, project MUE 25 further defines such an approach
but an auditing of the impacts of EU policy in terms (Box 3.7).
of their implications for the urban level. The EU also
needs to develop supportive cross‑sectoral policies for Improved data and knowledge
urban areas.
Policy‑makers need a solid basis of information and
Long‑term vision intelligence to support decision‑making. There is a
need to organise information on urban development
Integrated approaches and good governance need in a consistent and integrated way to support
long‑term strategic visions — for example as integrated policy‑making, not just at the local level,
recognised in the Guidance to the Thematic Strategy but also interlinked to urban-relevant data at higher
on the urban environment (EC, 2007g). The different administrative levels. For example, at the European
actors involved in urban development need a level Eurostat collects socio‑economic and some
shared vision of the quality of life to be maintained environmental data for around 300 cities via the
or attained. A common vision is an indispensable Urban Audit database. The Corine Land Cover project
prerequisite that links the different policies at of the European Environment Agency produces
different administrative levels, and facilitates the land‑use maps from satellite images and the ESPON
delivery of coherent actions. Common vision can programme provides data on urban functional zones.
also reduce pressures on sectoral policies to act Integrating such information, complementing it,
in a short‑term timeframe in order to produce and linking it to other regional and local data are
immediate success that is almost certainly not vital to support assessments and projections of the
sustainable. With a shared long‑term vision, policy impacts of urban development, in order to support
can demonstrate its ability to fulfil the vision, and integrated urban policy‑making.
(14) www.localsustainability.eu; www.localevaluation21.org.

Box 3.5 Participation in European transport policy — Magistrale für Europa
Situation
European and international accessibility is seen Map 3.1 Main line for Europe
as an important precondition for economic
growth, European cohesion and international 0° 10° 20°
competitiveness of cities and regions. Thus the

50°
50°
aim of the European transport policy is to improve rg he t n
te
s
ou lsru ar
im
ur
g öl va
N etz
accessibility by building the Trans-European b
ris
r tg
Re
s P la
cy
ra Ka tut sb t
n
Pa
M
nk is
an
Sa che
st
t
Li urg
Transport networks (TEN-T). However, even if the g at r
n
S S lm u
pe
ie
Sa
nz
U A Br yo
ün
da
lz
cities along the routes are substantially affected
M
G
Bu
by the projects, they are not formal partners
in their planning and implementation. This is a
particular problem as the TENs will only generate
their benefits to cities and regions if the European
network is complemented by appropriate local
and regional infrastructure, transport and spatial 0 200 400 600 Km
planning. The example of the Magistrale für Europa
tells a different and encouraging story: Rail corridor Paris–Budapest
20°
Solution
Around 30 cities and some regional organisations Source: EEA, 2009.
along the Paris-Straßburg-Karlsruhe-Stuttgart-
München-Salzburg-Wien-Budapest rail corridor had noticed the advantages of a better international
accessibility and founded the alliance Magistrale für Europa with Karlsruhe as the managing city as
early as 1990. The aim was to attract the attention of European and national authorities to local
interests, to participate in the process and to push for its implementation. This transnational, intercity
cooperation is based on regular information exchange, joint opinion formation and lobbying national and
European authorities. These activities are accompanied by technical studies, workshops as well as public
communication.
Major local engagement led to European acceptance of the requests expressed in the TEN project No 17 in
2004. However, given the inadequate level of coordination among the important actors, implementation of
such a cross‑border project was difficult and was delayed. As a result, in 2005, the EU assigned a European
coordinator for the project, who coordinated the different national authorities and rail companies and also
involved the Magistrale für Europa. All sides could now benefit: the EU gained from the comprehensive
regional and local knowledge and the local engagement to integrate the TEN project into regional and local
infrastructure, and the cities gained much greater benefits by influencing the TEN project. As a result,
implementation advanced.
Results
As a consequence of its long‑term activities, the city alliance found a way to influence European transport
policy to their benefit and to participate in the TEN project, which was not formally foreseen in the process.
The fact that the alliance is still active after 18 years and that the partners finance a joint secretariat
demonstrate that the cities value their direct engagement in European transport policy as very effective
and beneficial for them.
Concrete local or regional actions, which are not part of the TEN project but for which integration
is absolutely necessary are, for instance, the city stations which serve as intermodal intersections
for European and local transport and compatible timetables. For example, Vienna has different train
terminuses serving east and west so passengers travelling between Paris and Budapest need to take public
transport to travel from one to the other to proceed with their journey. The construction of a new central
station and a tunnel has been agreed among the Austrian government, the City of Vienna and the Austrian
Railways (ÖBB) enabling continuous trips, major time savings and greater convenience in the future.
More information: www.magistrale.org.
Source: Ismaier and Seiß, 2005.

Box 3.6 London Climate Change Action Plan (the United Kingdom) — clear vision and
concrete targets
How local integrated action can make a European

and global difference: the London Climate Change
Action Plan
Initial situation
London produces 8 % of the CO2 emissions of the United
Kingdom which in turn is the world's eighth largest emitter
of these emissions. Without any action London's emissions
will increase even further in the future. Stabilising the
global carbon emissions at a level where catastrophic
climate changes are avoided will require enormous
emission reductions throughout the developed world. As
the challenge is huge, a clear vision, concrete targets, and
strong political leadership are absolutely necessary.
Solution
Prior to the creation of the Greater London Authority
(GLA) there was no strategic capacity to plan and manage
change in one of the world's major cities. The GLA
brought together economic, developmental, transport and
environmental planning for eight million people under the
leadership of a single mayor accountable to an elected
assembly. Following several actions from the year 2000
onwards, the GLA produced a 'Climate Change Action Plan'
in February 2007 with the specific aim 'to deliver decisive
action in London with the urgency that is required' to
tackle the potential threats to London of Climate Change. Photo: © EEA
'The Mayor's new target for London, therefore, is to
stabilise CO2 emissions in 2025 at 60 % below 1990 levels,
with steady progress towards this over the next 20 years. As part of London's ambitious target 30 % is
to be achieved within the responsibility of the GLA and the other 30 % as part of national government
action such as decarbonising the electricity grid. This target is considerably more ambitious than the UK
government's current aspiration of a 60 % reduction from 2000 levels by 2050' (the new UK government
target is now 80 % by 2050).
The plan focuses on the next 10 years in the context of achieving the 2025 target. It comprises all
CO2 relevant urban activities and lists many concrete measures and targets in its different actions and
programmes, such as The Green Homes Programme, Green Organisations Programme, Energy Efficiency
Programme and Requirements for new developments, Transport Related Programmes, and the Delivery
Mechanisms.

The adoption of such ambitious targets and development of concrete measures is a success in itself, in
particular, as the newly elected city government has endorsed this plan and is on the way to propose
revised implementation measures. In part this achievement arises as a result of raising general
awareness over the last years due to intensive work by the administration and others in the United
Kingdom and, in particular, the broad partnership-approach including the private sector. The clear target
and the Action Plan help to combine and streamline the efforts of each partner, thereby reaching the
necessary effectiveness. These partnerships will be crucial for London to deliver and achieve its targets
especially in the light of governmental changes, energy and financial crisis.
With its ambitious approach, London has inspired others and has taken a political lead on climate change
among large cities; for example, in the C40 Large Cities climate leadership group. Consequently, the
results of London's Climate Change policy stretch across Europe and the world.
More information: http://www.london.gov.uk/mayor/environment/climate-change/ccap/index.jsp.

Box 3.7 ManagingUrbanEurope 25 project (MUE 25) — integrated urban management
The ManagingUrbanEurope-25 project (MUE 25) Figure 3.1 The sustainability cycle

developed guidelines for cities and regions on how
to coordinate the efforts of public and private
sectors as well as a cyclical procedure for an
(Update of)
integrated management. Evaluation baseline review
and reporting
Core document:
The system should be developed in accordance Core document: Sustainability report
Evaluation report
with the following basic principles:
Relevance: addressing the needs of all relevant

activities and actors. It must also address key Target-setting
issues facing cities, common problems and Core document:
common solutions, with potential for engagement Implementation Sustainability targets
and monitoring
with key issues facing all European cities.
Core document:
Sustainability
Functional perspective: the system should programme
address the urban area, irrespective of Political commitment

administrative boundaries and degree of local
Core document:
authority power, including the impact of activities Council approval
of all actors (municipality and stakeholders) on
neighbouring municipalities and cities.
Legal compliance: the system needs to assist Source: ICLEI — Local Governments for Sustainability.
urban area's legal compliance.
Continuous improvement towards sustainability: the system needs to assist the urban area's
continual measurable improvement towards sustainability. To this end, it has to have a periodic and
cyclical nature.
Strategic orientation: the system has to be considered as a mechanism to inform decision‑making and
support implementation. To this end, it has to focus on strategic rather than operational issues.
Mainstreaming: the system has to be organised centrally in the city management. Regular involvement
of the central political body in target setting and evaluation will ensure political commitment,
legitimisation and maximised impacts. The process is subject to continuous review and assessment on an
annual basis in line with the prime annual budget cycles.
Decentralised implementation: the coordination of the system has to be based within the local
administration. However, the strategic goals and targets are to be operationalized and implemented via a
range of actors including administrative departments, private companies and relevant stakeholders. The
system needs to allow for the derivation of specific goals and targets for these using existing (sectoral)
instruments, such as land‑use planning, air quality management, water quality management, transport
planning etc.
Integration: the system will ensure horizontal integration across various departments and engagement
with all relevant stakeholders in the city, and vertical integration by addressing local regional and
national spheres of government.
Inclusive: the system will allow for appropriate involvement of urban stakeholders and provide for
transparency and communication in decision‑making and evaluation.
Adaptability: the management system has to be adaptable to variations in local contexts, as cities are
different in size, economic level, organisation, and the activities they pursue.
Complementary: the urban integrated management system will not replace existing and applied
environmental management instruments in cities, but build on them, as well as coordinate and integrate
existing (sectoral) instruments.

Box 3.7 ManagingUrbanEurope 25 project (MUE 25) — integrated urban management (cont.)
Evolutionary: the system will build on existing experience with environmental management systems
rather than re-invent the wheel.
Gradual expansion: the cities can gradually expand the system in scale and scope to include various
aspects, actors and spheres of government. Through the integration of social and economic dimension
the urban integrated management system will develop to include all sustainability dimensions in the
management system.
Source: http://intra.mue25.net/, http://www.localsustainability.eu/.

Summary and conclusions
4 Summary and conclusions
Quality of life in cities and towns is more than a local • although cities play a crucial role in securing
concern. Urban areas in Europe accommodate nearly quality of life, local–European partnerships still
75 % of the population and generate a substantial need to be developed. A strict interpretation of
ecological footprint that not only impacts on their the subsidiarity principle limits the search for
own ability to generate a high quality of life, but also solutions to single administrative levels, yet
on that of their immediate rural hinterlands in Europe today's problems cannot be solved at one level
and globally. alone.
Quality of life at risk Integrated partnership approaches
Cities are the places where quality of life is Shared responsibilities and long‑term perspectives
experienced and also generated. Over the past are necessary to ensure quality of life for all.
decades, urban quality of life has substantially Such approaches must be consistent across policy
improved; yet, in society at large, ground is being lost: levels and sectors and be spatially and socially
serious health problems are developing arising from coherent. All can benefit from such integrated
air pollution and noise, the number of obese people partnerships: cities by getting support from EU
is increasing, and major economic, environmental urban policy; Europe in securing local actions
and social impacts are foreseen as a consequence of that are complementary to European action;
climate change. The problems are serious, and we and surrounding rural areas and regions in
are on the brink of potentially irreversible change. ensuring the full representation in strategic
While our current way of life provides us with quality decision‑making for the locality. Political will allied
of life, at the same it is putting our future at risk. with a new understanding of the role of cities in the
A change towards more sustainable life styles, but management of complex systems and supported
which nonetheless provide all necessary satisfaction by improved forms of governance will permit the
and happiness, is required, and policy must set the realisation of the full benefits of the integrated urban
frame. management approach.
Barriers to policy implementation Today, as the instruments are available, it is up to the

responsible actors and agencies at all governmental
In general, the management instruments necessary to levels to take action and work together with
cope with the challenges ahead are available, the first business and citizens on deploying management
practical experience has been secured, and further tools in order to fill the gaps and missing links in
innovative solutions are being developed. However, knowledge and management supported by creative
a broad implementation plan is still is lacking. The and cooperative approaches.
main barriers to implementation are listed below:
Cities and towns
• sectoral and short‑term policy‑making in an
attempt to secure rapid results is still the norm; Urban areas need to provide for their citizens the
however, it is clear that the size and complexity foundations for choices leading towards more
of current problems require cross‑sectoral, sustainable life styles, such as affordable housing in
cooperative and long‑term approaches, which do more compact urban areas that provide high quality
not typically deliver results in the short‑term; public spaces and a healthy environment. To ensure
• technical improvements of current processes that regional, national and European governments
alone will help but not solve the problems faced. are fully supportive of these transformations
It is also necessary to modify urban life styles, in lifestyles, cities also need to become active
the way we fulfil our needs and demands, and and cooperative partners in applying integrated
embrace new alternatives; approaches in collaboration with other levels of

Summary and conclusions
governance as well as with other cities and rural regional governments can determine, for example,
areas. the right environmental price for goods and services;
and these governments, in particular, have the
power to enable cities and towns to participate in
The European Union national and thereby European policy‑making, thus
to ensure more consistent policy across all levels.
The EU needs to set the framework conditions
supporting national, regional and local Partnership succeeds
governments. European policy needs consistency
in its urban approach based on an audit of the The potential of cities and towns to successfully
impacts of EU policy in terms of the implications respond to current and future challenges
for the urban level and by developing supportive is immense, provided a partnership of all
cross‑sectoral policies for the urban area. To administrative levels is created. A major success
achieve this new governance, closer partnership of this report has been the extent to which the
with the local level is key, whilst respecting the collaborating urban network partners have been
spatial functionality of Europe and respective able to integrate their different perspectives and
responsibilities. visions of the future of urban Europe. The dialogue
deepened the understanding of all partners, built
National and regional governments trust, and created a platform for further, better
cooperation. The process of developing the report
At the national and regional level governments was often not easy, but the results are a rich,
need to further develop the framework conditions, multi‑perspective analysis and new ideas on how
including legislation, to ensure that urban policy to proceed. This process is itself an example of the
can fully deliver the intended results. National and success of the desired broad partnership approach.

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DOI 10.2800/11052
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EEA Report No 5/2009

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2009

Printed by Schultz Grafisk

— Quality Certificate: ISO 9001: 2000

REG.NO. DK- 000244

European Environment Agency

What is this report about?.............................................................................. 6

1 Quality of life in European cities and towns............................................... 8

2 Quality of life and drivers of change........................................................ 26

3 Towards integrated urban management.................................................. 89

4 Summary and conclusions..................................................................... 102

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 3

4 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 5

What is this report about?

Quality of life is a term broadly used both by the

Aims of this report

This report aims to raise awareness of the various

6 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

The report offers different opportunities for review

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 7

1 Quality of life in European cities and

8 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Box 1.1 Political committments to quality of life

The Treaty on European Union (consolidated version 2008)

Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) 2006

Leipzig Charter on Sustainable European Cities and Bristol Accord

EU Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment

The Aalborg Charter of European Cities and Towns towards Sustainability

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 9

Box 1.2 Quality of life and sustainability

The concept of sustainable development

10 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Box 1.3 Definitions of urban areas

Urban areas can be defined according to different

Administrative area: constitutes the territorial Po

units, green urban areas within urban fabric, and

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 11

Box 1.4 French definitions of quality of life

Box 1.5 Domains of quality of life

Source: Eurofound, 2004. www.eurofound.europa.eu/pubdocs/2004/105/en/1/ef04105en.pdf.

12 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 13

14 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Figure 1.2 Perceived and reported air pollution

Perceived as a problem Reported as a problem

Source: EC, 2007a and AirBase.

However, a number of discrepancies (Figure 1.2) Impacts of noise exposure

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 15

Figure 1.3 Perceived and reported noise pollution

Perceived as a problem Reported as a problem

16 Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns

Map 1.1 Number of tropical nights over Europe

Source: Dankers and Hiederer, 2008.

Ensuring quality of life in Europe's cities and towns 17

Figure 1.4 Perceived and reported green space

Perceived as satisfactory Reported green space

Figure 1.5 Cycling paths and lanes in European cities