SCAD Manual 2018

SCAD Office
Version 21
SCAD++
V.S.Karpilovskyy, E.Z.Kryksunov, А.А Maliarenko,

A.V.Perelmuter, M.A.Perelmuter, S.Y. Fialko
SCAD Soft 2018

SCAD Office.V.21.System SCAD++ / V.S.Karpilovskyy, E.Z.Kryksunov, А.А Maliarenko,
A.V.Perelmuter, M.A.Perelmuter, S.Y. Fialko. — SCAD Soft, Electronic Edition , 2018. —
895 p.
The book is intended for users of the software application pack. It can be useful both for
beginners who do not have an experience of using structural analysis software and for those who
know software of this type well enough and have an experience of working with this particular
application. The book deals successively with all aspects of preparing data in the graphics
interactive mode, performing an analysis, reviewing and documenting results, as well as with
peculiarities of using analysis and design post-processors. A minimum amount of theoretical
basics is given to help users understand better analysis methods implemented in the software.
The book may be of interest for students of appropriate specialities and developers of
similar software products.
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1.SCAD Office System
1. SCAD Office System

SCAD Office is a set of programs for performing the strength analysis and design of different types of
building structures. The system includes programs of four types:
 Structure CAD (SCAD) – an integrated system for finite element structural analysis intended for
solving problems of designing rather complex buildings and structures;
 auxiliary programs which provide the “maintenance” of SCAD and enable to: create and calculate
the geometric properties of various sections of bar elements (Section Builder, Consul, TONUS,
SEZAM), determine loads and actions on the designed structure (WeST), calculate the subsoil
parameters for the structures on the elastic subgrade (Cross); import data from architectural
systems and generate enlarged models (the FORUM preprocessor integrated into SCAD);
 design and analysis programs Kristall, ComeIn, Decor, ARBAT, and ZAPROS, which enable to
solve specific problems of checking and analyzing steel, masonry, timber, and reinforced concrete
structural members, and soil and foundation members according to the requirements of codes;
 design and engineering programs COMET and Monolit, which are used for the development of
the design documentation at the stage of the detailed design elaboration.
Figure 1-1. Structure of the SCAD Office

SCAD includes advanced data preparation, calculation and results analysis tools and has almost no
limitations on the sizes and shape of the designed structures. However, solving “simple” problems, which
can be quite time-consuming, is not less (and in many cases even more) important for the engineer. The
check of elementary beam sections, arrangement of loads on the structural members, determination of the
geometric properties of the compound sections – is not a full list of such routine design problems.
These circumstances stimulated the development of a series of “small” satellite programs of SCAD
focused on solving routine design problems. They make up the SCAD Office package together with the
main computing system itself. The satellite programs are based on the common data representation,
methods of control, verifications of compliance with codes, display of results, generated documents etc.
Any of the programs included in SCAD Office can be used separately from the others.
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The design procedures were selected and implemented in the system programs on the basis of the
following considerations:
 applicability — it makes no sense to develop single-use industrial software products;
 clear formulation of the problem — the software is mass-user oriented, therefore it must not
implement problems with an unclear formulation or an ambiguous solution;
 relative complexity of the traditional methods — it makes no sense to program the trivial
calculations, the problem must be such so that the use of the program would reduce the labor costs,
and/or the probability of calculation errors;
 availability of reference materials.
Moreover, taking into account that the programs can be used not only by the experienced designers,
but also by the beginner engineers, the developers tried to create such software products that could prevent
the user from missing any of the numerous checks required by the codes. In particular, the set of the
considered designs is based among other things on the fact that only the structures the requirements to
which are completely defined by the codes are analyzed.
1.1. Structure CAD

Structure CAD (SCAD) is an integrated system for finite element structural analysis and design which
enables to determine the stress-strain state of structures subjected to static and dynamic actions, and to
perform a set of functions for designing the structural members.
Project
The software is based on a system of functional modules interconnected by a single information
environment. This environment is called a project; and contains full information on the design model
which is given in the native formats of the software. During the generation of the design model the project
is filled with information and saved on the disk in a file with the .spr extension. The name of the project
and the file are specified when creating a new model.
The initial data for performing the analysis can be prepared either with the help of the interactive
graphical tools or by describing them in the text format. It should be noted that in the current version of the
software all the input information necessary for performing the majority of practical calculations can be
prepared graphically, and the text description may become necessary only in the case of unique designs. A
text file is a convenient format for storing the data. It can be easily compressed with the help of the popular
archiving software, and, if necessary, it can be converted to the native project formats of SCAD. Another
attractive feature of the text format is its compatibility with the previous versions of the software which
enables to use the software for performing the checks of the structures designed earlier.
Functional Modules
SCAD functional modules are divided into four groups. The first group includes modules that provide the
input of the initial data in the interactive graphical mode (graphical preprocessor), perform static and
dynamic calculations (processor), graphical check and analysis of the results of the calculation (graphical
postprocessor). Modules of the second group enable to calculate the design combinations of forces,
combinations of loadings, principal and equivalent stresses, reactions, loads from the structural fragment,
and to perform the stability analysis, generate the response spectra and the spectra of the amplitude-
frequency characteristics, and are called the design postprocessors. The documentation of the analysis
results is performed with the help of the modules of the third group. The fourth group includes the design
modules (design postprocessors) which enable to perform the check and selection of the reinforcement in
the reinforced concrete structural members, check and selection of the sections of the steel structural
members.
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The modular structure enables every user to customize the SCAD configuration to meet his particular
needs concerning the classes of the solved problems, tools for creating the design models, analyzing and
documenting the results of the calculation.
All functional modules are implemented in a single graphical environment. The user interface,
scenarios of the interaction of the user with the system, functions of the control of the initial data and the
analysis of the results are completely unified which makes it easier to master the software and provides a
logical sequence for performing the operations.
The structure of the software and the interrelation between its components are shown in Fig. 1.1-1.
Processor and Finite Element Library

A highly efficient processor enables to solve the static and dynamic problems with a large number of the
degrees of freedom. The calculation is accompanied by a detailed log which can be analyzed either during
the calculation or after its completion. The system of the control of the initial data performs the check of
the design model and logs all the detected errors and warnings.
The finite element library contains different types of bar elements including hinged bar and frame
elements, and elements of a grade beam on the elastic subgrade, and enables to take into account shear in a
bar section. Plate elements which are represented by three- and four-node plate, shell, and deep beam
elements can have additional nodes on their sides, and provide the solution of the problems for the
materials with different properties (allowing for the orthotropy, isotropy, and anisotropy). Moreover, the
library includes different types of solid elements, a set of three- and four-node multilayer and axisymmetric
finite elements, as well as the special elements for modeling the constraints of finite rigidity, elastic
constraints, etc.
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Figure 1.1-1. Structure of SCAD
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Graphical Tools for Generating a Design Model

Two types of graphical modules for creating the design models are implemented in SCAD. They include a
graphical preprocessor traditional for the finite element software where the finite elements are used as the
main “building material” for creating a design model, and the FORUM preprocessor for creating the
enlarged models.
The traditional preprocessor provides a wide range of tools for creating the models which include the
functions of generating the models based on the parametric prototypes of the structures, generating the
meshes of elements on a plane and in space, copying the fragments of the models, assembling from the
submodels and groups, different functions of geometric transformations. All the main parameters of the
models including the stiffness properties of the elements, boundary conditions, static and dynamic loads
etc. are specified in the graphical interactive mode. The graphical interface has been adapted as close as
possible to the technology of creating and modifying the design models and allows for the peculiarities of
this type of information processing.
The preprocessor includes the parametric prototypes of multi-storey and single-storey frames, trusses
with different configurations of chords and lattices, grade beams, and surfaces of revolution (cylinder,
cone, sphere, and torus). The boundary conditions, types and rigidities of finite elements can be
automatically assigned to them in the process of their generation.
Special tools are provided for creating design models the surface of which is described analytically.
These tools enable to automatically generate a finite element mesh on the surface specified as a function of
two variables. An automatic meshing is used to generate arbitrary meshes on the plane. This way a mesh
can be applied to any area of the design model.
The set of functions for modifying the geometry of the design model includes various types of
geometric transformations which enable to change the scale of the whole model or of the selected
fragment, rotate about the given axis, mirror the model, move a part of the model by a given distance etc.
Together with a wide range of tools for working with the selected nodes and elements these functions
enable to create design models of almost any complexity.
Grid lines are used to provide an engineer with a familiar environment for working with the design
model. These grid lines can be used for performing the operations of creating a model and its
fragmentation. They can be displayed on the whole model or on any fragment.
Enlarged Design Models and Connection with Other Systems

A design model or its part can be also generated on the basis of the information obtained from:
 other design programs;
 mesh generators;
 graphics editors;
 engineering programs.
It can be imported from such popular systems as AllPLAN, ArchiCAD, Revit, Tekla, Advance Steel,
files in the DXF and DWG format of AutoCAD, a series of other formats (for example, IFC, SDNF, ...).
Obviously, an architectural model can not be fully and automatically converted into a design model.
This is due to “the architectural excesses” which are not always the elements of the design model and do
not affect the results of the calculation, not always accurate junction of the elements of the model, lack of
the data on the boundary conditions of the elements, loads, materials, etc. The complexity of turning the
imported model into the design one usually depends on how consistently the architect and the design
engineer have worked at the stage of creating an architectural model.
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Figure 1.1-2. Design model generated in the FORUM preprocessor

SCAD includes a special preprocessor FORUM in order to simplify this process. It uses objects very
close by purpose and name to those of the architectural model to generate a design model. They include
columns, beams, floors, walls, and roofs. The representation of the geometry of the design model in the
FORUM preprocessor (Fig. 1.1-2) enables to:
 create a structured design model from enlarged elements;
 save the structure of the object specified in the architectural model;
 transfer the structure of the object into the preprocessor of SCAD using an automatic transformation
(meshing) of the enlarged model into the finite element model (design model).
Groups
Groups of nodes and elements play a special role in the generation of a design model and the analysis of
results. Groups are named sets of nodes or elements that can be used repeatedly in various operations.
Characteristic parts of the structure, for example, floors, elements of a spatial frame, walls, or other sets of
objects can be combined into groups. This process is completely controlled by the user. The main thing is
that groups are available at all stages of working with the model – during its generation, analysis and
documentation of the results of the calculation. The structure of the graphical environment enables to
localize the needed information within one or several groups of nodes and elements.
Filters
There is a recent tendency for design models to grow more and more complicated; such models contain an
ever increasing number of nodes and elements. This substantial increase in the dimensionality of the
problems has required to revise the main criteria of the efficiency of the process and methods of creating
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the design models and the analysis of the results of the calculation. When dealing with large and detailed
models, it is natural to emphasize not the functions of formation (though the role played by those is by no
means less important) but functions of control of the created model. A well-developed system of filters
implemented in SCAD is particularly important. The filters are used to establish the rules for displaying
the information on the model, functions of visualization and fragmentation of the model. The filters enable
to select the information on the design model which has to be displayed by tens of criteria. Color display
tools are widely used for displaying the information. Together with the fragmentation they enable to “get”
to any parameter regardless of the dimensions of the model.
Graphical Postprocessor
When the considered design models are large, it becomes problematic to analyze the results. The amount
of the resulting information that can be obtained is usually much greater than a man can comprehend and
analyze. Therefore, here together with the solution of purely technical tasks of improving the time factors
(reaction of the system to the user’s request or time spent for deleting lines of an invisible contour during
the generation of isolines and isofields) problems of finding the objects with the values of the analyzed
factor critical for this problem appear. The operations of fragmentation, system of filters, customizable
color scales implemented in the software provide a quick access to all types of the resulting information. It
should be noted that you can select the part of the design model where the results (forces, displacements)
from the given range of values were obtained “hiding” the rest of the model.
The results of the calculation can be given in the form of the deformed models, diagrams, isolines,
and isofields. The numerical values of the factors can be displayed on the model as well. The process of the
deformation of a model can be animated for static and dynamic loadings, and this process can be recorded
as an AVI movie. Any graphic information can be printed or saved as a Windows metafile (WMF, EMF).
Along with the results of the calculation, the graphical analysis tools enable to display the results of the
module of the reinforcement selection in the reinforced concrete structural members on the model in the
form of diagrams (for the bar elements), or isolines and isofields (for plates); these results may include
such information as the area of reinforcement in the given direction, crack opening width, percentage of
reinforcement etc. It makes the representation of the results more familiar for the engineer and creates
additional comfort for him.
Documenting the Results

The modules of documenting the results of the calculation enable to generate tables with the initial data
and the results in the text or graphical formats, and to export them to MS Word or MS Excel. Tables are
generated taking into account the groups of nodes and elements; they can be supplemented with comments
and graphical data. Thus, a report document can be edited with the help of MS Word and become
convenient for a particular user (for example, in accordance with the company’s internal standards). When
exported to MS Excel the results can be subsequently processed in whatever nonstandard way the
circumstances require.
1.2. Design and Analysis Programs

Design and analysis programs Kristall, ComeIn, Decor, ZAPROS, and ARBAT enable to perform
checks and analysis of steel, masonry, timber, and reinforced concrete structural members and their joints
according to the requirements of codes. Their development is based on the focus on the strict and, if
possible, full compliance with all the requirements given in the codes. The connection with SCAD is
established by transferring the values of the design combinations of forces for a particular element.
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Kristall
Kristall enables you to perform checks of members and joints of steel structures for compliance with
requirements of SNiP ІІ-23-81* “Steel Structures. Design Codes”, SP 53-102-2004 “General Rules on the
Design of Steel Structures”, SP 16.13330 revised and updated edition of SNiP II-23-81* “Steel Structures”,
DBN B.2.6-163:2010 and DBN B.2.6-198:2014 “Steel Structures” and Eurocode-3. Moreover, state
standards related to SNiP, SP and DBN, “Manual on Design of Steel Structures (to SNiP II-23-81*)/
Kucherenko CSRIBS” and some methodological positions of SNiP 53-1-96 were used when creating the
software.
The following modes are implemented in the application:
 Steel — implements recommendations of SNiP, SP and DBN on selection of steel grades;
 Assortment of Rolled Profiles — enables to browse through steel profile assortments and
provides profile properties;
 Bolts — enables to browse through the assortment of bolts;
 Limit Slenderness — enables to assign limit slenderness according to the recommendations of SNiP;
 Service Factors — is used to select values of service factors for elements (с) according to the
recommendations of SNiP, SP or DBN;
 Materials for Welding — implements requirements of SNiP, SP and DBN for selection of
materials for welded joints and for selection of the design strength values for welded joints;
 Deflection Limits — provides tables from SNiP 2.01.07-85* “Loads and Actions” (or DSTU
B.V.1.2-3:2006 when working with DBN B.2.6-163:2010 or DBN B.2.6-198:2014) with
limitations on deflections of structural members;
 Assortment of Sheet and Plate Steel — provides information on assortments of sheet and plate
steel;
 High-Strength Bolts — provides sizes and properties of high-strength bolts, nuts, and washers;
 Envelopes – enables to determine unfavorable combinations of multiple loads acting on bending
members, and to plot the envelope diagrams of moments and shear forces;
 Influence Lines – enables to plot bending moment and shearing force influence lines for
continuous beams;
 Geometric Properties — enables to calculate the geometric properties of a given cross-section;
 Effective Lengths – implements recommendations from SNiP, SP, DBN and Eurocode-3 on the
determination of effective length factors;
 Resistance of Sections – enables to determine the utilization factors of restrictions for any cross-
section type available in the application database;
 Bolted, Friction and Welded Connections — enable to determine the utilization factors of
restrictions and to plot the interaction curves for different structural designs of the given
connections;
 Local Stability – enables to check the local stability of webs and chord plates of bending or
compression members;
 Trusses, Truss Member, Beams, Continuous Beams and Columns — enable to check the
strength, stability and limit slenderness of the members; determining the design values of internal
forces and their combinations caused by the given external loads. It is possible to find the cross-
section;
 Base Plates — this mode deals with parts of a column base plate with various types of bearing;
 Sheet Structures — this mode enables to check strength and stability of sheet structures (round
cylindrical, conical shells, cylindrical panels).
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ComeIn
ComeIn enables you to perform checks of load-bearing capacity of structural members of masonry and
reinforced masonry structures for compliance with requirements of SNiP II-22-81 “Masonry and
Reinforced Masonry Structures”, SP 15.13330.2012, and documents related to these codes.
The following elements can be checked by the application: axially and eccentrically loaded columns
of various cross-sections in their plan; masonry lintels — coursed, Dutch, and arched; reinforced concrete
lintel beams; exterior and interior building walls with and without openings; basement walls.
Along with the check of the general strength and stability of members, there is a check of the local
strength at the areas of bearing of beams, purlins, and other members on walls and columns.
The checks are performed both for undamaged structural members and for those with cracks in
masonry and fire damages caused by high temperature. “Recommendations for Strengthening Masonry
Structural Parts of Buildings and Structures. V.A. Kucherenko CSRIBS of the State Construction
Committee of the USSR” document was used in the checks of damaged structures.
Another subject of checking is the load-bearing capacity of axially and eccentrically loaded members
reinforced by steel battens, and of walls weakened by additional openings.
The application also performs a detailed check of the areas of beams, slabs, and trusses bearing on
masonry (and reinforced masonry in some modes) walls and columns. The strength of hanging walls is
checked in the areas of the foundation beams bearing on fixed supports.
ARBAT
ARBAT enables you to check the load-bearing capacity and to select the reinforcement for concrete and
reinforced concrete structural members, to calculate the deflections in reinforced concrete beams, to check
the local strength of reinforced concrete structural members (including inserts) in compliance with
requirements of SNiP 2.03.01-84* “Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Structures” or SNiP 52-01-2003, SP
63.13330.2012. The analysis is performed taking into account the ultimate and serviceability limit states
for the design combinations of forces (DCF) selected automatically depending on the specified design
loads in compliance with SNiP 2.01.07-85* «Loads and Actions» or SP 20.13330.2011. The selection of
reinforcement and the check are performed for reinforced concrete structures from heavy-weight, fine-
grained and lightweight concrete with the reinforcement steel of the classes provided by the codes, and the
reinforcing wire.
Reinforcement is selected for multi-span and single-span beams of a constant cross-section
(rectangular section, T-section or I-section) and for columns (rectangular section, T-section, I-section, ring,
or round section) using the criteria of strength and crack resistance.
The Strength of Sections modes (Fig. 1.2-1) enable to determine the load-bearing capacity of a section
depending on the arrangement, diameter (area), and class of reinforcement, the class of concrete, the
conditions of operation, and the allowable crack opening width. In the general case, the analyses are
performed for the action of a longitudinal force, bending moments, torque, and shear forces acting in the
principal planes of inertia. SNiP 2.03.01-84* does not regulate any checks of reinforced concrete members
for the serviceability limit states under the action of moments in two planes. If SP 52-101-2003 or
SP 63.13330.2012 is selected, the analysis is performed on the basis of a non-linear deformation model.
ARBAT enables to calculate the deflections at the bending of a reinforced multi-span and single-span
beam under a given load. The deflections are calculated for a rectangular section, T-section or I-section in
compliance with Sec. 4.31 of SNiP 2.03.01-84* (Sec. 7.3.4 of SP 52-101-2003, Sec. 8.2.21 of SP
63.13330.2012). The curvature is determined taking into account cracks in the tension area.
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Figure 1.2-1. The check of the load-bearing capacity of a column in ARBAT

The application enables to perform a check of a given structure of a rectangular area of a solid slab
bent in one and in two directions.
ARBAT enables to check the reinforced concrete structural members for the local loads (local
compression, punching, tearing) in compliance with the requirements of SNiP and SP, and to perform the
analysis of inserts, short cantilevers, and keys.
Decor
DECOR enables you to perform structural analysis and various checks of members and joints of timber
structures for compliance with requirements of SNiP II-25-80, SP 64.13330.2011. The application also
provides reference data which is often used when designing timber structures. The modes implemented in
the application are classified into the reference (the Information group) or the design ones (the Analysis
group).
The reference modes include:
 Deflection and Strain Limits — provides the limit values of deflections of timber structural
members and limit values of deformations of joints;
 Densities — provides information on the density of wood according to Annex 3 of SNiP II-25-80
(Annex E of SP 64.13330.2011);
 Range of Timber — provides information on the sizes of softwood sawn timber according to
GOST 24454-80;
 Design Strength — enables to calculate the design strength for the type of stress-strain state
selected by the user;
 Timber — provides data on the maximum moisture content of timber, types and grades of glue;
 Limit Slenderness — provides information on the limit slenderness of structural members.
The design modes include:
 Geometric Properties — enables to calculate the geometric properties of a given cross-section;
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 Effective Lengths — implements recommendations of Sec. 4.21 of SNiP II-25-80 (Sec. 6.23 of SP
64.13330.2011) for determination of the effective lengths;
 Resistance of Connections — enables to determine the utilization factors of restrictions for
notched connections and connections with cylindrical dowels;
 Resistance of Sections — enables to determine the utilization factors of restrictions for any cross-
section type available in the application database, under the action of arbitrary forces; and to plot
the interaction curves for any admissible combination of the pairs of forces;
 Continuous Purlins — enables to check continuous purlins for the ultimate and serviceability
limit states;
 Cantilever Purlins — enables to check cantilever purlins under uniformly distributed loads for the
ultimate and serviceability limit states;
 Beams — enables to check single-span beams with various boundary conditions for the ultimate
and serviceability limit states;
 Columns — this mode enables to check columns and posts;
 Truss Member — this mode enables to check a separate truss member;
 Trusses — this mode enables to perform all the necessary strength and stability checks of the truss
members for the most common structural designs;
 Arches — this mode enables to perform strength and stability checks of arches from glued
laminated timber of a rectangular cross-section;
 Rafters — this mode enables to check rafters;
 Frames — this mode enables to check frame structures.
ZAPROS
ZAPROS enables you to perform the analysis and check of soil and foundation members according to
SNiP 2.02.01-83* and SP 50-101-2004, SNiP 2.02.03-85 and SP 50-102-2003, SP 22.13330.2011 and SP
24.13330.2011, or DBN B.2.1-10-2009. The application also provides reference information commonly
used in geotechnical engineering. The design and reference functions implemented in the application are
classified into the following groups: Foundations, Piles, Pile Field Tests, Information.
The modes of the Foundation group enable to perform the following operations: determine the tilt of
a rectangular foundation caused by loads acting on it; perform the deformation analysis of subsoil under
pad and strip foundations, rectangular in their plane, and rigid slabs; determine the stiffness parameters of
the subsoil consisting of a finite number of layers, each layer being linearly deformable and having a
constant thickness; calculate the ultimate pressure under the foundation base (design resistance of soil).
The Piles group includes two information modes — Service Factors for Piles and Nomenclature for
Piles, together with the following design modes: determination of the load-bearing capacity of a pile
subjected to a vertical load; determination of the stability factor of safety of the subsoil, the minimal and
maximal bending moment and the shear force in a given section of the pile, and some other pile
characteristics; determination of the settlement of a pile subjected to a vertical load.
The Pile Field Tests group includes the calculation of the load-bearing capacity of piles obtained
from the dynamic testing; determination of the load-bearing capacity of a driven (production) friction pile
subjected to compression, obtained from the soil testing with a sample pile; determination of the load-
bearing capacity of a driven (production) friction pile subjected to compression, obtained from the soil
testing with a probe pile; determination of the load-bearing capacity of a driven (production) friction pile
subjected to compression, obtained from the cone penetration test.
Reference modes enable to browse limit values of the relative difference of settlements, tilt, and an
average or maximum settlement for various types of structures given in Annex 4 of SNiP 2.02.01-83*
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(Annex F of SP 50-101-2004, Annexes E, G, L of SP 22.13330.2011 or Annex I of DBN B.2.1-10-2009);

provide information on the design resistance of various kinds of soils given in Annex 3 of SNiP 2.02.01-
83* (Annex A of SP 50-101-2004, Annex C of SP 22.13330.2011, Annex F of DBN B.2.1-10-2009); the
soil properties, given in Annex 1 of SNiP 2.02.01-83* (Annex D of SP 50-101-2004, Annex B of
SP 22.13330.2011, Annex C of DBN B.2.1-10-2009); and the service factors from Table 3 of SNiP
2.02.01-83* (Table. 5.2 of SP 50-101-2004, Table 5.4 of SP 22.13330.2011, Table F.7 of DBN B.2.1-10-
2009).
1.3. Design and Engineering Programs

Design and engineering programs COMET and Monolit are used for the development of the design
documentation at the stage of the detailed design elaboration.
Monolit
Monolit enables you to design reinforced concrete monolithic ribbed and flat floor slabs. Ribbed floors are
formed by a system of slabs and beams bearing on columns and/or walls. The system has been developed
in compliance with the current standards (SNiP 2.03.01-84*, GOST 21.501-93, DSTU B А.2.4-7-95,
GOST 21.101-97, DSTU B А.2.4-4-99, GOST 7473-94, DSTU B V.2.7-96-2000, GOST 14098-91, SNiP
52-01-2003, SP 52-101-03, SP 63.13330.2012).
The general floor layout is arranged on the orthogonal grid of nodes that have sequential numbering.
Nodes are located at the points of intersection of the floor structural members: beams, walls, columns.
Slabs are assumed to have uniform thickness over the entire floor, the top of slabs is in the same level as
the top of beams. Rectangular beams are divided into secondary beams, which carry the uniformly
distributed load from the floor slabs, and main beams, which carry the load from the secondary beams
running perpendicular to them and from the floor slabs. Load-bearing walls and/or frame columns serve as
the floor supports. The support conditions of the floor bearing on the walls are determined by the wall
material: brick walls that provide for free zero-moment support of beams and slabs, and concrete walls that
are monolithic with the floor and provide rigid, moment connection of the beams and slabs with the
supporting structure. All load-bearing elements of the structure (walls, columns, beams) can be displaced
with respect to the axes connecting the nodes of the grid lines.
The program outputs the required set of floor working drawings, which includes: formwork layout
with characteristic cross-sections, layouts of the upper and lower reinforcement of a slab (arrangement of
the reinforcement meshes), beam and column reinforcement drawings, drawings of welded cages and
meshes used for the reinforcement of slabs and beams, specification of details, steel consumption per slab
and the overall specification, specifications for slabs and the overall specification. All the necessary notes
are given. Reinforcement is completely unified.
All output documents are prepared in formats standard for the majority of printers – А4 and А3.
However, they can be printed out using devices of other format, as well as a Plotter. In order to complete
the output documents the results can be imported into the DXF formats of the AutoCAD software file.
COMET
COMET is used to check and design the most common types of joints of steel bar structures used in civil
and industrial engineering. The approach implemented in the application is based on selecting from a set of
parameterized standard structural designs of joints (prototypes). The parameters of the prototypes change
during the design process depending on the specified design conditions (material, internal forces etc.), and
the selected codes.
The main task of the program is to obtain a design of a joint that complies with the selected codes and
design specifications. COMET generates a drawing of the joint and provides the data on the resistance of
15
its individual elements (structural members, welds, bolts etc.). The latter enable to assess the quality of the
obtained design, and if necessary change some parameters of the structure.
The following joint prototypes are implemented in the program: rigid and pinned beam-to-column
joints, nominally pinned column bases, rigid column bases without stiffeners, with stiffeners and wing
plates, joints between beams which use bolts and beam splices with end-plates, truss panel points.
Joints between an I-beam and a column are implemented in the program as welded joints and joints
with an end-plate with ordinary and high-strength bolts. The joints can be horizontal and inclined, with and
without haunches, allowing for the reinforcement of the column and without the reinforcement.
The graphical results can be exported as a DXF (AutoCAD) file.
1.4. Auxiliary Programs
Section Builder
Section Builder enables you to create arbitrary compound sections from rolled steel profiles and plates and
calculate their geometric properties necessary for performing the structural analysis. The calculations are
performed according to the ordinary rules of the strength of materials, and the moment of inertia at free
torsion is determined approximately as a sum of free torsional moments of inertia of profiles that make up
the section. A report containing the results of the calculation of the geometric properties is generated.
The results of the calculation of the geometric properties can be exported to SCAD and to Kristall.
Consul
Consul enables you to create arbitrary sections and calculate their geometric properties on the basis of the
solid rods theory.
The following main characteristics can be obtained in the result of the calculation — cross-sectional
area, values of the moments of inertia, radii of gyration, section moduli, torsional and sectorial properties,
coordinates of the shear center.
The graphical interactive tools enable to create complex sections of an arbitrary shape with holes and
include the functions of rounding angles, editing the contour of the section and the coordinates of the
vertices, moving a group of the selected vertices. The application enables to import the sections from the
DWG or DXF file formats, and to work with the parametric sections specified by the user.
The calculated geometric properties can be used in SCAD when specifying the stiffness properties of
the elements.
TONUS
Tonus enables you to create sections and calculate their geometric properties on the basis of the thin-
walled rods theory.
The following main characteristics can be obtained in the result of the calculation — cross-sectional
area, values of the moments of inertia, radii of gyration, section moduli, torsional and sectorial properties,
coordinates of the shear center.
The graphical interactive tools enable to create arbitrary thin-walled sections (including mixed open-
closed ones). The application enables to import the sections from the DWG or DXF file formats, and to
work with the parametric sections specified by the user.
The calculated geometric properties can be used in SCAD when specifying the stiffness properties of
the elements.
16
SEZAM
Sezam enables you to find a section (a hollow section, an I-beam, a Tee section, or a channel) which
approximates an arbitrary section set by the user according to its geometric properties the best. Since all
the codes deal only with a certain type of sections, the section obtained in the result of the approximation
can be used in the design programs to take into account the elastoplastic stage of work, check for the web
buckling, check for the out-of-plane buckling, or to make some other checks.
The initial section can be specified as a file created by Section Builder, Consul and Tonus, by the set
of geometrical properties, or as a compound section from the set of prototypes given in the program (e.g.
two channels, two I-beams, etc.).
The following properties are approximated for the given section: area, principal moments of inertia,
moments of resistance.
West
WeST enables to perform the analyses dealing with the determination of loads and actions on building
structures in compliance with the recommendations of SNiP 2.01.07-85* “Loads and Actions” (Fig. 1.4-1),
SP 20.13330.2011, SNiP 2.01.07-85 (Belarus), or DBN B.1.2.2-2006.
Design modes include:
 Self-weight — determination of the load from
the self-weight of a multilayer pack consisting
from different materials per unit area;
 Temporary Loads — determination of values of
uniformly distributed temporary loads (full and
reduced values) in various rooms in accordance
with the instructions of SNiP, SP, and DBN;
 Wind — calculation of the static component of
wind loads for the structures of various types
specified in SNiP, SP, and DBN;
 Snow — calculation of the snow loads for the
structures of various types specified in SNiP, SP,
Figure 1.4-1. Determination of the wind load and DBN;
in WeST  Temperature — determination of the thermal
actions in accordance with SNiP, SP, and DBN.
Slope
Slope enables to determine the factor of safety of a slope. The failure mechanism is assumed to be a slip of
a soil mass with respect to a stable part of the slope. The shear resistance along the slip surface is
calculated under static conditions. The Coulomb failure criterion is satisfied along the whole surface.
The actual shear stress obtained by the calculation is compared with the ultimate shear resistance, and
the result of the comparison is expressed as a factor of safety. The factor of safety of a slope is a minimum
factor of safety for all potential slip surfaces which satisfy given restrictions (the restrictions are usually
defined by the method of analysis).
The initial data include:
 sizes of the sliding soil mass;
 depth of the tension crack (if the checkbox indicating the presence of a tension crack is checked);
 soil properties;
17
 position and characteristics of the boreholes;

 loads acting on a certain part of the slope.
Cross
Cross enables to determine the subsoil parameters for the analysis of the foundation structures on the
Winkler elastic subgrade based on the modeling of the behavior of a horizontally layered soil deposit. The
geological structure of the soil deposit is assumed to be arbitrary and it is restored based on the data of the
geological surveys.
The software considers a construction site
where the designed structure is located together
with other objects that affect the main structure in
the sense that loads upon the soil transferred by
these objects may cause settlements of the
designed foundation.
The results of the analysis are the values of the
Winkler coefficient in any point of the foundation
slab (Fig. 1.4-2). Cross enables to automatically
transfer the geometry of the subgrade from SCAD
and to return the results of the calculation to the
system.
Figure 1.4-2. Determination of the Winkler coefficient
for the foundation slab
1.5. Service Functions

Besides the design and analysis, design and engineering, and auxiliary programs SCAD has a number of
service programs such as: CoCon, Kust, Section Viewer, Formula Calculator, Converting Units of
Measurement etc., which are described in the Chapter 30 Service Functions of this book.
18
2.Theoretical Foundations
2. Theoretical Foundations
A person who uses software for the analysis of constructions and who is
interested in the stress and strain state is not required to know all mathematical
and computational problems in detail. However he needs to have an idea about
how mathematical problems are formed and what are the numerical methods to
solve them. It is hard to rationally choose an analytical model and correctly
evaluate the accuracy of the final results.
L.A. ROSIN. Problems of the theory of elasticity and numerical
methods. — St. Petersburg, State Technical University, 1998. p.5
This section provides some short information on the approaches and methods used by SCAD for the
numerical analysis. The amount of this information is sufficient for the user to better understand further
instructions of this manual and to deal with situations that arise as one tries to solve a particular
engineering problem. This manual cannot replace the literature on the subject referenced in the text, but it
can serve as an introductory guide to these books. Moreover, the considered issues are covered more
extensively in the book [11], which can be used as additional documentation for SCAD.
2.1. Structure and Its Design Model
General Information
The design analysis of any structure begins with an attempt to determine what is important in the
considered case, and what can be neglected. Such a simplification of the problem is always performed,
because the real structure with the whole set of its properties can be analyzed only at the expense of certain
approximations.
A real structure relieved of all its inessential details and thus represented in an idealized form is called
a design model. Some general methods of design modeling have gained a wide spread (a material idealized
as a continuum; an assumption of the material homogeneity; reduction of a body geometry to such standard
shapes as bars, plates, or shells; external load arrangement, etc.). Other methods of modeling are more
particular and are used only in special cases. However, in all cases the selection of a design model is the
most important component of the engineering analysis and one of the most characteristic features of the art
of engineering (this is indeed the matter of art, not just science!), which defines the professional level of
the designer.
As any other art, the art of design modeling can be learned only from practice. Therefore, we shall not
dwell on it much longer 1. However, once the design model has been established (if even roughly), a
detailed description of it has to be made in the form appropriate for the numerical analysis. It is this stage
of design on which we will give further particular recommendations.
It should be noted that the following decisions have to be made at the early stages of the design
modeling: on whether the analysis should be linear or nonlinear, whether to take the forces of inertia into
account and to proceed with a dynamic analysis, or to confine yourself to a static analysis.
The expected structural behavior is predicted by the designer on the basis of his accumulated
experience and engineering intuition. Therefore, all decisions made must be subject to a posterior revision.
If time derivatives can be neglected in the governing equations that describe the behavior of a system, then
1
The problem of transition from a structure to the design model and back – from a design model to the structure – is
discussed extensively in a wonderful book by V.I. Feodosiev [16], which we recommend to every designer. Very
informative and delicate considerations on this question can be also found in a monograph by I.I. Blekhman,
A.D. Myshkis, Y.G. Panovko [1].
19
we are dealing with a static problem, and thus with an analysis of the behavior of a motionless system. In
the dynamics problems, when the forces of inertia proportional to the accelerations of masses play a
significant role, and in the creep problems, when the velocities are taken into account, we deal with the
analysis of a moving system.
Nonlinear problems may be caused by the effects arising due to changes in the geometry of the
system under the load (geometric nonlinearity), lack of proportionality between the stresses and strains
(physical nonlinearity), unilateral constraints being enabled or disabled as the system is loaded or unloaded
(structural nonlinearity), or the effects defined by the variability of the system structure in the process of
its construction (genetic nonlinearity).
All these peculiarities of the expected structural behavior affect the selection of the design model, for
example, during the determination of the possible degrees of freedom or the arrangement of loads acting
upon the system.
A question of particular importance is how to divide the system into finite elements, i.e. standard parts
of which (only!) the system will consist.
If the division is too fine, the great amount of elements will increase the computation time, and a lot
of computer memory resources will be requested for storage and processing of data. The instability effects
of the computation process itself may also arise. If the division is too rough, the accuracy of the results
may be lost, especially when a plate or a shell structure is analyzed.
Hardly any general advice can be given on how to select the optimum division of each particular
system into finite elements. Existing “estimates of convergence” are of an asymptotic nature (see, for
example, [6, 15]), but they are often too abstract to be practically useful for a particular engineering task.
Therefore, you should rely mainly upon the accumulated experience and the results of checks performed
for the same structure divided into several different sets of finite elements. The approaches when some
fragments of the system are analyzed successively with ever finer finite element meshes can be also
recommended.
Design Model According to the Slope Deflection Method

Since the computing algorithms implemented by SCAD are based on the slope deflection method1,
idealization of the structure should be performed in a way suitable for using this method, i.e.: the system
should be represented as a set of bodies of standard types (bars, plates, shells etc.) called finite elements
and attached to nodal points.
These finite elements must be previously studied, so that we can determine their reaction to unit nodal
displacements and rotations. Finite elements used in SCAD are described in Chapter 3.
A node of a design model, according to the slope deflection method, is defined as a rigid body of
vanishing sizes. The position of the node in space at the deformation of the system is defined by
coordinates of its center and directions of three axes rigidly attached to the node. In other words, the node
is considered to be an object with six degrees of freedom: three linear displacements determined as the
differences between the node coordinates in the deformed and non-deformed states, and three rotation
angles. Other parameters defining the deformed position of the system (additional degrees of freedom) can
be also associated with the nodes.
In the slope deflection method, elements of a system are considered to be connected only to nodes of
the design model. This peculiar feature of design models is not often mentioned in educational and
1
It means that the common system of governing equations that describe the mechanical behavior of a structural
system uses nodal displacements and rotation angles as its unknowns. Some types of finite elements (so-called hybrid
elements) internally use force unknowns, but these variables are eliminated before the formation of the common
system of governing equations.
20
reference books. This approach is approximate because when equivalent forces are reduced to nodal loads,
the equilibrium of some types of finite elements (e.g., plates and shells) can be preserved only in an
integral sense. Inter-element boundaries between elements other than bars can contain cuts; therefore the
issue of so-called consistency (compatibility) of elements should be addressed. Consistent elements ensure
that the displacements and their derivatives conform to one another in points located on the opposite edges
of a cut. If the elements are inconsistent, additional conditions have to be satisfied to compensate potential
possible inconsistent displacements of the edges of the cut.
It should be noted that all elements included in the SCAD library are either consistent or compensated
against inconsistency by additional conditions.
Figure 2.1-1. Depiction of a design model: a — traditional; b — detailed

The conditions of junction between elements and nodes are not always shown in traditional methods
of visualization of design models. For example, the design model shown in Fig. 2.1-1, a in a traditional
manner can give one an idea that its elements are directly connected to one another, while a more detailed
picture of Fig. 2.1-1, b helps one avoid this deduction. Note also that the detailed picture shows other
peculiarities of this model. In particular, one can see the possibility for specifying the same kinematic
conditions with different sets of constraints (compare nodes 1 and 4, or 7 and 8). However, this technique
is not always harmless. For example, from the standpoint of kinematic properties of the problem, two
versions of a design model shown in Fig. 2.1-2, are equivalent (a beam clamped at its left end and simply
supported at the right end).
Figure 2.1-2. Two ways of representing the same design model

However from the standpoint of the force specification these ways are different: the model in Fig. 2.1-
2, a transfers the moment to the bar, thus node 2 of this model will have a slope, while the model in
Fig. 2.1-2, b transfers no moment and thus node 2 will have a zero slope. In order for the model in Fig. 2.1-
2, b to have the bending moment in its bar, one should treat this moment as applied to the bar in a cross-
section near the node rather than to the node itself. On the other hand, using the model in Fig. 2.1-2, a you
can calculate the rotation angle at the node 2, which is equal to the slope of the rightmost section of the
21
bar; and the model in Fig. 2.1-2, b does not enable to calculate the slope of the end section because SCAD
is capable of outputting only nodal displacements and rotation angles.
The whole design model is assumed to consist solely of elements of a certain predefined type. The list
of element types used by SCAD can be altered or supplemented, but each particular version of the system
uses a certain set of elements called a finite element library (FEL), from which the “elementary particles”
for creating a design model are selected.
Finally, it should be noted that all the nodes and elements of a design model are numbered. Numbers
assigned to them should only be treated as names for the convenience of reference. Using the numbers we
can, for instance, indicate a node where a certain load is applied, list nodes a particular element is attached
to, make a list of elements joined in a certain node (which is called a “star of elements” at the node) or
being in a certain specified group. The numbering does not perform any other functions, and it almost does
not affect the computation time, because the system is capable of optimizing the stiffness matrix profile.
However, the results of an analysis are usually output in the order of numbering of the nodes
(displacements) or elements (internal forces and moments). We, therefore, can not say that nothing at all
depends on the numbering.
Principal and Auxiliary Unknowns

The principal system of the slope deflection method is formed in a usual way, by imposing constraints
upon each node that prevent the node from any displacements. The conditions that the forces in those
constraints are equal to zero are the governing equations of equilibrium, and displacements of the said
constraints are the principal unknowns of the slope deflection method.
All six displacements may take place in a node of a common spatial structure:
1 — a linear displacement along the X axis;
2 — the same along the Y axis;
3 — the same along the Z axis;
4 — a rotation angle (slope) with its vector along the X axis (a rotation about the X axis);
5 — the same along the Y axis (a rotation about the Y axis);
6 — the same along the Z axis (a rotation about the Z axis).
The numbering of the displacements (degrees of freedom) given above will be used later without
further notes; the documentation also uses the symbols: X, Y, Z, UX, UY and UZ to denote the respective
linear displacements and rotation angles. If one of the displacements in a node does not affect the stress
state of all the elements joined in this node (e.g., the rotation angles of a node joining only bars with hinges
at their ends, which is a common case in the analysis of trusses), then this displacement is not included in
the set of principal unknowns.
The whole system may even happen to have this property, and the same reduced set of unknown
displacements will be then present in each node of it, or, in other words, some of the displacements are
absent from the degrees of freedom of all the nodes of the system. This property, or feature, of the system
can be denoted in a special way so that we do not have to use some of the displacements. Here are some
examples:
 a flat truss located in the XOZ plane — we can indicate that the displacements along the Y axis and
all the rotation angles (UX, UY, UZ) will not be considered;
 a plate in the XOY plane — the displacements along the X and Y axes, and the rotation angle UZ are
excluded.
In some cases a node of the design model can be assigned additional degrees of freedom (auxiliary
unknowns), which will no longer be equivalent to the components of linear or angular displacements of a
node as an infinitesimally small rigid body in its central point. The second mixed derivative (torsion) of the
22
deformed plate surface, or components of transversal shear and reduction in laminated piecewise-
heterogeneous shallow shells can be the examples of an auxiliary unknown.
External and Internal Constraints

Limitations (constraints) can be imposed on some of the nodal displacements due to the structural
peculiarities. We will say that a mono-constraint is imposed upon a system if it restrains one component of
the nodal displacement (e.g., X = 0 or UY = 0). If a constraint upon the system makes a linear combination
of the nodal displacement components equal to zero, we will refer to this constraint as a poly-constraint
[11]. A mono-constraint is always an external one, because it limits the displacements as an external
action. A poly-constraint imposed on the components of nodal displacements of the same node is also an
external one, but the restrained displacement is directed at a certain angle to the coordinate axes rather than
being coincident with one of them (e.g., the poly-constraint Xicos + Yisin = 0 is directed at the angle  to
the coordinate axis X). Other poly-constraints involving the displacement components of different nodes
are internal. They are usually caused by the presence of rigid elements in the system (in its design model).
It should be noted that when selecting a design model, you should make sure that rigid elements
which model the internal constraints do not form a statically indeterminate system such as a closed
contour. Otherwise the system would be degenerate and the distribution of stresses in it would be
ambiguous.
Another, somewhat opposite, danger is missing a constraint when creating a design model, i.e. not
restraining a displacement that leads to a dimensional instability. During the analysis SCAD performs the
check of the dimensional stability and modifies the unstable models by imposing additional constraints.
However, the user must always keep in mind that this instability might be the result of his negligence, and
do not rely on the “service” of correcting the detected mistakes performed by the system. In particular, this
modification is correct only if the reactions in the additional constraints automatically added to the system
are equal to zero, and no load is applied in the direction of this displacement.
An analysis of a system with mono-constraints is not complicated: the respective nodal displacements
are simply excluded from the set of the principal unknowns. This simplicity causes a motivation to
describe those external constraints that restrain displacements or rotations not directed along the coordinate
axes as mono-constraints.
Another approach is to try to restrain any kind of displacement by adding some elements with
sufficiently large stiffness, but it is approximate and might lead to a noticeable loss of accuracy. The only
advantage of this approach is that it enables to determine the reaction of the added constraint. Wider
capabilities arise from the use of special “null elements” which, among other things, enable you to perform
the analysis for a specified displacement [10].
Junction between Elements and Nodes

Nodes (located in the end sections of bars) of elements joined to the nodes of the system can be located at
some distance from the center of the model node, i.e., a junction eccentricity may take place. We will
assume that in all element types where this eccentricity is allowed, the node (end section) of an element
will be connected to the center of the model node by a rigid insert, and this insert will be a part of the finite
element (see the description of bar-type finite elements in Chapter 3 Finite Element Library).
Obviously, the presence of the said rigid insert will make the displacement of the element end section
unequal to that of the model node (the former depends also on the nodal rotations), while the rotation
angles of the node and of the end section will be equal.
The difference between the displacements (rotation angles) of a node and the element end section
connected to the model node may be also caused by the peculiarities of the junction design. Assuming that
an element can be connected by its nodes to the centers of the model nodes through six constraints, each
23
one restraining one of six possible mutual displacements, we can also imagine the absence of any of these
six constraints. The absence of one angular constraint corresponds to a cylindrical hinge; the absence of all
three mutual angular constraints – to a spherical hinge; the absence of a linear constraint – to a “slider”,
etc. To be brief, we will further refer to all cases of this kind as “hinges”, though it is not very accurate. It
should be noted that the use of various junctions between the elements and the nodes, as well as constraints
imposed on the nodal displacements, enables to diversify our design models. This fact is illustrated by Fig.
2.1-1. We recommend you to compare equal though represented in different ways pairs of nodes 1 and 4,
or 7 and 8.
It should be noted that the incomplete equivalence between the element and the model nodal displa-
cements, as well as the eccentric junction, is allowable not for every element type; one should refer to
finite element definitions to find out whether those are possible. Limitations, if there are any, can be cir-
cumvented using artificial tricks (by introducing additional nodes, very compliant constraining elements
etc.).
Groups, Substructures, Super-Elements

It is often convenient to represent a design model as a complex of several different fragments, each one
being a meaningful entity. In the SCAD environment, named structural fragments are referred to as
groups. A group can be formed from the functionally related parts (e.g., a frame of one of the storeys in a
multi-storey building), or from the parts with a common structural system (a floor, a wall), or from the
structural part with a different geometry (e.g., one face of an angular shell). SCAD allows you to create
groups out of any components of a design model (nodes, elements, loads) and their combinations.
Further, when talking about a group, we will mean a part of the model extracted from the whole
system by a criterion specified by the designer. However, the software itself does not perform any actions
on a group; it is the user that has to define all the actions to be performed during the analysis (e.g., perform
a unification, select rebars, print the results etc.).
SCAD enables to use the fragments represented as individual design models when performing certain
actions (chiefly in the course of entering information). Such fragments will be called substructures. A
substructure possesses all features of a design model, it consists of nodes and elements, includes
constraints, hinges etc. When creating a model, its substructure is treated like a single entity, determining
its place in a system (main model) by merging some nodes of the subsystem, which play the part of nodes
of a conventional finite element, with nodes of the main model.
A substructure used not only for inputting the initial data but also for organizing the computation
process is called a super-element. The super-element modeling should be applied in cases when the same
super-element is included in the system several times. Results of calculations performed for the first super-
element of the series of similar ones will then be used for the rest of this series, which will considerably
reduce the number of calculations.
Loads and Actions

The interaction of a system with its environment is usually represented as a set of loads or actions applied
to the nodes of the system (nodal loads) or to the interior points of its finite elements (local loads). The
local loads can be forces or moments, either concentrated or distributed over lines, areas, or volumes. The
loading of the system can be sometimes represented as a thermal action on its elements or given
displacements in nodes, i.e. these actions are kinematic rather than force factors.
If the actions vary with time, they cause accelerations of the system masses which in turn give rise to
inertial forces. In cases when the inertial forces cannot be neglected, the action is referred to as dynamic;
keep in mind that classifying an action as static or dynamic should be based upon inertial properties of the
system just as well as on the properties of the action.
24
Both characteristic and design load values are used in the engineering practice. They are related by
the safety factors for loads. Generally speaking, the characteristic and the design values are used in
different kinds of calculations: the former are used to check the serviceability limit state, and the latter – to
check the ultimate limit state. SCAD assumes by default that the loads are given by their design values.
A set of loads and actions applied to the system simultaneously and considered together is called its
loading. Sometimes one loading comprises only those simultaneously applied loads that have a common
origin (e.g., only pressure caused by wheels of a single overhead travelling crane, or snow load on the roof
of a single span in a multi-span building) or have some other common properties (e.g., the same safety
factor for load set by the design codes). If afterwards a combined effect of several loadings (their sum with
some coefficients) has to be considered, it is called a combination of loadings, and the coefficients will be
respectively referred to as the coefficients of this combination.
The fact that loadings may form various combinations in different moments of time, and the number
of these combinations can be rather big, leads to a non-trivial problem of finding such combinations of
external actions that result in the most disadvantageous consequences for the considered structural element
or its section. These combinations are called the design combinations of forces (DCF). When solving this
problem, you should remember about the logical relation between loadings, defined by the nature of loads
applied to the system or by the regulations of the design codes. Such logical relationships make it
sometimes impossible to apply some loads simultaneously (the incompatibility of loads), such as, for
instance, the wind pressure caused by winds of different directions. In other cases when considering a
certain loading it might be necessary to take into account another loading (e.g., if a friction force is
considered, then the normal pressure must be taken into account as well), though the inverse relation of this
kind might not take place (the normal pressure can be considered independently without the friction force).
It should be noted that the use of the combinations of loadings and the determination of the DCF are
based on the superposition principle, and therefore, they make sense only for the linear systems. If there is
any kind of nonlinearity involved, all the loads acting on the system must be analyzed within a single
loading.
2.2. Basic Relationships of the Finite Element Method
Linear Static Analysis

SCAD is based on the finite element method (FEM) in the form of slope deflection method. This form has
been selected due to its simple algorithmic implementation and physical interpretation; possibility of
creating unified methods for the construction of stiffness matrices and load vectors for various types of
finite elements; possibility of taking into account any types of boundary conditions and complex geometry
of the designed structure. Detailed descriptions of the method with thorough proofs can be found in a lot of
books (see for example, [6, 15]). This section only briefly covers the basic design relationships.
The stress and strain state of each material point x of a finite element with the volume V and the
surface area S, can be described by the vectors of stress (x) and strain (x). In the theory of linear
elasticity the latter are expressed through the vector of displacements u(x) as follows:
 = M,  = Bu, (2.2.1)
where B is a linear matrix differential operator; M is a symmetric positive definite elasticity matrix of
Hooke’s law that depends only on stiffness properties of the structural material.
The full potential energy of the element is determined by the following formula:
1 T
Π(e) 
2
v

v

ε Mε dV  uT pdV  uT q dS ,
s
(2.2.2)
where p and q are vectors of volume and surface forces, respectively.
25
The displacements u(х) of any point of the considered element can be approximately expressed
through the unknown nodal displacements Z:
u( x )    (x) Z
i
i i  Φ ( x) Z e , (2.2.3)
where i(x) are the interpolation functions usually referred to as shape functions, which should meet the
smoothness requirements in order to ensure the convergence of the method [15];  (x) is the matrix of
interpolation functions; Ze is the vector of all unknown nodal displacements of the considered element
(index “e”).
Substituting (2.2.1) and (2.2.3) to (2.2.2) we obtain
   
 v 

v s

 (e) =1/2 Z eT  ( BΦ )T MBΦ dV  Z e   pT Φ dV  qT Φ dS  Z e
  

 (2.2.4)
The expression (2.2.4) can be represented in the following form:

П(е) = 1/2 ZeТK(e)Ze – feTZe, (2.2.5)

where K(e) = ( BΦ )T MBΦdV is the stiffness matrix of the element;
v
f eT  
= p ΦdV + qT ΦdS is the vector of reduced nodal forces.
T
v s
The full potential energy of a system is a sum of the potential energies of all its elements:
Π= Π
e
(e) , (2.2.6)
and its minimization produces the system of governing equations of FEM:

KZ = f (2.2.7)
with the global stiffness matrix K and the vector of nodal forces f, obtained by summing the respective
members of the stiffness matrices K(e) and the vectors f(e) of particular finite elements, which is an
advantage of the considered approach.
There are known conditions of convergence and error estimates for FEM in the form of slope
deflection method. The conditions of convergence include the linear independence and the completeness of
the system of basis functions, as well as their consistency (conformity) or other conditions compensating
the inconsistency.
There are also some easily verified conditions for establishing the completeness of the basis functions,
their consistency, or whether the conditions compensating the inconsistency are satisfied. In the case of
polynomial approximations, these conditions come in the form of equalities which must be satisfied by the
basis functions at each finite element. This theoretical basis enables us to check the correctness of the
application of the known finite elements, to develop the principles for constructing new consistent and
inconsistent elements and to obtain their error estimates as well.
SCAD finite element library contains a lot of elements for modeling the behavior of various types of
structures. There are well-known bar elements, triangular and quadrangular elements for the analysis of the
plane stress state, plates, shells, 3D elements such as tetrahedron, parallelepiped, and trihedral prism. The
library includes the following elements: inconsistent triangular and rectangular elements of isotropic and
orthotropic plates and shells, plates on the elastic subgrade, laminated plates and shells; consistent
triangular and quadrangular elements for the analysis of the plane stress state, plates and shells with
optional nodes on their sides, all constructed by the sub-area method. These elements are based on the
elements for the analysis of the plane stress state with two degrees of freedom in a node, and plates with
three degrees of freedom.
26
The library contains isoparametric elements for the analysis of the plane stress state and for solving
spatial elastic problems; one- and two-dimensional (quadrangular and triangular) axisymmetric elements.
Moreover, there are various special elements for modeling the constraints of finite rigidity, elastic
compliance between nodes, null-elements of various types, elements specified by a numerical stiffness
matrix. All finite elements contained in the library are theoretically justified and have error estimates of
energy and displacements. The integral force error can be estimated by a value proportional to h, where h
is the maximum size of finite elements,  = 2 for rectangular plate elements,  = 1 for all other elements.
The displacement error can be estimated by a value proportional to h, where  = 4 for consistent
rectangular and quadrangular plate elements, and  = 2 for all other elements. The possibility of performing
the analysis of curvilinear bars with rectilinear elements and of any shells with triangular and rectangular
(for cylindrical shells) plane shell elements is also theoretically justified. The energy and displacement
error in this case can be estimated by a value proportional to h.
Additional Constraints
If the displacements Z are restrained by the constraint conditions
CZ = 0, (2.2.8)
then only some components of the vector Z can be varied freely, and in order to take these constraints into
account, it was suggested in paper [10] to use a modified Lagrangian function:
ПLМ = ½ ZT(K + CTD0C)Z  ZTf + T CZ, (2.2.9)
where D0 is a symmetric positive definite matrix, and  is a vector of Lagrange multipliers (reactions in the
constraints).
Stationarity conditions of the functional (2.2.9) yield a system of equations
KZ + (CTD0C) Z + C T = f;
CZ = 0. (2.2.10)
It should be noted that the matrix С must contain only linearly independent rows; otherwise (if there
are duplicated constraints) the system may happen to contain a statically indeterminate substructure made
up from rigid elements, which results in a degenerate problem. In all other cases the system of equations
(2.2.10) has a nonzero determinant, including the case of a degenerate matrix К (the structure without
additional constraints is unstable) with its excess not exceeding the rank of the matrix С.
Adding the product CTD0C to the stiffness matrix K corresponds to the inclusion of an elastic element
with special properties (“null element”) into the structure. It is inserted in parallel to an infinitely rigid
constraint and therefore does not distort the results of analysis. Possible methods for constructing such
“null elements”, some of which have been used in the development of SCAD, are considered in detail in
[10].
Rigid Bodies
One of the possible types of poly-constraints is the case when the displacements of some nodes of the
system are connected to each other as in the case of their connection by a rigid body. In the SCAD
software the rigid body is treated as a specific type of finite element. Its relationship to finite elements can
be noticed at least from the fact that the rigid body unites nodes attached to it. Roughly, a rigid body can be
considered as a limiting case of a finite element as the rigidity properties of this element approach the
infinity.
Rigid body can be represented graphically as a "spider" consisting of one master node and a number
of slave nodes – Fig. 2.2-1. The connection can be full or partial.
27
We have to distinguish between linear and angular

components of the vector of nodal displacements Z. The
first ones will be denoted as u , and the second ones as θ .
When the connection is full all the displacements of
the slave nodes are expressed through the displacements of
the master node on the basis of the kinematics theorems for
a rigid body:
 uS   uM  θM  ρM  S 
     , (2.2.11)
 θS   θM 
Figure 2.2-1
where u, θ are vectors of linear displacements and angles of rotation of the node in the global coordinate
system, and the indices M and S stand for the master and slave nodes respectively;
ρM S is the radius vector connecting the master node to the slave one.
In the case of partial connection the expression (2.2.11) covers only those degrees of freedom which
satisfy the kinematic relationships of a rigid body. Other displacements and angles of rotation of each of
the slave nodes remain independent and are not expressed through the displacements of the master node.
Such connection can be represented as a connection in two stages. The full connection of displacements
and rotation angles of all slave nodes with displacements and angles of rotation of the master node is
performed during the first stage, and then independent degrees of freedom of the slave nodes are
disconnected.
Since the equations (2.2.11) include the angle of rotation of the master-node, when using the rigid
bodies only the design models with the degrees of freedom including the angles of rotation (type 2, type 3
and type 5) can be used. If there are no angles of rotation in other nodes due to the selection of the
respective types of finite elements, it is recommended to impose the missing constraints.
The connection codes are introduced for the convenience of specifying the connection types. The
connection codes for the spatial design model are as follows X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ.
Each of these parameters is set to f or b. The value b (blocked) means that the connection of
displacements corresponding to the given degree of freedom (in the global coordinate system) is
performed, and the value f (free) means that it is not performed.
There are the following possible options of a set of nodal displacements in the connection code:
 spatial design model – connection codes X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ;
 two-dimensional frame – connection codes X, Z, UY (this type of a rigid body imposes
displacements on the slave nodes in its own plane, such a rigid body can be called a disc);
 bendable plate located in the XOY plane – connection codes Z, UX, UY. (this type of a rigid body,
which can be called a stamp, connects the displacements of the nodes belonging to it at their exit
from the plane of the rigid body).
It should be noted that, on the one hand, the rigid bodies (and all the poly-constraints) are an
extremely powerful tool for creating the design models, which enables the user to express their individual
creativity in the most unusual situations. On the other hand, this tool is not safe – even the experienced
designers can get into a well hidden trap, which is difficult to detect. One of such traps is the condition of
linear independence. This means that the design model should not contain a statically indeterminate
subsystem consisting entirely of rigid elements. Otherwise, the distribution of forces in the system is not
unique.
Let us consider some typical examples of using the rigid bodies. Figure 2.2-2,a shows the structure of
a strong slab reinforced by wide ribs. Application of the traditional approaches for modeling this structure
28
with the help of rigid inserts will make the bending of the slab in the span between the reinforcing ribs
considerably greater than in the case when the reduction of the slab span due to the rib width is taken into
account.
Using the rigid bodies in the model (they are limited by the dashed line in the figure) enables to join
the bar with the necessary eccentricity to the nodes on the middle surface of the plate, and to provide the
absence of distortion of the section at the junction with the plate, which prevents its bending in this area. It
should be noted that in this case the spatial rigid body can be used, despite the fact that all its nodes are in
the same plane.
The absence of distortion of the cross-section contour in the models made from the thin-walled bars is
often provided by the introduction of diaphragms or similar stiffening elements. If these elements are not
loaded and their stress state is of no importance to the designer, the diaphragms can be modeled by rigid
bodies which do not allow deformations in their plane.
Figure 2.2-2. Modeling of a wide rib by the rigid bodies

An example connection of plates of different thicknesses with one of the surfaces aligned is shown in
the Figure 2.2-3. It is advisable to use a rigid body with pairs of nodes along the line of thickness variation
adjacent to different middle surfaces of the plates.
Figure 2.2-3. Modeling of a non-central thickness jump

It should be noted that simply merging the displacements of the upper and lower nodes will not
provide an adequate description of the performance features of such a connection since the tangential
displacement of the upper node is determined not only by the tangential displacement of the lower node,
but also by its angle of rotation.
This approach can be also applied in the case when the step between the upper and lower plates is
formed by the beam (see Fig. 2.2-4). Three-node rigid bodies with a bar element modeling a beam attached
to their middle node are used here.
29
Figure 2.2-4. Modeling of a step

Returning to the connection of plates of different thicknesses with one of the surfaces aligned, it
should be noted that when the rigid bodies are used, the nodes of the parts of the plate with different
thicknesses are located at different levels, which may not always be convenient. You can place all nodes at
the same level and use the “Move the plate midplane” option, which will also lead to the desired effect.
A typical example of the application of the rigid bodies is modeling of the joint area of monolithic
columns and floor slabs (see Fig. 2.2-5). Dimensions of a rigid body in this case correspond to the
dimensions of the column cross-section. It should be noted that the rigid bodies can be automatically
entered into the joint area in the FORUM preprocessor.
Figure 2.2-5. Modeling of the slab-to-column joint area
Dynamical Analysis
If the load applied to the system changes with time, i.e. f = f(t), then we have to assume the stresses and
displacements also to be functions of time, which may force us to introduce velocities dZ dt and
accelerations d 2 Z dt 2 in the consideration. If inertia forces that arise J (t )  M d 2 Z dt 2 cannot be
treated as negligibly small comparing to the loads upon the system and to the elasticity forces, then they
should be taken into account in the equilibrium equations which will necessarily become differential
equations of motion:
d2Z
M  KZ (t )  f (t ) . (2.2.12)
dt 2
30
The mass matrix of the system is determined as a sum of mass matrices of its elements plus masses
related to the inertial properties of the structural parts not included in the design model.
In SCAD a mass matrix of an element can be a consistent matrix or a matrix of concentrated masses:
 consistent mass matrix of an element is calculated using the shape functions of an element.
These shape functions are the same as those used when calculating a stiffness matrix,
therefore it is called "consistent".
 in the matrix of concentrated masses the mass of each element is distributed between its nodes. In
other words, concentrated masses in the nodes of the element make up the mass of the element.
Therefore the matrix of concentrated masses is diagonal all elements of which except for the
diagonal ones are equal to zero. This approach is approximate, but when the finite element mesh is dense
enough it gives good results.
The problem of determining characteristics of natural oscillations of the system (modal analysis) is to
find conditions in which the unloaded system performs harmonic oscillations according to the law
Z(t) =  sin(t + ). (2.2.13)
In expression (2.2.13) vector  describes the mode of the natural oscillations (relations between the
displacements of nodes);  — their frequency;  — the initial phase. Substitution of (2.2.13) to (2.2.12)
seeing that f(t) = 0 will give an equation for natural oscillations
(K – 2M) = 0, (2.2.14)
the nontrivial solution of which exists only when values i (i = 1,..., n), called natural frequencies or
eigenvalues, turn the determinant of matrix [K–2M] into zero. The respective modes of natural
oscillations i (eigenvectors) can be calculated only up to an arbitrary multiplier. This multiplier can be,
for instance, assigned in such a way that the maximum component of vector i is equal to one. The
property of orthogonality of eigenvectors with respect to both the mass matrix and the stiffness matrix is
also worth noticing, i.e.
iТMj= 0 and iТKj= 0 at i  j. (2.2.15)
In the dynamical analysis, the number of components of vector Z where inertia forces are involved
(the number of dynamical degrees of freedom) can be often much less than that of the static components.
The typical example is presented by nodal slopes which, usually, are much less influential dynamically
than the respective linear displacements. In the SCAD environment inertial moments corresponding to the
nodal slopes and other inertial characteristics can be neglected, but this has to be specified by the user
when formulating a dynamical problem. If some inertial components of the load are not taken into
consideration, then we can divide vector  into sub-vector 0 for which the inertia forces are zero and sub-
vector I where the inertia forces are involved, and write system (2.2.14) in the form
K00  0+ K01 1 = 0;
K10 0 + K11 1 = 2M11. (2.2.16)
Sub-vector 0, can be excluded from this system. After this procedure of “static condensation”, the
dimension of the modal analysis problem decreases dramatically, and the problem becomes stated as
follows

 K  K K 1 K
 11 10 00 01 
1
M1  2 I  1  0 ,

(2.2.17)
where I is a unit matrix, and  = 1/.
31
The modal analysis produces eigenvalues i and eigenvectors I of the problem (2.2.17), which can
be used to determine the circular frequency  = 1/ (radians per second), cyclic frequency  = /2 (Hz),
and period Т = 1/.
Since the natural oscillation modes are orthogonal, the solution of any dynamical problem represented
as an expansion
Z (t)   y (t) Ψ
i
i i
(2.2.18)
leads to the splitting of the system of differential equations (2.2.12) into independent equations with
respect to generalized coordinates yi(t). These equations usually contain one more term proportional to
velocity, to take into account the viscous resistance to the motion. Thus the equations become
d 2 yi dyi
2
+ 2i i + i2 yi = Pi(t)/Mi. (2.2.19)
dt dt
Generalized forces
Pi(t) = 2 Ti f(t); (2.2.20)
masses
Mi = iT Mi (2.2.21)
0  0
and viscosity coefficients i together with initial conditions y i and y i , derived from Z = Z(0) and
Z = dZ(0)/dt by formulae:
yi0 =Ψ iT MZ 0 ; yi =Ψ iT MZ  , (2.2.22)
define the complete solution of the problem. This solution can be written as the expression:
yi = exp[–i i t] {[(y0i i i + y1i)/ Di] sinDit + y0i} +
t
+ (1/DiMi)
 P (t) exp[–   (t – )] sin
0
i i i Di(t – ) d , (2.2.23)
where the first term takes into account the initial conditions and the second one is called a Duhamel
integral.
The frequency of damped oscillations included in the expression (2.2.23):
Di = i (1 – I2)1/2 (2.2.24)
is little different from i at usual values of the logarithmic decrement, therefore
 = 2 / D  2. (2.2.25)
In most cases the value of the logarithmic decrement general for the whole model (not for individual
elements) is used, which corresponds to the structures made from the same material and with almost the
same designs of the joints. Design models with a large and/or nonuniform damping, for example, those
which include a subgrade subsystem are an exception. This case is taken into account only in the variant of
the direct integration of the equations of motion.
Accounting for Damping

In the literature on the dynamic calculations different authors use different damping models, this
difference is applied in various codes which use different forms of the representation of the internal losses,
in particular:
 energy absorption factor (dissipation factor)  ;
 damping parameter in fractions of the critical value  ξ;
 logarithmic decrement of oscillations  ;
32
 loss factor (complex internal friction)  ;

 coefficient of internal friction (inelastic resistance)  .
There are the following relationships between these parameters (see Section 3 of [4]):
  2;    / ;    /  2  ;    / 1   2 / 4.
The necessary values of these parameters for different types of structures can be obtained in KUST
included in the SCAD Office system.
If damping is taken into account the dynamic equilibrium equation (2.2.12) takes the following form
MZ  CZ  KZ (t )  f (t ) . (2.2.26)
In the general case the conditions of orthogonality of the type (2.2.15) are no longer satisfied for the
damping matrix С, and the decomposition of the system of differential equations (2.2.26) into the
independent ones with respect to the generalized coordinates yi(t) becomes impossible. However, you can
make it possible by using the Rayleigh hypothesis on proportional damping
C    M   K . (2.2.27)
Here α, β – coefficients of proportionality, the term αM stands for the damping of lower modes, and
term βK – for the damping of upper ones.
It follows from the decomposition of the displacement vector by the natural oscillation modes that:
  i2  2i i , i  1, 2, , N mod es (2.2.28)
Let’s use the equation (2.2.28) at i = 1, 2 to find the unknowns α, β:

212  12  2 1  2  2 2  11 
 ,  . (2.2.29)
22  12 22  12
where 1 , 2 , – first two natural cyclic frequencies [rad/sec]; 1 ,  2  modal damping for the first and
second natural oscillation modes given in the percentage of the critical damping.
It is assumed that 2  1  0 and 2  1  0 . In the case when 2  1 or the first two frequencies
are very close (  2  1  1  0.0001 ), it is assumed that   211 , а   0 .
The parameter α refers to damping of low modes, and β – of high ones. It is important to take both
parameters into account. The following simplification is often made β = 0. Damping of the upper modes
turns out to be considerably underestimated, therefore the dynamic reaction of the system can be
considerably overestimated (up to 2 times and more).
Damping models implemented in the method of the decomposition by the natural oscillation modes and
at the direct integration using the Rayleigh hypothesis are generally different. It is evident, for example,
from the ambiguity of the determination of the parameters α, β from (2.2.29), since by specifying different
values of the pairs of the index i, we will obtain different values of α, β. However, for most of the practical
problems the method of the decomposition by the natural oscillation modes and the methods of the direct
integration give close results if both of them are applied correctly.
2.3. Solving Systems of Equations

Once a given structure is represented as a finite element model, the problem of determining nodal
displacements is reduced to the solution of a system of linear algebraic equations:
KZ = F, (2.3.1)
33
where K is a symmetric NN matrix. It should be noted that matrix K is usually positive definite and
contains a considerable number of zero elements (i.e. it is a sparse matrix);
F is the Nk matrix of right hand side (loadings), where k is the number of loadings;
Z is the unknown kN matrix of displacements.
There are both direct and iterative methods for solving systems of linear algebraic equations. The
direct methods are a powerful tool for solving systems of linear algebraic equations with sparse matrices if
there is an efficient way to order the unknowns and thus reduce the fill-in in the matrix factorization. The
advantages of these methods are that they are less sensitive to the ill-conditioning of systems of equations,
enable to detect modeling mistakes that lead to a dimensional instability of the design model, and that the
computation time does not depend much on the right hand side if the latter is relatively small.
Iterative methods for solving systems of linear algebraic equations are widely used to study large-
scale problems of solid mechanics. They are particularly useful in cases when a lot of fill-ins appear in the
structure of the adjacency graph levels, which drastically slows the performance of the direct methods. The
iterative methods are usually used in cases when the matrix of the system of equations is positive definite.
The most popular direct methods used in FEM software include a profile method based on Gaussian
exclusions, and a frontal method. In the first case the matrix of governing equations is fully formed before
solving these equations (see Fig. 2.3-1); in the second case groups of equations usually containing
unknowns of a single node are formed in RAM. The stiffness matrix of the system is not assembled
explicitly; the stiffness matrices of the elements with the degrees of freedom included in the given group
are gradually added instead. Once the new front is assembled, i.e. all its adjoining elements are included in
the assembly, unknowns the numbers of which do not coincide with those of the front equations will be at
once subjected to the Gaussian exclusion procedure. As a result, the Gaussian exclusion is performed in a
dense (frontal) matrix of relatively small size that consists of a fully assembled part of the equations and an
incomplete one. In the course of the solution, the front moves along the nodes of the FEM model. The
efficiency of the multifrontal method is usually an order of magnitude greater than that of the modified
Gaussian algorithm.
Arrangement of the order of the equation exclusion (profile method) or of the inclusion of the finite
elements in the stiffness matrix assemblage (frontal method) aimed at the reduction of fill-ins is usually
performed taking into account the structure of the stiffness matrix fill-ins. Here and further, a fill-in will
refer to a nonzero element that appears in the matrix during the factorization in the place of an original zero
element (see Fig. 2.3-1). The number of fill-ins greatly affects the efficiency of both methods for solving
linear algebraic equations.
Several renumbering methods are implemented in SCAD, e.g., the reverse Cuthill-McKie algorithm,
the factor tree method, the method of nested sections, the algorithm of parallel sections, the METIS
algorithm, the Sloane algorithm, the minimum degree algorithm, etc. These methods and their comparative
characteristics are described in the literature on the subject. The user is authorized to select a renumbering
method, because the efficiency of an algorithm greatly depends on the structure of a particular matrix К,
and the problem of determining the optimal renumbering of the degrees of freedom belongs to “difficult
problems” (NP-complete) [19], [26], [27].
It is recommended to use a high-performance parallel solver PARFES for multi-core computers,
which enables to calculate large problems much faster.
34
Figure 2.3-1. The profile of a matrix. 1 — nonzero elements, 2 — zero elements filled during the
matrix decomposition, 3 — zero elements not filled during the matrix decomposition.
If any of the SCAD solvers is used and the process of triangular decomposition of matrix K makes
one of the governing elements equal to zero, i.e. matrix K is found to be degenerate, which indicates that
the structure is unstable, then an additional unstressed constraint is automatically imposed to make the
system stable. The user receives information on the node numbers and the types of degrees of freedom
involved in this additional constraining. It should be noted that the degenerate character of the matrix is not
identified by an exact equality of the governing element to zero, but rather by a “nearly zero” number
appearing on the main diagonal. The threshold for this “nearly zero” magnitude (a solution accuracy
parameter) is one of the properties the user is authorized to set up.
When a message about additionally imposed constraints appears in the log file, we recommend you to
review your design model carefully and find out the reason for the dimensional instability of the structure.
It might turn out that the system is formally stable, but its elements have such parameters of rigidity that it
is defined as “almost unstable”. Then in order to perform the analysis you might have to solve the problem
again with another solution accuracy parameter.
An additional service function is a system solution check (2.3.1). If there is a message that the
solution error is too large (this is usually due to an ill-conditioned matrix K), you should carefully analyze
the nodal displacements and make sure that the obtained solution is acceptable from the engineering
standpoint. The ill-conditionality is usually caused by an improper structural design (for example, the
system is “almost unstable”) or its incorrect idealization.
2.4. Standard Dynamic Load Cases

SCAD produces solutions of problems for dynamic loads of the following classes:
 modal analysis;
 wind pulsations;
 seismic load;
 pulse and impact loads with different time histories;
 harmonic load;
 seismic excitation in the form of an arbitrary accelerogram;
35
 direct integration of the equations of motion.

Further we will deal with formulations of these problems and methods of their computational
implementation.
Wind Load
The method is based on the approach from Section 10 of the manual [4] where the problem of the action of
turbulent wind flow pulsations is formulated as a problem of statistical dynamics.
The wind pressure on a structure in a point located at the height z from the ground level is considered
as a sum of a static and a pulse components of the wind load
q(z,t) = qs(z) + qp(z,t). (2.4.1)
The latter is a stochastic function of time determined by the random velocity of the pulsations which
has a zero average value, a standard deviation (z), and a dimensionless Davenport spectrum
S() = 12005/3 / [3v0(1 + 2)4/3], (2.4.2)
where v0 is an hourly average wind velocity at the height of 10 m;
 = v0 L1 1 is a dimensionless period of oscillations where L=1200 m is a turbulence scale, and
 is a circular frequency (1/s).
Taking into account certain simplifications1 based on the assumption of full correlation (the wind
velocity pulsations are considered as synchronous over a space of stochastic functions of time only), we
can represent the root-mean-square displacement — the j-th component of the vector Z — as
s
Zj = 
i 1
(2ij μ i2 ) / 4i . (2.4.3)
Here, s is the number of considered natural oscillation modes; ij is the reduced acceleration
calculated according to the following formula
ij = (  ij  
k
k ik ) / M 
r
r ir
, (2.4.4)
and the square of the dynamic amplification factor is determined as follows:



2 -4/3 4 2 2 2 4 -1
μ i2 = (2/3) 11/ 3 (1 +  ) [ – 2(1 –  /2)  i +  i] d. (2.4.5)
0
The damping parameter  is related to the logarithmic decrement  by the relationship  = /, and i
denotes a dimensionless period of natural oscillations i = v0 L1 1 .
The static design displacements are defined by the first member of (2.4.1), and the dynamic ones are
determined by (2.4.3). The forces in elements of the system and the displacements of its points (which are
together referred to as a response of the structure Х) are determined separately from the static component
of the wind load and from the inertia forces corresponding to each natural oscillation mode. The total value
of the response can be determined by the formula:
1
  2

c
X= X  ( X id ) 2  , (2.4.6)
 i 
that shows that the oscillations occur around the shifted equilibrium state that corresponds to the static
(average) component of the loading. The software outputs particular components of the dynamic response
1
These simplifications are not used in the SCAD mode that performs an analysis according to the Moscow State
Building Standards. The solution thus obtained is more accurate but the time needed to find it is much longer.
36
X id and the overall magnitude (2.4.6), the sign before the second member being the same as that of the
component Xc.
Seismic Actions
The regulations [14] are based on a spectral approach according to which the design spectrum curve (a law
of variation of the dynamic amplification factors) defines the dynamic response of a simple pendulum to
the acceleration of its suspension point under a seismic disturbance.
Generally, when the foundation of a structure experiences the accelerations d2z0/dt2, caused by an
earthquake, the inertia forces J (t )  M d 2 Z dt 2 are defined by the absolute accelerations added to the
relative ones caused by deformations of the structure
Jc(t) = M (d2Z/dt2  d2z0 /dt2), (2.4.7)
which gives the following fictitious load when substituted to (2.2.12)
fc(t) = M d2z0 /dt2 . (2.4.8)
The solution under the action of (2.4.8) is sought for as an expansion by natural oscillation modes in
the form of a Duhamel integral (see Section 3 of the reference manual [4]); eventually the problem is
reduced to an analysis of inertia forces Sik that act in the direction of k-th degree of freedom at the
oscillations in i-th mode
Sik = QkKc (Ti)ik cos0k. (2.4.9)
Here Qk is the weight of the mass related to the k-th degree of freedom, Kc is the seismic amplification
factor that depends on the magnitude of the earthquake (recall that each next magnitude number
corresponds to a doubling of the seismic force) and on the class of the structure;  is the dynamic
amplification factor that depends on the natural oscillation period of the current mode and the category of
the subsoil; ηik are reduced accelerations (2.4.4); 0k is the angle between the direction of the displacement
Zk and the ground acceleration vector; ik — coefficient which characterizes the distribution of the inertial
forces among the natural oscillation modes.
The dynamic amplification factors are determined by the processing of spectral responses, simple
oscillators with natural frequencies i (periods Ti  2 / i ) and coefficient of inelastic resistance  to the
accelerogram action d 2 z0 / dt 2  a0 (t ) .
37
Sa
t
t
t
T1
T2
T3 T
à1(t)
à2(t)
à3(t)
T1
T2
t T3
à0(t)
Figure 2.4-1. Plotting the dynamic amplification factor curve

The action a0 (t ) defines the response of each oscillator (Fig. 2.4.1)
t
i  t  
ai  i ,  , t   i  z0    e sin i  t    d  . (2.4.10)
0
The maximum values of the responses given as a function of the oscillator frequency define the
spectral curve of the original accelerogram,
t
i  t  
  i ,    max a  i ,  , t   max i  z0    e sin i  t    d  ,
t t
0
and the envelope of the set of spectral curves corresponding to different possible accelerograms,
generalized accordingly, gives the dynamic amplification factor curve (Ti).
The coefficients ik are calculated by the formula
 n   n 2 
ki   ki   Qi  ij    Qs  is  . (2.4.11)
 j 1   s 1 
 
The responses Xi to the loads (2.4.9) are calculated for each oscillation mode taken into consideration
and the design value is calculated
n n 1
X  
i 1
X i2  
i 1
i X i X i 1 , (2.4.12)
where i=2, if Ti+1/Ti0,9 and i=0, if Ti+1/Ti<0,9 (Ti>Ti+1).

When performing the dynamic analysis the software enables to add the remainders. A “residual
mode” is calculated for each direction (X,Y,Z). When it is added to the sum of previously determined
eigenvectors, the sum of modal masses is supplemented to 100% in the respective direction.
38
Pulse Loads
Pulse loads are short-term forces or impacts with the duration  not exceeding 2,5Тs, where Тs is the period
of the highest oscillation mode taken into consideration (see Section 5 of the reference manual [4]). There
are single pulses for which the load f(t) = 0 at t > , and repeated pulses, which include the periodic ones
repeated in equal periods of time Т0.
Figure 2.4-2. Shape functions of pulse loads

The pulse is described by its duration , its shape f(t), and its maximum value Р0 (Fig. 2.4-2), or the
value of the force momentum


S  P0 f  t  dt.
0
(2.4.13)
At  < 0,1Ts the pulse can be treated as instantaneous, and its shape f(t) does not matter because any of
the shapes would yield about the same result.
If a body of the mass М0 hits the structure directly, the pulse is determined by the formula:
S  M 0 v0 1  k0  , (2.4.14)
where v0 is the velocity of the hitting body at the moment of contact with the structure; k0 is a restoration
coefficient the value of which depends on the shapes and materials of the hitting bodies.
If the mass М0 is small comparing to the sum of masses of the structure, the analysis of the impact can
be performed as for a pulse of the magnitude (2.4.13); otherwise, М0 should be treated as an associated
mass and thus more accurate values of the natural frequencies should be obtained.
It should be noted that the associated mass М0 cannot be the only mass in the system (an impact upon
a mass-free structure is not considered!). The recommended shape of the f(t) function in the impact is a bell
(Fig. (2.4-2, f).
Harmonic Excitation
For the harmonic load Pi(1) cost + Pi(2) sint, the forces of inertia S1 and S2, summed over all natural
oscillation modes that are taken into consideration, which correspond to a cosine (real) and sine
(imaginary) components, respectively, are determined by the formulae:
S1 = a M 
i
i i
; S2 = b M  ,
i
i i
(2.4.15)
where the coefficients are

ai = ( Pi(1)  – Pi(2) i)/(2i + 2i),
bi = ( Pi(2)  – Pi(1) i)/(2i + 2i),
i = /i, i = 1 – 2i. (2.4.16)
It is assumed here that a single dimensionless damping ratio  is specified for the whole model.
The maximum values are determined as follows
S = (S12 + S22)1/2. (2.4.17)
39
In cases when the frequency of the exciting load  is higher than one or more natural frequencies of
the system i, it is necessary to perform an additional check to see whether the system experiences the
state of resonance during the startup or shutdown of machines and aggregates that generate the harmonic
load (see [4], p.53).
Analysis with Accelerograms

In the load configurations listed above, it was possible to perform a precise calculation of the function yi(t).
In all other cases the solutions yi(t) are calculated numerically.
Particularly, when a seismic load specified by an accelerogram is under consideration, the vector fk =
f(tk) is specified at every k-th moment of time tk. Then in (2.2.20) we have a set of generalized forces
discrete in time Pi,k = Pi(tk). These forces are calculated by the formula similar to (2.4.9):
Pik = QkKc а(i,, tk)ik cos0k , (2.4.18)
where the value а(i,, tk) is the accelerogram response z0    .
Next, the equations (2.2.19) are solved by Duhamel integrals. Since an accelerogram is given with a
certain time step, the interpolation in the intermediate points is used when necessary for the high-frequency
components for which the difference model condenses with time.
This will get values of the displacements yi,k = yi(tk) and forces of inertia Si,k = Si(tk), which are then
used to determine an extreme value over the considered moments of time.
Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion

One of the peculiarities of this mode is the fact that displacements, velocities, and accelerations of the
nodes of the finite element model are determined in the absolute reference system connected with the
conventionally immobile earth. The seismic action is specified as the forced displacements of supports,
therefore not the accelerograms but seismograms (relationship between displacements and time) obtained
from accelerograms by the double time integration are used as the input information. This approach
enables to solve the problems with asynchronous oscillations of supports in a natural way. It is
recommended to use the Accelerogram Editor to obtain seismograms from the specified accelerograms.
A traditional problem formulation in the reference system connected with the rigid mobile base, and a
problem formulation in the absolute reference system used at the direct integration of the equations of
motion are shown in Fig. 2.4-3 and 2.4-4 respectively. In order to distinguish from other modes of the
dynamic analysis U instead of Z is used for designating the displacements.
In the classical problem formulation:
u  ue  ur ; 

u  ue  ur ;  (2.4.19)

Mur  Kur   Mue  t   p  t  
40
Figure 2.4-3. Solution of the problem in the relative reference system connected with the rigid mobile
platform exhibiting translational motion (classical formulation)
Figure 2.4-4. Solution of the problem with respect to the conventionally immobile absolute reference
system
The problem formulation shown in Fig. 2.4-4 is described by the following system of equations:
 M11 0   u   K 11 K 12   u   C11 C12   u   0 
             , (2.4.20)
 0 M   u   K 21 K   u   C 21 C   u   p(t ) 
ˆ
M ˆ
K ˆ
C
where
u  u1 
uˆ    ; u    ; uT  u 2
u u3   w2 2 u4 w4 
4 , (2.4.21)
 
ˆ ,K
u – specified displacements, u – displacements which have to be determined, M ˆ – stiffness,
ˆ ,C
mass, and dissipation matrices corresponding to the full vectors of displacements, accelerations, and
41
velocities uˆ , uˆ , uˆ ; M, K , C – stiffness, mass, and dissipation matrices corresponding to the degrees of

freedom which have to be determined (standard FEM matrices), matrix K 12 is assembled from the
stiffness submatrices of the finite elements, the nodes of which contain the degrees of freedom of the
vector of forced displacements u , p(t) – load vector.
Damping in the material is taken into account on the basis of the Rayleigh hypothesis:
ˆ  M
C ˆ   K
ˆ . (2.4.22)
Here α, β – coefficients of proportionality, the term α∙M stands for the damping of lower modes, and
term β∙K – for the damping of upper ones.
If there are local dampers, a non-Rayleigh dissipation matrix Ĉ appears. If at the same time there is
no damping in the material, you should specify α = β = 0. Otherwise, both damping caused by local
dampers and the damping in the material will be taken into account.
The following expression can be obtained from (2.4.20) taking into account (2.4.22):
Mu    u   K u    u   K 21 u t     u t   p(t ) . (2.4.23)
Whereas in the classical formulation the forced displacement of supports is usually given by an
accelerogram, the displacement function u t  is specified in the proposed formulation, and the velocity
function u t  is determined by numerical differentiation of the latter.
Designate
u t     s  k s  f s t  t0s , u t     s  k s  f s t  t0s  ,
Ms Ms
(2.4.24)
s 1 s 1
where ks – vectors of the spatial configuration specifying the mode of the forced displacements, fs(t) – time
function, s = 1, 2, ∙ ∙ ∙ , Ms – numbers of static loadings at the calculation for the respective forced
displacements.
Np
Similarly pt    p  k p  f p t  t0p  , where p  1, 2, , N p – numbers of static loadings at the

p 1
calculation for force actions, kp – vectors of the spatial load configuration, fp(t) – time function.
Values  s , t0s ,  p , t 0p refer to the scale factors and the delay time. We will call each term of the
above sums as the p-th or s-th component of the dynamic loading respectively. Designate
b s  K 21  k s , s  1, 2, ,Ms . (2.4.25)
The following Cauchy problem describes the equations of motion in the given formulation
M  u    u  K  u    u  
Np

Ms

   
  bs  s   f s t  t0s    f s t  t0s    k p  p  f p t  t0p
s 1
  p 1   
. (2.4.26)

x  0   x0 
x  0   x0 

Unconditionally stable Newmark method in the “predictor-corrector” form is used for solving the
problem.
42
2.5. Stability of Equilibrium
Governing Equations
Let’s consider the equilibrium of a system in the initial configuration of which the following conditions
hold:
K0 Z = f (2.5.1)
Let now the load acquire an increment f corresponding to such values of the stress increment s and the
displacement increment Z that components of the vector of additional displacements Z are relatively
small but nevertheless require a geometrically nonlinear analysis to be performed. Then, as commonly
known from [21], the equations in variations can be represented in the following form:
[K0 + K1(s0) + K2(Z0)]Z = (K0 + KG)Z = f. (2.5.2)
Here, a conventional stiffness matrix K0 acquires an increment in the form of the matrix of initial
stresses K1(s0) = T(s0), linearly dependent on stresses in the system before the load is incremented, plus the
matrix of initial rotations K2(Z0) that includes not more than degree two of the displacements. Equations
(2.5.2) do not include the matrix of initial loading by J.Oden [22], that makes corrections to the load. The
non-allowance for the initial loading matrix means that we assume the load to be independent from the
system’s configuration, or we think that appropriate corrections have been already made when forming the
load increment vector f. Matrix KG is conventionally called a geometrical stiffness matrix.
Single-Parametric Loading
Let’s consider a system equilibrated in the state for which equations (2.5.2) hold, and write equalities to
determine the changes during trial loading by forces proportional to a single parameter, i.e., when the load
is incremented as f. Denoting the respective changes in the forces and displacements as s and Z, we
have
[K0 + K1(s0 + s) + K2(Z0 + Z)] Z = f. (2.5.3)
Now let us use the new stiffness matrix to find the critical value of the load fcr = f0 + f. Expanding K1
and K2 from (2.5.3) into a series and keeping terms linearly dependent on , we obtain the equation:
{[K0 + K1(s0) + K2(Z0)] +  [K1(s) + K2(Z0 ,Z)]}U = 0. (2.5.4)
or
[K0 + KG(s,Z0 ,Z)]U = 0, (2.5.5)
where U is an eigenvector that describes a mode of buckling of the system, and KG denotes the matrix
multiplier that stands in the brackets to the right from  in equation (2.5.4).
The solution of eigenvalue problem (2.5.5) is based on a linear approximation in the vicinity of the
shifted state of equilibrium. Therefrom we can derive the linear buckling problem assuming all initial
stresses and displacements to be zero. If further we omit the quadratic terms in the matrix of initial
displacements, then we will come to the result that the left part of (2.5.3) will linearly depend on the load
{K0 +  [K1(s) + K2(Z)]} U = 0. (2.5.6)
The assumption of independence of the critical load from displacements Z eliminates matrix K2,
and we come to Eulerian equations for the critical load
[K0 +  K1(s)] U = 0. (2.5.7)
43
The minimum eigenvalue of this equation 1 determines the critical load as 1f, the value of 1 itself
is the stability factor of safety, and the vector 1s = S* defines the internal forces in the system at its
buckling.
It is worth noticing that the use of Eulerian equations essentially assumes the unchangeable
distribution of the internal forces in the system as the load intensity  increases. This feature does not
always take place, especially in nonlinearly deformable systems. Therefore some software developments
[9] determine two critical values of loads: the first one is the least critical value of 1 in equations of the
(2.5.7) type, and the second one is determined as the load intensity at which the equations of the (2.5.2)
type lose their positive definiteness in the course of a loading subject to some more or less realistic law (for
example, when the live load grows and the dead load remains the same) modeled by a stepwise procedure.
A nontrivial problem immediately arises of how to choose the critical value to be demonstrated as an
evidence that the calculated stability factor of safety is sufficient. Unfortunately, the design codes
regulating the values of the stability factors of safety never mention these critical values. Though, there are
some indirect indications that suggest the use of the Eulerian value.
Special attention should be paid to the case of the stability problem when two loadings f1 and f2 act on
the system, but only one of them changes, while the other remains stable. Then we will have the following
expression instead of (2.5.3)
[K0 + K1(s0 + s) + K2(Z0 + Z)] Z = f1+f2, (2.5.8)
and the factor of safety 1 will relate to the possible value of the load increment f1. The respective mode is
implemented in SCAD as well.
Analysis of a Role Played by Particular Subsystems

When analyzing peculiarities of possible buckling phenomena, one often uses the concepts of a constricted
and forced state of separate parts of a system when it buckles [13]. It is assumed that a part of a structure is
in the constricted state when the structure itself buckles if this part, when separated from the rest of the
system, buckles at a lower load transferred to this part than that under which it actually does. If this
“isolated buckling” analysis of the selected part yields a higher load intensity that should be applied to the
system so that the latter buckles, or if the system does not buckle at all, this situation is referred to as a
forced buckling of the part of the system. Naturally these concepts affect the strategy of the system
reinforcement if an insufficiency of the total stability factor of safety has been stated. One commonly
begins with reinforcing that part of the structure which is in the constricted state. Though, it should be
remembered that this measure is effective only to a certain extent. The criterion is that the subsystem being
reinforced acquires the same “power” as the rest of the structure. To perform further reinforcing efficiently,
one should reinforce all compressed members together to keep the achieved state of a uniform stability of
the system members [13, p. 254].
The concepts of the constricted and forced states with respect to selected fragments of a structure
introduced into the engineering practice over half a century ago enable one to form a purposeful strategy of
reinforcing the structure the load-bearing capacity of which is determined by its stability. Meanwhile, as
far as the authors can judge, there has been developed no formal computational tool for this, one being
especially needed in the computer-aided design. This is even more astonishing seeing that the algorithms
for such tools are surprisingly simple and self-evident.
Indeed, the role of particular subsystems can be checked by calculating the energy accumulated in
different parts of the system as it deforms according to a buckling mode. For the whole system this energy
is equal to zero:
E = 0,5(Z*)Т[K0 – K1(S*)]Z* = 0. (2.5.9)
44
If the system has been divided imaginarily into two parts, then a stiffness matrix can be composed for
each of the parts, K0,i – K1,i(S*) (i = 1, 2), which we fill up with zeros to the dimension of the full stiffness
matrix of the system. Calculating the following values
E1 = 0,5(Z*)Т[K0,1 – K1,1(S*)]Z* (2.5.10)
E2 = 0,5(Z*)Т[K0,2 – K1,2(S*)]Z*, (2.5.11)

will always give us values of opposite signs because their sum must be zero. This determines a subsystem
(corresponding to Ei < 0), which is reasonable to stiffen or brace additionally. Comparing these quantities
with the concepts of constricted and forced states, it is not hard to guess that if Ei < 0, then the respective i-
th subsystem is a pushing one, otherwise at Ei > 0 it is a restraining one. Roughly speaking, the pushing
elements are the ones to “blame” for the buckling of the system.
Naturally the structure can be divided into more than two parts, even down to separate elements. The
contributions of each element to the positive or negative parts of the total energy are then compared, and
recommendations on strengthening/weakening particular elements are obtained. This helps to find out the
role played by particular elements in the general buckling behavior in more detail.
We would like to note that one should be careful enough when using results of the above stated
analysis to make a decision of modifying elements or subsystem. The matter is that the energy calculation
is performed with the buckling mode Z* which has been determined for the system with an original
stiffness and stress distribution. However, this mode also changes when these parameters are modified.
Therefore the result of such modification must necessarily be validated. Also, which is even more
important, the effect of reinforcing particular elements is bounded by a certain limit above which this
operation does not affect the result anymore. One can easily understand this statement by noticing that
even an infinite growth of the stiffness of one of the parts of a system does not result in the same growth of
the stability factor of safety because the system starts buckling in a “local” mode without deforming the
over-stiffened part. Apparently, the first one who noticed this peculiarity of the buckling analysis of elastic
systems was I.G. Bubnov who stated that there is a limit stiffness of supports in a problem of buckling of a
beam on two such supports beyond which the further growth of it does not increase the critical force, and
the supports with that limit stiffness behave like perfectly rigid ones [25].
2.6. Design Combinations of Forces (DCF)

Unfavorable design combinations of forces are selected in SCAD on the basis of the superposition
principle. In order to limit the number of design combinations of forces (DCF) to be taken into
consideration, a particular approach is used for every type of the stress state. Out of 2n combinations
(where n is the number of loadings), only those DCF are selected that correspond to the maximum value of
a certain quantity which is assigned to be a criterion and depends on all components of the stress state.
Bars
Extreme values of normal and tangential stresses in checkpoints of the bar cross-section (Fig. 2.6-1) serve
as the criterion for determining DCF.
The following formula is used for the normal stresses:
N M yz Mz y
k    , (2.6.1)
F Iy Iz
45
where k is a point in the bar cross-section (k = 1,…, 9). This formula transforms as follows at y   b and
2
h
z ;
2
My Mz
kF  N   , (2.6.2)
l z ,i l y ,i
where ly,i and lz,i are core sizes in the bar cross-section (i = 1, 2).
Figure 2.6-1. Numbering of the checkpoints

The following criterion is used to find the unfavorable value
My n M z m
kF  N  sin  sin , (2.6.3)
l z ,i 8 l y ,i 8
where m, n=0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
The given criterion is important for the reinforced-concrete structures.
This approach enables to determine the extreme normal stresses in a section of any shape.
The following approximate formula is used for the tangential stresses:
Q y, z M кр
 y, z F   (2.6.4)
2 2(l y1, z1  l y1, z 2 )
Besides stresses, extreme values of the longitudinal and shear forces are calculated as well.
46
Membranes (Plane Stress State)

Generally, the principal stresses at the same point of a
structure are oriented differently under different loadings.
Therefore, in this case the design combinations of forces are
determined by envelope extreme curves of normal and
tangential stresses according to the following formulae:
()  N x cos 2   N z sin 2   Txz sin 2; (2.6.5)
1
()   N z  N x  sin 2  Txz cos 2 . (2.6.6)
2
The normal stresses are calculated in the range from 90° to -
90°, and the tangential ones in the range from 90° to 0.
Figure 2.6-2. Stresses on inclined
planes
Plates
The approach used here is similar to that described previously for membranes (plane stress state). The
bending and torsional moments in a plate enable to determine the normal and tangential stresses on the
upper and lower surfaces of the plate. These stresses are equal in absolute value, therefore the formulae
(2.6.4) and (2.6.5) become:
M ()  M x cos 2   M y sin 2   M xy sin 2; (2.6.7)
M k ( ) 
1
2
 
M y  M x sin 2  M xy cos 2. (2.6.8)
Besides, the extreme values of the shear forces are determined.
Shells
The approach used here is similar to that described previously for membranes (plane stress state).
However, the stresses on the upper and lower surfaces of a shell are calculated with the account of the
membrane stresses and bending forces by the following relationships:
6M 6M 6M
 xL / U  N x  2 x ;  yL / U  N y  2 y ;  L / U  Txy  2 xy , (2.6.9)
h h h
where h is the thickness of the shell; the indexes U and L indicate whether a value refers to the upper or
lower surface of the shell.
Solid Elements
The extreme values of: a) the average stress (hydrostatic pressure); b) the principal deviator stresses serve
as a criterion for determining dangerous combinations of stresses in the general case of the stress and strain
state. The angles of inclination of the principal stresses in each element are determined for every loading.
The selection process is organized in the following way. The direction cosines of the principal planes
for all loadings are calculated for the given element. Thus, if the model includes n loadings, then 3n planes
will be found. Next, the stresses Sf on these planes caused by all loadings are calculated, and both negative
and positive stress values are accumulated. In this regard, the criteria are designated by three-digit
numbers. The first two digits denote the number of the loading the planes of which are used to calculate the
stresses caused by all loadings. The third digit can have a value from 1 to 6 with the following meaning:
the overall stress on the 1st principal plane: 1 stands for positive; 2 – for negative;
47
3 and 4 — the same on the 2nd principal plane;

5 and 6 — the same on the 3rd principal plane.
For example, the criterion 143 means that the maximal positive stress appears on the 2nd principal
plane of the 14th loading. The criterion 076 means that the maximal negative stress appears on the 3rd
principal plane of the 7th loading.
The criteria corresponding to the maximal and the minimal values of the average stress are designated
by the digits 7 and 8, respectively.
Loadings
The design combinations of forces are determined taking into account the logical relationships between
loadings that reflect the physical meaning of loadings and requirements of various design codes.
There are three types of loadings:
1) independent (dead weight, weight of equipment etc.);
2) mutually exclusive (wind from the left and wind from the right, seismic actions along different axes
etc.);
3) accompanying (braking loads provided there are vertical crane loads etc.).
It is also possible to specify an alternating loading while keeping its vector absolute value constant.
2.7. Erection
The process of creating a complex structure is, generally, a multi-phase procedure involving a certain
sequence of structural assembling operations. The latter may include successive works on installation or
removal of some members of the structure, installation/removal of ballast weights, regulation of the length
of certain elements, modification of constraints etc.
Most actions performed during the erection modify the design model and/or the stress-strain
distribution in the system.
Elementary Actions
PC SCAD has a certain set of elementary actions the sequence of which constitutes all needed
transformations of a design model to determine the stress/strain distribution in the course of the erection
and prestressing of the structure.
So, our set of elementary actions includes the following items:
(А) Loading the system by a known action which is a set of given loads, dislocations and thermal
effects
(B) Installing an external constraint in a node of the system to restrain it from a particular
incremental displacement or rotation. It should be noted that here we require the increment of a
displacement rather than the displacement/rotation itself (i.e. making it zero) to be prohibited.
(C) Adding an internal constraint between the nodes of the system prohibits the change of a certain
mutual displacement or rotation of these nodes (including the action of combining the displacements). We
also consider the prohibition of further (at subsequent stages) changes of mutual displacements and this
contributes to the closure in the system of deformations inconsistent in the previous stages.
(D) Removing an external constraint. In this case the stress/strain distribution changes together with
the model. The reason for this is that generally the constraint can be stressed. Therefore, it is necessary to
zero the stress in the constraint before removing it.
(E) Removing an internal constraint (rejection of combining the displacements). In this case the
stress/strain distribution changes together with the model. The reason for this is that generally the
constraint can be stressed. Therefore, it is necessary to zero the stress in the constraint before removing it.
(F) Mounting an element of any type.
48
(G) Removing an element from the system both modifies the design model and makes it necessary to
recalculate the stress/strain distribution. The transformed system must not experience any influence of its
removed part, therefore this elementary action consists of two essential steps:
 making the interaction forces between the removed and remaining parts of the system equal to zero;
 modifying the design model.
The considered elementary action is a kind of generalization of the “removing an external constraint”
action. Another approach can be used to implement it: imagine that the elements (constraints) are removed
from the system, and their influence on the remaining part of the structure is replaced by forces Nj which
existed in the removed elements (constraints), and these forces are then suppressed by applying the loads
Pj = Nj .
Finally, it should be noted that the removal of an element (removal of a constraint) is treated not as a
failure, but as an active intervention in the structure during its construction. So the temporary restraints and
props installed during the intermediate erection stages are removed. They are first destressed (wedges
supporting these props are driven apart, or similar actions are performed).
(Н) Modification of the elastic modulus of the element for the current and all subsequent erection
stages, which can be used to simulate the process of concrete hardening, wear of the structure and other
phenomena, leading to a change in the element stiffness. It should also be noted that this is not about
modeling the loading process when the changes in the stress state affect the tangent modulus of elasticity,
but about accounting for some of the non-mechanical effects, including conditional "destruction of
rigidity" in the process of "death" of the element.
While the concrete hardening usually does not require the recalculation of the SSS, the stiffness
reduction requires a different approach. This option is implemented in SCAD in the following way:
 a new unstressed element with modified rigidities is installed next to the old stressed one;
 the old stressed element is removed and its number is assigned to the new one.
I) Specification or modification of the subsoil parameters for the current and all subsequent erection
stages. While the recalculation of the SSS is usually not required when the stiffness increases, a different
approach is required when it decreases. Having “supposedly” divided the elements into two part: the shell
and the elastic subgrade, independently determined the reactions of each of them from the general
reactions, we follow the same procedure as in the previous case.
Agreement on the Loads

Actions on the system defining the nature of its stress-strain state are divided into two classes:
 basic (accumulated) actions for which the stress-strain state is transferred to the next erection
stages;
 independent loadings acting only in the current erection stage and not related to other stages.
The dead weight and the prestress are typical examples of the basic action, and the wind load on the
building being erected may serve as an example of an independent action.
SCAD system implements an agreement that all basic actions have to be included in a single,
predetermined (e.g., the first) loading. The composition of this loading may vary at different erection
stages due to the inclusion or exclusion of certain groups of loads.
Variants of the Model Modification

Two methods of removal and inclusion of elements into the system ("birth" and "death") can be
considered. These variants are illustrated in Fig. 2.7.1.
49
In the first case (step F) a structure different from the previous one without the removed elements,
consisting only of the included elements is considered. Here, addition of a new element into the design
model differs in that a part of its nodes is attached to the structure assembled under the load, and other
nodes are assumed to be located in their design position, which leads to the broken design model.
In the second case (step H) "dead" elements are not removed. Instead, it is inactivated by multiplying
their stiffness by the significant reduction factor, for example, 10-6.
Calculation according to the first method is particularly relevant for the design of multi-storey
buildings with a reinforced concrete frame when during the construction of each floor the formwork is set
in such a way that the top surface of the concreted slab is horizontal. Essentially, it is the design column
length increased by the subsidence value of the part of the building that has already been erected that is
corrected.
Figure 2.7-1. Two variants of building up the structure

Calculation according to the second method enables to model the "junction along the tangent line"
(see Fig. 2.7-1, variant 2), which is appropriate for the analysis of structures, the construction of which is
performed by the cantilever construction method.
Finite Element Procedures

At each step of the erection, any classical structural analysis method can be involved. Seeing the specific
nature of the multi-step analysis, we think it is useful to represent these methods in such form as to reflect
the variability of the system. For example, the governing equations of the slope deflection method will be
K(r) Z(r) = f(r), (2.7.1)
(r) (r) (r)
where K is the system’s stiffness matrix at r step, Z and f are respective vectors of incremental
th
displacements and incremental nodal loads related to the rth step. Knowing Z(r), we can determine the stress
increments s(r) and obtain values of the displacements Z(r) and stresses s(r) accumulated at all r steps
Z(r) = Z(r-1)+ Z(r) , (2.7.2)
s(r) = s(r-1)+ s(r). (2.7.3)

This step-by-step summation of the stress/strain components should be performed because of the
system’s memory mentioned above. The relevant entitlement for the relations (2.7.2) and (2.7.3) could be
50
laws of inheritance of erection states of a structure. The genetic nonlinearity of the problem is caused by
the requirement that the linear relations (2.7.1) and the laws of inheritance (2.7.2) — (2.7.3) must hold
simultaneously.
The transition to the next (r + 1)-th stage of the calculation changes the stiffness matrix K(r), which
receives an increment ΔK(r), positive – when elements are added and negative – when they are removed,
i.e.
K(r+1) = K(r) + K(r), (2.7.4)

or more extensively:
 K11( r ) K12( r ) 0 0  K11( r ) K12( r ) 0 0 0 0 0 0
 (r)   (r)  
 K 21
( r 1)
K 22 K ( r 1)
0  K 21 (r)
K 22 0 0 0 K 22
(r)
K 23
(r)
0
23
  
 0 ( r 1)
K 32 K ( r 1)
33 0  0 0 0 0 0 K 32
(r)
K 33
(r)
0
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The system of governing equations of the (r + 1)-th stage is as follows:

 K11( r ) K12( r ) 0 0  Z 1( r 1)   0 
 (r)     ( r 1) 
 K 21 K 22
( r 1) ( r 1)
K 23 0  Z 2( r 1)   Z 2  (2.7.5)
 
 0 K 32( r 1) K 33( r 1) 0  Z 3( r 1)   Z 2 
( r 1)
     
 0 0 0 0  0   0 
In some cases, the changes of the design model deal with the adjustment of the parameters of some of
the previously assembled elements (change in the modulus of elasticity, the subsoil parameters, etc.). In
this case we can assume that a previously entered, for example, at the s-th stage stiffness matrix ΔK(s) is
replaced by a new matrix ΔK(r):
K(r+1) = K(r) - K(s) + K(r), (2.7.6)

It is obvious that influences related to different steps of the same erection phase are described by
conventional linear mechanical laws, and the design model of a structure changes only from one erection
phase to another. In this connection, we imply that the displacements ΔZ(r) and stresses Δs(r) are those
accumulated since the completion of the last step of the previous erection phase.
It should be noted that in certain cases some loads work only at rth step of the erection and are
removed at the steps that follow. For example, this situation is typical for a cantilever erection of a
structure where the weight of the crane equipment is taken into account when forming the vector f(r) the
cranes being arranged exactly as this step of erection requires. As the new (r+1)th erection step begins, the
nodal load vector is formed for a new arrangement of the crane equipment, and one should remember to
apply also negative loads at the step (r+1) to cancel the crane load upon the system applied at the previous
step. If one does not do it, the inheritance laws (2.7.2) and (2.7.3) will fail to hold.
Thus, the following operations are performed at each erection stage: installation (removal) of
individual structural elements, or their groups, regulation of the actual sizes of the elements of the bearing
structures, introduction (removal) of temporary constraints, modification of the parameters of the system
constraints with the external environment, etc. The calculation technology that takes into account the
above-mentioned circumstances is based on the principle of the stepwise tracking of the changes in the
basic parameters of the design model (geometry, stiffness properties of the model elements and constraints,
loading and deformation) with the closure of the system at each (predefined) stage of the building erection.
51
A clear distinction is made between the total stress strain state (SSS) of the system that occurs at each
erection stage with the account of all the previous stages, and the SSS increment caused by the additional
effects on the system related solely to the considered erection stage.
All the calculations are performed under the conventional assumptions of linear structural mechanics
for each erection stage. However, in general the problem becomes nonlinear due to the modification of the
design model during the transition from one erection stage to the other.
2.8. Finite Element Models
Convergence of FEM
The theory of the finite element method deals very much with the problem of convergence, i.e. an
asymptotic behavior of estimates of accuracy of an obtained approximate solution as the finite element
mesh becomes infinitely dense. A number of important convergence theorems have been stated. For
example, for consistent elements it has been determined [15, pp. 195–196], that if (k–1) is the degree of a
polynomial used within a finite element for approximating its displacements and for obtaining an
approximate solution of an elliptic boundary-value problem of order 2m expressed through the
displacements uh, then the error of energy in comparison with the exact solution u is
U(u- uh, u- uh)  Ch2(k-m)||u||2k , (2.8.1)
where h is the maximum value of the relative size of the element (the spacing of the mesh).
The following error estimates take place for s-th derivatives of z:
||u – uh ||s  Chk-s||u||k , if s > 2m – k ; (2.8.2, а)
||u – uh ||s  Ch2(k-s)||u||k , if s  2m – k. (2.8.2, б)
Similar estimates for inconsistent elements have been obtained in a series of papers by I.D. Evzerov
and V.S. Karpilovsky (see, for example, [5, 8]).
The data on the values of the convergence parameter enable to assign an approximate density of the
finite element mesh on the basis of the following peculiar considerations [2, p.55]: “…let us just note that
the convergence takes place assuming some natural limitations of initial data and the meshing of the area
are satisfied, and the error of the determination of stresses/strains is of the order Сh/L where С denotes a
constant depending on the shape of the area; h is the mesh spacing; L is a characteristic size of the area.
This estimate should guide the definition of the mesh spacing, depending on the desired accuracy
(average). For example, if you want the accuracy of the approximate solution to be 5%, choose the spacing
of the mesh of around 1/20 of its characteristic size…”, i.e. a characteristic two-dimensional spot would
include about 400 nodes, and in the case of a three-dimensional problem there would be about 8,000 nodes.
It should be remembered that the above consideration is true only in average, and the accuracy
depends much not only on the finite element type (constants С and k) but also on the position of the finite
elements and their orientation with respect to the flows of principal stresses. The latter fact can be seen
from a characteristic example taken from the paper [7] and shown in Fig. 2.8-1.
One should remember that the afore-said estimates of the convergence rate are oriented at the
determination of the asymptotic properties of the solution, while a practical designer is interested in the
accuracy of an approximate solution obtained on a particular finite element mesh. Of course, in most cases
the asymptotic convergence is accompanied by an appropriate “practical convergence”. The latter term will
mean the possibility of obtaining an acceptable accuracy with a comparatively rough meshing. However,
this rule has its exceptions too. In this regard, we would like to cite from a great mathematician and
physicist A. Poincare (quoted from [1, p.52]):
“...of two series where their general terms are 1000n/n! and n!/1000n, mathematicians would name the
first one to be convergent… because the millionth term is much less than 999,999th, whilst the second term
would be treated as divergent for its general term may grow unlimitedly. Astronomers, on the contrary,
52
would take the first series for a divergent one because its first 1,000 terms go increasing; and the second
series would be called by them convergent because its first 1,000 terms go decreasing and this decrease is
quick enough at the beginning.” And then follows a breathtaking conclusion: “Both views are valid: the
first one in theoretical investigations, and the second one in computational applications”.
Figure 2.8-1. Different finite element meshes and the accuracy of the analysis
Apparently, when solving any responsible problem, an analysis of the solution quality must be
performed. The solution can be checked by solving the problem repeatedly with a different finite element
mesh. Certainly, it is hardly reasonable to solve a whole big problem on gradually thickening meshes, but
this analysis obviously makes sense for characteristic fragments of a design model. The empirical fact of
the solution stability at the mesh thickening is a rather convincing argument “pro” this approach.
All that has been said must not be treated as an appeal to the pure empiricism. Theoretical
investigations of convergence are very important, and their results can be used in practice. However, there
are some serious problems the designer should take into account. One of them is that a satisfactory
practical convergence of displacements does not necessarily imply a good convergence of internal forces
and stresses the designer is interested in. Those are determined by the differentiation of the displacements,
and the differentiation is an incorrect operation in the sense that a slight variation of a function value may
cause a substantial variation of the function derivative.
Thus, validation of practical convergence must be oriented at investigating results important for a
particular problem to be solved. Here is, for example, a characteristic excerpt from a well-known
monograph by O. Zenkevich: “The spacing of a mesh needed to obtain an acceptable accuracy in shell
problems may depend on a number of reasons. It is often the case that a small thickness of the shell limits
the area of bending moments to an edge zone where the moments change substantially. The membrane
forces can be calculated with a high accuracy even on a rough mesh, while the variation of the bending
moments require an extensively fine mesh for being described properly.” [6, p.257].
There is also a difficulty of comparing the stresses obtained on meshes of different densities: the
stresses are often determined in centers of finite elements, and a certain effort is needed to compare
stresses at the same points.
Moreover, when using some types of finite elements (such as triangular elements with the linear
displacement approximation for plane elasticity), the stress fields are piecewise constant functions, and the
areas of their constancy coincide with the mesh triangles. Values of the stresses determined with these
elements vary intensively from one element to another, therefore usually one applies an averaging of the
53
stresses by elements of a star and refers those to a nodal point. The comparison of such stress fields is
encumbered with the operation of averaging.
Organizing the validation of the practical convergence, one should remember that the problem being
solved may have unpleasant peculiarities due to an incorrect idealization of the structure. A typical
example is the idealization of a load as a concentrated force (practically unfeasible situation) which may
cause such features of the problem solution as infinitely big values (a logarithmic singularity in the
expressions of bending moments in a plate under a concentrated force) or high gradients of the stress field.
Thus, the practical convergence check should be performed with examples similar to the problems of
interest but having accurate solutions. In this case the interpretation of the testing results becomes more
informative. Some problems of this kind are discussed in the next section.
Convergence Validation for Some Models

Below, a comparative analysis of a simply supported square plate, loaded by a uniformly distributed load
throughout its area, is given. The analyses were performed with four finite element meshes: 4×4, 8×8,
16×16 and 24×24 (Fig. 2.8-2).
Figure 2.8-2. Isofields of bending moments obtained

with different design models and finite element meshes
Table 2.8-1 contains results regarding displacements, bending moments, and shear forces obtained for the
finite elements of different types on the aforesaid meshes. The same data are shown as plots in Fig. 2.8-3.
54
Table 2.8-1
Displacements of the plate center for the mesh
FE type 4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24
11/41 0,0180329 0,0172754 0,0170823 0,0170453
20/50 0,0166168 0,0169137 0,0169918 0,0170051
12/42 0,0161403 0,0168034 0,0169658 0,0169938
Moment at the center of the plate
М -11/41 0,04781 0,04509 0,04443 0,04443
М -20/50 0,03991 0,04313 0,04393 0,04408
М -12/42 0,04787 0,04528 0,04432 0,04448
Shear force at the edge
Q -11/41 0,22 0,28 0,31 0,32
Q -20/50 0,37 0,4 0,43 0,44
Q -12/42 0,24 0,31 0,33 0,34
a) b)
Deflection of the center, mm
0.05
0.0185
0.048
0.0180
Moment, Tm/m
0.046
0.0175
0.044
0.0170 0.042
0.0165 0.04
0.0160 0.038
0.0155 0.036
0.0150 0.034
4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24 4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24
c)
Legend:
0.50
Shear force, T/m
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10 Figure 2.8-3. The convergence of results for a
0.00 distributed loading:
4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24 a — by deflections; b — by moments;
c — by shear forces
As one can see in Table 2.8.1 and Fig. 2.8-3, the practical convergence takes place for the deflections
and bending moments with the use of finite elements of different types. For the shear forces, elements of
the 11th type give values noticeably different from those obtained by the use of other finite elements. It
should be noted that the element of the 20/50 type was connected to four nodes only, though it was
possible to introduce more nodes on its sides (up to 8 nodes in total). Checkup calculations of this system
showed that the accuracy of the results improved significantly and became close to that obtained with
55
meshes twice as dense. For example, for a mesh of 88 elements the deflection was 0.01701, the bending
moment was 0.0442, and the shear force was 0.278.
Table 2.8-2
Displacements of the plate center for the mesh
FE type 4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24
11/41 0.511522 0.494164 0.488470 0.487183
20/50 0.466266 0.480460 0.484425 0.485222
12/42 0.432918 0.470046 0.481375 0.483493
Moment at the center of the plate
М -11/41 2.61566 3.27276 3.93364 4.32066
М -20/50 2.31761 3.04494 3.72290 4.11309
М -12/42 1.89259 2.52465 3.17713 3.56252
Shear force near the center
Q -11/41 7.26 14.58 29.18 43.77
Q -20/50 6.50 13.31 26.81 40.26
Q -12/42 11.37 25.59 53.21 80.42
a) b)
0.52 5.00
0.5
Deflection, mm
Moment, Tm/m
4.00
0.48
0.46 3.00
0.44 2.00
0.42
0.4 1.00
0.38 0.00
4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24 4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24
c)
Legend:
100
Shear force, T/m
80
60
40
20
Figure 2.8-4. The convergence of results for a
0 concentrated force:
4x4 8x8 16x16 24x24 a — by deflections; b — by moments;
c — by shear forces
In another series of numerical experiments, when the same plate was loaded by a concentrated force,
results shown in Table 2.8-2 and in Fig. 2.8-4 prove to be less optimistic. Here the practical convergence
rate of the moments slows down, and that of the shear forces does even more significantly. The values of
the latter were taken in a point located at a quarter of the plate thickness from its center. Apparently, values
56
of the shear forces in points so close to the location of the concentrated force should not be taken into
consideration at all. This issue is discussed in more detail in sections that follow.
It should be noted that the quicker convergence of results for some finite element types is paid for by
a noticeably longer computation time. Therefore, the loss of time caused by the use of those elements and
the computation time spent for the solution of the same problem on a finer mesh with elements of another
type should be compared.
Circumventing Singularities
In the vicinity of singular points — where a drastic stress concentration occurs — the use of finite elements
(as well as other discretization techniques) is usually encumbered, especially in the representation of the
stress field. The finite element mesh has to be thickened dramatically, thus considerably increasing the
dimension of the analysis.
However, the thickening of the mesh may not lead to a proper result, and this fact makes us perform a
deeper analysis of the situation (see, for example, Fig. 2.8-4, c). One of the most popular judgments is the
following: a concentrated force is an abstraction that does not exist in reality. If it had been actually
implemented, then it would pass through a structure of any strength and run away to infinity without being
resisted. So it turns out that this idealization creates an artificial difficulty which may be fought heroically
only to find that this heroism is of very little practical sense. It should be remembered how the force
represented as a concentrated one in the model is implemented in the actual structure, then all issues of
how to provide the convergence of the finite-element solution to an exact one might be resolved (see, for
example, “Coupling Elements of Different Dimensionality” section).
Fragmentation
If the behavior of the solution near singular points is of interest nonetheless, then the local refinement of
the design model has to be performed. A typical example is a concentrated force applied to a plate, when
the stress state in a small vicinity of this force is essentially spatial, and the usual assumptions of the plate
theory are not applicable. It is possible to switch to a 3D model, but if we replace all plate finite elements
by solid ones, the dimensionality of the model will increase dramatically. Thus we need to combine a two-
dimensional idealization of the object with some refinements in three dimensions. The simplest way to do
it is to use a fragmentation and a global-local analysis. Generally speaking, there are three approaches to
this analysis [23]: (1) a force method in which an extracted fragment is subjected to forces transferred from
the rest of the system which have been found by a global analysis; (2) a displacement method in which the
fragment boundary is displaced in the same way as in the global analysis; (3) a mixed method. We will
demonstrate the procedure of the first approach.
In this case and similar ones, it is natural and convenient enough to use the following two-step
procedure:
(a) neglecting local peculiarities of the design, build a rough first-iteration design model of a full
structure to enable us to estimate the stress and strain state of the object as a whole, and perform the
analysis;
(b) extract a fragment from the structure that contains the peculiarity of our interest. Apply reactions
to this fragment obtained by removing the rest of the structure, and forces directly imposed on the
extracted fragment. Use a more detailed design model to analyze the fragment. Of the solution thus
obtained, use only a part that describes points at a certain distance from the boundaries of the fragment.
This approach is concordant with the practice of selecting a series of design models for the analysis of
various peculiarities of the structural behavior. However, it requires a bit of intuition and experience in
order to exclude the danger of an irreducible error that appears in the analysis of a rough model.
57
In the course of the fragmentation technique application, it

may turn out that the fragment nodes at a joint of the fragment
with the main structure do not have their counterparts on the
other side of the joint (Fig. 2.8-5). The situation of
inconsistency between the meshes on two- and three-
dimensional finite elements located at different sides of a joint
may also arise. Thus there arises a problem of creating special
finite elements to match joints at the boundary between a
fragment and the rest of the system, or using other special
joining techniques [24]. SCAD has elements that can handle
this: types 20, 30, and 50 which are capable of adding more
nodes at sides of rectangles.
Figure 2.8-5. A joint design

An important role can be played, seemingly, by a mesh smoothing optimization (a gradual change of
its elements’ sizes).
Counteracting the Dimensional Instability

The following mistake often occurs in the design practice: the engineer understands perfectly well that the
model behaves in a certain way (for example, it deforms in one plane only), but fails to remember that he
has assigned a different index of type to it (for example, a general spatial system). The structure becomes
unstable, and some unfavorable consequences arise. A typical example of this mistake is a design model in
Fig. 2.8-6 — a foundation slab with adjoining walls. The model was geometrically unstable, and
displacements of the whole system as a rigid body along X and Y axes were possible.
The results of the analysis of this unstable system showed the accuracy check error of 99%. It can be
explained by the fact that though SCAD eliminates the geometrical instability in the course of the
computation, this operation can lead to the loss of accuracy due to the incorrect strategy of the instability
elimination. It is better to eliminate the instability carefully. In the considered case the displacement of the
system as a rigid body should be prohibited, and an external statically determinate system of constraints
should be used for this purpose.
After these changes had been made to the design
model, no further problems with the accuracy appeared.
The procedure of imposing nodal constraints is not
difficult technically. What may be a problem is how to
select a reasonable set of constraints that affect the
geometrical stability of the considered design model or its
fragment. A typical example is a plate on elastic subgrade
sufficiently restrained out of the bending plane but
capable of moving in this plane as a rigid body. The
engineer understands that the plate must be restrained in
the plane, but does not always select the best type of
fixation.
Figure 2.8-6. Design model
Firstly, the fixation should be designed in such a way that the system becomes statically determinate
externally (three constraints must be placed in the plate plane). If this is achieved, the reactions in the
additional constraints must be zero because there are no loads in the plane of the plate. This consideration
58
is correct only in theory, because it does not take into account the inevitable error of the numerical
solutions. The rounding errors are accumulated and make the reactions nonzero, though very small in
magnitude. This means that the actual numerical representation can be interpreted in such a way as if a
small nonzero force were applied in the plane of the plate.
Since the said force is resisted by the conditional constraints, the values of the obtained reactions
happen to depend on the way these constraints have been imposed. If the constraints are placed as far as
possible from one another (Fig. 2.8-7, a), then the reactions will be small and will not affect the stress state
much. However, if the plate is restrained in one point (Fig. 2.8-7, b) against two displacements and a
rotation, which is theoretically possible, the effect on the stress state can be noticeable, and the results of
the analysis in the vicinity of this node will be distorted.
a) b)
Figure 2.8-7. Imposing constraints to counteract the geometrical instability:

(a) recommended design; (b) unfavorable fixation
All that was said above applies to any fixation of a free (capable of moving as a rigid body) fragment
of a system.
Coupling Elements of Different Dimensionality

It is only a rare case that a whole structure can be represented by elements of the same type (such as plate
elements). More frequently the same design model may include bars and shells, and other types of
elements.
SCAD allows almost any combination of finite elements to be employed, the elements being of
various types, dimensionalities, sizes and geometric shapes, and with various numerical stiffness
properties. However, this software flexibility contains a lot of dangers, sometimes explicit, sometimes
hidden thus especially insidious. Such situations may arise, for instance, when a design model includes
both one-dimensional (bars) and two-dimensional (plates and/or shells) members. As will be shown below,
this merging of a variety of different elements in their common design model requires careful attention,
especially in places where the said elements of different dimensionality are joined.
Bars + plates. Let’s take as an example of combined plate and bar elements the analysis of a spatial
framing together with a slab foundation.
So, let us consider a discrete design model combining plate finite elements and bars rigidly attached
to the slab. The fact that the slab lies on elastic subgrade is of no importance for the discussed problems.
The finite element mesh is formed in such a way that the bars of the structure’s frame hit the nodes of the
meshed slab. If no additional measures are taken, the design model described above will provide the
consistency of both vertical displacements of the slab and frame (in the direction perpendicular to the
plate) and the respective slopes in nodes where the plate and bar elements join one another. However,
bending moments in cross-sections of the columns adjoining the slab, calculated with this model, have
nothing to do with the real distribution of internal forces. This being the case, the distribution of the
internal forces in other elements of the structure’s frame will be affected too.
59
Indeed, let us imagine how the mesh of the slab thickens, and the user expects further refining of the
accuracy of the analysis. However, starting from a certain density of the mesh, the further division of the
mesh results in the decrease of absolute values of the bending moments in the bars in places of their
attachment to the slab. When passing to a limit, as the maximum size of the mesh cell tends to zero, these
bending moments should tend to zero too. This means that this design model provides a hinged rather than
rigid attachment of the frame elements to the slab. The fact that the user obtains some formal nonzero
numerical values of the bending moments on a specific mesh shows only a discretization error of the finite
element method, but there is no reason at all to take the discretization error for a credible numerical result!
As can be seen, the bending moment in a bar of this model, independent of the mesh spacing, is
transferred to the slab as a moment concentrated in a node of the mesh. On the other hand, the slab under
the concentrated bending moment acquires an infinite slope at the point of its application. Thus the slab
does not resist the concentrated slope and does not restrain the frame elements.
In order to improve the design model, it is necessary to consider the design of the joint between the
frame and the slab. If the columns of the frame are attached to the slab by pedestals, then the latter can be
treated as rigid bodies not changing their sizes whatever modifications are made to the finite element mesh.
The size of the rigid body itself can be assigned on the basis of the sizes of the pedestal (ab),
allowing for the distribution of its pressure on the slab at the angle of 45 (Fig. 2.8-8) down to the middle
surface of the plate which conforms to the common engineering practice. This situation can be also
simulated by introducing a cross-shaped support from bars of sufficiently high rigidity.
In this model the concentrated moment from the frame
columns is transferred to the slab through a stiff washer the
sizes of which a+h and b+h do not depend on the spacing of
the finite element mesh, and therefore they do not depend on
the discretization error as well. Though the discretization error
will affect the numerical values of the bending moments in the
columns, it will not cause the design model to become so
fatally different from the real structure as it used to be in the
initial problem formulation when a rigid body was not added
to the design model. In case there are no pedestals, the sizes of
the column cross-section can be used as those of the rigid
Figure 2.8-8. An attachment of a body, taking into account the distribution of the pressure on
column by a pedestal: a and b are the slab at 45 degrees as shown in Fig. 2.8-8.
plane sizes of the pedestal foot
Finally, we would like to draw the reader’s attention to the circumstance related to a joint analysis of
the spatial frame and the foundation slab. Assuming columns of the frame to be orthogonal to the slab
plane, we find that the slab does not resist the column torsion as well as displacements v, w of the columns
bottom in the direction of Y and Z axes respectively because the plate finite elements just do not have
appropriate degrees of freedom to restrain those linear displacements and torsions.
If there are no other external horizontal constraints in the model (those in the plane Y, Z), then the
mechanical system turns out to be unsecured and geometrically unstable, and the software will have to
respond to this circumstance somehow.
It should be noted that in a spatial frame no geometrical instability would arise due to it, and the
software might lack mechanisms for detecting the errors of this kind. This circumstance should also be
kept in mind when building a design model of a complex combined structure.
Bars + deep beams. To analyze a high-rise building including both a frame and stiffening
diaphragms under horizontal loads, heterogeneous elements are naturally included in the design model.
60
If one takes an utterly formal attitude towards the formation of a discrete design model describing the
plate by a set of plane stress finite elements and the bar frame – by one-dimensional elements without any
additional measures taken, then both the bending moments and longitudinal/lateral forces in girders that
adjoin nodes at the boundary between the frame and the diaphragm will be totally unrelated to the reality.
Let the model of the diaphragm use simplest finite elements with two degrees of freedom in each
node (linear displacements u and v in two mutually orthogonal directions). Such finite elements do not
resist the rotation of an adjoining node because the elements just lack the appropriate degrees of freedom.
Therefore these finite elements do not transfer any moments to the adjoining nodes. Since the software will
require all equilibrium conditions to be satisfied, including the equilibrium of each node by moments, the
girders that join these nodes rigidly will have to transfer zero moments to the nodes. Thus the bending
moments in the girders in these nodes will be equal to zero. It corresponds to a design model with the
hinged attachment of the girders to the diaphragm, and it does not satisfy the requirement of a user oriented
at the analysis of girders clamped in the diaphragm.
What corrections should be made to the original mechanical model or the mathematical formulation
of the problem (which is the same thing) in order to describe the real structural behavior adequately? As it
was stated before, to do that it is necessary to consider the design of a joint between a bar and a diaphragm
in sufficient detail.
For example, let a steel I-beam be embedded partly in a brick wall as shown in Fig. 2.8-9, a. Then it
suffices to add a one-dimensional bar element that penetrates into the plane stressed wall by an appropriate
part of its length, to the respective design model and to its discrete counterpart, as shown in Fig. 2.8-9, b.
Figure 2.8-9. A cantilever clamped in a wall Figure 2.8-10. A monolithic joint

Another design can be suggested for a monolithic joint between a reinforced concrete wall panel and
a girder of the building frame — see Fig. 2.8-10, a. The actual dimensions of the cross-section can be taken
into account here: the height of the girder, with a rigid body placed along the wall border as shown in
Fig. 2.8-10, b. This rigid body complies with the plane section assumption for the girder itself. The
assumption states that the girder section remains flat and does not change its size after its deformation.
Certainly the two ways of building design models given here by no means comprise the wide scope of
possible situations. In every particular case the designer should take into account the structural peculiarities
of the problem rather than simply using some fancied and questionable general-case models.
The “joint area extension” technique as in Fig. 2.8-9 can be used to match other types of elements of
different dimensionality. Fig. 2.8-11 shows such an example wherein a cylindrical shell of a wall and a
61
spherical shell of a cover of a nuclear reactor containment are matched with a massive ring. It should be
noted that in places of interpenetration of the structures some perturbation of rigidity properties arises due
to the summation of the rigidities of a shell and of the solid body in parts that occupy the same region of
space. This fact should be taken into account when assigning the rigidity constants.
Figure 2.8-11. Coupling a wall and a cover of a reactor containment shell

with a massive ring
Effects of Merged Displacements

Restraining of the freedom of nodal displacements in the form of merged displacements, i.e. forcing the
displacements of one node to be equal to those of the other, is usually used to neglect some deformations
of the system. For example, if you merge horizontal displacements of nodes in junctions of girders to
columns of a single-storey frame, this action will be equivalent to the use of the hypothesis of perfect
rigidity of the girder with respect to tension/compression.
The compliance of floor slabs in a multi-storey frame can be often neglected, treating them as rigid
disks. If all horizontal displacement components of all nodes of each floor are merged in such a model,
then the idea of a rigid disk will be implemented. However, it should be noted that the torsion of the floor
slabs will become impossible, and only their translational displacements will be allowed. This effect may
come as an unpleasant surprise for the designer, especially if the considered structure is asymmetric.
It is useful to pay attention to another popular fallacy, best illustrated by a practical example (Fig. 2.8-
12). The results of the analysis of a slab showed that there were no lateral forces in the direction of the axis
of symmetry (Y) in the stiffening core, while they were present in the other direction (along the X axis).
The role of the stiffening core in the behavior of a slab was allowed for by merging displacements in nodes
of abutment of the stiffening core to the plate. Linear displacements along the Z axis (deflections of the
plate) and slope angles UX, UY were merged.
62
Nodes with merged displacements along Z, UX, UY
Figure 2.8-12. A fragment of the design model of a slab

The explanation for this result is that no difference was taken into account between restraining a
displacement (imposing a constraint) and merging displacements of different nodes. After the linear
displacements along the Z axis had been merged, the respective part of the plate was able to displace only
horizontally, and it seemed that the slopes would be zero too.
However, even merging thereof may not assure
their equality to zero. This can be illustrated by a
simple model (Fig. 2.8-13), where nodes 1, 2, 3 …
Figure 2.8-13. Merging of slope angles have the same displacements and equal but nonzero
slope angles.
In the problem in Fig. 2.8-12 it would be more correct to restrain the nodes of the stiffening core
against slopes UX and UY and merge the linear displacements along the Z axis.
The capability of a partial rather than full merging of
displacements can be used to form some special boundary
conditions in non-framed structures where “incomplete”
attachments to nodes (hinges) cannot be introduced in the way
they can be in bar systems.
For example, if you need to describe the structure of a
plate ABCD supported along its contour with its two halves
connected by hinges along line EF (Fig. 2.8-14), it is sufficient
to introduce two systems of nodes (…, 6, 10, 42, … and …, 7,
11, 43, …) attached to the left (ABEF) and right (FECD)
halves of the structure, respectively, and merge all
Figure 2.8-14. A plate with a cylindrical displacements but the slope around Y in the adjacent pairs of
hinge nodes.
Allowing for a Distributive Ability of Soil

The analysis of structures on elastic subgrade includes the problems of allowing for distributive properties
of the subsoil ignored in the simplest Winkler simulation (a piano-key model). Most real soils possess a
distributive ability, when unlike the Winkler design model the parts directly subjected to the load are not
the only ones resisting it. Therefore, in order to allow for the distributive ability of the subsoil, it is
63
necessary to, first, use the subsoil models other than the Winkler one, and second, introduce the subsoil
beyond the foundation area into the respective design model.
In the SCAD environment, the subgrade located beyond area Ω occupied by the structure itself can be
taken into account by using “infinite” finite elements [16], wedge-shaped or strip-shaped. These elements
enable to simulate the entire surrounding of the  area if it is convex and polygonal (Fig. 2.8-15).
The specified polygonal area is accurate only to a certain extent. If the  area is non-convex or not
single connected, it should be complemented to a convex area by finite elements of limited size. The
thickness of the slab in the added parts should be assumed zero.
Figure. 2.8-15. Arrangement of the peripheral wedge-shaped and strip-shaped finite elements
1) the slab; (2) a complement of the  area to a convex one; (3) a strip element; (4) a wedge element
The use of available finite elements on elastic subgrade (bars, plates, shells) and special peripheral
elements only does not enable to create an arbitrary design model of a structure on elastic subgrade. In
particular, some difficulties may arise when trying to build a design model of a dam subject to plane strain
because SCAD cannot use elements like a deep beam on elastic subgrade.
The issue can be resolved in a simple way by including bar elements on elastic subgrade between the
dam boundary and the soil. The stiffness of such bars can be zero. In the same way a zero-stiffness slab on
elastic subgrade can be put under a massive part of the design model.
In the case when the subsoil parameters are calculated using CROSS, peripheral plate elements are
not added to the design model. This is due to the fact that CROSS solves a problem for an area unlimited
in its plan, so the result already allows for the distribution of the subsoil parameters.
Using Rigid Inserts

It is generally known that poorly conditioned stiffness matrices appear often when elements of drastically
different rigidities join in a single node of a design model. Let’s demonstrate by a simple example how this
situation can be interpreted in terms of mechanics. As it happens, poor conditioning is shown by “almost
unstable” structures.
Fig. 2.8-16 shows a formally stable system with the following stiffness matrix:
1   1 
K  k . (2.8.1)
 1 1   
Eigenvalues of this matrix are 1 = ; 2 = 2 + , and the condition number is
H = 2/1 = 1 + 2/ .
If the stiffness of the middle spring is big comparing to the stiffness of the end springs, then parameter
α is small, and number H is great, which shows the poor conditioning and possible loss of accuracy during
the solution of the system of equations with such a matrix.
64
Figure 2.8-16. A system with a poorly conditioned stiffness matrix

It is easy to notice that the mechanical behavior of the considered structure approaches the behavior
of an unstable system. Indeed, the displacement of the middle spring as a rigid body may occur if the
resistance of the end springs is negligibly small. The reactions of the latter, due to the described relation
between the rigidities, cause insignificant deformation of the middle component. However, if we change
the ratio of the rigidities to the opposite, then the stiffness matrix will have the conditioning number H  1.
Elements of drastically different rigidities meet in the same node again, but the stiffness matrix is well-
conditioned and corresponds to an elastic structure (the middle spring) attached to the ground by nearly
non-deformable constraints. It should be noted that detection of “near instability” based on the comparison
of orders of smallness of possible deformations may show both a lack in the structure and a fault in its
modeling.
Without considering the first case where the designer should
obviously modify the structure, we will note that in the second case
it is often possible to find a simple solution: declare an element
with a very high rigidity to be rigid, and take this feature into
account when creating the system of governing equations by
introducing the appropriate constraints.
During the analysis of bar systems, an eccentricity of
elements joining in nodes often has to be taken account (Fig. 2.8-
17, a).
Inserting a bar of very big but finite rigidity between nodes n
and n+1, as it seems intuitively possible, will cause, as we have
Figure 2.8-17. A stepped joint demonstrated above, a drastic deterioration of the calculation
accuracy due to a poorly conditioned stiffness matrix.
Rigid inserts at the ends of bar elements can be used to circumvent this computational difficulty. Then
the design model has only one node intermediately located anywhere between node n and node n+1, and
the end sections of the adjoining bars are attached to this node by the rigid inserts. No loss of accuracy
occurs in this case.
The simplest way is to merge this single node N with either node n or n+1, then the rigid insert
appears at one element only. The payment for this simplification is that internal forces will be determined
only in the elastic part of the bar.
65
Figure 2.8-18. A ribbed plate

The use of rigid inserts is a common practice when we have to consider a plate or shell reinforced by
ribs eccentric with respect to the middle surface. If the ribs are simulated by bar elements, then the
eccentricity can be easily and conveniently allowed for by rigid inserts (Fig. 2.8-19). The design nodes are
arranged at the plate midplane level. However, you can arrange the nodes at the level of the centers of
gravity of the ribs and use the “Move the plate midplane” option, which will lead to the same effect. This
method is convenient, for example, in those cases when a stub girder system a part of which is covered by
a floor is designed. It should be noted that the eccentricity of the ribs position affects the membrane group
of forces, therefore the allowance for eccentricity in a purely flexural structure (constructed from the
respective finite elements) gives no results.
Figure 2.8-19. Using rigid inserts to account for the sizes of nodes
Commonly, the analysis of bar systems involves structures with the cross-section depth of not more
than 1/8…1/10 of the distance between nodes. However, there are structures with this ratio of up to 1/5 or
even 1/3 (some types of foundations under turbine generators, diaphragms of buildings, hydraulic
66
structures etc.). In this case a bar model with point nodes located at the intersections of element axes is
incorrect. To amend the situation, there is a popular approach of taking into account actual sizes of “nodes”
by the use of bar elements with rigid inserts. An example of this type of model created in accordance with
the recommendations [3], is shown in Fig. 2.8-19.
This technique has been known and used for such a long time that designers rarely doubt whether the
hypothesis of a “non-deformable node” is applicable in every particular case. Meanwhile, this question is
not trivial, as can be seen by the consideration of results of a sample problem (Fig. 2.8-20).
Figure 2.8-20. To the analysis of a node of finite size

Its bar model does not allow horizontal displacements, and the vertical bar does not bend. A more
detailed model, however, indicates the presence of horizontal displacements which arise due to a restrained
compression along the junction line AB. Since there is no such restraint on the opposite side of the “post”,
a non-uniform distribution of stresses appears which is equivalent to bending.
References to Chapter 2
1. I.I. Blekhman, A.D. Myshkis, Y.G. Panovko, Mechanics and applied mathematics: Logic and peculiarities of
mathematical applications. Moscow, “Nauka”, 1983, 328 p. (In Russian)
2. A.V. Vovkushevsky, B.A. Shoikhet, Analysis of massive hydraulic structures taking into account seam
opening. Moscow, “Energiya”, 1981, 136 p. (In Russian)
3. A.S. Gorodetsky, I.D. Evzerov, E.B. Strelets-Streletsky, V.E. Bogovis, Y.V. Genzersky, D.A. Gorodetsky,
Finite element method: theory and computing implementation. Software system "Lira-Windows". Kiev,
“FACT”, 1997. (In Russian)
4. Dynamic structural analysis. (Designer’s manual.) Moscow, “Stroyizdat”, 1979, 320 p. (In Russian)
5. I.D. Evzerov, Error estimates for inconsistent plate finite elements. Deposited at Ukrainian Res. Inst. for
Sci.-Tech. Information, Reg. No. 1467, Kiev, 1979, 9 p. (In Russian)
6. O. Zenkevich, Finite element method in engineering. Moscow, “Mir”, 1975, 542 p. (In Russian)
7. A.B. Kaplun, Morozov E.M., Olferyeva M.A., ANSYS in the engineer’s hands. Application manual.
Moscow, “URSS”, 2003, 272 p. (In Russian)
8. Karpilovsky V.S., Methods for constructing finite elements. Deposited at Ukrainian Res. Inst. for Sci.-Tech.
Information, Reg. No. 3153, Kiev, 1980, 20 p. (In Russian)
9. N.M. Medvedeva, M.A. Mikitarenko, A.V. Perelmuter, Static and dynamic computer-aided analysis of
masts. // Strength of materials and structural theory. Issue 48, Kiev, “Budivelnyk”, 1986, pp. 79–82. (In
Russian)
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10. A.V. Perelmuter, V.I. Slivker, Peculiarities of slope-deflection method’s algorithmic implementations when
additional constraints are taken into account // Finite element method and structural mechanics: Proc.
Leningrad Polytechnic Institute, No.349, 1976, pp. 28–36. (In Russian)
11. A.V. Perelmuter, V.I. Slivker, Numerical Structural Analysis: Methods, Models and Pitfalls, Springer, 2003,
501 p.
12. L.A. Rozin, Bar systems treated as systems of finite elements. Leningrad, University, 1975, 237 p. (In
Russian)
13. A.F. Smirnov, Static and dynamic stability of structures. Moscow, “Transzheldorizdat”, 1947. (In Russian)
14. SNiP II-7-81*. Construction in seismic regions / Ministry of Construction of Russia. Moscow, 1996, 52 p.
15. G. Strang, J. Fix, Theory of the finite element method. Moscow, Mir, 1977, 349 p. (In Russian)
16. V.I. Feodosiev, Ten talks on strength of materials. Moscow, Nauka, 1975, 174 p. (In Russian)
17. S.A. Fialko, Direct methods for solving systems of linear equations in modern FEM-complexes – M.: SCAD
SOFT, 2009. — 160 p.
18. S.A. Fialko, Realization of block Lanczos method with shifts in SCAD software applying to seismic analysis
of structures // CADmaster, 2007, №40/5
19. A. Billionnet, On interval graphs and matrice profiles, Revue française d'automatique, d'informatique et de
recherche opérationnelle. Recherche opérationnelle, 1986, 20, No. 3, 245–256.
20. S. Fialko, PARFES: A method for solving finite element linear equations on multi-core computers //
Advances in Engineering Software, 2010, Vol. 41, Issue 12 — P.1256-1265.
21. R.N. Makiett, P.V. Marcal, Finite Element Analysis of Nonlinear Structures // Journal Structural
Division. Proc./ASCE, 1968, Vol. 94, No ST9. Р.2081–2105.
22. J.T. Oden, Finite elements of nonlinear continua. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1972.
23. D. Sabahi, T. Rose, Special Applications of Global-Local Analysis, MSC/NASTRAN 1992 World Users`
Conference Proceedings.
24. J.E. Schiermeier, J.M. Housner, J.B. Ranson, M.A. Aminpour, W.J. Stroud, The Application of Interface
Element to Dissimilar Meshes in Global/Local Analysis, MSC 1996 World Users` Conference Proceedings
25. S.P. Timoshenko, Theory of elastic stability. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1961
26. M. Yannanakis, Computing the minimum fill-in is NP-complete. SIAM Journal of Algebraic and Discrete
Methods, 1981., T2. № 1, 77–79
27. C.H. Papadimitriou, The NP-completeness of the bandwidth minimization problem, Computing, 1976, 16,
No. 3, 263–270.
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3.Finite Element Library
3. Finite Element Library

3.1. General Issues
When the finite element method is used, a continuous area  occupied by a structure and possessing an
infinite number of the degrees of freedom is approximated by a discrete model consisting of a set of
subareas (finite elements) that have a finite number of the degrees of freedom and interact with each other
only at the nodal points.
Each finite element (FE) e (e = 1,…, m) is characterized by the following properties:
 a dimensionality of the used space (one-dimensional, two-dimensional, three-dimensional);
 a geometric shape, which is usually one of the simplest geometrical figures (line segment, triangle,
rectangle, quadrangle, tetrahedron, etc.);
 a set of nodes placed (as a rule, though not always) on lines (surfaces) that divide the elements and
are common for the adjacent ones;
 a set of the used degrees of freedom usually related to the nodes (though not necessarily to the
nodes) — displacements, rotations, etc.;
 rules that define the relationship between the displacements of the nodes of the finite element and
the nodes of the system. Nodes of the element, for example, can be attached to the nodes of the
system rigidly or hingedly;
 a system of approximating functions which are defined within the area e and which enable to
approximately express the components of the displacements in any point of the element in terms of
its degrees of freedom;
 a physical law that defines a relationship between the internal forces and displacements;
 a class of problems to which this finite element type can be applied (plane stress state plate FE,
Kirchhoff–Love plate FE, FE of the Reissner plate resting on the bi-parametric elastic subgrade,
Timoshenko bar for a spatial problem, etc.);
 a set of allowed loads and actions which can be applied directly to the finite element and the
method of their specification;
 and last but not least — a list of limitations and recommendations on the application.
One of the most important properties of a finite-element model is the maximum diameter of the
elements
 
h  max  sup x  y  ,
e  x, y 
 e 
depending on which the errors of the method are often estimated. In other words, h is a minimum diameter
of a sphere which can be described around any finite element of the design model. Moreover, it is usually
assumed that if a diameter is infinitely decreased, i. e. when h  0, the following regularity conditions are
met — a sphere with a radius   Ch can be embedded into every finite element, where the constant С does
not depend on h. This prevents the use of the so-called "needle" elements (too elongated rectangles,
triangles with very small angles, etc.).
The approximating functions in the finite element method (FEM) are usually polynomial or
piecewise-polynomial (subareas method), although there are elements with rational (the so-called
isoparametric elements), trigonometric, logarithmic and other approximations of the displacement field.
The selection of the degrees of freedom of the element and the corresponding approximating functions
completely defines the rate of convergence and the FEM error estimate.
69
If we fix all parameters of a finite element design model, except for the size of the finite elements h,
we can imagine that by changing this size, we will obtain a sequence of the approximate solutions of the
problem uh . When talking about the convergence of FEM, we mean that this sequence tends to an exact
solution of the problem u*, when h  0.
The above concept of the finite element modeling of a problem is based on what is known in the
literature as the application of h-elements. The relative simplicity of this approach enables to solve the
engineering problems directly and effectively. In recent years some software systems (for example,
NASTRAN or StressCheck) have been using another finite element type, a so-called p-element. Unlike the
h-elements, the p-elements are capable of representing the curvature of surfaces and peculiarities of stress
fields directly on simpler meshes containing a smaller number of elements. The accuracy of the analysis is
controlled by a p-level (power of the polynomial) specified for each element: the higher the p-level, the
better the accuracy. When the h-elements are used, the accuracy of the result can be improved by
increasing the number of the elements; the computation time will grow accordingly. When the p-elements
are used, the same phenomenon will take place when the “p-power” grows.
Despite the many positive characteristics of p-elements, the h-elements have a number of advantages.
A global behavior of a structure can be analyzed better with the h-elements. They are also better in the
representation of solutions of problems where a stress discontinuity may occur, such as ribbed plates, and
in the solution of nonlinear problems. Finally, the h-elements are used in the time-proven computational
technology elaborated in every detail. These are the reasons why the SCAD finite element library contains
only the h-elements.
3.2. Composition of the Finite Element Library

When the software documentation refers to a finite element type, it usually means a number or another
identification (such as name) of the respective section from the finite element library used in the software.
Table 3.2-1 lists elements included in the finite element library, and presents a classification of the FE
types, their respective possible indexes of the model type1, identification of the calculated forces (stresses).
Table 3.2-1
FE Allowable
Calculated stresses
type Name indices of the Purpose and capabilities
and forces
No. model type
1-10 Bars Any kinds of bar systems taking into
1 plane truss bar 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9 account: N, M(MY), Q(QZ)
2 plane frame bar 2, 5, 8, 9  rigid inserts at the ends;
3 grade beam bar 3, 5, 8, 9  elastic subgrade in one (types 2, 3 and MK(MX), MY, QZ
4 space truss bar 4, 5, 8, 9 7) or two directions of the principal N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY
5 space bar 5, 8, 9 axes of inertia (types 5, 6 and 10);
6 space bar allowing for 5, 8, 9  shear and prestressing (types 2, 5, 6,
shear 10).
7 grade beam bar on the 3, 5, 8, 9 Note: elements of the types 6 and 7 are MK(MX), MY, QZ
elastic subgrade kept to maintain the continuity of
10 universal bar 1–5, 8, 9 versions. depending on the model
type
1
The main characteristics of the models depending on the value of their index are given in Chapter 28, Table 28.3-2
70
FE Allowable
Calculated stresses
and forces
No. model type
11- Thin plates Flexural plates lying in the XOY plane: MX, MY, MXY, QX and
20  isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic Q Y,
111- Plates according to 3, 5, 8, 9 material; RZ — when there is an
120 the Mindlin–Reissner  elastic subgrade elastic subgrade
theory
21- Plane problem of the 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9 Enable to analyze two types of structures: NX, NZ, NXZ — plane
30 theory of elasticity  plane stress state for the isotropic, stress state and plane
orthotropic, and anisotropic material; deformation;
 plane deformation for the isotropic, NY — plane
transverse isotropic, orthotropic, and deformation
anisotropic material
31- Solid finite elements 4, 5, 8, 9 For solving a spatial problem of the theory NX, NY, NZ,
40 of elasticity, for the isotropic, transverse TXY, TXZ, TYZ
isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic
material
41- Thin shells 5, 8, 9 Analysis of thin and medium-thickness NX, NY, TXY,
50 shells. Elements of zero curvature (flat): MX, MY, MXY, QX and
141- Shells according to  isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic QY, RZ — when there is
150 the Mindlin–Reissner material; an elastic subgrade
theory  elastic subgrade
The geometric features of the shell are
taken into account by the geometry of the
inscribed polyhedron
51- Resilient constraints any To allow for: reactions in the
60  the action of the elastic subgrade on directions of the
the nodes of the structure including its specified constraints
attached (peripheral) part;
 the elastic constraint between the two
nodes of the structure
61- Axisymmetric 11 For the analysis of the axisymmetric NX, NY, NZ, TYZ
70 structures. All elements lie in the section
of the body made with the ROZ plane
71- Multilayer shells, 8 Strength analysis of thin, medium- NX, NY, NZ,
80 accounting for the thickness, and thick single-layer and TXY, TXZ, TYZ
transverse shear, multilayer isotropic, transverse isotropic, Calculated at the upper
compression of layers and orthotropic shells. and lower surfaces of
and curvature Elastic properties of layers can be each layer
81- Multilayer shells, 9 drastically different, in which case the
90 accounting for the hypothesis of straight normals becomes
interlayer shear and inapplicable because it may yield distorted
curvature results
100 Rigid body any Connecting nodes by a rigid body (see none
Sec. 2.2)
151- Null elements any To impose constraints (specify reactions in the
160 displacements) in the directions different directions of the
from those of the axes of the global displacements (rotation
coordinate system angles)
71
FE Allowable
Calculated stresses
and forces
No. model type
200 Empty element any Used only when specifying the initial data none
in the text form. It enables to exclude any
element from the design model without
changing the numbering of the elements
A number of important convergence theorems are established in the theory of the finite elements
method1, for example, it is determined for the consistent elements [9], that if (k1) is a degree of the
polynomial with the help of which the displacements are approximated inside the finite elements, and an
elliptic boundary value problem of order 2m is solved for which an approximate solution in displacements
uh is obtained, then the error in the energy, compared with the exact solution u, is
U(uuh, uuh)  Ch2(km) ||u||2k,
where h is a minimum diameter of a sphere which can be described around any FE of the design model.
This estimate involves a norm ||u||k on the right, which is a root-mean-square value of k-th derivative of the
sought-for function u.
Similar estimates for the inconsistent FE are obtained in the papers by I.D. Evzerov [7] and
V.S. Karpilovsky [15].
Mathematically proved conditions of convergence of the finite element method can be beneficially
supplemented by some considerations of mechanical nature which enable to perform an informal analysis.
The approximation of the field of displacements and forces by a certain finite set of predefined functions
reduces the possibility of the arbitrary deformation, i.e. it can be interpreted as an imposition of certain
constraints. If the elements are inconsistent, certain displacements which do not exist in the continual
design model may occur along their borders (for example, mutual rotation angles of plates), which
correspond to the absence of certain constraints.
As the number of the finite elements increases while their size decreases, the total number of the
degrees of freedom of the structure increases, and, hence, the effect of the imposed constraints decreases.
This process, provided that certain conditions are met, ensures the convergence of the method for the
consistent finite elements. On the other hand, this process leads to the reduction of the mutual
displacements at the boundaries between inconsistent elements, and this fact can be treated as the re-
imposition of the previously removed constraints. Consequently, the convergence of inconsistent elements
can take place only in cases when a positive tendency of overcoming imposed constraints prevails over a
negative tendency of imposing constraints on the boundaries between elements.
Forces and stresses in the finite elements are calculated by default in the beginning, middle and end of
the bar, and for other types of FEs – in the center of gravity. Forces can be calculated in the intermediate
sections of bars, and in the nodes of other types of FEs. Forces and stresses in FEs are usually calculated in
the local coordinate system. For example, the principal axes of inertia of the cross-sections of the flexible
part are used for bars. A special coordinate system for calculating forces can be specified for all flat and
solid FEs.
This chapter provides the composition of the finite element library for the linear analysis. The
description of the results of the calculation and the sign convention for each type of the finite element are
given in Chapter 13. The composition of the finite element library for the nonlinear analysis is given in
Chapter 26.
1
See also Sec. 2.7
72
The positive directions of the displacements along the X, Y and Z axes coincide with the positive
directions of the respective axes, the positive directions of the rotation angles UX, UY and UZ are counter-
clockwise when viewed from the end of the respective axis.
The following sign conventions are used in the system for different types of loads specified for the
finite elements:
 a positive sign of the force means that it is directed opposite to the direction of the axes of the local
or global coordinate systems;
 a positive sign of the moment means that its direction is clockwise when viewed from the end of
the respective axis;
 a positive sign of the temperature difference means that the upper (when viewed from the end of
the respective axis) fiber has a higher temperature than the lower one.
When the initial data are specified with the help of the graphical dialogs, there are usually no
problems with the specification of the information for the certain types of finite elements. In addition to
this chapter, see Chapter 29 that gives essential information regarding the data preparation in the text
format.
The “basic” system of units is used in the chapter to describe the data: T, m and sizes of sections of
bar elements are given in cm.
3.3. Bar Elements

Bar elements of different types are described in this section.
Local Coordinate Systems of the Bar

A universal bar finite element is shown in Fig. 3.3-1. There can be rigid inserts BD and CE on its ends. The
B node is the beginning of the bar, and the C node is its end. The following designations of the end
sections are used for the flexible part of the bar DE: number 1 designates the section at the beginning of the
bar, and number 2 designates the one at its end.
In the general case it is assumed that a bar can be arbitrarily located with respect to the assumed
global coordinate system XYZ. However, it is more convenient to obtain the characteristics of an
individual bar finite element in the coordinate system related to the given element in a certain way. For this
purpose, the local coordinate system X1Y1Z11 is determined at the flexible part shown in Fig. 3.3-2, with
respect to which the forces are calculated and some initial data are specified. In this system the Y1 and Z1
axes are the principal axes of inertia of the cross-section.
Figure 3.3-2
Figure 3.3-1
However, even before entering the information on the cross-sectional shape SCAD generates the axes
(“preliminary project”) of the local coordinate system X10 Y10 Z10 (Fig. 3.3-3, a) using the following
considerations:
1
Only the right-hand coordinate systems are used in SCAD. A coordinate system is considered to be right-hand if the
Y axis is formed by rotating the X axis by an angle of 90 counter-clockwise when viewed from the end of the Z axis.
73
 the X10 axis is directed along the geometric axis of the flexible part of the section from the beginning
of the bar to its end;
 the Z10 axis is oriented towards the upper half-space (in the direction of the increase of the Z
coordinate of the global coordinate system XYZ, in which the design model is given);
 the Y10 axis complements the local coordinates in such a way so that the system forms a right-hand
system X10 Y10 Z10 .
a) b)
Figure 3.3-3
A particular cross-section is located in such a way so that its structural axes y and z coincide with the
Y10 and Z10 axes. A system of the structural axes of the section yOz is given in the drawing of the cross-
section in the assortment of rolled profiles, and in the dialog boxes of the Section Builder, TONUS and
Consul. If the parametric sections are used, it is assumed that the structural axis y is horizontal, and the z
axis is vertical.
Figure 3.3-4
The systems of structural axes yOz and principal axes of inertia Y1OZ1 usually coincide, or are at least
parallel to each other as shown in Fig. 3.3-4,a. In this case the pre-constructed system X10 Y10 Z10 will be
identical to the system X1Y1Z1. However, there are cases when the axes (Y1, Z1) are inclined to the axes (y,
z) at an angle FU (angle between the principal axes of inertia and the structural axes of the section), as
shown in Fig. 3.3-4,b. This angle is specified in the assortments of rolled profiles or is determined in
Section Builder, TONUS and Consul, as an angle between the horizontal structural axis у and the principal
axis of inertia U, with respect to which the section has the maximum rigidity. If the angle FU  0, then the
final position of the principal axes of inertia can be determined by rotating the pre-determined axes Y10 and
74
Z10 by this angle, the Y1 axis will coincide with the U axis, and the V axis will coincide with the Z1 axis. It
should be noted that only the axes but not the actual cross-section change their position in space.
If the variant of orientation of the bar in space obtained by the above method does not satisfy the
requirements to the orientation of the bar cross-section, the software enables to rotate the bar (its section)
about the longitudinal axis by any angle required according to the conditions of the problem by explicitly
specifying “the angle of orientation of the structural axes”1.
It is an angle between the Y1 axis and a line
related to the global coordinate system. The line is an
intersection between a plane parallel to XОY and the
plane of the bar cross-section Y1ОZ1 passing through
the beginning of the flexible part of the bar (Fig. 3.3-
5). This line (the А axis) is oriented in such a way so
that the X1АZ1 system is right-hand. It is assumed that
the X1Y1Z1 axes form a right-hand system, and the Z1
axis is always is oriented towards the upper half-space
(in the direction of the increase of the Z coordinate).
The positive value of the orientation angle F is
determined by rotating the A axis counter-clockwise
when viewed from the end of the X1 axis until it
coincides with the Y1 axis.
Figure 3.3-5
The final position of the principal axes of inertia of the

cross-section is defined by the value of the sum of the “angle of
orientation of the structural axes FK” between the structural axis
Y (Z) and axis Y10  Z10  and the angle between the principal
axes of inertia and the structural axes of the section FU (Fig. 3.3-
6). When specifying the sections from the assortment of rolled
profiles or when using the Section Builder, TONUS and Consul
for this purpose, the angle FU is taken into account by the
system automatically.
The positive value of the angles FK (FU) is defined by a
counter-clockwise rotation of the section when viewed from the
end of the X1 axis. Thus, the angle FK in Fig. 3.3-6 is positive,
Figure 3.3-6 and the angle FU is negative.
1
In the previous editions of the manual this angle was referred to as an “angle of pure rotation”, then an “angle of
orientation of the principal axes of inertia”, and then it got its button in the Assign toolbar. The name “angle of
orientation of the structural axes” reflects the essence of the problem more accurately because the transition to the
principal axes of inertia which do not coincide with the structural ones is performed automatically.
75
A more convenient way to specify the position of the local

axes with respect to the global coordinates is to introduce an
additional point (an orientation point) which must have a
positive coordinate Y1 or Z1 (see below). For example, for all
vertical columns of a cylindrical structure (Fig. 3.3-7) the same
point of orientation of FK with the coordinates of the center of
the circle of the structure is specified (it is assumed that the
global axes pass through this center).
To position a bar in space in a certain way, it is necessary
to specify which angle is used: the one with the structural axes
or the one with the principal axes of inertia. You can specify
which axis Y1 or Z1 (similarly y or z) is directed towards the
orientation point. The result will obviously change (Fig. 3.3-8).
Figure 3.3-7
Figure 3.3-8
Keep in mind, however, that when you use sections with a nonzero angle FU,
the “flat frame” model can turn out to be incorrect. This is due to the fact that
the principal axes of inertia of the bar do not lie in the selected force plane. Such
errors are detected during the check of the initial data. This situation, it would
seem, should not take place in the analysis of structures where bars work only in
tension/compression (elements of type 1 or 4). However, since SCAD provides,
for example, the local load in the directions of the principal axes of inertia for
such cases as well, it can now act in a plane other than the plane of the frame.
Therefore, the prohibition remains in this case as well.
General Description of Bar Finite Elements

As shown in Table 3.3-1, bar finite elements are implemented as special cases of the universal bar element
of type 10. Normal displacements of this FE are approximated by third-degree polynomials if there is no
76
shear or by transcendental polynomials if there is shear. The longitudinal displacements are approximated
by first-degree polynomials.
This approach is based on the selection of the approximating functions from the number of general
solutions of a homogeneous differential equation of bar bending. If the bars do not have shear compliance,
a classical Euler-Bernoulli model is used for which the differential equation of bending has a general
solution in the form of a third-degree polynomial [33]. When a bar compliant to shear is considered, and/or
“compressed bar” with a non-zero longitudinal force, a Timoshenko bar differential equation modified to
take into account the shear is applied; its general solution is represented by transcendental Kornoukhov
functions. In both cases bar finite elements implement an exact solution, and therefore bar finite elements
do not have to be divided in order to refine the solution unless elements on an elastic subgrade are
considered. For them the approximating functions used in SCAD are not exact solutions of the respective
differential equations, therefore the solution with third-degree polynomials is approximate and can be
refined by dividing the elements.
The software enables to specify rigid inserts at the ends for each type of bar elements, elastic
subgrade in one (types 2, 3 and 7) or two directions of the principal axes of inertia (types 5, 6 and 10),
shear and prestressing (types 2, 5, 6, 10).
The end sections of the flexible part of a bar can be attached to the nodes of the structure or to the
ends of the rigid inserts in various ways because any constrained degree of freedom of the bar related to the
X1Y1Z1 coordinates can be released for these sections. The release of a constrained linear degree of
freedom provides slipping, and the removal of an angular constraint provides the free rotation (cylindrical
hinge). The software makes sure that the combination of the removed constraints does not result in a
dimensional instability (taking into account the current index of the model type).
Various local loads acting both in the X1Y1Z1 coordinate system and in the global XYZ coordinate
system can be applied to the bar.
The finite element of type 10 can work with all the indices of the model type applied in the structural
analysis. In other special cases it might be necessary to adjust the index of the model type to the type of the
used bar element. The correspondence between the indices of the model type and the type of the bar
element is given in Table 3.3-1.
Types of Bar Finite Elements

A list of different bar finite elements with the indication of the special cases of their application in
different types of systems and the possible variant of their location in space is given in Table 3.3-1 and Fig.
3.3-9.
Figure 3.3-9
77
Table 3.3-1
FE FE name Index of Location Degrees of freedom Calculated forces

No. the model
type
1 Plane truss bar 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, XOZ plane X, Z N, M (MY), Q (QZ)
(Fig. 3.3-9, a) 9
2 Plane frame bar 2, 5, 8, 9 XOZ plane X, Z, UY N, M (MY), Q (QZ)
(Fig. 3.3-9, b)
3 Grade beam bar (Fig. 3.3-9, c) 3, 5, 8, 9 XOY plane Z, UX, UY MK (MX), MY, QZ
4 Space truss bar (Fig. 3.3-9, 4, 5, 8, 9 any X, Y, Z N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY
d)
5 Space bar (Fig. 3.3-9, d) 5, 8, 9 any X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY
6 Space bar allowing for shear 5, 8, 9 any X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY
(Fig. 3.3-9, d)
7 Grade beam bar on the elastic 3, 5, 8, 9 XOY plane Z, UX, UY MK (MX), MY, QZ
subgrade (Fig. 3.3-9, e)
10 Universal bar any according to according to the index N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY
the index of of the model type or
the model the element type
type
Table 3.3-1 also provides the forces calculated in bars the description of which is given in Section
13.6.
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Bar

Finite Elements
The initial information related to the bar finite elements contains the data on their stiffness properties
including the description of the section, boundary conditions and loads applied to the elements.
Description of the Section
Table 3.3-2
EF — axial stiffness (T); Element List of the specified stiffness
EIY — bending stiffness about axis Y1 (Tm2); type properties
EIZ — bending stiffness about axis Z1 (Tm2); 1 EF
GIkr — torsional stiffness (Tm2); 2 EF EIY [GFY]
GFY — shear stiffness about axis Y1 (T); 3, 7 EIY GIkr
GFZ — shear stiffness about axis Z1 (T); 4 EF
lY,1, lY,2, lZ,1 and lZ,2 — section core sizes in (m). 5, 6 EF EIY EIZ GIkr [GFY GFZ]
10 According to the index of the
model type
78
Section core sizes (Fig. 3.3-10) are necessary for

selecting the design combinations of forces.
When performing some types of the calculations the
numerical properties have to be supplemented by the
information on the elastic modulus of the material and
the Poisson’s ratio.
Figure 3.3-10
Functions of the specification of the stiffness properties of bar elements implemented in the software
enable to describe them in the following ways:
 numerically as a number of stiffness properties;
 as parametric (standard) sections;
 as a numerical and parametric description when both parametric section and numerical description
are specified;
 by selecting a section from the assortment of rolled profiles;
 by specifying a compound section from the assortment of rolled profiles;
 with the help of Section Builder, Consul or TONUS.
If a bar finite element is described numerically, in the general case the stiffness properties1 of the
flexible part of the bar listed in Table 3.3-2 are specified.
If a bar finite element is described parametrically, sections of nine types given in Table. 3.3-3 can be
specified. Besides the sizes of the section it is necessary to specify the elastic modulus of the material Е. If
the basic units of measurement are used, the sizes of the section are given in cm, and the elastic modulus is
given in T/m2. The default value of the Poisson’s ratio is 0,2. The identifiers S0–S8 shown next to the
drawings of the sections are used in the text format of the initial data archiving for marking the respective
sections.
Table 3.3-3
Parametric sections
1
Hereinafter basic units of measurement are used. Obviously when other units of measurement are selected, the units
of measurement of the used values change as well.
79
Parametric sections
When the numerical and parametric description is used both the numerical stiffness properties and
the parametric section are specified. In this case the numerical properties are taken into account when
determining the stress-strain state of the structure, and type and sizes of the section are used when selecting
the design combinations, reinforcement, etc.
When the stiffness properties of the elements are specified by selecting the sections from the
assortment of rolled profiles all the properties are taken from the database, which is constantly updated
and currently includes the following assortments:
Assortment name File name in the root directory
GOST russian.prf
Reduced GOST Russhort.prf
Old Russian (1926, 1932 years) Rus_old.prf
Assortment of the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant Aschm.prf
(STO ASChM 20-93)
British Standard Sections British1.prf
Overseas Shapes British3.prf
Welded profiles WELD.PRF
OTUA (France) Otua.prf
DIN (Germany) Din.prf
ARBED (Germany) ARBED.PRF
ASTM (USA) Usa.prf
Japanese Steel Japan.prf
Indian India.prf
Aluminium profiles Alum.prf
Zinc coated steel wire ropes Cable.prf
Rebars GOST RebarRU.prf
Rebars of Belarus Republic RebarBY.prf
Rebars ENV 10080:1996 RebarEC.prf
Poland Poland.prf
Thermal roll-formed steel profiles Term2007.prf
Cold-formed profiles Tu1121.prf
Cold-formed zinc-coated steel profiles Tu112101.prf
Assortment of China China.prf
The default value of the elastic modulus of steel for all assortments is 2,1е7 T/m2, specific weight —
7,85 T/m3, Poisson’s ratio — 0,3. More detailed information on the contents of the database of the
assortments is given in the Appendix.
80
Figure 3.3-11. Compound sections

Table 3.3-4
Code of the Parameters
Basic profile Arrangement type Section type
arrangement 1 2
type
connected on short legs 0, 1 g
Equal angle cross-shaped 2 g
hollow section 3 H B
connected on short legs 0 g

Unequal angle
connected on long legs 1 g
hollow section 0 B
Channel
I-section 1 B
I-beam 0 B
When specifying the stiffness properties from the assortment of rolled profiles compound sections
from angles, channels, and I-beams can be used. Types of sections (Fig. 3.3-11) and additional parameters
specified together with them are given in Table 3.3-4.
Elastic Subgrade
The characteristics of the elastic subgrade can be specified in the direction of the local axes of the
element Y1 or Z1. In the general case the bi-parametric elastic subgrade (Pasternak model) can be used, but
if there is no data on the value of the subsoil parameter С2, the software automatically switches to the
Winkler model of the elastic subgrade with one subsoil parameter С1.
The following values are specified for each direction:
h(b) — the width of a strip where the section interacts with the elastic subgrade in this direction (m);
C1 — Winkler coefficient (T/m3);
C2 — Pasternak coefficient (T/m).
Shear and Prestressing
If the shear stiffness properties are specified, the shear compliance of the element is taken into
account, and the Timoshenko model is used instead of the classical Euler-Bernoulli model of the bar. In
order to take shear into account in the FE of type 6 you just have to specify the values of shear stiffness. It
is necessary to specify an additional parameter to do it for the elements of type 2, 5 and 10.
You can specify the value of prestressing for the elements 2, 5, 6 and 10. You should keep in mind
that prestressing applies only to the considered element and is not transferred to the system (as in the
mounted prestressed precast reinforced concrete bar). Timoshenko model is used as the design model of
the bar when specifying the value of prestressing.
81
If it is necessary to specify the prestressing in the system, the user has to control the correctness of
this parameter, in the sense that the values of the prestressing forces must correspond to the equilibrium
state of the system as a whole (it can be achieved by specifying the corresponding constant thermal
loading). In other words, in most cases these values must be consistent for all the elements of the
prestressed part of the structure.
You should keep in mind that a statically determinate system cannot be prestressed.
Rigid Inserts
When a rigid insert is introduced into a bar element, the flexible part of the bar is moved from the
nodes of the element. It keeps the old local coordinate system X1Y1Z1, where the Х1 axis coincides with the
axis of the flexible part of the element, and the Y1 and Z1 axes are directed along the principal axes of
inertia of the cross-section. A new coordinate system X2Y2Z2 appears (see Fig. 3.3-12), where the X2 axis
is directed from the start node of the element to the end one, the Y2 axis is parallel to the Y1Z1 plane, and
the Z2 axis forms a right-hand system together with this system.
SCAD provides the following two variants of specifying
the rigid inserts:
 the lengths of rigid inserts are specified in the
coordinate system X2Y2Z2, where the Х2 axis goes
from the first node to the second one (Fig. 3.3-12). The
rotation angle of the principal axes of inertia in the
coordinate system X2Y2Z2 is assumed equal to that
specified for the flexible part of the bar;
Figure 3.3-12  the lengths of the rigid inserts are specified in the
global coordinate system as vectors directed from the
node to the flexible part (Fig. 3.3-13).
When specifying the lengths of the rigid inserts the sign
“minus” means that the size is measured in the direction
opposite to that of the respective axis. The values are specified
in meters in the basic system of units.
The position of the rigid inserts in space is specified as
the values of the projections of the rigid inserts in the
beginning and in the end of the bar on the axes of the selected
coordinate system.
Figure 3.3-13
Loads on Bar Finite Elements

The following local loads can be applied to the bar finite elements:
 concentrated load specified in the local coordinate system of the element;
 concentrated load specified in the global coordinate system;
 uniformly distributed load specified in the local coordinate system of the element;
 uniformly distributed load specified in the global coordinate system;
 trapezoidal load specified in the local coordinate system of the element;
 trapezoidal load specified in the global coordinate system;
 thermal action given as the general heating/cooling with respect to the restraint temperature, or the
temperature difference between the “upper” and “lower” faces in the cross-section of the element
[34].
82
Forces and moments can act in the directions along the axes X1, Y1, Z1 or X, Y, Z.
The concentrated loads are specified as values of forces or moments that act in a given direction and
are applied at a point on the flexible part of the element, at the distance a from its beginning (the distance a
can be also specified as a percentage of the flexible part of the element). Hence, the zero snap will turn the
local load on the bar into the respective nodal load only if the bar has no rigid inserts.
The uniformly distributed load acts in the given direction, and it is specified as the value of the force
or moment per unit length. This load can be applied to the rigid inserts too, if the respective parameter is
not specified when the solver is invoked (see Sec. 9.1).
The trapezoidal load is specified as two values of forces or moments per unit length determined at the
beginning and the end of the loaded area and acting in the given direction. It is assumed that the beginning
and the end of the loaded area are at the distance a and b , respectively, from the beginning of the flexible
part of the bar (values a and b can be also specified as a percentage of the flexible part of the element). The
load applied to the rigid inserts can be taken into account. a (b) is specified as the value of the projection
on the X1 axis of the point of the beginning (end) of the loaded area on the rigid insert.
A full list of loads on the bar finite elements is given below in Table 3.3-5. When the basic system of
units is used, the loads are specified in the following units of measurement: forces in T, moments in Tm,
temperature in the degrees Celsius, snaps in m.
Table 3.3-5
Load arrangement Direction Specified values FE type
Concentrated load in the local coordinate system1

along the Х1 axis FX1 a 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Y1 axis FY1 a 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Z1 axis FZ1 a 1–7, 10
about the Х1 axis MX1 a 3, 5, 6, 7, 10

about the Y1 axis MY1 a 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
about the Z1 axis MZ1 a 5, 6, 10
Concentrated load in the global coordinate system

along the Х axis FX a 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Y axis FY a 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Z axis FZ a 1–7, 10
about the Х axis MX a 3, 5, 6, 7, 10

about the Y axis MY a 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
about the Z axis MZ a 5, 6, 10
1
Snap of the concentrated and trapezoidal loads on the bar finite elements is specified from the beginning of the
flexible part or in fractions of the length of the flexible part.
83
Uniformly distributed load in the local coordinate system

along the Х1 axis qX1 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Y1 axis qY1 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Z1 axis qZ1 1–7, 10
about the Х1 axis mX1 3, 5, 6, 7, 10

about the Y1 axis mY1 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
about the Z1 axis mZ1 5, 6, 10
Uniformly distributed load in the global coordinate system
along the Х axis qX 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Y axis qY 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Z axis qZ 1–7, 10
about the Х axis mX 3, 5, 6, 7, 10

about the Y axis mY 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
about the Z axis mZ 5, 6, 10
Self-weight along the Z axis k – self-weight factor1 any
Trapezoidal load in the local coordinate system
along the Х1 axis qX1 a qX2 b 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Y1 axis qY1 a qY2 b 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Z1 axis qZ1 a qZ2 b 1–7, 10
about the Х1 axis mX1 a mX1 b 3, 5, 6, 7, 10

about the Y1 axis mY1 a mY1 b 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
about the Z1 axis mZ1 a mZ1 b 5, 6, 10
Trapezoidal load in the global coordinate system

along the Х axis qX1 a qX2 b 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Y axis qY1 a qY2 b 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Z axis qZ1 a qZ2 b 1-7, 10
about the Х axis mX1 a mX2 b 3, 5, 6, 7, 10

about the Y axis mY1 a mY2 b 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
about the Z axis mZ1 a mZ2 b 5, 6, 10
Thermal load
tension (compression) t, [] 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 10
along the Х1 axis t — increase (decrease)
Variation of the average of the temperature with
temperature of the bar respect to the normal
conditions of operation
(restraint temperature)
1
In order to take the self-weight into account it is necessary to specify the characteristics of the section and the
specific weight of the material.
84

bending of the bar about tu, tl, h, [] 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10
the Y1 axis tu — temperature of the
upper face of the section (in
the direction of the Z1 axis);
Difference of the temperature tl — temperature of the
across the section of the bar, the lower face of the section
X1OZ1 plane (opposite to the direction of
the Z1 axis);
h — section height.
bending of the bar about tu, tl, b, [] 5, 6, 10
the Z1 axis tu — temperature of the
left face of the section (in
the direction of the Y1
axis);
tl — temperature of the
Difference of the temperature
right face of the section
across the section of the bar,
(opposite to the direction of
the Y1OZ1 plane
the Y1 axis);
b — section width.
Note: Thermal expansion coefficients specified in the stiffness properties of the respective element are used in the
calculation. When converting the files of the previous versions the thermal expansion coefficient specified when
describing the load is used. The respective warning is generated. Thermal expansion coefficients can be specified for
a certain load only when preparing the data in the text format.
3.4. Flat Finite Elements for the Calculation of Deep

Beams, Thin Plates, and Shallow Shells
Class of the Solved Problems

Flat finite elements described in this section are used for solving the following types of problems of the
theory of elasticity [1, 4, 5, 19, 32, 38]:
 analysis of the plane stress state;
 analysis of the plane deformation;
 bending of thin plates;
 bending of plates according to the Reissner-Mindlin theory;
 analysis of shallow shells.
When the shell structures are analyzed, a versatile method for representing their geometry is to use a
polyhedron located close to the midsurface; the smaller the faces of the polyhedron, the more accurate the
representation of this surface. If this method is used (it is implemented in SCAD), it is advisable to use the
elements of zero curvature (flat finite elements) with an independent approximation of the normal and
tangential displacements. The generation of such a finite element is a simple combination of finite
elements for the plane stress state and for the bending of the plate. Mesh refinement increases the accuracy
of the approximation of the shell surface by an inscribed polyhedron, and the convergence of FEM has a
theoretical proof [6].
85
Material of Structures
It is assumed that the material of the elements is homogeneous throughout the thickness and different
variants of the elastic symmetry of the material can be taken into account. Let’s describe them for the XOY
plane using the following designations:
x, y, xy — relative linear and angular strains;
x, y, z, xy — normal and shear stresses;
Ei — Young's modulus for the i-th principal direction of elasticity (if they are equal, the designation E
is used for all i);
Gij — shear modulus which characterizes the change of the angle between the i-th and j-th principal
directions (if they are equal, the designation G is used for all pairs i and j);
, ij — Poisson's ratios which characterize a lateral reduction at compression or expansion at tension
in the direction of the coordinate axes. The first index indicates the direction of the deformation,
and the second one — the direction of the force;
ij,k — first-order interaction coefficients which characterize shear in the planes parallel to the
coordinate ones under the action of normal stresses;
k,ij — second-order interaction coefficients which characterize the elongations in the directions
parallel to the coordinate axes caused by the shear stresses.
The following variants of the elastic properties of the material are implemented in SCAD:
a) isotropic body for the plane stress state and bending of the plate:
1 1 1
x  ( x   y ), y  ( y   x ),  xy   xy ;
E E G
b) isotropic or transverse isotropic body for the plane deformation:
 x  ( x  v  y ) / E ,  y  ( y  v  x ) / E ,  xy   xy / G ,  z   xz  x   yz  y ,
where for the isotropic body:
E
E
1  v2
, v
v
1 v
, G
E
2(1  v)
    zy   yx  ,
and for the transverse isotropic body:
v  vxz vzx
E
E
1  vxz vzx
, v
1  vxz vzx
, G
E
2(1  v)
    zy   yx  ;
c) orthotropic body for the plane stress state and bending of the plate:
1  xy  xy 1 1
x  x  y , y   x  y ,  xy   xy ;
Ex Ey Ex Ey G xy
d) orthotropic body for the plane deformation:

( x   xy  y ) ( y   xy  x )  xy
x  , y  ,  xy  ,  z   xz  x   yz  y ,
Ex Ey G xy
where
Ex Ey vxy  vxz vzy v yx  v yz vzx
Ex  , Ey  , vxy  , v yz  , G xy  Gxy ;
1  vxz vzx 1  v yz vzy 1  vxz vzy 1  v yz vzx
e) anisotropic body for the plane stress state and bending of the plate:
1 1 1
x  ( x  v yx  y  xy , x  xy ) ,  y  (vxy  x   y   xy , y  xy ) ,  xy  ( x, xy  x   y , xy  y   xy ) ;
Ex Ey G xy
86
f) anisotropic body for the plane deformation:

1 1
x  ( x   yz y   zy , x xy ) ,  y  ( xy x   y   xy , y xy ) ,
Ez Ey
1
 xy  ( x, xy  x   y , xy  y   xy ) ,  z  vxz  x  v yz  y  xy , z  xy ,
G xy
where
Ex Ey vxy  vxz vzy v yx  v yz vzx
Ex  , Ey  , vxy  , v yz  ,;
1  vxz vzx 1  v yz vzy 1  vxz vzy 1  v yz vzx
 xy , x  vzx xy , x xy , y  vzy xy , z x , xy  vxz z , xy
xy , x  , xy , y  ,  x, xy  ,
1  vxz vzx 1  v yz vzy 1  xy , z z , xy
 y , xy  yz z , xy , Gxy .
 y , xy  G xy 
1   xy , x z , xy 1   xy , z z , xy
It is considered that symmetry conditions hold for any anisotropic material:
E x  xy  E y  yx , E x  x , y  G xy  xy , x , E y  y , xy  G xy  xy , y .
Reissner-Mindlin Plates
In the Kirchhoff-Love thin plate theory the deformations are expressed in terms of one unknown, the
deflection w(x, y).
In the Reissner–Mindlin theory [2], where the hypothesis on maintaining the normal to the deformed
surface does not hold, the following three functions are the unknowns: deflection w(x, y) and two rotation
angles of the normal to the surface x(x, y) and y(x, y). In the expression of the potential energy (2.2.2) we
have:
T T T
u   w, x ,  y  ,     xz ,  yz ,  xx ,  yy ,  xy  ,   Qx , Qy , M x , M y , M xy  .
Strains  are expressed in terms of the displacements u:
w w
 xz    x ,  yz   y ,
x x
  y   y
 xx   x ,  yy  ,  xy   x  .
x y y x
Stresses  are related to the strains  in the following way for an isotropic body:
5
Qx  G k h  xz , Qy  G k h  yz , k  ,
6
1
M x  D  xx , M y  D  yy , M xy  1    D  xy ,
2
Eh 3
D — bending stiffness of the plate.
12 1   2 
Allowing for the Elastic Subgrade

The elastic subgrade can be taken into account in all plate and shell finite elements. It should be noted that
the elastic subgrade is taken into account only along the Z1 axis. In the general case a bi-parametric model
of the elastic subgrade in contact with the structure (Leontiev-Vlasov, Pasternak model) is implemented
[4]. The following values are specified in the most general case:
87
С1 — a coefficient that characterizes the resistance of the elastic subgrade to compression;

С2Х, С2Y — coefficients that characterize the resistance of the elastic subgrade to shear when the shear
area is perpendicular to the X1 and Y1 axes respectively of the local coordinate system of the element. For
the isotropic elastic subgrade С2Х = С2Y;
С2ХY — a coefficient that characterizes the resistance of the elastic subgrade to torsion in the X1OY1
plane of the local coordinate system of the element. For the isotropic and orthotropic elastic subgrade С2ХY
= 0.
If there is no data on the value of the subsoil parameter С2 (its value is equal to 0), the software
automatically switches to the Winkler model of the elastic subgrade with one subsoil parameter С1.
The estimates of the coefficient C1 can be obtained with the help of Cross included in the SCAD
Office system.
Local Coordinate Systems

Three different local coordinate systems can be used with every flat finite element:
 local coordinate system of the element;
 coordinate system of the orthotropy axes;
 coordinate system for calculating forces and stresses.
The two latter coordinate systems coincide with the local coordinate system of the element by default.
Local coordinate systems of all elements are defined by the order of numbering of their nodes. They have
certain peculiarities due to the fact that a plate should be located in the XOY plane or parallel to it, while
elements used in the plane problem of the theory of elasticity are usually located in the XOZ plane (parallel
to this plane) and only shell elements can take any position in space.
All plate and shell elements have their local coordinate system X1OY1, in which the X1 axis goes from
the first node to the second one. The Y1 axis lies in the plane of the element, it is orthogonal to X1 and
directed towards the third node, the Z1 axis forms a right-hand system together with the X1 and Y1 axes.
For the plate elements the Z1 axis always points upwards in the direction of the increase of the Z
coordinate.
All elements used in the plane problem of the theory of elasticity (except for the triangular element of
type 22) have a local coordinate system X1OZ1, in which the X1 axis goes from the first node to the second
one, and the Z1 axis lies in the plane of the element and is directed towards the third node. The local
coordinate system X1OZ1 of the element of type 22 coincides with XOZ.
A special coordinate system for the output of forces can be specified for a group of elements. This
system is defined by the direction of the vector, the projection of which on the plane of the element is taken
as the Х1 axis, the direction of the Z1 axis remains unchanged, and the Y1 axis complements the system to a
right-hand one.
Types of Flat Finite Elements

SCAD includes various flat finite elements with a triangular and quadrangular shape. The number of nodes
in some types of elements can be greater than the number of vertices. In this case additional nodes lie on
one or several sides of the element and their numbers follow after the numbers of vertices in any order.
Elements for the Analysis of Thin Flexural Plates
These FEs are always located in the XOY plane and there are three degrees of freedom in each of
their nodes: W — vertical displacement (deflection), and UX, UY — rotation angles about the X and Y axes.
The FEs can be used in the models with indices 3, 5, 8 and 9 and have an isotropic, orthotropic, or
anisotropic material. Moments MX, MY, MXY and shear forces QX and QY are calculated (see Sec. 13.6).
The list of FEs for the analysis of thin flexural plates is given in Table 3.4-1.
88
Table 3.4-1
Type Name Node numbering order and local axes
11,13 Rectangular four-node
12,14 Triangular three-node
15 Triangular with the number of
nodes from 3 to 6
19 Quadrangular four-node
20 Quadrangular with the number of
nodes from 4 to 8
Note: Elements of the types 13 and 14 are kept to maintain the continuity of versions.
The normal displacement (w) is approximated by the following polynomials:
 fifth-degree — for a rectangle [13, 15];
 fourth-degree — for a triangle with three nodes [12, 15];
 fifth-degree — for a multi-node triangle [12], in each of the subareas into which the triangle is
divided by lines that connect its center and its vertices;
 fifth-degree — for a quadrangle, in each of the subareas into which the quadrangle is divided by its
diagonals [13].
Bending of Plates according to the Reissner-Mindlin Theory
These elements are used for the analysis of medium thickness plates and implement the Reissner-
Mindlin theory. They are completely similar to the elements used for the analysis of thin plates in terms of
the specification of the initial data. They differ from the elements given in Table 3.4-1 only in their type
number, which is greater by 100. For example, element 120 is a quadrangular element with the number of
nodes from 4 to 8, similarly to the element 20.
Each node of the elements has three degrees of freedom: w — vertical displacement (deflection), the
positive direction of which coincides with the direction of the Z axis, and the rotation angles UX and UY
about the X and Y axes.
The functions w, βX and βY are approximated by the second-degree polynomials in each of the
subareas into which the triangle and quadrangle are divided by lines that connect their center and their
vertices.
Elements for Solving the Plane Stress and Plane Strain Problems of
the Theory of Elasticity
All elements considered in this section enable to analyze both plane-stress and plane-strain systems
(depending on the index, which is specified when describing the stiffness properties of the elements). The
list of elements and their main properties are given in Table 3.4-2.
89
Table 3.4-2
Degrees Indices
Locati of of the
Type Name freedom model
Node numbering order and local axes
on
of nodes type
21 Rectangular four- XOZ X, Z 1, 2, 4,
node 5, 8, 9
22 Triangular three-
node
25 Triangular with
the number of
nodes from 3 to 6
29 Quadrangular
with the number
of nodes from 4
to 12
30 Quadrangular
with the number
of nodes from 4
to 8
23 Rectangular four- any X, Y, Z 4, 5, 8, 9
node
24 Triangular three-
node
27 Quadrangular
with the number
of nodes from 4
to 8
26 Quadrangular
isoparametric
with the number
of nodes from 4
to 8
28 Triangular
isoparametric
with the number
of nodes from 3
to 6
Elements lying in the XOZ plane (types 21, 22, 25, 29, 30) have two degrees of freedom in each node,
U and W, which are the tangential displacements.
FEs which can take any position in space (types 23, 24, 26, 27, 28) have three degrees of freedom in
their nodes — U, V and W. The degree of freedom V is introduced to provide the connection between the
solid elements of the structure. It is equal to zero in the local coordinate system of the element. The
material of the elements can be isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic, as well as transverse isotropic in the
case of the plane strain.
The following stresses are calculated — NX, NZ, NXZ, as well as NY — at the analysis of structures in
the plane strain state (see Sec. 13.6).
The tangential displacements are approximated by the following polynomials:
 linear — for a triangle;
90
 second-degree — for a multi-node triangle, in each of the subareas into which the triangle is
divided by lines that connect its center and its vertices;
 bilinear — for a rectangle with four nodes [9];
 second- and third-degree polynomials, in each of the subareas into which the quadrangle is divided
by its diagonals (for multi-node elements) [14].
Finite Elements for the Analysis of Thin Shallow Shells
Finite elements used for the analysis of thin shallow shells can take any position in space. Six degrees
of freedom are determined in the nodes of the elements — U, V, W, UX, UY and UZ (three linear
displacements along and three rotation angles about the coordinate axes). The degrees of freedom U, V
correspond to the membrane deformations, and W, UX, UY correspond to the bending ones. The rotation
angle UZ in the local coordinate system of the element is always equal to zero. It is introduced to provide
the connection between the elements not lying in one plane, and it is required to take into account the
spatial behavior of the structure. The elements can be used in the models with the indices 5, 8 and 9.
Material — isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic. The list of elements is given in Table 3.4-3.
Table 3.4-3
Type Name Node numbering order and local axes
41 Rectangular four-node
42 Triangular three-node
45 Triangular with the number of nodes
from 3 to 6
44 Quadrangular four-node
50 Quadrangular with the number of
nodes from 4 to 8
The numbers of the nodes lying on the sides of the elements are specified in any order after the numbers of the
nodes in the vertices.
Stresses NX, NZ, NXZ, moments MX, MY, MXY and shear forces QX and QY are calculated (see Sec.
13.6).
Finite Elements for the Analysis of Shells according to the

Reissner-Mindlin Theory
These elements are used for the analysis of shallow shells allowing for shear and implement the
Reissner-Mindlin theory. They are completely similar to the elements used for the analysis of thin shells in
terms of the specification of the initial data. They differ from the elements given in Table 3.4-3 only in
their type number, which is greater by 100. For example, element 150 is a quadrangular element with the
number of nodes from 4 to 8.
91
Hybrid Flat Finite Elements

SCAD includes the so-called hybrid finite elements when the displacements and stresses in the elements
are approximated independently. When the minimum of the mixed Reissner functional is determined, the
auxiliary degrees of freedom corresponding to the stresses are excluded at the stage of the generation of the
stiffness matrix.
All flat elements (deep beam, thin plate, shell) have hybrid analogues with three-digit type numbers
beginning with 2. The last two digits of the type number duplicate the type number of an ordinary element.
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Flat

Finite Elements
The following stiffness properties are specified depending on the class of the solved problems:
 E(T/m2),  —for the isotropic material;
 E1(T/m2), E2(T/m2), 12, 21, G12(T/m2) — for the orthotropic material;
 E1(T/m2), E2(T/m2), 12, 21, G12(T/m2), 12,1, 12,2, 1,12, 2,12 — for the anisotropic material.
The thickness of the element  is always indicated.
The following properties can be taken into account for plane strain:
 E3(T/m2), 13, 31 — transverse isotropy;
 E3(T/m2), 13, 31, 23, 32 — orthotropy;
 E3(T/m2), 13, 31, 23, 32, 12,3, 3,12 — anisotropy.
When the orthotropic and anisotropic plates are analyzed, it is necessary to control the directions for
which the rigidities are specified. The orthotropy axis XА can be specified in the global coordinate system
by a vector or coordinates of a point. The given vector is projected on the plane of the element to define the
XА orthotropy axis. The YА axis lies in the plane of the element, it is directed towards the third node and is
orthogonal to XА, and the system XА, YА, ZА is right-hand. You can change the direction of the axes by
specifying the rotation angle of the local axes.
Winkler coefficient С1(T/m3) (compression) and Pasternak coefficient С2(T/m) (shear) are specified in
order to take into account the elastic subgrade. The orthotropy and anisotropy can be taken into account
when the elastic subgrade resists shear.
When the results are used, for example, in the reinforcement selection postprocessor, it is necessary to
specify the direction of the axes for the stress calculation, when the position of the reinforcement is
assumed to be known. The direction is specified in the global coordinate system by the increments with
respect to the first node of the element or by the coordinates of the point lying on this axis. The given
direction is projected on the plane of the element to define the XN axis for the calculation of stresses. The
YN axis lies in the plane of the element, the ZN axis coincides with the Z1 axis, and the system XN,YN, ZN is
right-hand. You can change the direction of the axes by specifying the rotation angle of the local axes.
For all flat finite elements the stresses (forces) are calculated both in the center of the elements and in
their nodes. The control of their output is described in the Chapters 7 and 13.
Loads on Flat Finite Elements

The following local loads can be applied to the flat finite elements:
 concentrated loads which are specified as a value of a force or moment acting in the given direction
and applied in the point on the surface of the element. The loads and the coordinates of the point of its
application can be specified both in the local coordinate system of the element and in the global
coordinate system of the problem;
 uniformly distributed loads which act in the given direction and are specified by the value of the force
or moment per unit area. The load acts over the entire surface of the element and can be specified
both in the local and in the global coordinate systems;
92
 self-weight which acts along the Z axis of the global coordinate system. The specific weight of the
material of plates must be specified. The self-weight factor is specified for the element;
 trapezoidal loads which act in the given direction and are specified as the force or moment values
determined in all vertices of the element. The load acts over the entire surface of the element where it
is approximated by a linear or bilinear law. The direction of its action can be specified both in the
local and in the global coordinate systems. The load values are specified only in the vertices of the
elements and the order of their specification must correspond to the order of numbering of the nodes
of the element described in this section;
 uniformly distributed loads along the line which act in the given direction on the line connecting two
nodes of the element. The line is defined by the node numbers in accordance with the description of
the element and the value of the force or moment per unit length. The load can be specified both in
the local and in the global coordinate systems;
 trapezoidal loads along the line which act in the given direction on the line connecting two nodes of
the element. The line is defined by the node numbers in accordance with the description of the
element and the value of the force or moment per unit length. The load can be specified both in the
local and in the global coordinate systems;
 thermal action in the form of the general heating/cooling with respect to the restraint temperature
and/or temperature difference between the “upper” and “lower” surfaces of the plate [34].
The list of the main local loads and the rules for specifying them are given in the tables below. You
should keep in mind that when specifying a load in the global coordinate system their following
projections on the axes of the local coordinate system of the element will be ignored:
 normal to the surface of the elements of the type 21–30;
 moment about the local Z1 axis for the elements of type 41–50.
The loads are specified in the following units of measurement in the basic system of units:
concentrated forces in T, forces distributed over an area in T/m2, forces distributed over a line in T/m,
concentrated moments in Tm, moments distributed over an area in Tm/m2, moments distributed over a line
in Tm/m, temperature in Celsius degrees, snaps in m.
Table 3.4-41
Loads on plates and shells in the local coordinate system
Load arrangement Direction Values FE type
Concentrated forces and moments
along the Х1 axis PX, a, b 41–50
along the Y1 axis PY, a, b
along the Z1 axis PZ, a, b 11–20
about the Х1 axis MX, a, b 41–50
about the Y1 axis MY, a, b
Uniformly distributed load

along the Х1 axis qX 41–50
along the Y1 axis qY
1
Only the last two digits of the element type will be further indicated in the FE type column, i. e. a load that can be
applied to the element 11, can be applied to the elements 111, 311 as well.
93

along the Z1 axis qZ 11–20,
about the Х1 axis mX 41–50
about the Y1 axis mY
Trapezoidal load
along the Х1 axis q1X , qX2 , ... , qXn 41–50
along the Y1 axis
q1Y , qY2 , ... , qYn
along the Z1 axis q1Z , qZ2 , ... , qZn 11–20,
about the Х1 axis 41–50
about the Y1 axis m1X , mX2 , ... , mXn
m1Y , mY2 , ... , mYn
Uniformly distributed load along the line connecting two nodes of the element
along the Х1 axis n1 n2 qX 1 41–50
along the Y1 axis n1 n2 qY
along the Z1 axis n1 n2 qZ 11–20,
about the Х1 axis n1 n2 mX 41–50
about the Y1 axis n1 n2 mY
Trapezoidal load along the line connecting two nodes of the element
along the Х1 axis n1 n2 qX,1 qX,2 41–50
along the Y1 axis n1 n2 qY,1 qY,2
along the Z1 axis n1 n2 qZ,1 qZ,2 11–20,
about the Х1 axis n1 n2 mX,1 mX,2 41–50
about the Y1 axis n1 n2 mY,1 mY,2
Table 3.4-5
Loads on plates and shells in the global coordinate system
Concentrated load with the snaps in the local coordinate system

along the Х axis PX, a, b 41–50
along the Y axis PY, a, b
along the Z axis PZ, a, b 11–20
about the Х axis MX, a, b 41–50
about the Y axis MY, a, b
MZ, a, b

along the Х axis qX 41–50
along the Y axis qY
1
n1 , n2 — node numbers defined in the description of the element.
94

along the Z axis qZ 11–20
about the Х axis mX 41–50
about the Y axis mY
about the Z axis mZ
Trapezoidal load
along the Х axis q1X , qX2 , ... , qXn 41–50
along the Y axis 11–20
q1Y , qY2 , ... , qYn
along the Z axis 41–50
about the Х axis q1Z , qZ2 , ... , qZn
about the Y axis m1X , mX2 , ... , mXn
about the Z axis
m1Y , mY2 , ... , mYn
m1Z , mZ2 , ... , mZn
along the Х axis n1 n2 qX 41–50
along the Y axis n1 n2 qY
along the Z axis n1 n2 qZ 11–20
about the Х axis n1 n2 mX 41–50
about the Y axis n1 n2 mY
about the Z axis n1 n2 mZ
along the Х axis n1 n2 qX,1 qX,2 41–50
along the Y axis n1 n2 qY,1 qY,2
along the Z axis n1 n2 qZ,1 qZ,2 11–20
about the Х axis n1 n2 mX,1 mX,2 41–50
about the Y axis n1 n2 mY,1 mY,2
about the Z axis n1 n2 mZ,1 mZ,2
Table 3.4-6
Loads in the local coordinate system on the elements of type 21-30
for the analysis of the plane stress and the plane strain states
Load arrangement Direction Values
Concentrated load
along the Х1 axis PX, a, b
along the Z1 axis PZ, a, b

along the Х1 axis qX
along the Z1 axis qZ
95

Trapezoidal load
along the Х1 axis q1X , qX2 , ... , qXn
along the Z1 axis
q1Z , qZ2 , ... , qZn
along the Х1 axis n1 n2 qX
along the Z1 axis n1 n2 qZ
along the Х1 axis n1 n2 qX,1 qX,2
along the Z1 axis n1 n2 qZ,1 qZ,2
Table 3.4-7
Loads in the global coordinate system on the elements of type 21-30
for the analysis of the plane stress and the plane strain states
Concentrated load with the snaps in the local coordinate system
along the Х axis PX, a, b 21–30
along the Z axis PZ, a, b
along the Y axis PY, a, b 23, 24, 26, 27,
28

along the Z axis qZ
along the Y axis qY 23, 24, 26, 27,
28
96
Trapezoidal load
along the Х axis q1X , qX2 , ... , qXn 21–30
along the Z axis
q1Z , qZ2 , ... , qZn
along the Y axis q1Y , qY2 , ... , qYn 23, 24, 26, 27,
28
along the Х axis n1 n2 qX 21–30
along the Z axis n1 n2 qZ
along the Y axis n1 n2 qY 23, 24, 26, 27,

28
along the Х axis n1 n2 qX,1 qX,2 21–30
along the Z axis n1 n2 qZ,1 qZ,2
along the Y axis n1 n2 qY,1 qY,2 23, 24, 26, 27,
28
97
Table 3.4-8
Thermal load on the flat elements
FE
Action Values Notes
type
11-20 Difference of the temperature on the t, [] t — difference of the temperature on the upper
41-50 upper and lower surfaces. t, [X] and lower surfaces;
t, [Y]  — linear expansion coefficient of the material;
t, [X, Y] x, y — linear expansion coefficients for the X1 or
21-30 General heating (cooling) with t, [] Y1 axes respectively of the local coordinate system
41-50 respect to the restraint temperature. t, [X] of the element in which the stiffness properties are
specified. They enable to take into account the
t, [Y]
orthotropy of the material;
t, [X, Y] t — increase (decrease) of the temperature of the
41-50 General heating (cooling) with t, t, [] middle layer of the plate with respect to the normal
respect to the restraint temperature t, t, [X] conditions of operation (restraint temperature see
and simultaneously difference of the t, t, [Z] [34]).
temperature on the upper and lower
surfaces.
describing the load is used. The respective warning is generated. Thermal expansion coefficients can be specified
for a certain load only when preparing the data in the text format.
3.5. Finite Elements for Solving the Spatial Problem of

the Theory of Elasticity (Solid Elements)
General Information
These elements are used to determine the stress-strain state of continual objects and solid structures. The
following designations are used to describe the properties of the material:
x, y, z, xy, xz, yz — relative linear and angular strains;
x, y, z, xy, xz, yz — normal and shear stresses;
Ex, Ey, Ez — Young's moduli for the principal directions of elasticity (if they are equal, the
designation E is used for all directions);
Gxy, Gxz, Gyz — shear moduli which characterize the change of the angle between the principal
directions (if they are equal, the designation G is used for all directions);
, ij — Poisson's ratios which characterize a lateral reduction at compression or expansion at tension
in the direction of the coordinate axes. The first index indicates the direction of the deformation, and the
second one — the direction of the force.
The following variants of the elastic properties of the material are implemented in SCAD:
isotropic body:
x 
1
E
 
x    y   z ,  y 
1
E
 
 y   x   z , z 
1
E
 
z   x    y ,
1 1 1
 xy   xy ;  yz   yz ;  zx   zx ;
G G G
98
transverse isotropic and orthotropic body :

1    1    1
x   x  12  y  13  z ,  y   21  x   y  23 z ,  z   31  x  32  y  z ,
Ex Ey Ez Ex Ey Ez Ex Ey Ez
1 1 1
 xy  zxy ,  xz  zxz ,  yz  z yz .
G xy G xz G yz
For the transverse isotropic body Ex = Ey = E, 12 = 21, Gxz = Gyz. It is considered that symmetry
conditions hold in all cases:
E112 = E221, E113 = E331, E223 = E332.
Each node of the finite elements has three degrees of freedom: u, v, w — displacements along the x,
y, z axes respectively. When the finite elements are created, the displacements (u, v, w) are approximated
by the functions of the following type: linear — for a tetrahedron, linear or bilinear for each direction —
for a triangular prism and parallelepiped [8], rational — for isoparametric elements [11].
Local Coordinate Systems

Each finite element can have three different local coordinate systems for solving the spatial problem of the
theory of elasticity which in the general case coincide:
 local coordinate system of the element;
 coordinate system of the orthotropy axes;
 coordinate system for calculating forces and stresses.
The two latter coordinate systems coincide with the local coordinate system of the element by default.
The finite elements of type 31 and 33 have a local coordinate system, in which the X1 axis goes from
the first node to the second one. The Y1 axis lies in the plane formed by the first three nodes, it is
orthogonal to X1 and directed towards the third node. The Z1 axis forms a right-hand system together with
the X1 and Y1 axes. The local coordinate system coincides with the global one for other elements.
A special coordinate system for the output of forces can be specified for a group of elements. This
system is defined by the direction of the ХN and YN axes, and the ZN axis complements the system to a
right-hand one.
99
Set of Finite Elements

FEs for solving the spatial problem of the theory of elasticity can be used in the models with indices 4, 5, 8
and 9. The following stresses are calculated in them: NX, NY, NZ, TXY, TXZ, TYZ (see Sec. 13.6).
Table 3.5-1 lists finite elements included in SCAD together with their local coordinate systems.
Table 3.5-1
FE
Name Node numbering and local axes
type
31 Parallelepiped
32 Tetrahedron
33 Triangular prism
34 Spatial isoparametric
six-node finite
element
35 Fifteen-node
triangular prism
eight-node finite
element
twenty-node finite
element
38 Ten-node pyramid
The numbers of the nodes lying on the sides of the elements are specified in any order after the numbers of the
nodes in the vertices.
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Solid

Finite Elements
The following stiffness properties are specified depending on the class of the solved problems:
E(T/m2) ,  — for the isotropic material;
E(T/m2), E3(T/m2), 12, 13, G13(T/m2) —for the transverse isotropic material;
E1(T/m2), E2(T/m2), E3(T/m2), 12, 21, 13, 31, 23, 32, G12(T/m2), G13(T/m2), G23(T/m2) — for the
orthotropic material.
When calculating the bodies from orthotropic and anisotropic materials it is necessary to control the
directions for which the rigidities are specified. They can be specified in the global coordinate system in
the following ways:
 X1, Y1, Z1, X2, Y2, Z2 — by the projections on the axes of the global coordinate system of
two vectors which define the directions of the orthotropy axes XА and YА. The ZА axis is
orthogonal to them, and the XА, YА, ZА system is right-hand;
 in the cylindrical coordinate system when it is necessary to specify XС, YС, ZС — the coordinates
of the point through which the axis of the cylinder passes, and X, Y, Z — vector which defines
the direction of the axis of the cylinder. The XА axis is orthogonal to the axis of the cylinder and
passes through the point lying on it. The ZА axis lies of the generatrix of the cylinder;
100
 in the spherical coordinate system when it is necessary to specify XС,YС, ZС — coordinates of the
center of the sphere and X, Y, Z — vector which defines the direction of the YА axis. The XА
axis goes from the first node of the element to the center of the sphere.
You can change the direction of the axes by specifying the Euler angles of rotation of the local axes.
When the results are used, it is necessary to specify the direction of the axes for the stress calculation.
Their specification in the global coordinate system is completely identical to the specification of the
orthotropy axes.
The stresses (forces) are calculated for all solid finite elements both in their center and in their nodes.
The control of their output is described in Chapters 7 and 13.
Loads on Solid Finite Elements

The following loads can be applied to the finite elements used for solving the spatial problem of the theory
of elasticity:
 concentrated loads which are specified as the values of forces acting in the given direction and
applied in the point on the surface of the element. The load and the coordinates of the point of its
application can be specified both in the local coordinate system of the element and in the global
coordinate system of the problem;
 uniformly distributed loads which act in the given direction and are specified by the value of the
force per unit volume. The load acts over the entire volume of the element and can be specified
both in the local and in the global coordinate systems;
 self-weight which acts along the Z axis of the global coordinate system. The specific weight of the
material and the self-weight factor are specified for the element;
 trapezoidal loads on the finite elements of type 31 and 33 which act in the given direction and are
specified as the force values determined in all vertices of the element. The load acts over the entire
volume of the element where it is approximated by a linear law in each direction. The direction of
its action can be specified both in the local and in the global coordinate systems. The order of the
specification of the load values must correspond to the order of numbering of the nodes of the
element described in this section;
 uniformly distributed loads over the face of the element which act in the given direction. They are
defined by the numbers of the faces in accordance with the description of the element given in this
section (see Fig. 3.5-1), and the value of the force or moment per unit area. The load can be
specified both in the local and in the global coordinate systems;
 thermal action in the form of the general heating (cooling) with respect to the restraint temperature.
The loads are specified in the following units of measurement in the basic system of units:
concentrated forces in T, forces distributed over an area in T/m2, forces distributed over a volume in T/m3,
temperature in Celsius degrees, snaps in m.
The main local loads for solid elements are given in Table 3.5-2.
Table 3.5-2
Concentrated load in the local coordinate system
along the Х1 axis PX, a, b, с 31, 33
along the Y1 axis PY, a, b, с
along the Z1 axis PZ, a, b, с
101

Concentrated load in the global coordinate system, snaps in the local coordinate system
along the Х axis PX, a, b, с 31, 33
along the Y axis PY, a, b, с
along the Z axis PZ, a, b, с
Uniformly distributed load in the local coordinate system

along the Х1 axis qX 31, 33
along the Y1 axis qY
along the Z1 axis qZ

along the Y axis qY
along the Z axis qZ
Uniformly distributed load over a face in the local coordinate system

along the Х1 axis qX n1 31, 33
along the Y1 axis qY n
along the Z1 axis qZ n
Uniformly distributed load over a face in the global coordinate system

along the Х axis qX n 31–40
along the Y axis qY n
along the Z axis qZ n
a) c)
b)
Figure 3.5-1. Numbering of the faces of the load application in the solid elements
1
n — number of the face of the element (see Fig. 3.5-1)
102
Thermal load on the solid elements Table 3.5-3
Action Values Notes

General heating t, [] t — increase (decrease) of the temperature of the middle layer of the plate
(cooling) with t, [X] with respect to the normal conditions of operation (restraint temperature);
respect to the t, [Y]  — linear expansion coefficient of the material;
restraint t, [Z] X, Y, Z — linear expansion coefficients for the X1 or Y1 axes
temperature. respectively of the local coordinate system of the element in which the
t, [X, Y, Z]
stiffness properties are specified. They enable to take into account the
orthotropy of the material.
describing the load is used. The respective warning is generated. Thermal expansion coefficients can be specified for
a certain load only when preparing the data in the text format.
3.6. Universal Finite Elements for Solving the

Axisymmetric Problem of the Theory of Elasticity
General Information
These elements are used to determine the stress-strain state of the solids of revolution (axisymmetric rigid
bodies) from homogeneous (in the direction of any axis r, Z of the element) isotropic, transverse isotropic
or orthotropic linear elastic material subjected to an axisymmetric load [36]. If the deformation is
axisymmetric, the stress-strain state in any section along the symmetry axis of the body is considered as a
function of radius r and height Z only and it is defined by two components of displacements. Such sections
are shown in Fig. 3.6-1. One of the following cases of the elastic symmetry can be considered:
 full symmetry (isotropic body);
 isotropic plane (transverse isotropic body);
 three planes of elastic symmetry (orthotropic-anisotropic or
orthotropic body).
The following designations are used to describe them:
 r, z, , rz — relative linear and angular strains;
 r, z, rz — normal and shear stresses in the cross-sectional plane;
  — normal stress for the direction orthogonal to the cross-
sectional plane;
 E, Ei — Young’s moduli for the principal directions of elasticity;
 G — shear modulus;
 ,ik — Poisson's ratios which characterize a lateral reduction at
compression or expansion at tension in the directions of the
coordinate axes. The first index indicates the direction of the
Figure 3.6-1. deformation, and the second one – the direction of the force.
Relative linear and angular strains  r ,  z ,  ,  rz can be expressed in terms of the displacements in the
following way:
v , u , u u v .
z  r    ,  rz  
z r r z r
There are the following relationships between the strains and stresses:
103
isotropic body:
1
z   z    r     ,
E
1
 r   r    z     ,
E
1
       z  r   ,
E
 rz  rz / G ,
E ;
G
2(1  )
transverse isotropic body :
1  
r   r    z ,
E E Ez
 1 
     r    z ,
E E Ez
  1
z     r      z ,
E Ez
 rz  rz / G r ,
    rz    z ,    zr   z ;
orthotropic body :
1  
z  z  zr r  z  ,
Ez Er E
1  r  rz
r  r    z ,
Er E Ez
1  r  z
    r  z .
E Er Ez
 rz  rz / G
It is considered that symmetry conditions hold: Err= Er , Ezzr=Errz , Ez= Ezz , which are
obligatory for any anisotropic material where the existence of an elastic potential can be postulated.
Set of Finite Elements

Like in the case of the plane problem of the theory of elasticity the approximating functions were used
when creating elements. Each node of the axisymmetric elements has two degrees of freedom: r and w —
displacements along the r and Z axes respectively. The positive directions of the displacements coincide
with the positive directions of the axes.
The following finite elements are implemented for solving the axisymmetric problem of the theory of
elasticity : rectangular — type 61 (Fig. 3.6-2), triangular — type 62 (Fig. 3.6-3), quadrangular with a
number of nodes from four to eight — type 64 (Fig. 3.6-4).
104
Figure 3.6-2 Figure 3.6-3 Figure 3.6-4

The considered elements can be located only in the rOz plane and can be used only with the index of
the model type 11. The local coordinate system of all axisymmetric elements coincides with the global one,
and the forces will be calculated in the global coordinate system by default. The following stresses are
calculated: NX (Nr), NY (Nθ), NZ, TXZ (TrZ) (see Sec. 13.6).
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for

Axisymmetric Finite Elements
All elements of this type must lie in the symmetry plane rOz and the Y1 axis always coincides with the Y
axis. Since a spatial problem of the theory of elasticity with axial symmetry is solved for the axisymmetric
FEs, the stiffness properties must be specified in the same way as those of solid finite elements with the
symmetry limitations imposed by the considered problem.
Only special finite elements described in Section 3.8 can be included in the design model together
with the given elements.
When specifying the nodal forces it is necessary to multiply the value of the force acting on the unit
length of a circular arc by the perimeter of this circle.
Local Loads
An auxiliary local coordinate system for specifying a load is defined on the finite element for solving an
axisymmetric problem of the theory of elasticity. It is generated in the same way as the local coordinate
system X1OZ1 for the elements of the plane problem of the theory of elasticity (see Sec 3.4). The X1 axis
goes from the first node to the second one, and the Z1 axis lies in the rOz plane and it is directed towards
the third node. Only uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads along the line can be specified in the local
coordinate system. A local load on the axisymmetric finite elements can be specified both in the local and
in the global coordinate system.
The following local loads can be applied:
 concentrated loads which are specified as the values of forces acting in the given direction and
applied in the point of the element;
 uniformly distributed loads which act in the given direction and are specified by the value of the
force per unit volume. The load acts over the entire volume obtained by revolving the element
about the symmetry axis Z;
 trapezoidal loads which act in the given direction and are specified as the force values determined
in all vertices of the element. The load acts over the entire volume obtained by revolving the
element about the symmetry axis Z. The order of the specification of the load values must
correspond to the order of numbering of the nodes of the element described in this section;
 uniformly distributed loads “along the line” which act in the given direction. They actually act on a
surface obtained by revolving a line connecting two nodes of the element about the Z axis. The
beginning and end of the line are defined by the node numbers described in this section and the
value of the force per unit area;
 trapezoidal loads “along the line” which act in the given direction on the line connecting two nodes
105
of the element. I.e. they actually act on a surface obtained by revolving the line the beginning and
end of which are defined by the node numbers described in this section about the Z axis. The value
of the force per unit area in the beginning and in the end of the line is specified;
 thermal action in the form of the general heating/cooling with respect to the restraint temperature.
Table 3.6-1
Concentrated load in the global coordinate system with the snaps in the local coordinate system
along the radius Pr, a, b
along the Z axis Pz, a, b

along the radius qr
along the Z axis qz
Trapezoidal load in the global coordinate system

along the radius q1r , qr2 , ... , qrn
along the Z axis
q1z , qz2 , ... , qzn
Uniformly distributed load along the line in the local coordinate system
along the X1 axis n1 n2 qx
along the Z1 axis n1 n2 qz
Uniformly distributed load along the line in the global coordinate system
along the radius n1 n2 qr
along the Z axis n1 n2 qz
106

Trapezoidal load along the line in the local coordinate system
along the X1 axis n1, n2, qx,1, qx,2
along the Z1 axis n1, n2, qz,1, qz,2
Trapezoidal load along the line in the global coordinate system

along the radius n1, n2, qr,1, qr,2
along the Z axis n1, n2, qz,1, qz,2
Thermal load on the axisymmetric elements Table 3.6-2
Action Values Notes

General heating t, [] t — increase (decrease) of the temperature of the middle layer of the plate
(cooling) with t, [R] with respect to the normal conditions of operation (restraint temperature);
respect to the t, [Z]  — linear expansion coefficient of the material;
restraint t, [R, Z] R, Z — linear expansion coefficients for the r or Z axes respectively of the
temperature. global coordinate system. They enable to take into account the orthotropy of
the material.
describing the load is used. The respective warning is generated. Thermal expansion coefficients can be specified
for a certain load only when preparing the data in the text format.
3.7. Finite Elements for the Calculation of the Piecewise

Inhomogeneous throughout the Thickness (Laminated) Plates
and Shallow Shells
Specifying Finite Elements

These finite elements are used for the strength analysis of thin and medium-thickness single-layer and
multilayer shallow orthotropic (isotropic, transverse isotropic) shells and plates of laminated structure
throughout the thickness (Fig. 3.7-1) with drastically different elastic properties of the layers, in which case
the Kirchhoff–Love hypothesis of straight normals becomes inapplicable, because it may yield distorted
results [3, 31]. The effect of the deformations from the transverse shear, compression of layers and
curvature, as well as those of the interlayer shear and curvature on the stress-strain state of the structure is
taken into account.
107
Figure 3.7-1 Figure 3.7-2

Models taking into account the variation of the displacements throughout the thickness of the package
of layers different from the linear distribution are used when generating the governing relationships. Finite
elements are created on the basis of the following original hypotheses and relations of the applied theory of
multilayer orthotropic shallow shells and plates [3].
Consider a multilayer shell of a constant thickness (h=const) referred to an orthogonal system of
curvilinear coordinates X1, X2, Z (Fig. 3.7-2), the coordinate lines X1, X2 of which coincide with the lines
of the principal curvatures of the reference surface (Z=0), and the Z axis is normal to that surface. The
number of layers and their order are arbitrary.
In the most general case the material of layers can be orthotropic but its physical and mechanical
characteristics within the k-th layer are assumed to be constant (k=1, 2,...,n), though they can vary from
one layer to another throughout the thickness of the package.
The boundary surfaces of the layers coincide with the equidistant surfaces Z = Zk (k =2, 3,..., n),
where Z = Z1 =  h1 is the lower boundary surface, and Z = Zn+1 = h2 is the upper boundary surface (Fig.
3.7-2). The shell is subjected to an arbitrarily oriented load q-j(xi) and q+j(xi) (i=1, 2; j=1, 2, 3), applied to
the upper and lower surfaces, and body forces Fj (Xi, Z), acting in the direction of the coordinate axes.
Values that describe the geometric shape of the shell surface (coefficients of the first quadratic form
Ai and principal curvatures Kik; i, k = 1, 2) are assumed to be constant within one finite element. The error
caused by this assumption is proportional to the size of the finite element.
Like in the case of the single-layer shell elements the approximating functions were used when
creating elements.
Initial Hypotheses of the Model Accounting for the Transverse

Shear, Compression of Layers and Curvature
The mathematical model is based on the hypotheses which define the law of the variation of the shear
stresses σj3, the normal stress σ33, and the lateral strain e33 throughout the thickness of a multilayer shell:
h1  z h z
 j3  q j  q j 2  G j3 (z) f j( z ) j (x1 , x 2 ) ,
h h
h z h z
33  q j 1  q j 2   (z) p (x1 , x 2 ) ,
h h
e33  f3" (z) 3 (x1 , x 2 ) , j=1, 2 ,
where Gj3 — piecewise continuous functions that describe the respective shear moduli of the layers;
108
ψs(x1, x2) — sought-for functions which enable to allow for the transverse shear (s=1, 2) and
compression (s=3). They complement the classical displacement functions vj(x1, x2) (j=1,2) and w(x1,
x2);
fs(z), (z) — specified auxiliary functions describing the nonlinear law of the variation of stresses and
strains depending on the stiffness properties. Their notation enables to select the position of the
reference surface arbitrarily within the thickness of the package of layers, satisfies the conditions of
continuity between the layers and the boundary conditions on the outer surfaces of the shell;
p(x1, x2) — function that characterizes the lateral compression and is defined by the sought-for
functions vj, w and ψs.
The auxiliary functions fs(z), (s =1, 2, 3) are selected on the basis of the law of distribution of the
values j3 (j = 1, 2) and 33 throughout the shell thickness obtained based on the classical hypotheses, and
the function of the lateral normal stress distribution throughout the thickness of the laminated shell (z) is
specified based on the condition of continuity and equality to zero on the outer surfaces of the shell
(h1) = (h2) = 0. The procedure of the determination and the form of these functions is given in [3, 31].
The geometric model of the deformed state of an elastic laminated shell which is obtained from the
Cauchy relationships and the assumed hypotheses, and enables to express the values of the displacements
in any point in terms of the values of the sought-for functions vi(x1, x2), w(x1, x2) and s (x1, x2), has the
following form:
1 w 1  3
u j (x1 , x 2 , z)  v j (x1 , x 2 )  z  f j (z) j (x1 , x 2 )  f3 (z)  u j(0)
Aj  x j Aj  x j
u3 (x1 , x 2 , z)  w(x1 , x 2 )  f3(z) 3 (x1 , x 2 ) , j =1, 2,
where uj(0) — additional terms corresponding to the loading of the outer surfaces of the shell by the
tangential loads.
This model enables to take into account the displacements caused by the phenomena of transverse
shear and normal compression in addition to the displacements determined on the basis of the classical
shell theory.
The strain components in the reference plane e11, e22, e12 are determined by the Cauchy formulae in
terms of the displacements using the simplifications usual for the shallow shells, and the transverse shear
strain components are determined by the following relationship:
1
2
 (0)
e j3  f j(z) j ( x1 , x 2 )  u j,3 ,  j =1, 2.
The stress tensor σij (i, j = 1, 2, 3) is determined on the basis of the generalized Hooke's law for an
orthotropic elastic body.
The generalized displacements that make up a vector of generalized displacements can be divided into
two groups of displacements that have the same mathematical meaning:
a) vi and i (i=1,2) — “membrane” group of generalized displacements included in the potential
energy functional with their first-order derivatives at the most;
b) w and 3 — “flexural” group of generalized displacements included in the potential energy
functional with their second-order derivatives at the most.
109
Table 3.7-1 Table 3.7-2

Boundary conditions that define the general Boundary conditions that restrain the transverse shear
fixation of the shell contour for the edge (X1, and compressive deformations at the shell contour for the
X2=const) edge (X1, X2=const)
External Geometric End Geometric
constraints (kinematic) diaphragms (kinematic)
(Z=0) Drawing conditions (Z = 0) Drawing conditions
w d 3 d 3
un ur w ψn ψτ
n dn d
z z z
Roller Flexible out
support X1
* * of the end X1 X2 * *
plane
z z
Hinge z Flexible in
support * * * the end plane X1 X2
* *
X1
z z
Stiff z Stiff non-
clamping * * * * distortable X1 X2
* * * *
X1
z z z
Movable No
clamping X1
* * * diaphragm X1 X2
z
Free edge
X1
Table 3.7-1 provides various variants of external and end constraints. The former define the general
fixation of the contour (support, clamping, etc.) and the latter restrain the transverse shear and compressive
deformations at the contour. The asterisk “*” designates the degrees of freedom along which either the
displacements or rotation angles are equal to zero. The contour of the shell (plate) or its part with a certain
type of end diaphragms can have any external constraints (see Table 3.7-2). The following designations are
used in the tables:
un, u — displacements along the normal and along the tangent line to the contour lying on the surface
of the shell;
ψn, ψ — projection of the generalized displacements 1, 2 on n and ;
w  3  3 — derivatives in the normal and tangential directions to the contour.
, ,
n n 
Thus, combining the groups of constraints given in the tables makes it possible to analyze shells and
plates with various structural peculiarities at their contour; i.e. the boundary conditions enable to take into
account different types of stiffness diaphragms at the ends of the structure, which significantly expands the
class of the problems that can be solved.
110
Initial Hypotheses of the Model Accounting for the Interlayer

Shear and Curvature
If the compression of layers is not taken into account, the mathematical model can be based on the
hypothesis which defines the law of the variation of the transverse shear stresses σj3(xi, z) throughout the
thickness of a multilayer shell, and the assumption that there are no lateral normal stresses and strains:
2
 j3  G j3 (z) f
p 1
pj (z) pj (x1 , x 2 )
,
33 , e33  0 ; j = 1,2;

where pj(x1, x2) — sought-for shear functions of the first and second approximation (at p = 1 — they
supplement the classical displacement functions vj(x1, x2) in the first approximation and refine the
hypothesis at the second stage of the model generation; at p = 2 — they allow for a contribution of the
tangential loads to the shear stresses);
fpj(z) — specified functions of the distribution of the transverse shear throughout the thickness of the
package of layers selected in such a way so as to satisfy the conditions of equality of the transverse
shear stresses on the contact surfaces of layers and boundary conditions on the outer surfaces of the
shell [3] (at p = 2 — they allow for the effect of the properties of the material of layers on the shear
stresses due to the action of the tangential loads);
s — number of the respective approximation of the shear model.
The kinematic model of the deformed state of an elastic laminated shell which is obtained from the
Cauchy relationships and the assumed hypotheses, and enables to express the values of the displacements
in any point in terms of the values of the sought-for functions vj(x1, x2), wj(x1, x2), ψ(s)pj(x1, x2), has the
following form:
2
1 w
u j (x1 , x 2 , z)  i (x1 , x 2 )  z 
Aj x j p 1 
f pj ( z ) pj (x1 , x 2 ) .
This model enables to take into account the displacements caused by the phenomena of transverse
shear in addition to the displacements determined on the basis of the classical model, as well as the
tangential loads on the outer surfaces of the shell — at p = 2.
The strain components in the reference plane eij are determined by the Cauchy formulae in terms of
the displacements using the simplifications usual for the shallow shells. The transverse shear strain
components are determined by the following relationships:
1
e j3  f pj (z) pj (x1 , x 2 ) , j =1, 2.
2
The stress tensor σij (i, j=1, 2, 3) is determined on the basis of the generalized Hooke's law for an
orthotropic elastic body.
The generalized displacements that make up a vector of generalized displacements can be divided into
two groups of displacements that have the same mathematical meaning:
a) vi and pi — “membrane” group of generalized displacements included in the potential energy
functional with their first-order derivatives at the most (i, p=1, 2);
b) w — “flexural” group of generalized displacements included in the potential energy functional
with their second-order derivatives at the most.
Tables 3.7-1 and 3.7-2 provide various variants of external and end constraints (the former define the
general fixation of the contour, and the latter restrain the transverse shear deformations at the contour). The
asterisk “*” designates the degrees of freedom along which either the displacements or rotation angles are
equal to zero. The contour of the shell (plate) or its part with a certain type of end diaphragms can have any
111
external constraints (see Table 3.7-2), where n and  — normal and tangent to the contour lying on the
surface of the shell, n,  — projections of the functions 1 and 2 on n and .
Combining the groups of constraints given in Tables 3.7-1 and 3.7-2 makes it possible to analyze
shells and plates with various structural peculiarities at their contour; i.e. the boundary conditions enable to
take into account different types of stiffness diaphragms at the ends of the structure, which significantly
expands the class of the problems that can be solved.
It should be noted that when the effect of the compression of layers or interlayer shear in the
considered FEs is taken into account, it becomes possible to analyze even single-layer structures such as
medium-thickness shells and plates.
Multilayer Elements in the FE Library

Table 3.7-3 lists multilayer elements included in SCAD.
Nodes lie on the midsurface. All elements have a local coordinate system X1OY1, where the X1 axis
goes from the first node to the second one, and the Y1 axis lies in the plane of the element, it is orthogonal
to X1 and directed towards the third node.
Table 3.7-3
Shape Element type Local axes
Allowing for the Allowing for the
transverse shear, interlayer shear
compression of and curvature
layers and
curvature
Rectangular 71 81
Triangular 72 82
Quadrangular 73 83
Quadrangular with the 74 84
number of nodes from 4
to 8
The material of the layers can be isotropic, transverse isotropic, or orthotropic. The Winkler model of
the elastic subgrade with one subsoil parameter С1 can be used.
Multilayer elements of types 71–74 allowing for the transverse shear, compression of layers and cur-
vature have twelve degrees of freedom in their nodes, the interpretation of which is given in Table 3.7-4.
Table 3.7-4
Types of
Name the degrees Content
of freedom
U, V, W 1, 2, 3 linear displacements along the X, Y, Z axes
w w , U 4, 5, 6 rotation angles about the X, Y, Z axes
UX =  , UY = Z
x y
AX=1, AY=2, AZ=3 7, 8, 9 analogues of the linear displacements along the X, Y, Z axes,
which model the compression of layers in the respective direction
 3  10, 11, 12 analogues of the rotation angles about the X, Y, Z axes, which
BX =  , BY = 3 , BZ model the effect of the normal compressive deformations
x y
112
The first six degrees of freedom of the node are the main ones and correspond to the membrane and
bending deformations, and the second ones correspond to the transverse shear and compressive
deformations.
The rotation angle UZ and its analogue BZ in the local coordinate system of the element are equal to
zero. They appear when the elements not lying in the same plane are connected and are required to take
into account the spatial behavior of the structure.
The considered elements can be used only with the index of the model type 8.
Multilayer elements of types 81-84 allowing for the interlayer shear and curvature have twelve
degrees of freedom in their nodes, the interpretation of which is given in Table 3.7-5.
Table 3.7-5
Types of
Name the degrees Content
of freedom
U, V, W 1, 2, 3 linear displacements along the X, Y, Z axes
w w , U 4, 5, 6 rotation angles about the X, Y, Z axes
UX =  , UY = Z
x y
AX = 11, AY = 12, AZ 7, 8, 9 analogues of the linear displacements along the X, Y, Z axes, which
model the shear in the direction of the respective axis in the first-
approximation model
СX = 21, СY = 22, СZ 13, 14, 15 analogues of the linear displacements along the X, Y, Z axes, which
model the shear in the direction of the respective axis in the second-
approximation model
The first six degrees of freedom are the main ones and correspond to the membrane and bending
deformations, and their analogues correspond to the transverse shear deformations.
The rotation angle UZ and the analogues of the linear displacement AZ and СZ in the local coordinate
system of the element are equal to zero. They appear when the elements not lying in the same plane are
connected and are required to take into account the spatial behavior of the structure.
The considered elements can be used only with the index of the model type 9.
Forces in all multilayer elements are calculated in their local coordinate system. The whole package
of layers is considered in each point, and NX, NY, NZ, TXY, TXZ, TYZ will be calculated both on the upper
and lower borders of each layer (see Sec.13.6). In addition, the horizontal displacements (UG, VG) and the
deflection (WG) can be calculated. In order to be able to determine the stresses on the midsurface of the
shell, this surface has to be a boundary between the two layers. It can always be done by dividing the
central layer into additional ones with the same physical and mechanical characteristics.
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for

Multilayer Finite Elements
The description of each k-th layer of the package includes the following data depending on the properties
of its material:
E(k)(T/m2), (k) — for the isotropic material;
E(k)(T/m2), 13(k), 31(k), G13(k)(Т/m2) — for the transverse isotropic material;
E1(k)(T/m2), E2(k)(T/m2), E3(k)(T/m2), 12(k), 21(k), 13(k), 31(k), 23(k), 32(k), G12(k)(T/m2), G13(k)(T/m2),
G23(k)(T/m2) — for the orthotropic material.
The thickness of the layer (k) is always indicated.
If there is the elastic subgrade, the subsoil parameter С1(T/m3) has to be specified.
113
If the elements are homogeneous throughout their thickness, the stiffness properties can be specified
as the rigidities of ordinary plates and shells described in Section 3.4. It is necessary to specify only the
properties implemented in the multilayer elements, where, for example, the subsoil parameter С2(T/m) of
the Pasternak model of the elastic subgrade is not taken into account.
For all finite elements the stresses (forces) are calculated both in the center of the elements and in
their nodes. The control of their output is described in the Chapters 8 and 13.
Local Loads
All types of loads (except for the thermal ones) can be specified both in the local and in the global
coordinate systems with the snaps in the local and in the global coordinate systems for the multilayer FEs
similarly to the thin shell elements (see Sec. 3.4).
3.8. Special Finite Elements

These elements enable to restrain the linear and angular displacements in the directions of the axes of the
local coordinate system (it does not coincide with the global coordinate system in the general case),
introduce the constraints of finite rigidity in the directions of the axes of the global coordinate system, take
into account the compliance of the material between the adjacent nodes (compliance of the mortar or metal
packing plates between the elements) etc. Table 3.8-1 provides the list of such elements, their description is
given below.
Table 3.8-1
Index of Degrees
FE Position in
FE name the model of Comments
type space
type freedom
51 Constraint of finite rigidity any any any It is used to account for the
compliance of the bearing
constraint
53 Two-node peripheral finite 3, 5, 8, 9 in the horizontal Z It accounts for the effect of the
element of elastic subgrade plane strip of soil beyond the structure
54 Single-node peripheral finite 3, 5, 8, 9 any Z It accounts for the shear effect of

element of elastic subgrade the angular area of soil beyond
the structure
114
Index of Degrees
FE Position in
FE name the model of Comments
type space
type freedom
55 Elastic constraint between any any any It accounts for the compliance of
nodes the structural joints
56 External Node Damper any any X, Y, Z It is used to model the external

dampers responsive to the
Z velocity of the node
displacement in the directions of
Y the degrees of freedom in the
global coordinate system.
X
57 Node-to-Node Damper any any X, Y, Z It is used for taking into account
the damping arising at the non-
zero velocity of the relative
Z motion of the adjacent nodes
154 Null element any any any It is used for the calculation for
the specified displacements, and
also for imposing constraints not
parallel to the global coordinate
system
200 Pseudo-element any any It is used for deleting the

elements from the design model
without disrupting the regularity
of its coding (it is used only in
the text format); any local load
specified for the element is
ignored
General Type “Null Element” (FE Type — 154)

This FE is used to restrain the linear or angular displacements in the directions of the axes of the local
coordinate system of this element, and also to perform the calculation for the specified displacements, the
directions of which do not coincide with the directions of the axes of the global coordinate system.
115
Technically, a “Null element” is a three-node finite

element [25] that consists of two bars of equal length which lie
on one line and the rigidities of which in the direction of the
restrained degree of freedom (in the local coordinate system)
are specified by the finite values of opposite signs and are
comparable to those of real structural members (to ensure the
computational stability of the calculation). However, from the
user’s perspective, a “null element” is a two-node element with
the nodes 1 and 2, where the node 1 belongs to the considered
structure while the node 2 is free. The node 3 is used only when
generating a stiffness matrix, and it is not explicitly specified.
Figure 3.8-1.
You should keep in mind that technically the node 2 is restrained only by the springs lying on one line
with positive and negative values of the “axial” stiffness, therefore it could have displacements in the plane
orthogonal to this line, which would lead to an unstable system. Hence, not only the “axial”, but also the
shear stiffness values have to be specified when specifying the information on this element.
A schematic drawing of the FE is shown in Fig. 3.8-1. The local coordinate system is formed in a
similar way as that for a spatial bar. The element can be used for any index of the model type.
When describing the element it is necessary to specify the directions in which the displacements
(rotations) are restrained together with an arbitrary positive number for each direction which will be
interpreted as the rigidity of the element. Theoretically, the result of the calculation should not depend on
the value of this number. However, as noted above, it is selected in such a way so as to ensure the
computational stability.
When performing the calculation for the specified displacements the value of the displacement for
each direction is specified as the local load with respect to the axes of the local coordinate system in
accordance with the used index of the model type. The linear displacements are specified in meters, and the
angular ones – in radians in the basic system of units.
Forced displacements can be introduced only in the directions for which the nonzero rigidities
(displacement of the constraint) are specified. The calculated forces in a “null element” are the reactions in
the imposed constraints or the reactions from the forced displacement of the first node of the element in the
respective directions. Obviously, only the reactions in the directions of constraints specified using the “null
element” will be non-zero. The forces are calculated for the section at the beginning of the element (its first
node).
FE Modeling the Constraints of Finite Rigidity (FE Type — 51)

This FE (Fig. 3.8-2) is used to impose the constraints of finite rigidity
(springs) in the directions of the degrees of freedom in the global
coordinate system and can be used, for example, to model the elastic
subgrade. The constraints of finite rigidity are specified only in the
directions of the axes of the global coordinate system. It makes no
sense to impose a constraint of finite rigidity in a node with a rigid
Figure 3.8-2. constraint in the respective direction. This element can be used with
any index of the model type.
116
The number and order of the stiffness properties completely correspond to the used index of the
model type. Non-zero values which can be interpreted in the following way are specified for the directions
for which the constraints of finite rigidity are imposed in the node:
 for the displacements X, Y, Z — it is a force causing a unit displacement of the node in the given
direction. When modeling the elastic “Winkler” subgrade in the form of elastic nodal supports the
given stiffness can be specified by multiplying the subsoil parameter С1(T/m3) by the area of the
surface which interacts with the node. The stiffness is specified in T/m in the basic system of units;
 for the rotation angles UX, UY, UZ — it is a moment causing unit rotations in the given direction. The
stiffness is specified in Tm/rad in the basic system of units.
Forces (reactions in springs) for the degrees of freedom in the direction of which the constraints of
finite rigidity are imposed are obtained in the result of the calculation.
Two-Node Peripheral FE of Elastic Subgrade (FE Type — 53)

This FE is used for modeling the pressure of the strip of soil beyond the plate and perpendicular to its
contour (due to the shear resistance of soil). These elements must be used when the plates on the elastic
subgrade are modeled with the help of a bi-parametric model of the elastic subgrade (Pasternak model),
because otherwise there is a contradiction between the used model which allows for the distribution
capacity of the soil and the fact that the behavior of the subsoil beyond the plate is not taken into account.
A schematic drawing of the FE is shown in Fig. 3.8-3. The
values of the subsoil parameters C1 (T/m3) and C2 (T/m) are
specified. Each node of the FE has one degree of freedom w —
vertical displacement defined in the global coordinate system.
Nodal reactions RZ are obtained in the result of the
calculation.
Figure 3.8-3.
Single-Node Peripheral FE of Elastic Subgrade (FE Type — 54)

This element is used for modeling the pressure of the angular
area of soil adjacent to the plate (due to the shear resistance of
soil). A schematic drawing of the FE is shown in Fig. 3.8-4. The
element consists of one node with one degree of freedom w, —
vertical displacement defined in the global coordinate system.
The value of the subsoil parameter С2(T/m) and angle  are
specified. The nodal reaction RZ is obtained in the result of the
calculation.
Figure 3.8-4.
FE Modeling an Elastic Constraint between the Nodes (FE Type —

55)
This FE enables to take into account the compliance of the material between the adjacent nodes, for
example, compliance of a grade beam or metal packing plates between the elements. This element can be
used with any index of the model type and it enables to model both the linear and angular compliance of
the constraint for any direction. Nodes between which the compliance of the constraint is modeled can
have the same coordinates.
117
The stiffness properties of these elements the number and order of

which completely correspond to the used index of the model type can be
interpreted in the following way:
 for the displacements X, Y, Z — it is a force (T/m, compressive
stiffness), causing a mutual unit displacement of the nodes 1 and 2 in
the given direction;
Figure 3.8-5.  for the rotation angles UX, UY, UZ — it is a moment (Tm/rad, shear
stiffness), causing mutual unit rotations in the given direction.
This FE models an elastic constraint between the nodes in the global coordinate system by default.
The element can be also considered in the local coordinate system. In order to do this you just have to
specify the value of the rotation angle of the structural axes using any method described for the universal
bar.
Local loads can not be applied within the area of the finite element.
Forces (reactions) for the degrees of freedom in the direction of which the constraints of finite rigidity
are imposed are obtained in the result of the calculation.
FE Modeling the Behavior of an External Node Damper (FE Type —

56)
This FE (Fig. 3.8-6) is used to model the external dampers
responsive to the velocity of the node displacement in the
Z directions of the degrees of freedom in the global coordinate
system.
It is assumed that the damping is viscous, i.e. the motion
Y resistance force is proportional to the respective velocity
component. Viscous damping ratios are specified for each nodal
displacement (rotation) independently and do not affect each
X other.
Figure 3.8-6.
The number and the order of stiffness properties completely correspond to the used index of the
model type. If the non-zero viscosity coefficients are specified in the directions in which the dampers are
introduced in the node, they can be interpreted as follows:
 for displacements X, Y, Z — it is a reaction force arising at a unit velocity of the node displacement
in the considered direction. It is measured in T/(m/s) in the basic system of units.
FE-56 can be used for the dynamic calculations only in the Direct Integration of the Equations of
Motion mode. Other modes do not respond to its presence in the design model.
FE Modeling the Behavior of a Node-to-Node Damper (FE Type — 57)

This FE enables to take into account the damping arising at the non-zero velocity of the relative motion of
the adjacent nodes.
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The element can be used at any index of the model type.

The stiffness properties of these elements, the number and the
order of which completely correspond to the used index of the
model type can be interpreted as follows:
Z  for displacements X, Y, Z — it is a reaction force arising
at a unit velocity of the relative motion (for example,
approach or separation)
Y It is measured in T/(m/s) in the basic system of units.
It is assumed that the damping is viscous, i.e. the motion
resistance force is proportional to the respective velocity
X component. Viscous damping ratios are specified for each nodal
displacement (rotation) independently and do not affect each
Figure 3.8-7. other.
The mutual velocity can be specified both in the local and

in the global coordinate system. The local coordinate system
x,y,z is generated in the same way as for a bar located between
Z x a pair of the considered nodes (Fig. 3.8-8).
z When the global coordinate system is used, the projection
of the mutual velocity on the respective coordinate axes is
y
considered (Fig. 3.8-9), as if the damper is installed between the
start node and the intermediate point which implements the
Y specified direction and has the same velocities as the end node.
FE-57 can be used for the dynamic calculations only in the
Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion mode. Other
X modes do not respond to its presence in the design model.
Figure 3.8-8
Figure 3.8-9.
119
Rigid Body (FE Type – 100)

The element has an arbitrary number of nodes, which are
connected to each other as in the case of a rigid body (see
Sec. 2.2).
A schematic drawing of the rigid body is shown in Fig.
3.8-10. The constraints of the nodes are specified depending
on the number of the degrees of freedom: 1 – the nodes are
restrained in the given direction (rotation), 0 – they are not
restrained.
Figure 3.8-10.
For a detailed description of this finite element, see [41].
Pseudo-Element Designed for Modeling Elements Excluded from the

Design Model (FE Type — 200)
This FE is used to model the elements excluded from the design model without changing the numbering of
the remaining elements. It is used only when the initial data are specified in the text format.
References to Chapter 3.
1. S.A. Ambartsumyan, Theory of Anisotropic Plates (Strength, Stability and Oscillations). – M.: Nauka, 1987. –
360p.
2. K. Washizu, Variational Methods in the Theory of Elasticity and Plasticity. — M.: Mir, 1987. — 544 p.
3. V.E. Verizhenko, V.S. Karpilovsky, V.G. Piskunov et al., Finite Element Analysis of Heterogeneous Shallow
Shells and Plates. — Kiev, “Higher School”, — 1987. — 200 p.
4. V.Z. Vlasov, N.N. Leontiev, — Beams, Plates and Shells on the Elastic Subgrade. — M.: GIPML, 1960. — 492 p.
5. L.G. Donnell, –- Beams, Plates and Shells. — M.: Nauka. Home edition physical and mathematical literature,
1982. — 568 p.
6. I.D. Evzerov, V.S. Zdorenko, Convergence of Flat Thin Shell Finite Elements. // Structural Mechanics and
Analysis of Structures. 1984, No1. — pp. 35-40.
7. I.D. Evzerov, Error Estimates for Inconsistent Plate Finite Elements. — Deposited at Ukrainian Res. Inst. for Sci.-
Tech. Information, 1979, No.1467-79.
8. O. Zenkevich, Finite Element Method. — M.: Mir, 1975. — 541 p.
9. O. Zenkevich, K. Morgan, Finite Elements and Approximations. — M.: Mir, 1986. — 318 p.
10. V.S. Karpilovsky, Methods of Construction of Finite Elements. Deposited at Ukr. Inst. for Sci.-Tech. Information,
1980, No.2153.
11. V.S. Karpilovsky, V.I. Kudashov, D.N. Tsvetkov, Library of Isoparametric Finite Elements in “LIRA” //
Proceedings of the Universities. Construction and Architecture. 1987, No.7. — pp. 28-32.
12. V.S. Karpilovsky, Triangular Six-Node Plate Finite Element. // Proceedings of the Universities. Construction and
Architecture, 1989, No.6. — pp. 35-39.
13. V.S. Karpilovsky, Quadrangular Eight-Node Plate Finite Element // Structural Mechanics and Analysis of
Structures, 1990. — pp. 13-17.
14. V.S. Karpilovsky, Quadrangular Finite Elements for Solving the Plane Problem of the Theory of Elasticity. //
Systems for Computer-Aided Design of Structures, — Kiev: Budivelnik, 1991. —pp.35-43.
15. V.S. Karpilovsky, Construction of Inconsistent Finite Elements. Deposited at Ukrainian Res. Inst. for Sci.-Tech.
Information, 1980, No.2153, — 49 p.
16. V.S. Karpilovsky, A.O. Rasskazov et al., Analysis of Laminated Orthotropic Shells of Revolution with a Finite
Shear Rigidity.. // Applied Mechanics, 1988, Vol. 11. — pp.24-28.
17. V.A. Kiselev, Structural Mechanics. Special Course. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1980.
120
18. Y.Z. Klempert, V.I. Parikov, V.I. Slivker, Procedure for Calculating the Stiffness Matrix of a Prismatic Bar. //
Analysis of Spatial Structures. Issue 16. —M.: Stroyizdat, 1974, pp. 179-189.
19. S.G. Lekhnitsky, Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Body. — M.: Nauka, 1977.— 416 p.
20. A.S. Gorodetskiy, V.S. Zdorenko, V.S. Karpilovsky, L.S. Moshkin, Guidelines for Reading the Results Obtained
by “LIRA”. — Kiev: NIIASS of the USSR State Committee for Construction, 1984. — 140 p.
21. A.S. Gorodetskiy, V.S. Zdorenko, V.S. Karpilovsky, L.S. Moshkin, Guidelines for Using the Test Examples of
“LIRA”. — Kiev: NIIASS of the USSR State Committee for Construction, 1988. —168 p.
22. A.S. Gorodetskiy, V.S. Karpilovsky, N.G. Kharchenko, Yu.I. Gladkiy, Guidelines for Using the Finite Element
Library of “LIRA”. — Kiev: NIIASS of the USSR State Committee for Construction, 1988.
23. A.S. Gorodetskiy, V.S. Karpilovsky, N.G. Kharchenko, S.G. Burygin, Guidelines for Using Additional
Capabilities of the Finite Element Library of “LIRA”. — K.: NIIASS of the USSR State Committee for
Construction, 1988.
24. Package of Application Software for the Automated Design of Reinforced Concrete Structural Parts of the
Underground and Aboveground Structures in the Industrial and Civil Construction /PAD ADRCS/ /Brief
contents /. Fund of algorithms and programs for computers in the “Construction” field, issues.6-50, Moscow,
1980. — 20 p.
25. A.V. Perelmuter, V.I. Slivker, Peculiarities of the Algorithmic Implementation of the Slope-Deflection Method
with Additional Constraints Taken into Account.// Finite Element Method and Structural Mechanics. Proceedings
of Leningrad Polytechnic Institute, Issue 349. — L. 1976. — pp.28-36.
26. A.V. Perelmuter, V.I. Slivker, Implementation of Complex Kinematic Conditions in the Slope-Deflection
Analysis of Discrete Systems.// Finite Element Method and Structural Mechanics. Proceedings of Leningrad
Polytechnic Institute, Issue 369. L. 1979. — pp.26-39.
27. V.G. Piskunov, V.S. Karpilovsky et al., Finite Element Analysis of Crane Structures. —M.: Mashinostroyeniye,
1991. — 240 p.
28. V.A. Postnov, I.Ya. Kharkhurim, Finite Element Method in the Analysis of Ship Structures. —L. Sudostroyeniye,
1974. — 342 p.
29. “MIRAGE” for the Computer-Aided Structural Analysis. User Manual. — Kiev: NIIASS,1995. — 420 p.
30. Rasskazov A.O., Karpilovsky V.S., Kharchenko N.G., Finite Element of a Laminated Orthotropic Shallow Shell.
Deposited at Ukrainian Res. Inst. for Sci.-Tech. Information, 223Uk-D84, 1984.
31. A.O. Rasskazov, I.I. Sokolovskaya, N.A. Shulga, Theory and Analysis of Laminated Orthotropic Plates and
Shells. — Kiev: Higher School, 1986, — 192 p.
32. A.R. Rzhanitsyn, Structural Mechanics. — M.: Higher School, 1982. —400 p.
33. L.A. Rozin, Bar Systems Treated as Systems of Finite Elements. — L.: LSU, 1976. —232 p.
34. SNiP 2.01.07-85*. Loads and Actions. Building Rules and Regulations/ State Committee for Construction of
Russia. — Moscow, 2001. — 44 p.
35. SNiP 2.02.01-83*. Foundations of Structures. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1984.
36. Solyanik-Krassa K.V., Axisymmetric Problem of the Theory of Elasticity. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1987. —338 p.
37. G. Strang, G. Fix, Analysis of the Finite Element Method. — M.: Mir, 1977. —350 p.
38. S.P. Timoshenko, Course of the Theory of Elasticity. — Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1972. —508 p.
39. O.C. Zienkiewicz, R.L. Taylor, The Finite Element Method. 3 volumes. — Planta Tree, Butterworth-Heinemann,
2000. (1 vol. —690 p., 2 vol. —459 p., 3 vol. —334 p).
40. K.-J. Bathe, Finite Element Procedures. — Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jercey, 1996. —1037 p.
41. S.Yu. Fialko, Application of rigid links in structural design models, International Journal for Computational Civil
and Structural Engineering , 2017, 13 (3), 119-137.
121
4.Structure CAD for DUMMIES
4. Structure CAD for DUMMIES

Beginners should not feel embarrassed,
 when finding themselves in want of
introductory knowledge even to read introductory
information.
P.HALMOS
Graphical interface of SCAD is based on the MDI (Multi Documented Interface) technology. This makes it
possible to work simultaneously with multiple tasks, each of which uses one window in the initial data
preparation mode (in preprocessor). In the mode of the analysis of the calculation results (in
postprocessor), the number of windows for one problem is not limited. They may contain various
fragments of the design model, or different types of results. Different tasks can be simultaneously at
different processing stages – preparation of data, calculation and analysis of results.
Window of the task that was accessed by the user last is considered to be active. The set and the state
of controls of the graphical interface will correspond to the mode in which the task is in the active window.
Display Filters toolbar
Menus
Toolbar
Tabs
Control the Selection toolbar
Table panels
Visualization toolbar
Visualization of Results toolbar
Workbook
Figure 4-1. General view of the SCAD window

Controls of the graphical interface, data access, operations with windows (the admissibility of the
simultaneous presence of several windows, the concept of the active window and activation methods, the
122
ability to move windows, etc.) are implemented in full compliance with the rules adopted for the Windows
operating environment.
4.1. Graphical Environment

The graphical user interface includes the following elements (Fig. 4-1):
Menus are located at the upper part of the SCAD window under the title, their set depends on the
current active mode.
Toolbars are the main element of the graphical interface which is used to invoke operations of the
model generation and the analysis of the calculation results. Toolbars consist of the set of buttons and lists.
Each toolbar usually includes operations of the same purpose, for example, for working with nodes or
elements, analysis of displacements or forces. Switching between toolbars is performed by clicking on
“tabs” with their names. Functions and modes of toolbars of pre- and postprocessors are described in the
respective sections.
Display filters — filters enable to control the display of the design model. They are used to display
almost all parameters of the model, including the numbers of the elements and nodes, loads, boundary
conditions, stiffness properties, etc. Moreover, filters are used to select the method of displaying the model
(wire, realistic removing lines of the invisible contour, etc.).
Display filters are duplicated in the form of a tree structure in the panel extending along the left side
of each window.
Visualization toolbar includes controls for positioning the model on the screen, fragmentation of the
model, and also for printing the current image.
Control the Selection toolbar includes a set of buttons used to select a cursor, specify the rules for
selecting nodes and elements depending on their position in the model, and also to organize the interaction
between the graphical and table representation of the model.
Visualization of Results toolbar appears in the mode of the graphical analysis of the results and is
used to control the display of the calculation results on the design model.
Table panels with the initial data and the calculation results are located near the left edge of each
window and can be switched using the tabs (table panels are located in the same place with the duplicate
Display Filters toolbar).
Workbook is a part of the window located along its lower boundary, which contains information on
the operations performed in the course of work with the task in the current session, as well as error
messages and warnings.
Dialog boxes — in those cases when an operation requires additional data or settings, the respective
dialog box is displayed. Dialog boxes contain various controls – tables, buttons, input fields, lists, etc. Data
can be entered, deleted or modified using the keyboard. If you exit the dialog box by clicking the OK
button, all the selected settings are saved. If the Cancel button is used to exit the dialog box, the new
settings are not saved, and the previously selected or default settings will be used.
Menus
The expression «Select from the menu …» means the following sequence of operations:
− place the cursor over one of the menus and left-click;
− once the list of operations is opened, you then have to select a line with the name of the desired
operation by moving the cursor vertically and left-click.
The set and contents of menus depend on the current mode. For example, when the program is
invoked from the program group of the SCAD Office system, there are five menus — File, Settings,
View, Service and Help. Once the project is loaded, there will be seven menus — File, Settings, View,
Operations, Window, Service and Help.
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File menu (full set) can contain more than twenty items. There are fewer items in some modes.
Moreover, some items may be inaccessible. For example, the Save Project item will be inaccessible if the
project is not loaded or has not been modified.
The full list of sections of the File menu includes:
 New — creates a new project;
 Open... — opens the existing project;
 Read the Project from the Text Format... — loads the project in the format of a text file of the
SCAD++ initial data;
 Read the Project from the Text Format (Previous Versions) — loads the project in the format
of a text file of the initial data of SCAD version 11.хх etc.;
 Import — loads the projects created by other applications in the following formats DXF, DWG,
SDNF, IFC etc.;
 Save Project — saves the project in the file without changing the file name;
 Save Project As... — saves the project in the file with a new name;
 Save Project for SCAD 11.хх — saves the project in the file in the format of version 11.хх;
 Close Project — closes the current project;
 Open Workspace — loads the file with the list of active projects saved earlier;
 Save Workspace — saves the list of active projects in the file;
 Save Workspace As — saves the file with a list of active projects under a new name;
 Close Workspace — finishes the work with all the projects opened when loading the workspace;
 Save Data As Text — converts the data from internal formats of the project to the text file in the
formats of the input language;
 Export — exports data in standard formats or in formats of other applications;
 Send — sends the project by email;
 Preview — view the current image of the model before printing;
 Print — prints the current image of the model;
 Recent Workspaces — list of files containing the description of the workspace;
 Exit — finishes the work with the program.
The lower lines of the File menu contain the file names of the last ten projects the user worked with. In
those cases when you have to work with one of these projects, you just have to select it from this list.
The full list of sections of the Settings menu includes:
 Immediate Execution — this option becomes accessible when the operations with the selected
nodes and elements are performed and provides their immediate execution without confirmation by
the OK button;
 Color Palette Settings — invokes the multi-tab Color Settings dialog box, where you can specify
the display color for all attributes and objects of the design model, results of the calculation, etc.;
 Calculation Parameters — invokes the Calculation Parameters dialog box, where you can
select the calculation method and set the accuracy of solution of static and dynamic problems, the
control of the solution and the stability analysis, allowable deviations of the shape of finite
elements, etc.;
 Environment Settings — opens a dialog box where you can specify the graphic environment
settings. They include, for example, activating the mode of separate display of plate elements,
specifying the distance between the end of the element and the node at the 3D display of profiles of
bar elements, “hatching” the distributed load on bar elements, specifying the estimation accuracy of
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the duplicate nodes, etc. Environment settings are considered in more detail in Section
Environment Settings;
 Set Reinforcement Spacing — a list of allowable distances between rebars used in the selection of
reinforcement is specified;
 Setting the Design Codes — the respective dialog box is used to select the design codes according
to which the solution of design problems of elements of steel and reinforced concrete structures
will be performed;
 Settings — invokes a multi-tab dialog box where you can set the units of measurement of the input
and output data for the current problem, interface language, fonts, etc.;
 Express Setting of the Units of Measurement — the Parameters dialog box is used to set the
main units of measurement on the basis of which all the units of input data and of the calculation
results are assumed. It should be noted that the units of measurement of both the initial data and the
results can change multiple times in the process of the generation of the model and the analysis of
the results;
 Format Pages for Printing — invokes the Format Pages for Printing dialog box where you can
specify the design elements of the printed graphic materials;
 Specify Work Directories — the Specify Directories dialog box invoked by this operation
enables to specify the names of catalogues from which the project file should be taken by default
and where the working files and the result files should be put. You can change the purpose of
catalogues only if the projects are not active, i.e. you have to close the active project before
invoking the operation (Close Project operation in the File menu);
 Print Setup — standard Windows procedure for selecting the type of printer and specifying the
characteristics;
 Visualization Settings of the Result Tables — select the program (text editor) for the
visualization of text documents including tables of initial data and results.
View menu is used for the control of the display of the model and duplicates a series of operations of the
Visualization toolbar, including Rotation, Initial position, Projections, and also the selection of the
rendering engine (GDI or DirectX). Moreover, the menu can be also used to enable and disable the display
filters, visualization, control the selection and visualization of results toolbars.
Operations menu duplicates the buttons of the active section of the toolbar.
Window menu is typical for multi-window Windows-applications and enables to create a new window
(only in postprocessor), and to automatically arrange the windows according to different rules.
Service menu in preprocessor enables to invoke different calculators: standard Windows calculator,
formula calculator and measurement units converter.
Help menu contains items which enable to obtain the help information on the whole complex and detailed
information on the preparation of the initial data, reading of the results, control of the modes, etc.
Toolbars
Toolbars are one of the main controls of the SCAD complex. Activation of the toolbars is performed by
pointing on the tabs, the set of which depends on the mode (preparation of data or the analysis of results).
The set of tabs in the data preparation mode depends in the type of the generated model — on the basis of
finite elements or an enlarged model on the basis of structural members. The following set of tabs is available
when creating a finite element model: Control, Model, Assign, Nodes and Elements, Loadings, Groups. If
the model is prepared for the analysis allowing for the erection sequence of the structure, then in addition to the
listed tabs the Erection tab will be available as well. If you are working with enlarged elements (FORUM
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preprocessor), the following tabs are available: Control, Model, Operations with Nodes, Operations with
Elements, Loads.
When you perform the analysis of results, including the check and the selection of reinforcement in the
elements of reinforced concrete structures and of the sections of elements of steel structures, the following tabs
are available Control, Displacements, Force Diagrams, Stress Fields, Postprocessors, Groups,
Reinforced Concrete, Steel.
Icons
Toolbars have icons used for the initialization of operations. It is not always possible to make the icon adequate
to the sense of the operation it symbolizes due to the limited space of the button. Various means are used to
make mastering of the complex and working with it easier. Firstly, it is the information line where a brief
description of the operation corresponding to the button is output when the cursor is within the button area.
Secondly, it is a system of symbolic images in icons given below, that captures the essence of the operation and
is common for the entire complex.
— perform the operation (OK button);
— cancel the given operation;
— restore the original model;
— remember the loading;
— operations for working with elements;
— letter “R” — stiffness properties;
— operations for working with nodes;
— sign “plus” — add nodes or elements;
— left arrow — restore the deleted nodes or elements;
— sign “minus” — delete nodes or elements;
— sign “division” — divide elements;
— letter “C” — create a model or a contour;
— “question mark” — display or obtain information.
If the lower right corner of the icon has an arrow pointing to the right, for example, , it means that
when you press the button, a group of controls of the respective mode will be opened. If the arrow is
pointing down, for example, , a drop-down menu will appear after pressing this button.
Buttons with Additional Features

Some buttons include an additional arrow on the right side. This arrow means that there are several options
for performing the operation. Clicking the button will perform the "standard" action, and clicking the arrow
will open a menu for selecting alternatives. Let’s take, for example, the Save operation – ; clicking
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the button will save the model under the current name, and clicking the arrow will open a menu where you
can select the Save As item and save the model under a different name.
Graphs
In those cases when the data are displayed as graphs (see Fig. 4.1-1), special controls are provided, which
include buttons for zooming the image and drawing the graph.
Figure 4.1-1. Display graphs

Button with the plus sign zooms in the image. Every click on it doubles the size of the graph. Button with
the minus sign is used for the stepwise decrease of the image and works only after the “plus” button. In order to
return to the original size of the graph, you just have to click the “equal” button.
Buttons for drawing enable to show or hide the grid, and to display the points on the basis of which the
graph was plotted. As a rule, there is a table with the numerical representation of the same data next to the table.
Filters
Filters are used to control the display of the design model. Two types of filters are provided in the program
— control of the display of information on the design model (further — display filters) and control of the
display of the actual design model (visualization filters). Filters of the first type enable not only to show
different characteristics of the model on the design model, but also to specify the type and rules for
representation of these characteristics, and also to display objects of the same type according to the
specified characteristics. Moreover, the filtration can be performed simultaneously for different properties
of the objects. For example, the filter can be used to select elements with the same stiffness properties,
lying in the given plane and belonging to a certain group from all the elements.
Display Filters toolbar (Fig. 4.1-2, a) is designed as a special window containing a set of buttons for
the selection of display parameters. You can show or hide this window by clicking the respective button—
, in the Control section of the toolbar and duplicated in the View menu (Toolbars section). Display
Filters toolbar can change its sizes and can be located in any part of the screen.
The multi-tab Set the Information Display Filters dialog box is used for a more detailed setting of
the display filters. It appears after selecting with a cursor a button of the respective filter in the toolbar and
clicking the right mouse button. If the user has changed the setting of a particular filter, the corresponding
button will have an additional indicator, which indicates a change in the default settings. For example, the
display filter of bar elements (in the standard and modified states) looks as follows: , .
As noted above, the filters are duplicated in the form of a tree structure located along the left edge of the
window of the problem. Filter setting is performed with the help of a system of checkboxes (Fig. 4.1-3).
127
b) c)
d)
a)
Figure 4.1-2. Filter toolbars
a) Display Filters, b) Visualization, c) Control the Selection, d) Visualization of Results
Controls of the Visualization toolbar enable to manipulate the image of the model. These operations
include rotation and fragmentation, projection on the plane of the principal coordinate system and the
selection of the technology of representation of the graphical information on the screen (raster or vector).
In terms of the size and location the Visualization toolbar (Fig. 4.1-2, b) has the same properties as
the Display Filters toolbar. You can show or hide it by clicking the button .
Control the Selection toolbar (Fig. 4.1-2, c) is used to control the selection of nodes or elements in
the process of working with the model. In addition to the buttons for specification of the type of cursor, it
includes elements that provide interaction between the graphical and tabular information, as well as a
series of buttons that can be considered as filters which enable to select objects occupying a certain
position in the model, for example, vertical plates.
Visualization of Results toolbar (Fig. 4.1-2, d) is available only in the post-processor and is used to
set the mode of display of isofields, and also for the control of output of values of the analyzed factor on
diagrams, isolines and isofields.
Filters
Table with displacement values
Figure 4.1-3. Tables of results and filters toolbar

128
The work with toolbars and filters is considered in more detail in the respective sections of this book.
Windows
There are the following types of windows in the SCAD complex:
− start window — includes a menu and the General Operations toolbar, and is used to create and load
the project;
− project control window — includes a project tree and is used to select a working mode;
− window with a design model— is used in the preprocessor and postprocessor;
− processor window — is used in the analysis;
− dialog boxes — are used to prepare the data and to specify the parameters controlling the process of
information processing.
Detailed information on the rules of working with the windows is given below in the respective sections
of the book. The windows are activated either by tabs in the bottom left corner of the work area or by clicking
on the window.
Figure 4.1-4. Implementation of the MDI interface in the SCAD complex
Figure 4.1-5. The New Window dialog box Figure 4.1-6. Menu of tabs
When working in the postprocessor the Window menu contains the New Window item, which can be
used to create several windows with the information on the results of the analysis. This enables to analyze
simultaneously in several windows different factors or fragments of the model, for example, displacements
can be analyzed in one window and stresses – in the other one. Activating this menu item opens a dialog box
129
(Fig. 4.1-5), where you can indicate the parameters of the existing window that have to be transferred to the
new window (fragmentation history, active fragment, display settings).
Right-clicking on the tab of the window opens a menu (Fig. 4.1-6) which enables to perform the
following operations:
 close the respective window;
 close all windows;
 close all windows, except for the one that corresponds to the tab;
 create a new window.
Mouse Windows environment is designed for the work with a mouse; therefore
the majority of operations are carried out with its help. The cursor
moves over the screen field together with the mouse. To initiate the
operation it is necessary to place the cursor over a control "responsible"
for this operation, and click the left mouse button. Depending on the
type of the control clicking the button will perform certain actions (for
example, make a button shown on the screen "depressed").
“Double left click” or “double click” operation means clicking this
button twice with a very short interval (interval can be set when setting
the Windows environment).
Moreover, the following mouse controls are used in SCAD:
− right button (clicking when the cursor is in the work area of the window) — drops down a menu for
the control of the selection of nodes and elements;
− right button (clicking when the cursor is placed over one of the display filter buttons) — opens a
multi-tab dialog box for the setting of the display filters;
− middle mouse button (mouse wheel) — clicking and holding the button while dragging the cursor
moves the image of the design model in the window;
− mouse wheel (scrolling the wheel) — changes the scale of the image of the design model in the
window.
Cursors
Several types of cursors are used in the complex:
standard cursor — for selecting a mode or operation;
cross with a central target— for selecting one node or element;
cross with a rectangle — for selecting a group of nodes or elements using a rectangular marquee;
cross with an arbitrary polygon — for selecting a group of nodes or elements using a marquee of
an arbitrary shape;
move the separator line of the window vertically (for example, increase or decrease the size of
the message panel);
move the separator line of the window horizontally (for example, increase or decrease the size of
the table panel);
130
move the separator lines simultaneously horizontally and vertically (for example, change the
sizes of windows when displaying the model on projections);
mouse pointer for selecting buttons of the table control;
cursor for selecting data in tables.

In those cases when it takes a long time to perform an operation, the screen displays an «hourglass»
cursor — . When the operation is completed, a previous cursor is displayed.
Dialog Boxes
Different dialog boxes are used in the complex. A multi-tab dialog box is shown in Fig. 4.1-7.
Tabs for selecting pages
Input field
Radio buttons for

selecting an option «one Down-down list
from many»
Open list
Checkbox for selecting an

option
«several from many»
“Help” button
“OK” button “Cancel” button
Figure 4.1-7. Controls of dialog boxes

Apart from the controls shown in figure 4.1-7, sliders and marker buttons are used in dialog boxes.
Titles of most dialog boxes have a button , clicking which invokes the Setting of Units of
Measurement dialog box, where you can quickly change the units of measurement of values in the given
dialog box.
If the user has opened several design models and the dialog boxes (for example, the color scale dialog
box) are activated in one of them, then in order to find out which design model the information in the
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dialog box refers to, you just have to place the cursor over the title of the dialog box and a tooltip with the
name of the file the information refers to will appear (see Fig. 4.1-8).
File name
Figure 4.1-8. Tooltip with the file name.
Working with Tables

Universal tables are used to enter tabular information in dialog boxes. Operations with the data given in
tabular form are performed with the help of a set of commands (Fig. 4.1-9) invoked by right-clicking when
the cursor is in the table field (Fig. 4.1-10).
You must observe the following rules when entering the numerical data in tables:
 new rows can be added to the table by clicking the Add button;
 selected rows can be deleted by clicking the Delete button;
 the fractional and the integer parts of a number must be separated by a symbol assigned by the user
during the customization of the operating system, for example, period (Language and Regional
Settings section on the Control panel). Decimal point format is always available;
 numbers with a floating-point can be entered in scientific notation, for example, 3е-5;
 to switch between cells of the same row after entering a number, press the Tab key on your
keyboard, and to switch between rows of the same column use buttons ↓ and ↑;
 control of the table can be performed with the help of the drop-down menu (Fig. 4.1-9), which
appears after right-clicking (cursor must be in the table field);
 to select several successive cells or rows, place the cursor over the first one, click and hold the left
mouse button, and drag the pointer to the necessary cell or row;
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 to select some rows press the Ctrl key on your keyboard and holding it point at the numbers of the
selected rows fixing each row by clicking the left mouse button.
The set of commands for the control of the table includes the following commands:
 Copy — copies the contents of the selected rows or cells (horizontally or vertically) to the
Clipboard;
 Paste — inserts the information from the Clipboard into the table starting with the selected cell. If
in the process of inserting it turns out that the existing rows are not enough, they are automatically
added. Columns are not added, i.e. information on the right from the last column gets lost
(disappears);
 Insert row before selected row(s) (a selected row is a row with at least one active cell) — a row is
added before the selected row; all the cells of the new row will have default values (unless
otherwise specified, they are equal to zero);
 Insert row after selected row(s) — a row is added after the selected row (the command is
performed according to the same rules as the previous one);
 Clear selected row(s) — all cells of the selected rows are filled with default values (zero, as a
rule);
 Delete selected row(s) — deletes all the selected rows;
 Copy current rows — the entire row is copied to the clipboard regardless of whether it is selected
fully or partially;
 Paste current rows — pastes rows that were copied by the Copy current rows command.
It should be noted that the last two commands perform the check of the correctness of the information
for compliance with the format of tabular data before copying and pasting.
Figure 4.1-9. Set of commands for working with Figure 4.1-10. Working with tables
tabular data
Commands (Copy and Paste) can be used not only for operations with the current table of the
program but also to transfer the tabular data to other tables and applications, including those that are not a
part of the SCAD Office system (for example, MS Excel).
Tabular Representation of the Data and Results

The left part of the window where the design model is displayed contains a multi-tab panel with the tabular
representation of data (and in postprocessor – with the results of the analysis). Tabs enable to switch
between pages and proceed to the analysis of particular types of data.
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Each page displays information on the current fragment of the design model. Rows that refer to the
selected nodes/elements are highlighted in pink. Marker on the selection control panel enables to
switch to the mode where only the nodes/elements selected in the model are displayed in the tables. Marker
activates the mode which enables to perform the selection of nodes/elements in the model by
highlighting the respective rows in the tables.
Information in tables can be sorted according to a certain criterion which is selected from the drop-
down list, and buttons , enable to select whether to sort ascending or descending.
Buttons , enable to obtain the contents of tables in the form of a report document or a
spreadsheet respectively. Clicking the button copies the list of nodes/elements which are displayed in
the table to the clipboard.
When preparing the data double-clicking on most of the cells invokes a dialog box where you can
change the data for the node/element corresponding to the row of the table. If such a modification is
impossible, the cell is filled in grey. When analyzing the results the dialog will also appear, but you will
not be able to change the data (with the exception of the name of the node/element).
The first tab Display Filters actually contains information on the settings of the display filters states.
The Nodes tab (Fig. 4.1-11) contains information on
the nodes of the design model (names of nodes,
coordinates, constraints). Markers enable to

show or hide the coordinates of nodes and constraints.
If the model has selected nodes, then clicking the
button when preparing the data deletes them.

The analysis of results mode enables to obtain the
tabular representation of the following information:
Figure 4.1-11. The Nodes tab — displacements of nodes;
— reactions in constraints.
For dynamic loadings:
— weights of masses;
— accelerations of nodes;
— inertial forces.
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The Elements tab (Fig. 4.1-12) contains information

on the elements of the design model (name, type of the
finite element, number of the rigidity type, ...).
The upper part of the table contains filters which
enable to reject the display of finite elements of a certain
type (bars, plates, ...) in the table, and also the button
to delete the selected elements.
Figure 4.1-12. The Elements tab

Loads in Nodes (Fig. 4.1-13) and Loads on Elements (Fig. 4.1-14) tabs contain data on loads of the
current loading. Filters in the upper part enable to perform the filtration of the data in the table. For
example, for nodes — output only the loads of the displacement of the constraint type, and select the
output only along the Z axis from the Directions drop-down list. Similarly, the filtration by the types of
elements, types of loads, coordinate system (local or global), etc. can be performed for elements.
Figure 4.1-13. The Loads in Nodes tab Figure 4.1-14. The Loads on Elements tab
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When analyzing the results the Forces,

Stresses, Forces in Special Elements tabs (Fig.
4.1-15) appear, where the data on forces in bars,
stresses in plates and solid elements, forces in
special finite elements are output. The Mask button
invokes a dialog box (Fig. 4.1-16) where you can
specify the types of forces/stresses which should be
displayed in the table.
Figure 4.1-15. The Stresses tab
Figure 4.1-16. The Mask dialog box

Since the loading of data on forces/stresses is a relatively long procedure, tabular representation of the
information in the Forces and Stresses tabs is performed only after the user has ordered the graphic
display of diagrams or isofields.
List of Messages
When making any changes to the design model, the messages about these changes are recorded in a special
log (workbook) located at the lower part of the window displaying the design model (Fig. 4.1-17).
Figure 4.1-17. List of messages
This list can be cleared using the button of the Control toolbar.
Moreover, the log contains messages on the errors detected, for example, during the control of the
design model. In many cases these messages contain buttons which enable to perform the following
actions:
— display the entire design model and select elements/nodes the message refers to;
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— display the entire design model and select elements/nodes the message refers to for the further
fragmentation;
— select elements/nodes from the active fragment the message refers to;
— select elements/nodes from the active fragment the message refers to for the further
fragmentation.
If the cursor is in the workbook field and the right mouse button is clicked, a menu appears (Fig. 4.1-
18), the first two items of which enable to save the selected line in the Clipboard — Copy line command,
if any line of the workbook has been selected, or all lines of the messages — Copy all lines command.
Moreover, the buttons for the selection of objects specified in the workbook are duplicated in the menu.
Figure 4.1-18. Workbook menu
4.2. Undo and Redo Operations

The Operations menu (Fig. 4.2-1) enables to return to the previous state of the design model, i.e. cancel the
results of the work of the operations performed earlier (Undo) or restore the results of the operations after
they were cancelled (Redo). The Redo command is available only after invoking the undo command.
Figure 4.2-1. Undo and redo operations

Information in the menu includes the name of the last operation. The operation can be also undone or
redone with the help of the combination of buttons Ctrl+Z and Ctrl+Y respectively. Moreover, the main
menu also contains the Undo and Redo buttons.
4.3. Color Scales

Whenever there is a need to assess the overall picture of the distribution of a factor in the structure or its
fragment, color representation of the initial data and calculation results can be used.
This applies, for example, to color marking of the rigidity types or the values of displacements in
nodes, to isofields of stresses in plates or the total loads in nodes.
Depending on the type of data given in color, the scales can have a finite number of colors, for
example, the number of colors in the scale of the types of rigidities will correspond to the number of the
specified types of rigidities. When it comes to the results of the calculation, in most cases, the user himself
determines the number of intervals (colors) of the factor representation. Such scales can be called interval.
Color scales are given in the form of dialog boxes, each of which contains a table with the parameters
of a factor and the controls of the scale. The dialog boxes of the scale also contain information on the
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number of objects (nodes or elements) which have the property corresponding to the row of the table, and a
representation of the number in the form of a histogram (Fig. 4.3-1).
Controls of the color scale enable to control the display
depending on the type of information. Each interval of the
results or the model parameter (e.g., type of rigidity or the
value of the subsoil parameter) has a corresponding checkbox
and a color field. If the checkbox is checked, the results
included in the respective interval or objects with the
respective characteristics will be displayed on the model in
color (isofields, isolines, etc.) By unchecking the checkboxes
you can cancel the color display, for example, of the part of
the results with the values of the analyzed factor insignificant
for the behavior of the structure.
Figure 4.3-1. Dialog box of the color

scale
You can decrease or increase the number of intervals and make them uneven. In order to display such
settings use the button – Apply in the lower part of the dialog box with the scale. It is possible to
simultaneously enable or disable all intervals using the checkbox on the left above the color scale table.
Right-clicking on the table invokes a menu which enables to check or uncheck all checkboxes, invert
the selected checkboxes, select nodes and/or elements.
Control of the Interval Color Scales

A set of controls of interval color scales depends on the type of representation of the analyzed factor in the
scale. There are the following types of scales:
 uniform scales of force factors, displacements, utilization factors of restrictions, etc. with the
automatically adjusted values of intervals (the number of intervals is specified);
 scales of force factors, displacements, utilization factors of restrictions, etc. with the specified value
of the interval step (constant step);
 uniform scales with the specified value of the “transition zone”.
The type of scale is selected in the toolbar of the analyzed factor, and the type of representation –
directly in the dialog box of the color scale. For this purpose, there are four control buttons in the upper
part of the dialog box (except for a scale with the specified value of the "transition zone", where only one
button is used):
— specification of the value of the factor f, dividing the scale into two independent parts fmin ÷ f
and f ÷ fmax, each of which is divided into the respective number of equal intervals;
— uniform coloring of the specified scale interval;
— switching the type of representation of the factor values in the color scale table (in one or two
columns);
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— selection of the color scale palette.
In order to divide the scale into two parts click the button , and specify the value of the factor that
divides the scale in the invoked dialog box. After closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button, the
scale will be modified according to the new specifications.
Uniform coloring of the specified scale interval means that in the interval of the values of the factor fi
÷ fn the colors in the scale will change smoothly from the color specified for fi, to the color corresponding
to fn. In order to perform this operation you have to:
 uncheck checkboxes of all intervals of the color scale except for two checkboxes corresponding to
the intervals fi and fn;
 specify color for one of the intervals:
− place the cursor over the color field of the selected interval and double left-click;
− the standard Colors dialog box will appear where you have to select the color for this interval;
− repeat the same actions for the second interval;
 click the button .
Three fixed color scales are implemented in the program: "hot" – red-yellow-blue scale, "cold" –
blue-yellow-green scale and "gray" – in the shades of gray. Switching between scales is performed in the
drop-down menu that appears after clicking the button – Select palette.
The user can also prepare custom color scale palettes:
 specify colors for the intervals of one of the scales;
 click the button — Select palette in this color scale;
 select Save palette in the drop-down menu, the Save Palette dialog box will appear where you
have to specify the name of the palette.
Once the new scale is saved, it can be used not only in the current problem but also when working
with other models.
Select the Number of Intervals
When working with interval scales you can change the number of intervals of the color representation
of the factor by selecting a new value from the list — Select the number of intervals. The number
of intervals can take any value in the range from two to sixteen, and also twenty four, thirty two, forty eight
and sixty four.
Setting the Values of Intervals
When you invoke the color display of the calculation results in the form of an interval scale the entire
range of values of the factor is automatically divided into the currently set number of equal intervals. In
cases when the uneven division is preferable for the analysis, you can modify the scale by adjusting the
values of boundaries of individual intervals. To do this, click the button – Color scale settings, and
the Settings dialog box will appear. The values of boundaries of the intervals can be changed in the table,
the filling of which corresponds to the state of the color scale.
This dialog box also contains the Invert button, clicking which changes the colors of intervals in the
scale. The order of colors is reversed (for example, if in the scale the color changed from blue – for the
minimum value to red – for the maximum one, then after inverting the colors will change from red to blue).
Changes in the color scale will be performed after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
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Fragmentation of the Model

The model can be fragmented in such a way that the screen will display only the objects with the
values of the analyzed factor within the range of active (with checked checkboxes) intervals. To do this
make sure that only the intervals you are interested in are left active in the color scale and click the button
– Fragment, located in the lower right corner of the color scale.

Control of the Range of the Factor Values in the Color Scale
If the current window displays only a part of the model (the fragmentation of the design model is
performed), the values of the analyzed factor can be displayed in the color scale without fragmentation, i.e.
in the variation range of the factor values in the whole model, or only in the range of this fragment. The
Fragment scale checkbox is used to switch the scale.
To finish working with the color scale use the button .

Scale with a Constant Step of Intervals
Unlike the scales with an automatic step selection (depending on the number of intervals), the number
of intervals in the scales with a constant step will depend on the specified step. Intervals for this type of
scales are formed according to the following rule:
 value of factor fmin nearest to the minimum and multiple of the specified step is determined;
 the entire range of the factor values, starting with fmin, and to the value fmax, (number nearest to the
maximum factor value, less than the maximum and multiple of the step) is divided into equal
intervals;
 the first and the last values of the interval in the color range will be the values from the minimum
factor value to fmin and from fmax to the maximum factor value.
The value of the step is specified in the Settings dialog box, which is invoked by clicking the Color
scale settings button — .
If a certain scale has been changed (set), then these settings are saved in a file
with the extension .SCADModelColor in the catalogue of the design model. This
file with settings is deleted when you change the design model. If you want to
transfer the initial data, the results of the calculation and the color scale settings
to another computer, you should not forget to copy files of the SCADModelColor
type.
Scales with the Specified Value of the “Transition Zone”
A characteristic feature of this scale is a zone, conventionally called "transition" (although it is

possible that the user will be for some reason interested only in this range of the factor values). The
number of intervals in such a scale is always odd, the minimum number is three, and the maximum one is
fifteen. The settings of the zone are performed in the Settings dialog box, which is invoked by clicking the
Color scale settings button — . This dialog box is used to specify the value of the factor – f, around
which the transition zone is formed and the value that characterizes the size of this zone f. Interval of the
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factor values within the zone lies from f - f to f + f. Intervals lying outside the transition zone are divided
into equal parts depending on the specified number of intervals.
The upper part of the dialog box of the color scale contains only one setting button — for
changing the representation of the factor values in the table of the color scale (in one or in two columns).
4.4. Solution of the Simplest Problem

Since, as noted above, the principles of control of the SCAD complex are not much different from the
principles adopted for most applications implemented in the Windows operating environment, the given
general information is enough to try to solve the simplest problem. To do this, perform the following
actions:
 load the software;
 create a new project;
 create a design model;
 perform the calculation;
 perform the analysis of the calculation results.
Loading the Software
In order to start working with the software, place the cursor over the SCAD++ icon and double left-
click. The startup image will appear against the background of the initialization window (Fig. 4.4-1). It
takes a few seconds to load the complex. During this time, the screen displays the hourglass "waiting"
cursor (unless, of course, it is not replaced on your computer by a more exotic one). The completion of
loading is signalized by a change of the cursor from the waiting one to the arrow.
Initialization window contains a menu and the General Operations toolbar. The toolbar contains five
buttons. The first two buttons duplicate the similar functions of the File menu, and enable to perform the
respective operations in a shorter way.
The General Operations toolbar
Figure 4.4-1. The Structure CAD initialization window
— Create a new project;
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— Open project;
— Save project;
— Switching to the full-screen mode enables to increase the size of the working window vertically by
hiding the title bar and the taskbar. Clicking the button for the second time returns the window to its
original size;
— View the analysis log in the text editor specified in the settings;
— the Settings button invokes the Settings dialog box where you can specify the settings of the
software (units of measurement, fonts, assortments of rolled profiles, etc.), assumed for the current
problem.
If one or more buttons are in gray shades, it means that the respective operation or
option is currently not available.
Creating a New Project
In order to create a new project, place the cursor over the respective button of the toolbar and left-
click. The New Project dialog box will appear on the screen (Fig. 4.4-2), where you have to specify
information on the project (name, company, object), select the type of the design model (standard, design
model of the variation of models mode, erection or a model from enlarged elements created in the
FORUM preprocessor).
Figure 4.4-2. The New Project dialog box

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The Units of measurement and Design codes buttons invoke the respective dialog boxes, which
enable to set the respective parameters. The default units of measurement are meters for the sizes of the
design model, centimeters for the sizes of sections, and tons – for forces. Let’s agree that when creating a
design model of the simplest problem, these settings will not be changed, as well as the default design
codes. The description of the respective dialog boxes is given below.
Since the importance factors depend on the design codes, their values are selected from the respective
list after specifying the design code (when DBN B.1.2-14-2009 is used — there are two factors, — one for
the ultimate and one for the serviceability limit state).
Figure 4.4-3. Project tree

Type of the design model is selected from the list and determines the content and the maximum
number of the degrees of freedom in the nodes of the model, and it also describes the features of its stress-
strain state. The selected type of model must include all the necessary degrees of freedom for the finite
elements used in the model. The default type of model is type 5 — the general type system where each
node has six degrees of freedom: linear displacements X, Y, Z and rotation angles UX, UY, UZ.
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This dialog box is also used to specify the parameter determining the accuracy of the assessment of
duplicate nodes (the maximum distance between nodes at which the nodes are considered to be duplicate).
Almost all parameters specified in this dialog box can be changed in the course of creating the design
model.
The New Project dialog box like most other dialog boxes includes three command buttons: OK,
Cancel and Help.
OK — closes the dialog box automatically saving all the input information.
Cancel — closes the dialog box without saving the input information.
Help — provides access to the help information.
Thus, the New Project dialog box is used to customize the software before starting to work with the
project.
Clicking the OK button closes the dialog box and the screen will display a standard Save As dialog
box, where you have to specify the name of the file of the new project (let’s name the file of the simplest
problem, for example, Project 1). This name will be given to the actual file of the project, and also to all
service files and files with the calculation results. The file with the .SPR extension will be automatically
placed in the directory specified during the installation of the complex for saving the initial data.
After creating the file of the project the control is given to the Project tree (Fig. 4.4-3), which
contains three sections of the first level that are actually the stages of the solution of the problem: Initial
Data, Analysis and Results.
These sections contain links to the sections of the second level, which detail the performed operations,
for example, Design Model, Linear Calculation or Print Tables.
Sections Design Model and Special Initial Data contain subsections with a list of initial data.
The Project tree reflects the state of the project, i.e. the presence or absence of the respective type of
data in the project, and the availability of functions, such as calculation and the analysis of results. The
Tree is used to initialize all the functions – data input, calculation or the graphical analysis of the results.
In order to do it, just place the cursor over the name of the corresponding branch and left-click. Moreover,
the Project tree illustrates the structure of the software.
“Control” Section of the Preprocessor Toolbar

The work on a new project begins with creating a design model. To do this, place the cursor over the
Design Model section of the Project tree and left-click. The control will be transferred to the graphical
preprocessor, where the design model is created. The preprocessor toolbar contains various operations of
creating the geometry of the model, specifying the boundary conditions, loads, etc. After the start of the
preprocessor the Control section is active in the toolbar (Fig. 4.4-4).
Figure 4.4-4. The Control section of the preprocessor toolbar
— Exit — finish the work with the program;

— New project — create a new project;
— Open project — load a previously created project;
— Save — save the current project without changing the name;
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— Print — print the current image of the model;

— Exit to project control screen — transfer control to the Project tree;
— Pack data — the deleted nodes and elements are removed from the project, and the remaining
ones are renumbered; it is used in cases when the work on creating the model is finished, and
there is no need to save information on the deleted nodes and elements;
— Show/hide visualization toolbar — hide or display the Visualization toolbar on the screen;
— Show/hide filter toolbar — hide or display the Display Filters toolbar on the screen;
— Save the screen image — the current image of the model is saved as a Windows metafile (in a file
with extension .emf or .wmf) and can be used, for example, when preparing a report;
— Save as HTML — the current image of the model is saved as an HTML-file and can be used for
example to put it on the Internet;
— Save the fragment of the model — the fragment of the design model visible on the screen is
saved as an individual project;
— Express control of the model — perform the formal control of the design model in the process of
preparation of the initial data;
— Check the availability for analysis — perform the extensive control of the design model, check
the availability of the model for the analysis;
— Correct finite elements — delete or replace invalid (in terms of shape) finite elements;
— Determine the area of polygons — determine the area of the polygon specified on a plane
fragment of the design model;
— View the analysis log — the analysis log is output in the text editor specified in the settings;
— Settings — specify the settings of the software (units of measurement, fonts, assortments of rolled
profiles, etc.), assumed for the current problem;
— Clear the list of messages — clear the workbook with messages on the process of formation and
solution of the current problem.
Creating the Design Model, Calculation and Analysis of Results

This section provides a quick description of the operations of creating a design model. After performing
step by step the actions described below the simplest model will be created. Operations related to its
modification are not considered here, since the main goal is to master the basic principles of the software
control.
Operations of creating the design model and analyzing the calculation results are implemented in a
single graphical environment. The location of controls and, in fact, the control of the software is the same
for these modes. They only have different sets of functions.
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Input the Parameters of the Design Model

Let’s use an example given in Fig. 4.4-5 – a frame with three spans and two storeys, as a training
model. To create a design model of such an object, you can use the standard operation Generate a frame
prototype – . This operation, like most other operations of creating design models based on parametric
prototypes, is invoked from the Model section of the toolbar (Fig. 4.4-6).
Place the cursor over an icon with the image of a multi-storey and multi-span frame in the Select
Frame Configuration dialog box (Fig. 4.4-7) and left-click. After clicking the OK button this dialog box
will close and the Specify the Parameters of a Regular Frame dialog box will appear (Fig. 4.4-8).
This dialog box is used to specify the geometric sizes of the frame and the rigidities of elements, and
to impose constraints on nodes. Two tables are used to specify the sizes: the left one — to describe the
spans and the right one — to describe the storeys.
Figure 4.4-5. Design model
Button invoking the Generate a frame prototype operation
Figure 4.4-6. The Model toolbar
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Figure 4.4-7. The Select Frame Configuration

dialog box
Figure 4.4-8. The Specify the Parameters of a

Regular Frame dialog box
Let’s specify three spans of 6 m each into the table with the description of spans, and one storey with
the height of 4 m and another with the height of 3.3 m into the table with the description of storeys.
The checked Automatic installation of constraints checkbox means that constraints in the directions
corresponding to the active (pressed) marker buttons with the name of the degrees of freedom will be
installed at the base of the columns of the generated frame. Markers corresponding to the degrees of
freedom of the type of model selected for the problem are activated by default.
Columns and Girders buttons are used to specify the stiffness properties for the respective elements
of the model, and the Type of element button is used to specify the types of finite elements.
Specification of the Stiffness Properties of the Elements
When specifying the parameters of the frame it is assumed that the input values of the stiffness
properties of columns are assigned to all columns, and those of girders are assigned to all girders.
The stiffness properties of columns can be specified in the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box
(Fig. 4.4-9), which appears after clicking the Columns button.
Sections of elements selected for the frame (Fig. 4.4-5) belong to the so-called parametric sections, and
in order to specify them you have to enable the respective radio button in the first tab (General Data) of the
dialog box. Stiffness properties of parametric sections are calculated automatically depending on the material,
shape and sizes of the section. These data can be specified in the Parametric Sections tab (Fig. 4.4-10).
Figure 4.4-9. The Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog Figure 4.4-10. The Parametric Sections tab
box
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It is recommended to perform the actions in the following sequence:

− select the class of concrete from the Material list, for example, В25; the fields with the properties
of the selected material are filled automatically;
− press the marker-button with the image of a column section, in this case — rectangle;
− specify the sizes of the section in the text fields;
− to check the specified data you can use the Characteristics of the section button, clicking which
invokes the Section Properties dialog box with the characteristics of the section;
− if the specifications are correct – click the OK button of the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box
(the dialog box will close).
After the last operation the control goes back to the dialog box for the specification of the parameters
of the frame. Click the Girders button and perform the above actions for the specification of the stiffness
properties of girders. Pay attention to Fig. 4.4-5 – unlike columns, girders have a T-section.
Generation of the Model
Since all parameters of the frame are determined (types of finite elements are assigned automatically
based on the selected type of the model), the design model is generated after clicking the OK button and its
image appears in the window (Fig. 4.4-11).
Figure 4.4-11. Design model of the frame

If you use the filters of the display control (Fig. 4-1), information on the numbers of nodes, elements,
and types of rigidity can be obtained directly on the design model.
In order to do it, activate the respective buttons of the filters toolbar:
— numbers of elements;
— constraints;
— numbers of nodes;
— types of rigidity;
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— display nodes.
A design model with nodes, their numbers, numbers of finite elements, numbers of types of rigidity
and designations of constraints is given in Fig. 4.4-11. In order to perform the calculation, it is necessary to
specify the loads.
Specification of Loads
Operations of the specification of loads are invoked from the Loadings section of the toolbar
(Fig. 4.4-12).
These operations provide an automatic generation of the self-weight of the structure, specification of
different types of dynamic and static loads on nodes and elements of the model, saving of the specified
loads as systems of loadings or groups of loads.
Button invoking the Loads on bars operation
Button invoking the

Save/Add loading operation Button invoking the Remove all loads operation
Figure 4.4-12. The Loadings section of the preprocessor toolbar

Let’s specify loads on the design model in the form of two loadings:
Loading 1 — describes the permanent load on floors and roofs and the self-weight of columns, the
first of which is specified as a uniformly distributed load of 4,36 T/m on girders, and the second one — on
columns — 0,66 T/m. Loads are specified in the direction of the Z axis of the global coordinate system;
Loading 2 — describes the temporary load with a reduced characteristic value on girders. It is specified in
the same way as loading 1, but with another value of the load — 3,57.
When performing the calculation it is assumed that the design values of loads are given,
i.e. characteristic values are multiplied by the safety factor for load. Thus, when
specifying loads on nodes and elements of the model, all loads must be first reduced to
their design values.
Use the following buttons of the toolbar to specify these loads:
— Loads on bars;
— Remove all loads;
— Save/Add loading.
It is necessary to perform the following operations to specify the loads:
− click the button for the specification of loads on bar elements , the Specify Loads on Bar
Elements dialog box will appear (Fig. 4.4-13), where you have to specify the type, direction and
value of the first load;
− click the OK button in the dialog box;
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− using one the cursors select elements of the model the load is applied to (the selected elements
will be displayed in red);
− click the button in the toolbar of the Loadings mode, or press the Enter button on the
keyboard;
− repeat the above actions for the second type of load of the first loading.
Please pay attention to the actions listed above. The vast majority of the operations
with nodes and elements of the design model are performed exactly in this order.
Shortly this sequence can be written as follows: select an operation, specify the
parameters, select objects in the model, click the OK button in the toolbar the selected
operation belongs to, or press the Enter key on the keyboard.
Figure 4.4-13. The Specify Loads on Bar Elements dialog box
If you activate the display filter of distributed loads , the specified loads will be shown on the
design model. If the visualization filter of the load values is enabled , the load value will be shown
next to the load. A design model with the display of the specified loads is shown in Fig. 4.4-14.
In order to save the loading click the Save/Add loading button — in the toolbar, and the Save
Loading dialog box will appear (Fig. 4.4-15).
This dialog box is used to specify the name of the loading, select the type of loading and the type of
load from the respective lists, and to specify the safety factor for load. You also have to indicate whether
the specified loads are characteristic or design. When all the data is specified, click the Save as new button
and the new loading will be saved. Information on the loading will appear in the loadings table of the
dialog box.
A number is assigned to the loading automatically. You do not necessarily have to specify the name
of the loading, but this information helps in the analysis of the initial data and the calculation results. The
type of loading, the type of load and the safety factor for load will be used as the initial data of design
combinations of forces (DCF).
In order to complete the specification of the current loading, it has to be saved (in the
project). Otherwise the loading will not be taken into account when performing the
calculation.
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Figure 4.4-14. Design model with displayed loads
Figure 4.4-15. The Save Loading dialog box
Specification of the Next Loading

In cases when after saving the current loading you want to create a new one, it is necessary to remove
the specified loads from the design model. This will be done automatically if before closing the Save
Loading dialog box you enable the Save and proceed to creating a new loading option. If for some
reason you do not do it, then after saving the loading in the project it will still be active with all the loads
specified in it.
In this situation to proceed to creating a new loading use the Remove all loads operation — .
Create a second loading including a temporary load with a reduced characteristic value. Use the above
sequence of actions and specify the loads on the elements of the design model, and then save the loading,
giving it a name, type, and indicating the respective type of load.
Saving and Loading Files of the Project when Working with the Model
If when working with a model you need to save its current state on the disk, use the Save operation. If it is
necessary to save the current state of the model under another name, use the Save Project As … operation
available in the File menu. In the last case a model with a new name will be available for working.
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When loading a design model from the disk the software may generate the following message:
"The document has been changed since it was last saved. To return to the saved version
close the current document and reopen it".
This message appears when a user modifies the design model and attempts to load the same model from
the disk. The software suggests to first save the modified model on the disk, and then to load it. If for some
reason the modified model has to be replaced by a model saved on the disk without saving the current state
of the model, it is necessary to close the active model using the Close Project operation in the File menu,
and then load the model from the disk.
4.5. Calculation
Mathematics may be compared to a mill of
exquisite workmanship, which grinds your stuff to
any degree of fineness; but, nevertheless, what you
get out depends on what you put in; and as the
grandest mill in the world will not extract wheat flour
from peas cods, so pages of formulae will not get a
definite result out of loose data
T. HUXLEY
The input data is sufficient to perform the analysis of the created design model. Most likely, the
simplest problem will be set correctly. However, when preparing more complex design models it is
advisable to perform a control of the generated model before the calculation. Special operations in the
Control section of the preprocessor toolbar are used for this purpose. A formal control of the design model
in the process of the preparation of the input data is performed by the Express control of the model
operation (Fig. 4.5-1) — , the Check the availability for analysis operation (Fig. 4.5-2) — , is
used for the extensive control similar to that performed during the calculation, and the Correct finite
elements operation (Fig. 4.5-3) — , is used to control the correctness of the shape and to correct
invalid finite elements.
Figure 4.5-1. The Express Figure 4.5-2. Message window with Figure 4.5-3. The Correct Finite
Control of the Model dialog the results of the extensive control Elements dialog box
box
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Before performing the express control it is necessary to indicate the parameters of the design model
that have to be checked with the help of the checkboxes in the Express Control of the Model dialog box.
The list of these parameters is quite obvious. We should probably only comment on the concept of
connectivity of the model.
A model is considered to be connected if for every pair of elements (E1,E2) we can find a sequence of
elements beginning with the element E1 and ending with the element E2 in which each successive element
has a common node (or common nodes) with the previous one. Moreover, merged displacements are taken
into account in the analysis of connectivity.
If it turns out that the model is not connected, i.e., consists of several fragments, the information on
the number of elements included in each of these fragments is output in the list of messages (see Fig. 4.1-
17). You can perform the selection or fragmentation of the respective part of the model using the following
controls of the list of messages — , , , .
To perform the calculation it is necessary to return to the Project tree by activating the Control tab
in the toolbar and clicking the button — Exit to project control screen (Project tree).
If there is an icon next to the Linear item of the project tree, it means that the design model is
ready for the calculation. Icon means that the calculation is not available. The reason for this, as a
rule, is a complete or partial absence of the required initial data. These data include loads, stiffness
properties and, of course, the description of the geometry of the design model. In cases when the optional
data is missing (for example, the description of hinges the model might not have), the icon of the
respective branch of the Project tree in the Design Model section contains a question mark .
Place the cursor over the Linear item in the Calculation group of functions and left-click (Fig. 4.5-
4). The Calculation Parameters dialog box will appear (Fig. 4.5-5), where you can set the calculation
parameters. A detailed description of the settings is provided in the following chapters. Let’s assume the
default values of the parameters for the calculation, and click the OK button.
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The calculation progress is displayed in a special window (Fig. 4.5-6), the title of which contains the
name of the problem. The window consists of three fields, the first one displays the design model, the
second one contains the profile of the stiffness matrix, and the third one provides the analysis log. If the
cursor is in the first field (design model), you can rotate the model by holding the left mouse button down
and moving the mouse (a double click will restore the image to its original state).
Buttons in the toolbar of this window invoke the following operations:
— Close the calculation window — aborts the current calculation;
— Stop the calculation — stops the calculation;
— Continue the calculation — continues the calculation after the stop.
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Figure 4.5-5. The Calculation Parameters dialog Figure 4.5-6. Window displaying the calculation
box progress
The analysis log contains all the information on the calculation progress, errors that have occurred
and warnings, as well as the data on the design model. To view the log use the respective operation ,
which can be invoked from the Control toolbar of the pre- and post-processor or the Project tree window.
4.6. Graphical Analysis of the Calculation Results

After completing the calculation and clicking the Close the calculation window button the control goes to
the project tree. If the calculation was successful, you can proceed to the analysis of the obtained solution.
Place the cursor over the Graphical Analysis item of the Results section of the project tree and left-
click. This will activate the window of the graphical postprocessor (Fig. 4.6-1), the toolbar of which
contains tabs of the visualization panel for the calculation results (displacements, forces and stresses), as
well as the results of work of calculation and design postprocessors – tabs Postprocessors (analysis of
loads from the structural fragment, the principal and equivalent stresses, etc.), Steel (check of elements of
steel structures), Reinforced Concrete (check of elements of reinforced concrete structures).
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Figure 4.6-1. Window of the graphical postprocessor
Analysis of Displacements
Analysis of displacements is performed with the help of operations of the respective section (Fig. 4.6-2) of
the toolbar. In order to do it, perform the following actions:
− activate the mode of the analysis of displacements by clicking the tab;
− select the analyzed loading from the Select loading list;
− select the direction of the displacement from the Type of displacements list;
− click the button invoking the operation of display of the calculation results (for example, Display
the initial model together with the deformed one — Fig. 4.6-1).
Displaying the initial model together with
Selection of loading
the deformed one
Direction of displacements
Figure 4.6-2. Toolbar of the analysis of displacements mode
The set of display operations enables to obtain different representations of the results of the
calculation of displacements. Each representation has a corresponding button in the toolbar. You can use
the following buttons when analyzing displacements from static loads in bar structures:
— displays the initial model together with the deformed one;
— displays the deformed model;
— outputs values of displacements in nodes;
— color indication of the displacement value in nodes;
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— displays the model.

A deformed model can be displayed together with one of the types of color indication, for example,
an indication in the form of color markers in the nodes of the original model and the deformed state of the
structure are shown in Fig. 4.6-1.
Analysis of Forces
Since regardless of the mode the consistency of control functions is maintained in the software, the
analysis of force factors (in this case – the generation of diagrams) is performed according to the same
rules as the analysis of the displacements.
Scale of the display of
Selection of the type diagrams
Force diagrams of force
Selection of loading
Figure 4.6-3. Toolbar of the analysis of forces mode
You can use the following operations in the respective toolbar (Fig. 4.6-3) to display the force
diagrams:
— force diagrams;
— color indication of the positive values of forces;
— color indication of the negative values of forces;
— displays the model.
An example of display of forces in frame elements using various means (diagrams and color
indication) and in various windows is given in Fig. 4.6-4. New windows can be created with the help of the
respective command in the Window menu. The rules on using the multi-window mode are given in the
respective section of this book.
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Figure 4.6-4. Example of display of force factors in the multi-window mode
4.7. Creating a Design Model from 2D Elements

This section provides an example of the generation of a design model from shell elements. Let’s consider a
horizontal rectangular shell, supported on its three sides (Fig. 4.7-1).
Figure 4.7-1.
Similarly to the previous example, a parametric model invoked by clicking the button —
Generate a rectangular mesh of elements on the plane, in the Model section of the toolbar (Fig. 4.7-2),
is used when creating the model.
Generate a rectangular mesh of elements on the plane
Figure 4.7-2.
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The Generate a Plate Model dialog box (Fig. 4.7-3) is

used to specify the parameters of the model which include:
− type and position of the model in space — select Shell
[XOY];
− spacing of finite elements along the X axis and the
number of spacings — specify the spacing of 0.125 m
and the number of spacings — 20;
− spacing of finite elements along the other axis
depending on the position of the model (in our case —
the Y axis), and the number of spacings — specify the
spacing of 0.125 m and the number of spacings — 16.
This dialog box can be also used to invoke operations to
specify the rigidities of finite elements (FE) and to select their
type (the Rigidities of Plates (Fig. 4.7-4) and Specify the
Element Type (Fig. 4.7-5) dialog boxes respectively) by
clicking the respective buttons.
Figure 4.7-3. The Generate a Plate
Model dialog box
In order to specify the stiffness properties of shell elements you just have to select the name of the
material from the list in the Material group and specify the thickness of the plates (for example, concrete
B20 and 0.3 m) in the Rigidities of Plates dialog box. The element type, for example, FE 44 (quadrangular
shell FE) is selected from the list of the Specify the Element Type dialog box.
Figure 4.7-4. The Rigidities of Plates dialog Figure 4.7-5. The Specify the Element Type dialog
box box
After specifying all the parameters and closing the Generate a Plate Model dialog box (the OK
button) a design model of a rectangular shell from square 4-node finite elements will be generated (Fig.
4.7-6).
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Element number
Display of constraints
Figure 4.7-6. Design model of the shell
Specification of the Boundary Conditions

Let’s assume that the model is rigidly clamped on three sides. Such boundary conditions can be applied by
installing constraints in nodes along the contour.
Installation of constraints in nodes
Figure 4.7-7. The Assign toolbar

Constraints can be installed with the help of the respective operation in the Assign section of the
toolbar (Fig. 4.7-7). Clicking the Install constraints in nodes button invokes the Constraints dialog box,
where you can specify the directions of displacements on which the constraints are imposed by checking
the checkboxes (Fig. 4.7-8). The following procedure is standard – close the dialog box (the OK button),
select the nodes in which the constraints are installed by one of the cursors, and click the OK button in the
Assign toolbar or press the Enter key on the keyboard.
Figure 4.7-8. The Constraints dialog box
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Specification of Loads
As in the previous example, the control of the input of loads and creation of loadings is performed from the
Loadings toolbar.
When performing the calculation it is assumed by default that the design values of
loads are given, i.e. characteristic values are multiplied by the safety factor for load.
Let’s take the self-weight of the slab as the first loading. The respective operation in the toolbar is
used to specify it (Fig. 4.7-9). Clicking the Self-weight button invokes the dialog box, where you can
specify the factor with which the load from the self-weight will be included in the loading (Fig. 4.7-10).
Specification of self-weight
Specification of loads on plates

Figure 4.7-9. The Loadings toolbar
If you want the self-weight to be specified automatically, before activating this operation you have to
make sure that the stiffness properties of elements, including the description of the section (for bars) or the
thickness of the element (for plates and shells), as well as the characteristics of the material (specific
weight) are specified.
The load will be specified for the elements of the model after
closing the dialog box (the OK button). As mentioned above, in
order to save the loading you have to click the Save/Add loading
button — in the toolbar, and the Save Loading dialog box will
appear (Fig. 4.4-15), where you can specify the type of loading and
the type of load, and save the loading in the project.
In order to prepare the model for creating a new loading, it is
necessary to remove all the specified loads from it.
Figure 4.7-10. The Self-weight
dialog box
Let’s apply a local load (square 0.5m  0.5m) in the center of the slab in the second loading. To do
this, perform the following actions:
− click the Loads on plates button in the Loadings toolbar (Fig. 4.7-9);
− check the Distributed checkbox in the Type of load group in the Specify Loads on Plate
Elements dialog box (Fig. 4.7-11);
− enable the Z marker in the Direction of the load group;
− specify the load, for example, 50 t/m2 in the Load value group;
− select the elements in the model for which the load is applied by one of the cursors (the selected
elements will be displayed in red);
− click the button in the toolbar of the Loadings mode or press the Enter key on the keyboard
(if you activate the Distributed loads filter, the specified load will be shown on the design model
— Fig. 4.7-12);
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− save the loading (see the description of the first example).
Figure 4.7-11. The Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box
Figure 4.7-12. Load on the slab
Graphical Analysis of the Calculation Results

Having performed the calculation according to the rules given in the description of the previous example, switch
to the mode of the graphical analysis of the results. The following types of representation of the results are
available for the models from 2D elements (plates and shells): a deformed model, color markers of
displacements and force factors, isolines and isofields of displacements and force factors (Fig. 4.7-13).
Unlike bar structures for which the color scale of displacements can only be represented by color
markers in nodes, the isofields and isolines can be plotted in addition to the markers for structures from
two-dimensional elements. The control of the output of isofields and isolines of displacements is
performed in the Displacements toolbar (Fig. 4.6-2). To do this, use the following buttons:
— display isofields of displacements;
— display isofields and isolines of displacements;
— display isofields of displacements with a constant (specified) step;
— display isolines of displacements;
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— display isolines of displacements with a constant (specified) step.
Figure 4.7-13. Different types of representation of the results of calculation of 2D elements

The control of representation of the results of calculation of the force factors for 2D elements is
performed in the Stress Fields toolbar (Fig. 4.7-14). To do this, use the following buttons:
— display isofields of stresses;
— display isofields and isolines of stresses;
— display isofields of stresses with a constant (specified) step;
— display isolines of stresses;
— display isolines of stresses with a constant (specified) step;
— plot stress diagrams along a secant line.
Selection of the factor
Figure 4.7-14. The Stress Fields toolbar
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4.8. THUS …
The Red Queen shook her head,
"You may call it nonsense if you like," she said, "but
I've heard nonsense, compared with which that would
be as sensible as a dictionary!"
L.CARROLL “Alice in Wonderland”
… simple and as a rule the most used in practice techniques of working with the software have been
considered in the Structure CAD for DUMMIES chapter. A sequence of actions from creating a design
model to the analysis of the calculation results is illustrated on the example of the simplest problems.
Despite the minimum of the used functions, it reflects the general technology of working with the program.
The following basic requirements to a design model and the principles of control of the software can
be formulated for novice users:
1. The obligatory initial data (the minimum requirement for performing the calculation) include:
geometry of the design model (description of nodes and elements), stiffness properties of the
elements, description of the boundary conditions (e.g. constraints) and loads.
2. Any function of the software can be activated from the Project tree.
3. Most operations of creating a design model can be performed by the following sequence of actions:
− activate the respective section in the toolbar by clicking on its tab;
− click the button with the icon of the performed operation;
− if additional information is required to perform the operation, specify the necessary data in the
invoked dialog box and close it by clicking the OK button;
− select (by the cursor) the respective nodes and elements (they will be displayed in red);
− click the OK button (Confirmation) — in the section of the Toolbar the operation has been
selected from or press the Enter key on the keyboard (Enter and Esc keys are called “hot”, they
can be used instead of the Confirmation and Rejection buttons of the toolbar);
− if the operation has been completed successfully, the elements or the nodes involved in the
operation will be displayed again in the color of the design model; otherwise a message with the
reasons of the rejection of the operation will appear.
4. A system of display filters is used to reflect the results of the operations on the model.
5. The calculation will be available in the project tree, if the prepared data on the design model are
sufficient to perform it.
6. The calculation progress is provided in the log, which contains information on the performed actions,
and on the warnings and errors detected during the calculation.
7. If the analysis has been completed successfully (in this case we mean only that the files with the
calculation results have been generated, irrespective of the quality of the results), the Graphical
Analysis function will be available in the Results section of the project tree.
8. The following procedure is recommended for the graphical analysis of the results:
− select a section in the toolbar with the information you are interested in by clicking on its tab
(Displacements, Force Diagrams, Stress Fields);
− select a loading from the list of loadings;
− specify the analyzed factor in the list of factors (direction of displacements or the type of the force
factor);
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− click the button corresponding to the selected representation of the result (deformed model,
diagrams, isofields, etc.).
9. In order to compare different results, for example, displacements from different loadings, you can
display different analyzed factors in separate windows.
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5. Creating a Design Model

The Model section of the toolbar contains operations which enable to create a design model or its part on
the basis of parametric structural prototypes. Moreover, the operations of this section are used for the
modification of the model using the mechanisms of affine transformations, copying, assembling, etc.
Figure 5-1. The Model section of the preprocessor toolbar

The following operations can be invoked from the Model section:
— generate a frame prototype;
— generate a truss prototype;
— duplicate the frame along the axis;
— generate a rectangular mesh of elements on the plane;
— generate a grade beam;
— create surfaces of revolution;
— create surfaces of revolution by the specified formula;
— create surfaces by the specified formula;
— create a standard analytic surface;
— create standard structures;
— specify grid lines;
— geometric transformations;
— copy the model;
— copy the fragment of the model;
— creation and modifications of trajectories;
— delete model;
— delete selected objects;
— assembling a model from several models (Assembling mode);
— generate a mesh of an arbitrary shape on the plane;
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5.Creating a Design Model
— invoke a graphics editor.

Since most operations of the Model section are performed immediately after specifying the
parameters in the dialog boxes and do not require special confirmation, this section of the toolbar does not
contain the OK — and Cancel — buttons.
5.1. Design Models of Frame Bar Structures
Generate a Frame Prototype Operation
This operation enables to create two types of bar frame structures on the basis of parametric
prototypes – multi-storey multi-span frames and single-storey multi-span frames of industrial buildings. A
frame configuration can be selected in the Select Frame Configuration dialog box (Fig. 5.1-1) by clicking
on the respective icon.
Figure 5.1-1. The Select Frame Configuration dialog box
Multi-Storey Multi-Span Frames

Data necessary to create a model of a multi-storey multi-span frame is input in the Specify the Parameters
of a Regular Frame dialog box (Fig. 5.1-3). This dialog box is used to specify sizes of the frame, rigidities
of the elements, and types of finite elements, and to impose constraints in nodes. Two tables are used to
input the sizes: the left one — to describe the spans, and the right one — to describe the storeys.
The checked Automatic installation of constraints checkbox means that constraints in the directions
corresponding to the active (pressed) marker buttons with the name of the degrees of freedom will be
installed at the base of the columns of the generated frame. Markers corresponding to the degrees of
freedom of the type of model selected for the problem are activated by default.
Columns and Girders buttons are used to specify the stiffness properties for the respective elements
of the model, and the Type of element button is used to specify the types of finite elements. These data are
specified with the help of the respective operations in the Assign toolbar and are described in Section 7
(Specifying Characteristics of Nodes and Elements).
By default, the frame will be located in the XOZ plane. Checkbox Along the Y axis allow to place
the structure in the plane YOZ.
The program has almost no restrictions on the number of specified spans and storeys (in this case
“almost” means 32000). Moreover, the degrees of freedom opened in this dialog box by default the
constraints are imposed on are limited by six. If more degrees of freedom are used in the created bar model
(for example, index of the system type 8 or 9), the missing constraints in nodes have to be specified using
the respective operation from the Assign section of the toolbar.
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In those cases when the sections of individual girders or columns differ from those specified when
creating a frame (for example, some girders have a different section), you should use the Assign rigidities
for bars operation — from the Assign section of the toolbar and specify all the necessary
characteristics for these elements. However, in order to generate the geometry of a design model it is
usually enough to fill only the data in the tables.
Let’s consider a frame (Fig. 5.1-2) with five spans (2х6 m, 3 m, 2х4.5 m) and 10 storeys (4 m,
8х3.3 m, 2.5 m) as an example of a multi-storey multi-span frame which will be used to describe the
technology of creating a design model.
Figure 5.1-2.
A dialog box with the initial data for the generation of this frame is shown in figure 5.1-3.
If all the necessary parameters of the frame are determined, then after clicking the OK button the
model will be generated (the result for the above example is shown in Fig. 5.1-4).
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Figure 5.1-3. The Specify the Parameters of a Regular Frame dialog box
Numbers of nodes
Numbers of elements
Constraints
Display of nodes
Figure 5.1-4. The design model of the multi-storey multi-span frame
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Single-Storey Multi-Span Frames of Industrial Buildings

This parametric prototype enables to generate a design model of a single- or multi-span single-storey frame
with different configuration of a girder (dual-pitched symmetric, dual-pitched asymmetric, mono-pitched),
and also to take into account the presence of crane beams. Initial data necessary to generate a frame are
specified in the Single-Storey Frame dialog box (Fig. 5.1-6) and include:
 lengths of spans and their number (are specified in the table);
 column height — H;
 girder slope — p (in percent, is assumed the same in all spans);
 position of the ridge joint (is defined by the ratio of the distance from the joint to the left column —
Lc to the length of the span — Lp).
Figure 5.1-5. Single-storey multi-span frame
a) b)
Figure 5.1-6. The Single-Storey Frame dialog box with the initial data necessary to create a design
model: a) without a crane beam and b) with a crane beam
Moreover, the dialog box enables to:
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 automatically install the constraints in the column bases (if the Installation of constraints
checkbox is checked) and specify the directions of the degrees of freedom of displacements the
constraints are imposed on;
 model structures of crane beams (if the Crane beam checkbox is checked) and specify elevation
— h and horizontal location — w of the supports of crane beams (Fig. 5.1-6,b);
 specify the stiffness properties of columns and girders — the respective buttons are used (it is
assumed that all girders have the same section and all columns have the same section);
 specify the type of finite elements (it corresponds to the type of the model by default, i.e., if type 2
is selected in the identification data of the project, then the elements will be of type 2, if the model
is of type 5, then the elements will be of type 5 as well).
By default, the frame will be located in the XOZ plane. Checkbox Along the Y axis allow to place
the structure in the plane YOZ.
Let’s consider a frame with dual-pitched symmetric girders as an example of a single-storey multi-
span frame (Fig. 5.1-5). It has three spans (24 m, 36 m and 24 m) and the column height of 12 m, girder
slope – 20%, elevation of the crane beam – 8 m and the offset value of the axes of the part under the crane
with respect to that above the crane — 0.5 m.
Filter of display of rigid inserts is disabled (element is

shown with an inclination)
Filter of display of rigid inserts is enabled (a rigid

insert is shown)
Figure 5.1-7. Display of rigid inserts on the design model

In order to model the bearing of crane beams on the edge columns, an offset of the axes of the column
part under the crane with respect to that above the crane using rigid inserts is provided in the design model.
Intermediate nodes are created in the middle columns and the user has to select the modeling method for
the bearing of crane beams (creating cantilevers, applying loads to the central node, etc.). To display the
rigid inserts on the model use the respective filter button . Since in this case the rigid inserts are
created in the direction of the local Z1 axis of the element, then when the filter button is disabled the
elements modeling the column part above the crane will be displayed at an angle (Fig. 5.1-7).
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You can obtain different configurations of a girder by changing the position of the ridge joint. If Lc/Lp
= 0.5, the ridge joint will be in the middle of the span, i.e. a model with a symmetric dual-pitched girder
will be generated. If Lc/Lp = 1 — the girder will be mono-pitched with a ridge joint near the right column,
and if Lc/Lp = 0 — near the left column. For values 0 < Lc/Lp < 1, different from 0.5, a model with an
asymmetric dual-pitched girder will be generated.
It should be noted that the parameters specified in the Single-Storey Frame dialog box are the same
for all spans. If some spans are different from the others, then after the generation of the model you should
use the respective operations and change their characteristics (for example, to change the sections of
elements or their orientation angle – use the respective operations of the Assign toolbar, and to change the
geometry of the frame use the operations of the Nodes and Elements toolbar).
5.2. Creating Models of Plane Hinged-Bar Systems
A library of parametric prototypes available in the software can be used to create a design model of a
truss. A truss prototype is selected according to two parameters — configuration of the chords and the type
of the lattice.
Clicking on the arrow on the right from the Generate a truss prototype button , drops down a
menu where you can select the material of the truss (Generate a steel truss prototype or Generate a
timber truss prototype). It is assumed that the steel truss is made from rolled angles or round and rec-
tangular (square) pipes, and the timber one – from round or rectangular beams. In the case when during the
generation the stiffness properties do not have to be assigned to the truss elements, the button is used.
Generating a Steel Truss Prototype

The two-tab Generate a Truss Prototype dialog box (Fig. 5.2-1) enables to select the configuration of the
truss chords, type of the lattice and to specify the parameters of the truss. Trusses with the following
configurations of the chords can be generated in the software:
 parallel chord trusses;
 triangular trusses;
 trapezoid trusses;
 trusses with polygonal top chords.
The following procedure for specifying the data in this dialog box is recommended:
in the General tab:
− select the configuration of the truss chords from the respective list;
− click on the icon with the image of the respective lattice;
− specify the sizes of the truss and the number of panels in the table (to check the geometry of the
truss you can use the Preview button — , clicking which invokes a dialog box with a drawing
of this truss);
− switch to the Section tab (Fig. 5.2-2);
in the Section tab:

− select a marker-button with the image of a profile of the truss elements;
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− enable a radio button in the Cross-section group, for example, Top chord (the selected element
will be displayed in red in the drawing of the truss);
− select the section of this truss element in the list of assortments of rolled profiles (the name of the
selected profile will be shown in the Profile table);
− select the thickness of the gusset plate g from the list in the Profile table;
− repeat the last three operations for other elements of the truss;
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Figure 5.2-1. The General tab of the Generate a Figure 5.2-2. The Section tab of the Generate a
Truss Prototype dialog box Truss Prototype dialog box
If the parameters of the truss are specified correctly, its design model will be displayed on the screen (Fig. 5.2-3).
Delete lines of the

invisible contour
Enable/disable lighting
Figure 5.2-3. Design model of the truss
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Work in the Section Tab (Additional Features)

Sections of truss elements are selected with the help of the following marker buttons:
— double angles arranged as a tee connected on short legs;
— double angles arranged as a tee connected on long legs;
— equal angles arranged as a cross;
— round pipes;
— rectangular pipes with a long vertical side or square;
— rectangular pipes with a long horizontal side or square.

After selecting the type of section only the items corresponding to the selected section will be available
in the lists of assortments of rolled profiles.
In order to remember the frequently used profiles or combinations of double angles the software enables
to create a library of custom sections. The buttons Save cross-section in the user database — and
Load cross-section from the user database — enable to use sections created not only in SCAD, but
also in other applications of the SCAD Office system (for example, in Kristall). File of the database of
custom sections UserSectionStorage.uss is saved in the Application Data section of the Documents and
Settings system directory.
Clicking the Preview button — opens the Preview dialog box with the image of the selected
section (Fig. 5.2-4).
Clicking the Geometric properties button invokes the Section Properties dialog box which provides
the drawing of the section together with its geometric properties given in the tabular form (Fig. 5.2-5).
Figure 5.2-4. The Preview dialog box Figure 5.2-5. The Section Properties dialog box
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The Apply to all members button is used in those cases when all or most of the truss members have the
same cross-section. In order to use this button assign a section to one of the elements and without changing
the active radio button click the given button. All the members of the model will have the specified section. If
the model has members with a different section, it has to be assigned after performing the considered
operation.
Generating a Timber Truss Prototype

A timber truss prototype is generated according to the same rules as the steel one. The number of timber
truss prototypes is much less and all of them are given in the General tab (Fig. 5.2-6).
Two types of sections are provided in the program for the members of timber trusses — rectangular
(square) and round from non-glued timber. Controls and the rules of working in the Section tab (Fig. 5.2-7)
are the same as those considered above for the steel trusses. The elastic modulus and the Poisson's ratio for
timber are specified in the stiffness properties of elements according to the selected design codes.
Figure 5.2-6. The General tab when generating a Figure 5.2-7. The Section tab when generating a
timber truss prototype timber truss prototype
Generating Trusses with Elements with a Custom Section

This mode is used in cases when the sections of elements differ from those provided in the modes of the
generation of trusses from rolled steel and timber. In this case only the geometry of the model is generated,
and the stiffness properties of the elements are specified after clicking the Assign rigidities for bars button
— in the Assign section of the toolbar. Truss configuration is selected in the General tab (Fig. 5.2-1)
according to the same rules as for the trusses from rolled steel.
5.3. Spatial Frames and Trusses
In cases when a prototype of a bar system is a plane structure lying in a plane parallel to one of the
coordinate planes, it can be used to create a spatial bar system with the help of the Duplicate along the axis
operation — .
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This operation is based on the principle of duplicating a transverse plane frame structure or a truss lying
in the plane parallel to one of the coordinate planes with the given step in the direction of the axis selected by
the user in the right-hand Cartesian coordinate system XYZ. Longitudinal structures are created by adding
bars in the direction of the selected axis in each node of the transverse structure (except for the support nodes
of the columns of the frame).
When the operation of duplicating a frame or a truss is invoked, the Model of the Longitudinal Frame
dialog box appears (Fig. 5.3-1). This dialog box enables to specify the direction of copying, the step and the
number of repetitions (the step may be variable), and to specify the stiffness properties of bars created in the
direction of the selected axis (the Profile button). The sections of all elements of the longitudinal structure are
assumed to be the same. Sections of elements of the longitudinal frame can be modified with the help of the
Assign rigidities for bars operation — in the Assign section of the toolbar.
Figure 5.3-1. The Model of the Longitudinal Frame dialog box
Figure 5.3-2. Examples of using the Duplicate along the axis operation for different types of bar systems
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Copy operations considered below are used to duplicate arbitrary bar systems.
Design models of a multi-storey multi-span frame, single-storey frame and a truss considered earlier in
the current chapter are given as examples of performing the duplication operation (Fig. 5.3-2).
5.4. Creating a Design Model of a Grade Beam
The respective operation in the Model section is provided to generate a design model of a grade beam.
Initial data for this type of model are specified in the Generate a Grade Beam dialog box (Fig. 5.4-1) in the
same way as for the parametric prototypes considered earlier. Spacing and the number of spacings of the
grade beam along the X and Y axes respectively are specified in two tables of the dialog box. Stiffness
properties of elements (the Rigidity button) and their type (the Type of element button) are specified
similarly to the respective operations when generating parametric prototypes of frames.
Figure 5.4-1. The Generate a Grade Beam

dialog box
Figure 5.4-2. Design models of grade beams open and closed along the contour
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When generating a model of a grade beam, you can create models of two configurations – open along
the contour and closed (Fig. 5.4-2). A configuration of the model is selected by clicking on the icon with an
image of the respective grade beam.
5.5. Generating a Rectangular Mesh of Finite Elements on

the Plane
This operation enables to create a rectangular mesh with a variable or constant spacing lying in the
XОY or XОZ plane. Parameters of the mesh can be input in the Generate a Plate Model dialog box
shown in Fig. 5.5-1. Type of the model and its position in space are specified in the respective group with
the help of the radio buttons.
Type of the finite elements is assigned automatically depending on the selected type of the model. If
the type of finite elements is different from the default one, it can be changed with the help of the
respective operation which can be invoked by clicking the Type of element button. Plates are assigned
type 11 by default, grade beams — 21, shells — 41. If another type of finite element is preferable for a
particular structure, it can specified with the help of the Specify the type of finite elements operation in
the Assign toolbar.
The Rigidity button invokes an operation of specifying the stiffness properties of elements.
Figure 5.5-1. The Generate a Plate Model dialog box

Let’s consider the generation of a slab, 105 m with the spacing of the mesh of 1 m in both directions
as an example. Specify the spacing of 1 m in the Х direction, number of spacings — 10, and the spacing of
1 m in the Y direction, number of spacings — 5. A model shown in Fig. 5.5-2,A will be generated after
clicking the OK button.
A model with a variable spacing of the mesh of finite elements created according to the data given
below is shown in Fig. 5.5-2,B.
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Spacing
Spacing along Number of Number of
along the Y
the X axis spacings spacings
axis
0.5 6 0.25 8
0.25 8 0.5 6
1 5
When you specify a different spacing of the mesh, you should keep in mind that the most accurate
solution is obtained when the aspect ratio of 4-node finite elements is close to one. Square is perfect in this
sense.
Figure 5.5-2. Examples of design models from rectangular finite elements
5.6. Surfaces of Revolution
This operation is used to create design models or their fragments which are modeled using standard
surfaces of revolution. You can create models in the form of a cylinder, cone, sphere and torus. The term
"surface" is conventional, since models can be also made from bar elements, the nodes of which lie on this
surface.
Initial data necessary to perform this operation are specified in the Create the Surface of Revolution
dialog box (Fig. 5.6-1) and include:
 type of surface (cylinder, cone, sphere, torus);
 kind of finite elements (bars, plates) and their type;
 shape of the finite element mesh (for bar elements — lattice);
 geometric sizes;
 parameters of division;
 stiffness properties of elements.
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Figure 5.6-1. The Create the Surface of Revolution dialog box

Stiffness properties of elements (the Rigidity button) and their type (the Type of element button) are
specified similarly to the respective operations when generating parametric prototypes of frames. Type 5 is
selected by default for bars, and type 42 (triangles) or 44 (quadrangles) – for plates.
Figure 5.6-2. Design models of cylinders from shell and bar elements
If the rotation angle is less than 360, an open surface is generated. Moreover, the design models in
the form of a cylinder, cone or sphere can be truncated.
The following procedure is recommended for creating a surface of revolution:
− select the type of surface;
− select the kind of elements of the model;
− select the type of division;
− specify the geometric properties;
− specify the stiffness properties of elements (this step should be performed if all or most of the
elements have the same properties);
− click the OK button.
Examples of various variants of design models of cylinders are given in Fig. 5.6-2.
In those cases when in the description of a cylinder, cone and sphere a defining parameter is the length
of the face (chord) instead of the radius of the surface, you can calculate the radius as a function of the
number of faces and the chord length. It is necessary to perform the following actions to calculate the radius:
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− specify the number of faces (nR — number of elements in the base of a cylinder or a cone, and for a
sphere – along the equator);
− invoke the Calculate the Radius from a Chord dialog box — , (the button is on the left from
the radius text field);
− specify the chord length in the respective text field of this dialog box (Fig. 5.6-3) and click the
Calculate button (the calculated value of the radius of the surface of revolution will be shown in
the Radius information window);
− click the Apply button, the dialog box closes, and the result is automatically input in the respective
text field of the Create the Surface of Revolution dialog box.
For example, in order to generate a design model of a triangular (nR = 3) pyramid with a base side of
4 m and a height of 4 m, you can use the above technique (Fig. 5.6-4).
Figure 5.6-3. The Calculate the

Radius from a Chord dialog box
Figure 5.6-4. Design model of the triangular pyramid
Description of Parametric Prototypes of Surfaces of Revolution
Cylinder
The following parameters have to be specified to create a
cylinder :
R — radius of the cylinder;
H — height of the cylinder;
nH — number of elements along the height of the cylinder;
nR — the same in the base of the cylinder;
Rotation angle () — central angle in degrees
(0 <   360). If the rotation angle is less than 360, an
open surface is generated.
Any shape of the division of the mesh or lattice can be
selected for the cylinder from those suggested in the Create the
Surface of Revolution dialog box. Examples of design models
of a cylinder are given in Fig. 5.6-2.
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Cone
A cone can be full or truncated. If a truncated cone is
generated, r > 0. The following parameters have to be specified
to create a cone:
R — radius of the cone base;
r — radius of the top of the truncated cone;
H — height of the cone;
nH — number of elements along the height of the cone;
nR — the same in the base of the cone;
open surface is generated.
selected for the cone from those suggested in the Create the
Surface of Revolution dialog box. Examples of design models
of a cone are given in Fig. 5.6-5.
Figure 5.6-5. Design models of a cone from shell and bar elements
Sphere
The following parameters have to be specified to create a
sphere:
R — radius of the lower cutting plane;
r — same of the upper one;
H — distance between the upper and lower cutting
planes;
nH — number of elements along the height of the sphere;
nR — the same along the equator of the sphere;
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open surface is generated. In order to create a full sphere,

the values of radiuses of cutting planes are specified as
zero, and the height Н must be equal to the diameter of
the sphere.
selected for the sphere from those suggested in the Create the
Surface of Revolution dialog box. Examples of design
models of a sphere are given in Fig. 5.6-6.
Figure 5.6-6. Design models of a sphere from shell and bar elements
Torus
The following data have to be specified to create a torus:
R — radius of the torus measured from the center of
rotation to the axis passing through the center of the
section of the torus;
r — radius of the section;
H — lead of the helix;
nr — number of elements in the section of the torus;
nR — the same along the length of the torus;
Rotation angle () — central angle in degrees.
If  > 360 and Н > 0, a spiral is generated (Fig. 5.6-7).
There is a restriction on the choice of the shape of
elements when a spiral is created from plate elements. For
example, 4-node elements cannot be used in this case, since
non-planar elements may appear. Unacceptable shapes of the
mesh are blocked automatically. Examples of design models of
a torus are given in Fig. 5.6-7.
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Figure 5.6-7. Design models of a torus from shell and bar elements
5.7. Creating an Analytically Defined Surface of

Revolution
— Creating a surface of revolution by the specified formula.

This operation enables to create analytically defined surfaces of revolution. Data for performing the
operation are specified in the Generate the Surface of Revolution dialog box (Fig. 5.7-1).
Figure 5.7-1. The Generate the Surface of Revolution dialog box

The operation enables to create closed, open and helical surfaces from bar and shell elements obtained
by moving a generator z = f(x) along a circular arc.
The following parameters are specified to generate a closed surface (the respective checkbox is
checked):
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R1 — initial circle radius (distance from the start of the

generator to the Z axis);
R2 — final circle radius (distance from the end of the
generator to the Z axis);
Nr — number of elements of the surface of revolution
along the circular arc;
Nh — number of elements of the surface of revolution
along the generator.
There is a restriction on the use of meshes of 4-node

elements for models from shell elements, since non-planar
elements may appear.
Types of elements and their rigidities can be assigned when specifying the parameters of the model.
By default, type 5 is selected for bars, 42 (triangles) or 44 (quadrangles) – for plates.
Figure 5.7-2,A shows an example of a closed surface obtained by specifying the generator
z  x 3  3  x  /  x  1 ,
when the Closed surface option is active and the parameters have the following values: R1 = 1 m;
R2 = 3 m; Nr = 30; Nh = 20.
In order to obtain open surfaces you also have to specify the start and end angles of the arc. Thus, for
the start and end angles of 0 and 270 respectively a surface shown in Fig. 5.7-2,B will be obtained.
A C
Figure 5.7-2.
Finally, in order to obtain a helical surface, it is necessary to introduce a second variable – Y into the
formula, the variation of which describes the process of "twisting" the helix as a function of angle. For
example, by adding the second variable — y/155 into the formula
z x 3  x /x  1  y / 155
3
185
at the values of the start and end angles 0 and 720о respectively, we will obtain a new model (Fig. 5.7-
2,C). Here the number of elements along the arc is NR = 60 (a bar model is used).
In those cases when a defining parameter is the length of the face (chord) instead of the radius of the
surface, you can calculate the radius as a function of the number of faces (NR) and the chord length. It is
necessary to perform the following actions to calculate the radius:
− specify the number of faces (NR — number of elements along the circular arc);
− invoke the Calculate the Radius from a Chord dialog box — ;
− specify the chord length in the respective text field of this dialog box and click the Calculate button
(the calculated value of the radius of the surface of revolution will be shown in the Radius
information window);
− click the Apply button, the dialog box closes, and the result is automatically input in the respective
text field of the Create the Surface of Revolution dialog box.
Rules for Entering Mathematical Formulas

The following rules should be observed when entering mathematical formulas :
 names of functions must be entered in lowercase Roman letters;
 the fractional and the integer parts of a number must be separated by a decimal point;
 Roman letters x and y must be used as arguments;
 arithmetic operations must be specified with the symbols +, , *, /, raising to a power — ^ (for
example, х3 can be written as х^3).
The following functions can be used in the formulae:
floor — the greatest integer not greater than ceil — the least integer greater than the argument;
the argument; tanh — hyperbolic tangent;
tan — tangent; sinh — hyperbolic sine;
sin — sine; cosh — hyperbolic cosine;
cos — cosine; log — natural logarithm;
asin — arc sine; log10 — decimal logarithm;
acos — arc cosine; abs — absolute value;
atan — arc tangent; sqrt — square root.
exp — exponent;
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Example. Radio Telescope Reflector

Radio telescope reflector (Fig. 5.7-3,A) in the form of a paraboloid of revolution with the diameter of 60 m
and the height of 6 m is defined by the generator formula z=x2/150 in the cylindrical coordinate system.
A B
Figure 5.7-3. Examples of design models of surfaces of revolution
Example. Helical Ramp

In the case of a helical ramp (Fig. 5.7-3,B) the generator is based on the formula H / 360 * y, where Н —
rise of the stairs per one turn (360 degrees).
Characteristics of a helical ramp — formula 3.2 / 360*у (rise per one turn 3.2 m), inner radius of
3 m, outer radius of 6 m, number of elements along the length — 360, number of elements along the width
— 12, start angle 0, end angle 720º (two full turns).
5.8. Creating an Analytically Defined Surface
— Creating a surface by the specified formula

This operation enables to create a design model in the form of an analytically defined surface
obtained by tabulating a function of two variables z = f(x,y) with an interval and a step specified for each
variable. Data for performing the operation are input in the Surface Given by the Formula tab of the two-
tab Analytically Defined Surfaces dialog box (Fig. 5.8-1).
The model can be created from bar or from plate elements. In addition to the formula of the surface
(rules for entering mathematical formulas are given above) it is necessary to specify the following characteristics:
Хbeg — start value of Х;
Хend — end value of Х;
Nx — number of elements in the Х direction;
Ybeg — start value of Y;
Yend — end value of Y;
Ny — number of elements in the Y direction.
187
Figure 5.8-1. The Analytically Defined Surfaces dialog box

This tab also enables to select finite elements of the model (bars or plates) and the type of division of
the surface. If the type of finite elements is different from the default one, it can be changed with the help
of the respective operation which can be invoked by clicking the Type of element button. Type 5 is
assigned to bar elements by default, and types 44 (4-node) and 42 (3-node) — for shells depending on the
selected shape of division. The Rigidities button invokes an operation of specifying the stiffness properties
of elements.
Example. Shell (Paraboloid of Revolution)

The model is described by the relationship z = (1 – x2 /20 – y2 / 20) / 2 at the following values of the
characteristics: Хbeg = 10 m; Хend = 10 m; Nx = 10; Ybeg =10 m; Yend = 10 m; Ny = 10. Design models
obtained in the result (on the left – from bar elements, on the right – from shell elements) are shown in
Fig. 5.8-2.
Figure 5.8-2. Example of a design model of a shell
5.9. Creating Parametric Surfaces

In addition to the operation of creating analytic surfaces (by the specified formula) the software also
enables to generate parametric surfaces. Initial data for this operation are specified in the Parametric
Surface tab of the Analytically Defined Surfaces dialog box (Fig. 5.9-1).
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Figure 5.9-1. The Parametric Surface tab of the Analytically Defined Surfaces dialog box
The following relationships are considered x = f(s,t), y = f(s,t), z = f(s,t). It is assumed that each
variable s and t changes in the interval [0, 1], and the variable s successively takes the values 0, 1/Ns, 2/Ns,
… 1, and the variable t — respectively 0, 1/Nt, 2/Nt, … 1, where Ns and Nt — number of steps of tabulation
of the respective variables.
For example, formulas describing the surface of a cylinder with a radius 5 and height 12, will be as
follows:
x = 5 sin;
y = 5 cos;
z = 12 h
and must be input in the respective text fields of the Parametric Surface tab as follows:
x = 5*sin(360*s);
y = 5*cos(360*s);
z = 12*t.
This tab also enables to specify the values of Ns and Nt., select finite elements (bars or plates) and the
type of division of the surface. If the type of finite elements is different from the default one, it can be
changed with the help of the respective operation which can be invoked by clicking the Type of element
button. Type 5 is assigned to bar elements by default, and types 44 (4-node) and 42 (3-node) — for shells
depending on the selected shape of division. The Rigidities button invokes an operation of specifying the
stiffness properties of elements.
Note: if the formula involves trigonometric or inverse trigonometric

functions, it should be taken into account that their arguments (or calculated
values) must be in degrees.
189
Examples of Creating Design Models Using the Operation of

Generating Parametric Surfaces
Example 1. Cylinder
Initial data:
Radius r = 3 m;
Height h = 12 m;
Number of steps of the variable s — Ns = 10;
Number of steps of the variable t — Nt = 10;
Formulas for the generation of the model will be as follows:
Variable Formula Record
x r cos(s) 3*cos(360*s)
y r sin(s) 3*sin(360*s)
z t 12*t
Figure 5.9-2. Examples of design models of parametric surfaces
190
Example 2. Truncated cylinder

Initial data:
Radius r = 3m;
Height h = 12m (R = h/tg(30)r);
Angle of the cutting plane — 300;
Number of steps of the variable s — 20;
Number of steps of the variable t — 10.

x (R + r cos(s)) tg(t) (12/tan(30)3+3*cos(360*s))*tan(30*t)
y R + r cos(s) 12/tan(30)3+3*cos(360*s)
z r sin(s) 3*sin(360*s)
Example 3. Spherical surface

Initial data:
Radius R = 10 m;
Number of steps of the variable s — 20;
Number of steps of the variable t — 20.

x R/ 2 sin(t) 10/sqrt(2)*sin(90+180*t)
y R/ 2 sin(s) 10/sqrt(2)*sin(90+180*s)
10/sqrt(2)*sqrt(2(sin(90 + 180*t))**2(sin(90 +
z R / 2 2  sin 2 t  sin 2 s 180*s))**2)
When creating a spherical surface from shell elements it is recommended to

use the division into 3-node elements, since the nodes of a 4-node element may not
always lie in one plane.
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5.10. Creating a Standard Analytic Surface
The software enables to generate the design models of analytic surfaces commonly used in design
practice without explicitly entering formulas of the surface. To do this, select the type of surface from the
drop-down list in the dialog box (see Fig. 5.10-1), specify the geometric parameters and parameters of the
generation of the finite element mesh. This dialog box also provides the formulas of the surface.
Figure 5.10-1. The Standard Analytic Surfaces dialog box

Like in the case of creating arbitrary analytic surfaces, you can also specify the types of finite
elements and their stiffness properties. The following types of surfaces are implemented in the program:
Elliptic paraboloid with a rectangular plan Elliptic paraboloid with an elliptical plan
192
Spherical surface Ellipsoidal surface with a rectangular plan
Ellipsoidal surface with an elliptical plan Hyperboloid of revolution, one-sheeted
Hyperboloid of revolution, one-sheeted, parametric

Hyperboloid of revolution, two-sheeted, lower part
form
193
Hyperbolic paraboloid, saddle shape Hyperbolic paraboloid, ruled shape
Ring Elliptical ring
Helicoid Right helicoid, elliptical
Spiral strip, elliptical Parabolic conoid
194
Conoid with a director circle
5.11. Creating Standard Structures
The software enables to generate the design models of standard structures (substructures) commonly
used in design practice. To do this, select the type of structure from the drop-down list in the Standard
Structures dialog box (Fig. 5.11-1), specify the geometric parameters and parameters of the generation of
the finite element mesh.
Figure 5.11-1. The Standard Structures dialog box

The operation enables to select the types of finite elements and their stiffness properties.
195
The following types of structures are implemented in the program:
Staircase, straight Staircase, dogleg
Spiral staircase Truss-roof
Truss-roof shifted by half step
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Mast with diagonals Mast with diagonals from the middle of the
horizontal
Mast with arbitrary diagonals Tower with diagonals
Tower with diagonals from the middle of the Tower with arbitrary diagonals
horizontal
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Mast with diagonals from the middle of the vertical Mast with diagonals (simplified input)
Mast with diagonals from the middle of the Mast with diagonals from the middle of the vertical
horizontal (simplified input) (simplified input)
Mast with arbitrary diagonals (simplified input)

In addition to the general geometric parameters, you can also add/delete levels of the structure;
specify different rigidities for elements located at different levels and specify constraints in support nodes
for the above list of structures (see Fig. 5.11-2).
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Figure 5.11-2. The Standard Structures dialog box (masts and towers)
5.12. Generating an Arbitrary Mesh of Finite Elements on

the Plane
Automatic meshing of the closed area of an arbitrary shape on the plane is one of the most versatile
methods of creating meshes of finite elements. The software enables both to perform the meshing when
creating a new model, and to perform the meshing of a finished model.
Fundamental Principles
The Generate a mesh of an arbitrary shape on the plane operation is invoked from the Model section of
the toolbar. Control of the meshing is performed with the buttons of the toolbar which appears after the
initialization of meshing (Fig. 5.12-1).
Figure 5.12-1. Meshing control toolbar

These buttons enable to perform the following operations:
— Specify contour — specify the outer and inner contours bounding the area of meshing;
— Save the results of meshing as a submodel — save the results of meshing as a separate project;
— Generate a triangular mesh of FE on the plane — specify parameters and initialize the process of
meshing;
— Improve the meshing quality;
— Analyze the meshing quality;
— Apply the results of meshing to the model — attach the submodel to the model obtained in the
result of meshing;
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— Transform bars into a meshing contour — generate a meshing contour from the preselected bars;
— Convert the convex hull of the selected nodes into the meshing contour;
— Save the meshing contour — name and save the meshing contour in the project;
— Export the meshing contour to GMSH;
— Transform the contour elements into a meshing contour — transform elements created by the
FORUM preprocessor into contours for subsequent meshing;
— Indicate mesh refinement nodes — specify nodes in the area of which the local refinement of mesh
is performed;
— Indicate mesh refinement lines — specify lines inside the meshing contour along which the
refinement of mesh is performed;
— Rejection of the results of meshing/remove the contour.

In addition to the buttons the considered toolbar also contains a list of contours specified in the
current project.
In order to perform the meshing of the specified area it is necessary to perform the operations in the
following sequence:
− click the Specify contour button and select the support nodes of the outer contour with the
“rubber band” (“support” nodes are nodes lying in the corner points of the contour);
− repeat the previous step for all inner contours;
− click the Generate a triangular mesh of FE on the plane button and specify the parameters
of meshing in the Automatic Meshing dialog box (Fig. 5.12-5);
− after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button, the specified area is divided into 3-node
or/and 4-node finite elements;
− apply the result of meshing to the model by clicking the button or/and save it as a submodel.
After dividing the meshing area the contour is not removed, and you can repeat the specification of
new parameters of meshing, etc. until you obtain a satisfactory result. The contour will be removed only
after applying the result of meshing to the model and/or saving it as a submodel.
Specifying a Meshing Contour
Before performing the meshing, you must specify the contour bounding the meshing area. The
contour is defined by a closed broken line passing through the predefined support nodes. Moreover, bar
elements lying on the boundary of the meshing area can be used as a contour. If the meshing area contains
inner areas where the meshing is not performed (e.g., holes), each of these areas must be defined by its
"own" contour.
The following rules must be observed when specifying a contour:
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 when specifying a segment of a contour you do not have to specify nodes that lie on a straight line
connecting the support nodes. They will be included in the contour automatically. The exception is
the meshing "only on the contour nodes" during the performance of which only the support nodes
are taken into account;
 the contour is closed by double clicking after specifying the last node or by pointing at the first
node;
 there must not be any duplicate nodes neither support, nor intermediate. Hereinafter, "duplicate"
nodes are nodes with the same coordinates or at the distance from each other that is less than or
equal to the accuracy of estimation of the duplicate nodes. This value is specified in the
Environment Settings dialog box which can be invoked from the respective section of the Settings
menu;
 there must not be any duplicate nodes inside the contour;
 there must not be any nodes inside the contour (including those belonging to other contours) which
lie at the distance from the contour of less than 0.15 of the specified meshing step. The presence of
such nodes leads to the interruption of the meshing process due to the appearance of degenerate
triangles;
 inner contours must not intersect or touch the outer contour and each other;
 there must not be any contours outside the contour bounding the meshing area.
A contour (or several successively created contours) can be saved by clicking the respective button
, which invokes the Save the Meshing Contour dialog box (Fig. 5.12-2). The Operations with
contours group of this dialog box contains a number of buttons which enable to perform the following
operations:
Add contour — the created contour or a group of contours is saved in the project under a name
specified in the Contour name field. If this field does not contain any information, the contour is saved
under the name “Contour No…”, where the contour number is the serial number in the list of created
contours.
Replace contour — the specified contour is saved instead of one of the contours saved earlier. In
order to perform this operation you have to:
− specify the contour;
− select the contour you want replace in the list (its number and name will appear in the respective
fields);
− click the Replace contour button.
Replace the contour name — the name of the contour saved earlier is changed to a new one. In
order to perform this operation you have to:
− select any contour from the list of contours;
− activate the operation of saving a contour;
− select a contour the name of which you want to change in the list (its number and name will appear
in the respective fields);
− enter a new name in the Contour name field;
− click the Replace the contour name button.
Delete contour — the contour saved earlier is deleted from the list of contours. In order to perform
this operation you have to:
− select a contour you want to delete in the list;
− click the Delete contour button.
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Delete all contours — all the contours saved earlier are deleted from the list. In order to perform this
operation you have to:
− click the Delete all contours button.
The above operations will be performed after closing the Save the Meshing
Contour dialog box (by clicking the OK button).
If the meshing area includes several inner contours, it makes sense to save each of them separately.
Since after saving a contour the Remove the contour operation is performed automatically, the next
contour can be specified at once after performing this operation.
Figure 5.12-2. The Save the Meshing Contour dialog box

If an invalid contour has been specified, it can be removed by clicking the Rejection of the results of
meshing button .
Meshing will not be performed if several contours belonging to different meshing areas are active. In
this case before specifying a second contour you have to remove all contours from the model by clicking
the Reject … button and repeat the input or open the respective contour from the list.
If a meshing area is specified in such a way that one or several inner contours are saved as individual
contours, the outer contour must be loaded from the list the first, and then the inner ones in no particular
order.
Transforming Bars into a Meshing Contour
Bar elements can be used to specify a meshing contour. In order to perform this operation select bars
forming a contour and click the Transform bars into a meshing contour button.
The selected bar elements must meet the following requirements:
 lie in one plane;
 have non-zero length;
 do not have gaps, i.e. form a closed line without self-intersections.
Inner contours can be formed by bar elements or with the help of the Specify contour operation and
can be saved separately from the outer contour.
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If the selected bar elements do not meet the above requirements, the following message appears:
“Unambiguous determination of the contour for the selected bars is impossible”
Converting the Convex Hull of the Selected Nodes into the Meshing
Contour
The meshing contour can be specified as the boundary of the convex hull of the selected nodes. In
order to perform this operation you have to select nodes and click the Convert the convex hull of the
selected nodes into the meshing contour button.
The selected nodes must meet the following requirements:
 the number of nodes must not be less than three;
 do not lie on one line.
Converting Enlarged Elements (Objects) into a Meshing Contour
Enlarged elements and objects are created in the FORUM preprocessor and model such structural
members as columns, beams, floors, walls and roofs. A design model of the finite element method is
created by an automatic conversion of these objects into sets of finite elements. Meshing is used to convert
planar objects (floors, walls and roofs).
The program also enables to perform a non-automatic meshing of enlarged elements using the
considered operations. In this case each enlarged element is meshed individually and its faces are
considered as a contour (openings – as inner contours).
Figure 5.12-3. Meshing contour based on the floor element

Stiffness parameters specified for the object are inherited by all finite elements obtained in the result
of meshing.
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Enlarged elements can have any shape and include any number of inner contours (openings) not in
contact with each other and not intersecting the outer contour.
The meshing of enlarged elements is performed in the following order:
− activate the meshing function in the Model section of the toolbar;
− click the Transform the contour elements into a meshing contour button;
− select an element by pointing at any part of the contour including the inner one. The selected
element will be highlighted in color (Fig. 5.12-3);
− click the Generate a triangular mesh of FE on the plane button , a dialog box will appear
where you have to specify the parameters of meshing. The meshing will be performed after closing
the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Figure 5.12-4. Model obtained in the result of meshing of the enlarged element
The results of meshing must be applied to the model (Fig. 5.12-4) or saved as a separate model before
exiting the meshing mode.
Parameters of Meshing
Before performing the meshing you have to first select the method of meshing, specify the parameters and
(if necessary) stiffness properties of finite elements (by clicking the Rigidities button) in the Automatic
Meshing dialog box (see Fig. 5.12-5).
Depending on the selected method the meshing can be performed:
 A — Only on specified nodes — new nodes are not created, meshing is performed in such a way
that it involves only the existing nodes on the contour and in the meshing area;
 B — Without dividing the contour segments — the meshing area is divided into finite elements
with the specified maximum size of sides (meshing step) but without creating additional nodes on
the segments of the contour;
 C — With dividing the contour — the meshing area and the contour are divided in accordance
with the specified step;
 D — Only on contour nodes — the mesh of finite elements is generated only on the nodes of the
contour, nodes in the meshing area are not involved (even if they are within the area).
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Figure 5.12-5. The Automatic Meshing dialog box

If the Combine 3-node elements into 4-node ones checkbox is checked in the Automatic Meshing
dialog box, then all possible pairs of triangles will be combined in the process of creating a model.
Additional features of the mesh generation can be specified, namely:
Meshing with refinement near the borders of the contour — method В is used, but a mesh of elements
with a step number of times indicated in the Mesh refinement factor field (value from 2 to 4) less than the
specified one is generated near the borders of the contour;
Create an orthogonal mesh with a minimum number of elements — orthogonal meshing area is
divided into finite elements using mainly rectangular triangles or square and rectangular elements (if the
Combine 3-node elements into 4-node ones checkbox is checked);
Create an orthogonal mesh with the specified maximum size of an element — a mesh with mainly
rectangular triangles or square and rectangular elements (if the Combine 3-node elements into 4-node
ones checkbox is checked), the sides of which are less than or equal to the value of the step, is generated;
Create an orthogonal mesh with the specified maximum size of an element without dividing the
contour segments — a mesh with mainly rectangular triangles or square and rectangular elements (if the
Combine 3-node elements into 4-node ones checkbox is checked), the sides of which are less than or
equal to the value of the step, is generated. New nodes are not added on the contour when generating a
mesh.
Too “elongated” rectangles may appear during the generation of an orthogonal
mesh. In this case, the program will automatically switch to the algorithm for creating a
non-orthogonal mesh to avoid the generation of elements with a bad geometric shape.
The decision on whether to change the algorithm is based on the value of the maximum
aspect ratio of plates and shells specified by the user in the calculation parameters (see
Chapter 11).
Clicking the Rigidities button in the Automatic Meshing dialog box invokes the Rigidities of Plates
dialog box, where you can specify the stiffness properties of elements.
The model created in the result of meshing is actually an independent submodel, and after completing
the meshing it is necessary to attach it to the nodes of the design model which have been taken into account
when performing the meshing. This can be done by clicking the button — Apply the results of
meshing to the model.
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If the submodel has to be attached to other parts of the design model as well or to other models, it has
to be saved as a separate project under a unique name (different from the name of the main model) using
the button — Save the results of meshing.
If a new model has been created in the result of meshing, it can be attached to the main model in the
Assembly mode (see Sec. 5.13).
When performing the meshing of an area belonging to the existing design model, the contour is
specified directly on the model or on its fragment.
As long as the results of meshing are not applied to the model, they can be rejected by performing the
operation Rejection of the results of meshing — . This operation should be also used if after applying
the results of meshing to the model, you have to continue the work in the meshing mode.
Some Nuances
 If bar elements including the contour ones are within the meshing area, they are divided into a
number of elements along the length in accordance with the specified meshing step.
 All nodes within the meshing area which do not belong to the area of inner contours will be taken
into account when generating a mesh.
 Meshing is not performed if there are duplicate nodes in the meshing area.
 If after performing the meshing it is necessary to repeat the division of the given area, for
example, with a different step or method of meshing, you just have to invoke the operation
Generate a triangular mesh of FE on the plane — again without cancelling the previous
division and specify new parameters of meshing.
 If for some reason it is necessary to repeat the input of the contour created earlier, you have to
first perform the operation Rejection of the results of meshing — , otherwise an error
message will be generated.
Mesh Refinement
It is necessary to perform the following actions to refine the mesh near the existing nodes:
− specify the meshing contour or select it from the list;
− click the button — Indicate mesh refinement nodes;
− select nodes near which the mesh is refined (the selected nodes will be highlighted);
− click the button — Generate a triangular mesh of FE on the plane;
− select the meshing mode in the Automatic Meshing dialog box and specify the mesh refinement
factor (from two to four);
− click the OK button in the dialog box.
Mesh refinement along the line is performed in the following order:
− specify the meshing contour or select it from the list;
− click the button — Indicate mesh refinement lines;
− input lines according to the rules similar to those for the input of bars (input lines will be displayed
in the colour of the contour);
− click the button — Generate a triangular mesh of FE on the plane;
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− select the meshing mode in the Automatic Meshing dialog box and specify the mesh refinement
factor (from two to four);
Mesh refinement can be performed simultaneously near the nodes and along the lines.
Figure 5.12-6. Nodes in the meshing area and contours created on their basis
As an example, let’s consider the meshing of an area lying in the XOY plane with nodes, the
coordinates of which are given in the following table:
Nodes of the outer contour Nodes of the inner contours
Node No. X Y Node No. X Y
1 0.0 0.0 7 3.0 3.0
2 20.0 0.0 8 12.0 3.0
3 20.0 12.0 9 12.0 9.0
4 32.0 12.0 10 3.0 9.0
5 32.0 24.0 11 15.0 12.0
6 0.0 24.0 12 17.0 12.0
13 17.0 15.0
14 28.0 15.0
15 28.0 19.0
16 15.0 19.0
Numbers of the input nodes and contours specified on their basis are shown in Fig. 5.12-6. Different
meshes shown in the figures below can be generated in the meshing area depending on the selected
method.
The following meshes of finite elements will be obtained in the area given in the Figure 5.12-6
depending on the selected method of meshing:
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 without dividing the contour segments;
 only on specified nodes;
 with dividing the contour (the Combine 3-node

elements into 4-node ones checkbox is not
checked);
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 with dividing the contour (the Combine 3-node

elements into 4-node ones checkbox is checked);
 only on contour nodes;
 meshing with refinement near the borders of the

contour;
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 create an orthogonal mesh with a minimum

number of elements (the Combine 3-node
elements into 4-node ones checkbox is not
checked);
 create an orthogonal mesh with a minimum

number of elements (the Combine 3-node
elements into 4-node ones checkbox is checked);
 create an orthogonal mesh with the specified

maximum size of an element;
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 create an orthogonal mesh with the specified

maximum size of an element without dividing the
contour segments;
 mesh refinement near the selected nodes and

along the specified lines.
Mesh Quality Assessment
The respective operation in the toolbar of the meshing control is used to assess the quality of the
obtained mesh of finite elements. Clicking this button invokes the menu, where you can select two
variants: meshing quality or geometrical characteristics of elements.
Assessment of three- and four-node elements is performed according to the following parameters:

i 1,2,3,4
L2i
 configuration factor — is a value calculated by the formula (for quadrangles) and
4S

i 1,2,3
L2i
(for triangles), where Li — length of the i-th side, S — area of the element;
4 3S
 minimum angle in the element — it is used as a quality criterion;
 maximum angle in the element — it is used as a quality criterion;
 warping (flatness deviation) for four-node elements — a plane is created based on four points,
which approximates the vertices of the element in the best way. The maximum from the distances
from the vertices to the plane is calculated. The result is divided by the minimum side.
The estimation of the solid elements is based on the following parameters:
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 ratio between the lengths of the maximum and minimum sides;

 configuration factor — value equal to the maximum configuration factor for all faces.
The results of the quality assessment are displayed as a

color scale (Fig. 5.12-7). Elements with the value of the
considered factor within the specified range are displayed in
green in the model, and those with the value outside the range
are displayed in red. The range of the allowable values
«From and To» is specified in the respective text fields of
the Settings dialog box (Fig. 5.12-8), which can be invoked
by clicking the Color scale settings button — .
Principles of control of the color scale do not differ from
those of color scales of visualization of other parameters of
Figure 5.12-7. The Meshing Quality
the design model and are described in Sec. 4.3. Values of the
dialog box
factor can be output on the model by clicking the
Digitization button — , in the color scale dialog box.
By default the results of the quality assessment are
displayed as a “wire” model. You can use the Delete lines of
Figure 5.12-8. The Settings dialog box the invisible contour operation in the Display Filters toolbar
for better visualization.
The case geometrical characteristics of elements allows to activate color scale of lengths for two-
nodes elements, area for plates, and volumes for solid elements.
Improving the Meshing Quality
If the meshing quality (it can be assessed with the help of the operation ) turns out to be not
satisfactory, you can try to improve it by clicking the button in the toolbar. The program will attempt
to move the nodes generated in the process of creating a finite element mesh in such a way so as to
improve its quality.
Export the Meshing Contour to GMSH
This operation is used to save the meshing contour in the GMSH format (free software for meshing).
After performing the meshing by this program the obtained mesh can be imported into SCAD (see Sec.
32.1).
5.13. Assembling a Model from Several Models
— Assembly mode
This mode enables to perform the generation of a design model by assembling it from several pre-
prepared models and/or groups of elements (the procedure of creating groups and work with them are
described in Sec. 6.6). Models used in the assembling can include in addition to the geometry other
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characteristics as well, for example constraints, rigidities, loads, etc., which in the result of the assembly
will be included in the resulting model. The model the other models are attached to will be called the main
one, and the attached models will be called submodels. Even one node can be used as the main model, and
any other model, including the main one, and groups of elements can be used as a submodel.
The toolbar in the assembly mode (Fig. 5.13-1) includes the following buttons:
— select a method of assembling;
— activate the main model;
— activate the attached model;
— assemble.
Figure 5.13-1. Toolbar of the assembly mode Figure 5.13-2. Toolbar of the window of the
submodel in the assembly mode
Figure 5.13-3. The Model Assembling dialog box
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Submodel used in the assembly is loaded into a separate window. Toolbar of the window of the
submodel (Fig. 5.13-2) includes a button for selecting a group of elements used as a submodel — ,a
button for loading a design model of the submodel — , and also a button for selecting one of the
design models loaded earlier as a submodel — . In the latter case it can be the main model used
simultaneously as a submodel.
It is recommended to follow this procedure of assembly:
− click the button — Assembly mode in the Model section, the panel of the assembly mode
(Fig. 5.13-1) will appear in the toolbar of the main window, and the window for loading a submodel
will appear in the work area;
− load the submodel using one of the buttons in the toolbar of the window of the submodel (the
standard Open dialog box can be used to load another design model as a submodel);
−click the button — Select a method of assembling;
−select a method and rules of assembling in the Model Assembling dialog box (Fig. 5.13-3);
−close the dialog box by clicking the OK button;
−depending on the selected method of assembling indicate one, two or three junction nodes in the
model and click the OK button in the toolbar of the main window.
Once the assembling is performed, the resulting model is output in the window of the main model and
the Result dialog box appears where you have to select a variant for continuing the work (Fig. 5.13-4).
The first option is Confirm assembling. A new main
model will be generated in the result of combining the main
model and the submodel in accordance with the selected rules
of assembling.
Second option — Deny assembling. In the result the
main model will remain the same as before the assembly.
Third option — Rotate (submodel). The submodel will
Figure 5.13-4. The Result dialog box take a new position with respect to the junction node/nodes,
which is formed by rotating 180 degrees around the junction
nodes or the axis of rotation specified earlier (when there is
only one junction node).
If groups of elements are used as a submodel (the
assembling can be performed simultaneously with several
groups), they can be selected in the Groups of Elements
dialog box (Fig. 5.13-5). Groups selected in the list are
displayed in the design model in red. After closing the dialog
box by clicking the OK button these groups will be loaded into
the window of the submodel.
Figure 5.13-5. The Groups of

Elements dialog box
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Methods of Assembling
Joining by three nodes implies the selection of three nodes in the model and the submodel and can be
carried out in two ways — Snap to two nodes or Matching of three nodes. The method of assembling is
specified by enabling the respective radio button in the Joining by three nodes group.
When the first method is used, the submodel is snapped to two nodes — the red one and the green
one, and the yellow node defines the plane (direction) of the assembly. In this case the model can take two
positions with respect to the junction nodes, therefore the Rotate operation described above may be useful
after performing the assembly.
The second method of assembling implies matching of three nodes of the model and the submodel
which defines the position of the submodel unambiguously.
Snap to two nodes is performed by merging junction nodes of the same color in the model and the
submodel. Obviously, in this case the submodel may occupy any position with respect to the junction
nodes, and in order to define it unambiguously it is necessary to specify the rotation angle of the submodel
about the axis passing through these nodes.
If when assembling by two nodes the distances between the respective nodes of the model and the
submodel are not equal, the submodel is scaled by a factor equal to the ratio of distances between the
junction nodes of the submodel and the model.
Snap to one node is performed by merging the junction nodes in the model and the submodel with a
simultaneous rotation of the submodel by a given angle about the specified axis passing through the
junction node and parallel to the respective axis of the global coordinate system. If you check the Multiple
assembling checkbox, then several nodes for snapping the submodel can be indicated in the main model.
The submodel will be snapped to each of them by its selected node.
Snap to the point with the specified coordinates is performed similarly to the connection by one
node. A point with the specified coordinates the selected node of the submodel is attached to plays the role
of the node in the main model.
Rules of Assembling
The assembly can be performed according to different rules and with the specified accuracy of merging the
nodes. The accuracy of merging defines which nodes should be considered as duplicate. If after performing
the assembly the distance between the node of the model and the node of the submodel is less than or equal
to the specified value of accuracy, such nodes are merged into one node in the mode of merging the
duplicate nodes.
If the Delete duplicate elements checkbox is checked in the Model Assembling dialog box (see
Fig. 5.13-3), from two matching elements of the main model and the submodel (elements are considered to
be matching if all their nodes match) only the element of the main model remains in the resulting model.
This element will have the same characteristics as the element of the main model. Loads of the matching
element of the submodel will be added to the loads of the element of the main model. If the Delete
duplicate elements checkbox is not checked, the resulting model will simultaneously contain all elements
of the model and the submodel.
If the Delete duplicate nodes radio button is enabled, all nodes of the submodel matching those of
the main model will be deleted. Constraints and loads applied in the nodes will correspond to those
specified in the main model.
If the There is no constraint between the duplicate nodes radio button is enabled, the resulting
model will contain all nodes of both models without any constraints between them.
If the "Hinged" connection in nodes radio button is enabled, hinges will be installed between the
matching nodes in the directions the constraints are not imposed on. In the result merged displacements
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between the node of the model and the submodel are specified in the directions of the constraints.
Constraints are specified by checking the respective checkboxes in the Merge the displacements for
group.
Rigidities of the attached submodels are packed in the course of assembling. The Combine identical
rigidities with different names checkbox enables to "affect" the packing process.
Accuracy indicator of the merging of nodes during the assembly is an

independent parameter and may differ from the value defining the accuracy of
matching of nodes in the model.
Working with Loads

If the models to which the loads were applied are involved in the assembly, you have to indicate how to
treat the loads when specifying the rules of assembling.
There are three methods to take the loads of the submodels into account:
 including the loads applied to the submodels in the respective loadings of the main model;
 saving each loading of the submodels as a group of loads;
 ignoring the loads of the submodel.
Loads applied to the main model always remain. If one or several submodels have more loadings than
the main model, then these loadings are added as groups of loads.
When transferring the loads from the submodel into the resulting model it should be taken into
account that the operations of merging duplicate nodes and elements (they are performed if the respective
checkboxes and radio buttons are enabled in the Model Assembling dialog box) have a priority and are
performed before the load transfer operations. Consequently, if the loads are specified in the nodes of the
submodel which coincide with the nodes of the main model, then after deleting the nodes of the submodel
the loads will be deleted as well. In those cases when the loads have to be taken into account, you should
disable the options of merging the duplicate objects when specifying the rules of assembling, perform the
assembling, and then delete the duplicate nodes and elements using the respective modes in the Nodes and
Elements section of the toolbar.
If the loads are not applied to the nodes or elements of the main model matching the objects of the
submodel, the problem of load transfer can be solved by changing the status of the models during the
assembly, i.e. take the submodel as the main model, and vice versa. These recommendations will be also
useful in cases when the assembly involves models consisting only of nodes to which the loads are applied.
As a rule, they are the result of saving loads from a structural fragment as a separate model (see Sec. Analysis
of the Results of Calculation of Loads from a Structural Fragment).
Dynamic actions of a submodel cannot be included into the static loadings of the
main model.
Only masses will be added when combining dynamic loads of the submodel and
the main model.
5.14. Copying a Design Model
Let’s consider another effective method of creating a design model, the effect of which is based on
copying a model-prototype with a given step and direction. You can copy a finished model, i.e. with the
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specified stiffness properties, hinges, constraints, loads, etc., or a model with only a few characteristics
specified.
The copying mode is invoked by clicking the respective button in the Model section. The copying can
be performed according to different rules.
The simplest case – a model is just repeated a given number of times. The control of duplicate nodes
and elements is performed in this process, and if the Delete duplicate elements checkbox is checked, they
are removed from the resulting model.
When copying a model with the selected nodes and elements the type of the selected objects is
converted according to the following rules:
 if nodes have been selected in the model-prototype, a bar element connecting a node with its
respective node in the copy is generated from each of these nodes;
 if bar elements have been selected in the model-prototype, each selected bar will generate a plate
element (three-node — type 42 or four-node — type 44), the size of which in the direction of
copying will be equal to the specified step of copying;
 if plate elements have been selected in the model-prototype, each selected element will generate a
solid element (type 36, 33 or 34), the size of which in the direction of copying will be equal to the
specified step of copying (see Sec. 5.16).
Rules for transformations of the selected objects will also hold for any combination of them.
In those cases when a fragment of the design model is displayed in the window and this operation is
invoked, a drop-down menu appears where you can select whether to copy the whole model or its visible
fragment. In the first case, i.e. when the whole model is copied, the operation will be applied to all nodes
and elements of the design model according to the above rules regardless of whether they are included in
the visible fragment or not. When the visible fragment is copied, — the above actions will be performed
only with the nodes and elements of the fragment.
Another type of copying is performed by mirroring the whole model or its visible part along the
selected axis with respect to the origin of the global coordinate system. The operation will be performed
according to the same rules as the copying in the specified direction.
The Copy the Model dialog box (Fig. 5.14-1)
enables to specify the direction of copying:
 in a straight line along one of the axes of the
global coordinate system;
 along a circular arc about the given axis (the axis
of rotation passes through the origin of the
global coordinate system);
 mirroring.
The steps of repetitions of prototypes and the
number of repetitions for each step are specified for the
first two operations as the parameters of copying (when
copying along an arc a central angle is specified in
degrees as a step).
The mirroring of the prototype is performed by
changing the sign of the nodes’ coordinates of the copy
corresponding to the axis along which the mirroring is
performed. Since the position of the copy in the result of
mirroring depends on the position of the origin of the
Figure 5.14-1. The Copy the Model dialog box global coordinate system, it is necessary to move the
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origin into the right point before performing the

operation.
Let's consider the rules of working with the copy. They are specified by checking the respective
checkboxes and enable to perform the following operations:
 Copy the loads, i.e. transfer the loads from the model-prototype to the model-copy. There are
following options for copying the loads:
 Copy loadings — only the loadings specified in the prototype are transferred to the copies;
 Copy loadings as groups of loads — only the loadings specified in the prototype are
transferred and they are given in the copies as groups of loads;
 Copy groups of loads — only the groups of loads specified in the prototype are transferred to
the copies;
 Copy loadings and groups of loads — both loadings and groups of loads are transferred to the
copies.
 Delete duplicate nodes — if in the result of copying there are nodes with the same coordinates, only
one of these nodes will be left in the resulting model. Two nodes are considered to be duplicate if the
distance between them is less than the value specified by the user in the Environment Settings dialog
box (see the Settings menu);
 Delete duplicate elements — if in the result of copying there are elements all nodes of which
coincide, only one of these elements will be left in the resulting model;
 Do not delete bars that produced plates and plates that produced solid elements — this checkbox
will be available if the model has selected bars or plates. If this checkbox is checked, the selected bars
and plates are not deleted from the design model;
 Do not change the original prototype — this item enables to save the model-prototype without
changes in those cases when bars producing plates are deleted;
 Combine identical rigidities with different names — rigidities are packed when copying the model;
this checkbox enables to "affect" the packing process.
Figure 5.14-2. Model-prototype Figure 5.14-3. Model after the copying operation
Models can be copied with the generation of new elements and without the generation of new
elements, the procedure in these cases is somewhat different.
When a model is copied without the generation of new elements:
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− activate the copying mode by clicking the button in the Model section;
− specify the parameters of copying, rules for working with the copies, and click the OK button in
the Copy Model dialog box (Fig. 5.14-1);
− after performing the copying confirm the results or reject them.
When a model is copied with the generation of new elements:
− use a group of control buttons of selection of elements and nodes , located in the left
corner of the status bar (or in the Control the Selection panel), to select nodes bars should be
generated from, bar elements which should produce plates, and plates solid elements should be
generated from in the prototype;
− activate the copying mode by clicking the button in the Model section;
− specify the parameters of copying, rules for working with the copies, and click the OK button in
the Copy Model dialog box;
− after performing the copying confirm the results or reject them.
Let’s consider several examples of performing the copy
operation. In the first case copy the model-prototype (Fig. 5.14-
2) 5 times in the direction of the Z axis with a step of 3 m.
Resulting model (rotated for better visualization by 60) is
shown in Fig. 5.14-3.
Figure 5.14-4. Model-prototype In the next example a bar structure with a parabolic upper
chord is used as a model-prototype (Fig. 5.14-4).
Copying was performed 24 times by rotating about the Z

axis by 15. A bar was generated from each selected node. The
result of the function is shown in Fig. 5.14-5.
If in addition to nodes you also select the bars of the upper

chord in the model-prototype, then in the result of copying you
will obtain a model shown in Fig. 5.14-6. Note, that each
selected bar has produced a plate.
Figure 5.14-5. Model-result of copying a
prototype with the generation of bars
In the considered method of copying the operations are
performed with the full design model, i.e. a fragment of the
model can not be a prototype.
Questions of generation in the process of copying solid

elements are considered in Sec. 5.16.
Figure 5.14-6. Model-result of copying a

prototype with the generation of bars and
plates
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a) b)
Figure 5.14-7. Copying a fragment of the model (a) by mirroring with respect to the origin of the
global coordinate system along the X axis (b)
An example of copying the fragment of the model by
mirroring is given in Figure 5.14-7. The resulting model is
shown in Figure 5.14-8. It should be noted that the elements are
generated from the selected nodes and elements in this mode
according to the same rules as when copying in a straight line
and along a circular arc.
Figure 5.14-8. Result of performing

copying
5.15. Copying the Fragment of the Model
Besides copying a full model it is possible to copy its fragment as well. Any part of the model
consisting of the selected elements can be considered as a fragment. When you copy a fragment the bars
are not generated from the selected nodes, plates – from the selected bars, and solid elements – from the
selected plates. The Copy the Fragment of the Model dialog box enables to specify the steps of
repetitions of the selected fragment, the number of repetitions for each step, and the rules for working with
the copy. When copying along an arc a central angle is specified as a step.
5.16. Creating Design Models from Solid Elements

The copy operation can be also used to create design models from solid elements. In this case a prototype
is a model from plate elements. The following rule is used for the generation of solid elements: a plate
selected on the prototype generates a solid element. If nodes, bars and plates are selected in the prototype, a
complex model from bar, plate and solid elements will be created.
As an example let’s consider the generation of a design model from solid elements on the basis of a
prototype given in Fig. 5.16-1 (the prototype is obtained by automatic meshing of the specified area lying
in the XОY plane).
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Select all the elements of the prototype and activate the copy operation by clicking the button in
the Model section. Specify the direction of copying — Z, number of repetitions of the prototype and the
step in the Copy the Model dialog box. A design model shown in Fig. 5.16-2 will be generated after
You can also create a model by copying a prototype along a circular arc. The origin of the global
coordinate system should be determined in such a way so that the axis of rotation does not intersect the
elements of the prototype.
Figure 5.16-1. Design model from plate elements used Figure 5.16-2. Design model from solid elements
as a prototype
5.17. Geometric Transformations
The set of geometric transformations enables to modify the geometry of the design model or of its
fragment by changing the coordinates of nodes. The set includes: transfer of the coordinates of nodes,
rotation about the given axis, scaling and mirroring.
Clicking the respective button in the Model
section of the toolbar invokes the Geometric
Transformations dialog box (Fig. 5.17-1).
If the transformations refer to the whole
model, they will be performed after clicking the
OK button in the dialog box. If you want to
transform a fragment (group of nodes), you have
to first select nodes, and then assign and perform
the necessary operation.
Figure 5.17-1. The Geometric Transformations dialog

box
Moving
This operation enables to move nodes on the specified distance from the initial position. If no nodes are
selected in the model, the transfer will be performed for the whole model. In those cases when a group of
nodes is selected in the model, only the nodes of the group will be moved. In order to perform this function
activate the Move option, specify the increments of coordinates and confirm them by clicking the OK
button in the dialog box.
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Moreover, you can also use the moving operation, where the distances are defined by a vector given
by two nodes. In order to perform such a moving activate the respective option in the dialog box and click
the OK button. If you click on the first node of the vector and stretch the rubber band to the second node,
the moving will be performed after clicking on the second node.
Rotation about the Given Axis

This operation enables to rotate a model or a group of nodes by the specified angle about the given axis.
The procedure is standard — activate an option with the name of the respective axis, specify the angle and
click the OK button. In order to obtain a correct result you have to control the position of the origin of the
global coordinate system about the axes of which the rotation is performed. The origin of the coordinate
system can occupy any place in the model and even outside of it, and it can be moved into the given node
by clicking the Move the origin into the given node button in the Nodes and Elements section (if there is
no node, it can be created).
Despite its apparent simplicity, this operation has a lot of “pitfalls”. When rotating a group you have
to make sure that there are no intersections of the rotated elements with the stationary part of the model,
plate elements may change their shape and lose their flatness, and the incorrect specification of the origin
may lead to an unexpected result.
Scaling along the Given Line

This operation is used to change the sizes of the design model or its fragment specified by indicating the
nodes along the given direction. The direction of scaling is defined by a line passing through two nodes. In
order to perform the scaling you have to enable the respective radio button in the dialog box, specify the
scaling factor (positive number) and click the OK button. If you click on the first node of the line which
defines the direction of scaling and stretch the rubber band to the second node, the scaling will be
performed after clicking on the second node. When specifying a line the nodes defining it do not
necessarily have to belong to the set of nodes the scaling is performed for. This line defines only the
direction.
Do not forget to check the results of the operation to make sure that there are no intersections of
elements and they have correct shapes.
Scaling in the Given Plane

The work with this operation is similar to the previous one. Scaling is performed for the whole model or
the selected group of nodes in the planes parallel to the given plane. The following procedure is
recommended.
For the whole model:
− Enable the Scaling in the given plane radio button in the dialog box;
− specify the scaling factor;
− click the OK button;
− select three nodes in the model which lie in the scaling plane.
After selecting the third node the scaling is performed automatically.
For a group of nodes:
− select nodes in the model the scaling is performed for;
− invoke the mode of geometric transformations;
− enable the Scaling in the given plane radio button in the dialog box;
− specify the scaling factor;
− click the OK button;
− select three nodes in the model which lie in the scaling plane or in a plane parallel to it.
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After selecting the third node scaling is performed automatically.
Mirroring with Respect to the Given Axis

These operations enable to mirror the whole model or its part selected as a group of nodes with respect to
the selected axis. As in the previous cases you should not forget about the dangers due to the possible
change of direction of the local axes of the elements.
An express-analysis of the design model should be performed after the
geometric transformations (button in the Control section of the toolbar). It
detects bar elements of zero length and plate elements of zero area.
Scaling (Full)
It performs the scaling of the model or of its part selected as a group of nodes in all directions along the
axes of the global coordinate system in accordance with the specified scaling factor.
Scaling will be performed automatically after clicking the OK button in the dialog box.
Examples of Geometric Transformations

Let’s consider a few examples of using geometric transformations related to the operations of rotation,
scaling and mirroring.
Example 1
Let’s consider the rotation operation on an example of a Z-
shaped beam which will be obtained from the initial model in
Fig. 5.17-2.
Figure 5.17-2. Initial model of the beam

“Bend” the beam by 12º about the Z axis at the distance of
10 m from the left edge of the beam. To do this, perform the
following actions:
− move the origin of the global coordinate system into one
of the nodes lying on the bend line;
− select nodes from the bend line to the right edge of the
beam;
− invoke the Geometric transformations;
− invoke the operation of rotation about the Z axis by 12º;
Figure 5.17-3. Model of the beam after The model obtained in the result of the above actions is
rotating the group of nodes by 12º shown in Fig. 5.17-3.
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Repeat the performed operations for the last ten meters of

the beam rotating them by 12º. The result is given in Fig. 5.17-
4.
Figure 5.17-4. Model of the beam after

rotating another group of nodes by 12º
Example 2
Let’s consider the operation of scaling along the given line
on the example of the same beam. Double the height of the
beam. To do this, perform the following actions:
− invoke the operation of scaling along the given line;
− specify the scaling factor equal to 2, and click the OK
button;
− connect two nodes of the web lying on the same vertical
with the rubber band.
The model will be automatically transformed after clicking
Figure 5.17-5. Model of the beam in the on the second node (Fig. 5.17-5).
result of scaling along the given line
Example 3
Use the design model of a cylinder (Fig. 5.17-6) to
illustrate the possibilities of scaling in the given plane. Double
the diameter of two upper and two lower chords of the
cylinder.
To do this, perform the following actions:
− select nodes of these chords;
− invoke the operation of scaling in the given plane;
− specify the scaling factor equal to 2;
Figure 5.17-6. Initial model of the − click the OK button;
cylinder − select three nodes in the model which lie in the scaling
plane (in this case in the horizontal plane).
Operation will be performed after selecting the third node.
Model-result of geometric transformations is shown with
removal of lines of the invisible contour in Fig. 5.17-7.
Please note that trapezoidal elements have appeared after
performing the scaling operations. If these elements were
specified as rectangular (type 41) in the model-prototype, they
have to be changed to type 44.
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Figure 5.17-7. Model of the cylinder in

the result of scaling
Example 4
This example illustrates the mirroring operations. The
initial design model is given in Fig. 5.17-8, a. Perform the
successive operations of mirroring it with respect to the X, Y,
Z axes (Fig. 5.17-8, b-d).
A group of nodes can be mirrored as well, though this
operation is very rare and can be applied only to a separate
fragment of the design model.
a)
b) c) d)
Figure 5.17-8. Initial design model (a) and the results of successive mirroring with respect to the X, Y, Z
axes (b–d).
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5.18. Specification of Grid Lines
A design model or its part can be created using grid lines. The program enables to specify grid lines
consisting of several sections, each of which may have one of the following four types: rectangular,
rectangular rotated by a given angle, oblique or polar. Elevations are common to all sections and are
specified once when describing the first section.
Parameters of the axes are specified in the multi-tab Specify Grid Lines dialog box (Fig. 5.18-1).
Checkboxes for specifying

the rules for display of
the marks of axes
Figure 5.18-1. The Specify Grid Figure 5.18-2. The Specify Grid Lines
Lines dialog box dialog box (the Longitudinal Division
(the Grid Parameters tab) tab)
The Grid Parameters tab enables to specify the type of grid lines and the name of the section, as well
as the coordinates of the snap point of the section of grid lines in the global coordinate system of the
model. The rules for displaying the marks of grid lines are defined by the checked checkboxes. Moreover,
depending on the type of grid lines the following data can be specified in this tab:
 rectangular grid rotated by a given angle — the angle of rotation of the section with respect to its
snap point (hereinafter positive direction – counterclockwise);
 oblique grid — the angle of rotation of the grid section with respect to its snap point and the inner
angle;
 polar grid — the angle of rotation of the X axis with respect to the snap point of the section.
The Longitudinal Division (Fig. 5.18-2) and Transverse Division tabs are used to specify data
necessary to generate grid lines in the Y-direction and in the X-direction respectively. Division along the Z
axis and the snap of the elevation of the lower level (reference mark) are specified in the Elevations tab.
Names of grid lines can be generated automatically or specified by the user. It is assumed by default
that longitudinal grid lines are labeled with numbers in the ascending order from 1, and transverse ones –
with letters in alphabetical order. The drop-down list in the tabs of longitudinal and transverse division can
be used to change the order assumed by default. The list includes three items “1, 2, 3…”, “A, B, C…” and
“Specified”. For example, if you select the "A, B, C ..." item in the list for the longitudinal grid lines
without changing it for the transverse ones, then both grid lines will be labeled in the same way – with
letters in alphabetical order.
In order to specify the labeling order different from the default one you have to specify new names,
which may include up to three characters, in the Grid Line Names dialog box, which can be invoked by
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clicking the Names of grid lines defined by the user button (Fig. 5.18-5). The “Specified” item will be
selected automatically if any changes have been made to the “standard” labeling of grid lines.
The filter — Display grid lines is used to control the display of grid lines. The operations of
control of display are described in Sec. 10.2. It should be noted here that the software provides different
variants of the output of grid lines: all sections simultaneously or in any combination of them, entirely or
selecting a fragment of any section, etc.
Figure 5.18-3. Fragment of the design model with grid lines

In order to specify a new section of grid lines you have to invoke the Specify grid lines operation
and repeat the above actions in the respective dialog box. The opened dialog box will display data on
the grid section specified last. It should be replaced with new information.
In order to adjust the parameters of the grid line section specified earlier activate the operation of
specification of grid lines using the arrow on the right of the button to drop down the menu and select the
Grid line control section in it. The Grid Line Control dialog box (Fig. 5.18-4) includes a table with a list
of specified sections of grid lines. Perform the following actions to adjust the parameters of the grid:
− select a line with the modified grid in the table;
− click the Modify button;
− make all the necessary changes in the multi-tab Specify Grid Lines dialog box (Fig. 5.18-1);
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button;
− once all the adjustments are performed close the Grid Line Control dialog box by clicking the OK
button.
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Figure 5.18-4. The Grid Line Control dialog box Figure 5.18-5. The Grid Line Names dialog box
5.19. Creating a Model on Grid Lines

Grid lines and elevations can be used when specifying the geometry of the design model. To do this, you
have to snap the nodes to the grid. Button invoking the operation of generation of nodes is located in
the Nodes section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar. This operation enables to create nodes at the
intersection of grid lines in the specified area of the grid. Elevations are considered as Z coordinates. The
added nodes can be used for all input operations provided in the software. They are the basis for creating
the area of meshing, input of bar, plate and solid elements, and are involved in the operations of geometric
transformations and assembly (Fig. 5.19-1).
Figure 5.19-1. Bar elements created on grid lines
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5.20. Copying the Model along Trajectories
Trajectories
This section considers the operations of creating, adjusting and using the trajectories during the generation
of the design model.
The trajectory is represented by a set of nodes arranged in a certain order. In order to make it
convenient to represent the trajectory in the graphical editor, the nodes are connected by segments, which
are not considered as independent objects, and do not affect the characteristics of the design model. The
trajectory is an auxiliary element (type 1101) which can be generated both when creating a design model,
and attached to the model using the assembly operation.
The main purpose of the trajectory in the process of the generation of the geometry of the design
model is to specify the direction in which the copied prototype has to be moved. Most of the other
parameters are identical to those in the operations of copying in a straight line.
Creating a Trajectory and Its Application to the Existing Model.

It is recommended to perform the following operations in order to generate a trajectory by snapping
its nodes to the existing nodes of the design model:
 invoke the operation by clicking the Trajectory button in the Model toolbar and select the
method of specifying the trajectory in the drop-down menu, – by selecting the nodes in the order of
their arrangement (Create a new trajectory), or selecting the bar elements of the model coinciding
with the segments of the trajectory (Create a new trajectory from the selected bars);
 if you select the first operation, the dialog box (Fig. 5.20-1) will appear, where you have to
specify the name of the trajectory (the Name field) and close the dialog box by clicking the OK
button;
 select the nodes in the model in their order using the “rubber band” and click the OK button in the
Model toolbar (the “marquee” and “polygon” cursors are not used for the simultaneous selection of
several nodes, because they can not clearly define their order);
 a similar procedure is followed to create a trajectory using the bar elements; the name of the
trajectory is specified in the Create a New Trajectory dialog box, bar elements are selected after
closing the dialog box and the OK button is clicked in the Model toolbar (it does not matter is
which order the bars are selected, because it is assumed that the segments connecting the
neighboring nodes of the trajectory form a continuous broken line).
Peculiarities of the Implementation

The finite elements and the trajectory should not use common nodes. In this case moving the
trajectory can change the design model. If the peculiarities of the design model do not restrict the use of the
common nodes of the model and the trajectory, the trajectory can be specified taking into account the
existing nodes. Otherwise, you have to check the Separate the trajectory nodes from the nodes of the
model checkbox in the Create a New Trajectory dialog box, and in the result in the process of creating a
trajectory a new node belonging only to the trajectory will correspond to each node of the design model
used when creating the trajectory.
In the case when the bar elements which do not form a continuous broken line are selected, the
software generates a message. The user can make a decision to create several trajectories on the basis of
one set of the selected bars. In the case of a positive answer to the inquiry about the possibility of creating
multiple trajectories, they are generated automatically. Each trajectory is given a name specified during the
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activation of the operation, supplemented by a number in the order of creating the element. The first
created trajectory gets the initial name.
Figure 5.20-1. The Modify trajectory dialog box.
Copying the Model Using the Trajectory as a “Director”

An important property of the trajectory is the possibility to use it as a “director” which indicates the
direction of copying. Similarly to finite elements, the copying along a trajectory enables to generate one-
dimensional elements from the selected nodes, two-dimensional elements from bars and three-dimensional
elements from the two-dimensional (shell) elements. Moreover, when copying along the trajectory, there is
a possibility of changing the size of the copy upward or downward depending on the ratio between the
scaling factors at the beginning and at the end of the trajectory.
When invoking the operation of copying along the trajectory, you should follow the same rules as
when copying in the direction of the axes of the main coordinate system:
 the operation of copying the model can be invoked by clicking the respective button in the Model
toolbar;
 select the type of copying in the drop-down list – either the whole model or only its visible part;
 check the Copying along the trajectory checkbox in the Copy the Model dialog box (Fig. 5.20-
2), specify the name of the trajectory by selecting it from the list of trajectories pre-attached to the
project;
 if during the copying process it is necessary to change the sizes of each subsequent copy, you
should specify the scaling factor (Ks) other than one. The sizes of the copy will change upward
(Ks> 1) or downward (Ks <1) proportionally to the covered path if the Step size checkbox is
checked, or to the number of performed steps along the trajectory if the Number of steps checkbox
is checked.
When a model with the selected nodes and elements is copied, the type of the selected objects is
transformed according to the following rules:
 if the nodes were selected in the model-prototype, a bar element is generated from each such node
connecting it to the node-analogue in the copy;
 if bar elements were selected in the model-prototype, each selected bar will generate a plate
element (3-node – type 42 or 4-node – type 44), the size of which in the direction of copying will
be equal to the specified step of copying;
 if plate elements were selected in the model-prototype, each selected element will generate a solid
element (type 36, 33 or 34), the size of which in the direction of copying will be equal to the
specified step of copying (see Sec. 5.16).
The rules of transformation of the selected objects will be executed for any of their combination as well.
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Regardless of the variant of copying along the trajectory the copies can be arranged preserving their initial
position with respect to the trajectory. It can be done by checking the respective checkbox.
Figure 5.20-2. Copy Model dialog box.
5.21. Graphics Editor
Graphics editor, which is invoked by clicking the button , enables to specify a design model of a bar
structure or of its fragment using a set of graphics operations similar to those in the 2D AutoCAD
(AutoCAD Light) environment. The authors of the system were not trying to replace such recognized
graphical tools as AutoCAD, Micro Station, and the like. The goal was more modest – to enable the
experts and amateurs of these graphic systems to work in a familiar environment. The graphics editor is
described in detail in Sec. 30.7.
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6.Operations with Nodes and Elements
6. Operations with Nodes and Elements

When creating a design model it is often necessary to modify it by adding new or deleting the existing
nodes and elements, changing their position in the model, dividing elements, etc. The Nodes and
Elements section of the toolbar contains operations which enable to perform the above actions.
Any activated operation with nodes and elements will be active until we cancel it by
clicking the button in the Nodes and Elements toolbar or select another operation.
6.1. Selection of Nodes and Elements

Operations are performed with the selected nodes and elements in the graphical environment of SCAD.
Several methods of selecting are implemented, i.e.: with the help of different types of cursors, from the
color scales, from the tables and from the list of messages.
Objects are usually selected with cursors. A cursor with a target is used to select one object. Several
objects can be selected at the same time with a marquee or a polygon. A cursor can be selected in the
Control the Selection toolbar (Fig. 6.1-1) or from the menu (Fig. 6.1-2,a), which appears after right-
clicking in the work area of the window.
Figure 6.1-1. The Control the Selection toolbar

Buttons of the toolbar have the following purpose:
— immediate execution — this option is provided for experienced users and invokes the immediate
execution of operations after selecting the objects. It applies to all types of operations, including
visualization, and enables to perform them without confirming with the OK button in the toolbar or the
Enter key. When working in this mode, it is recommended to use the display filters that correspond to the
performed operations which will enable to control the correctness of their performance;
— execution with confirmation — this option is active by default and invokes the execution of most
operations only after confirming them with the OK button in the toolbar or the Enter key;
— select cursor — clicking this button drops down a menu with a list of available cursors you can
select from;
, , , , — filters of the selection of horizontal (parallel to the axis X, parallel to the axis
Y, nonparallel to the axes X and Y), vertical and inclined bars respectively — operations of selection
will apply only to the bar elements, the position of which in the model corresponds to the activated options
(filter buttons may be activated in any combination, if they are all "depressed", then all objects are
selected);
, , , , — filters of the selection of plates lying in the XOY, XOZ, YOZ plane, and of
vertical and inclined plates respectively — operations of selection will apply only to the plate elements,
the position of which in the model corresponds to the activated options (filter buttons may be activated in
any combination, if they are all "depressed", then all objects are selected);
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— reset data input filters — all filters are reset to the default initial state;
— invert the selection of nodes — is used to simultaneously change the state of selection of all the
nodes visible on the screen to the opposite one (nodes selected earlier will be deselected, and all the other
ones will be selected);
— invert the selection of elements — is used to simultaneously change the state of selection of all the
elements visible on the screen to the opposite one (elements selected earlier will be deselected, and all the
other ones will be selected);
— select a group of elements — activates the selection of elements;
— select a group of nodes — activates the selection of nodes;
— select objects in the model from the tables — this option enables to select the objects in the
design model by indicating them in the interactive tables (with the initial data and the results);
— display only the selected objects in the tables — the interactive tables will display only the
information on the objects selected in the design model;
— select objects for displaying information — this option is used in those cases when the Display
information on the model only for the selected elements and nodes checkbox is checked in the settings.
In this case, a special selection operation is used which is not related to the execution of any actions with
the selected objects, except for the output of the related information on the model.
Selection of the cursor and the settings of the selection control options can be also performed with the
help of the menu. It is convenient to use a menu in cases when only one action is performed, such as the
selection of the type of cursor or activation of one option. This is due to the fact that after selecting the
necessary item the menu is closed.
a) b) c) d)
Figure 6.1-2. a) Menu of the control of cursors;

b) selection of the accuracy of positioning the cursor with a target; c) filters of the selection of bars;
d) filters of the selection of plate elements
The accuracy of positioning the cursor for a single selection is defined by the size of the screen area
covered by the cursor target. The minimum size of the target is approximately equal to the default size of
the image of the node in the design model. Such a "precise" indication is usually used in dense design
models, where the distance between the nodes or the sizes of elements are commensurate with the size of
the target. Values 0.5, 1 and 1.5 (size of the target is increased by 50, 100 and 150% respectively) enable to
increase the area of positioning of the cursor when selecting the object.
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When selecting nodes or elements with the mouse, you can use the Shift and Ctrl keys, which change
the rules for selecting nodes/elements. When the Shift key is pressed, the previously selected
nodes/elements are not deselected, and the nodes/elements which were not previously selected become
selected. When the Ctrl key is pressed, the previously selected nodes/elements are deselected, and the
nodes/elements which were not previously selected are not selected.
Right-clicking on the Select nodes/elements buttons ( , ) invokes a menu which enables to select
nodes belonging to the selected elements or select elements adjacent to the selected nodes.
Objects can be also selected by rectangular and polygonal marquees. Nodes will be selected if they
are within the marquee area. In order to select elements, all their nodes have to be within the marquee area.
Rigid bodies are an exception. In order to select it, you just have to indicate one of its nodes or lines
connecting the master node and one of the slave nodes. The selected nodes and elements are highlighted in
red.
The following rules for working with cursors have to be taken into account when selecting nodes and
elements:
 the assigned combination of filters of cursors is not reset automatically, and the filters will be
active until you change or cancel the specification. The current state of filters is displayed by icons
in the Control the Selection toolbar;
 the selected type of cursor will be active until a new operation is selected;
 when selecting objects you can change the type of cursor many times;
 clicking on the selected object for the second time deselects it.
The Invert the selection of nodes and Invert the selection of elements operations are used to select
all the nodes or elements visible on the screen respectively.
Figure 6.1-3. The Nodes in the Cursor Target Figure 6.1-4. The Elements in the
dialog box Cursor Target dialog box
If when selecting one node or element, there are several objects in the cursor target at once, all of
them will be given in the lists in the Nodes in the Cursor Target or Elements in the Cursor Target
dialog box (Fig. 6.1-3 and 6.1-4). In order to select a particular node or element you have to indicate it in
the respective list and click the Select button. If several nodes have close but not equal coordinates, a node
should be selected according to the values of its coordinates which are displayed in the respective fields of
the Coordinates of the node group. Coordinates of nodes are displayed in the output fields with the
accuracy and in the units of measurement specified in the Units of Measurement tab of the Parameters
dialog box (see Sec. 31.1), and can be changed.
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6.2. Operations with Nodes
Operations with nodes are invoked from the Nodes section (Fig. 6.2-1) of the Nodes and Elements
toolbar.
Figure 6.2-1. The Nodes section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar
The following operations with nodes are implemented in the software:
— delete nodes;
— restore deleted nodes;
— create nodes;
— create additional nodes between nodes;
— move nodes;
— merge duplicate nodes;
— generate nodes along an arc;
— move the origin;
— create nodes at the specified distance from the selected ones;
— replace a node in elements;
— select nodes;
— generate nodes at the intersection of grid lines;
— pack data;
— generate generators by the formula;
— move nodes to the given plane;
— round the node coordinates;
— renumbering nodes;
— copy node properties.
The Nodes filter button is used to display nodes on the design model.
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Create Nodes
This operation enables to create one or more nodes located at the same distance from each other by
specifying their coordinates. Initial data are specified in the Create Nodes dialog box, which appears on
the screen after invoking the operation (Fig. 6.2-2). A special feature of this window is that it does not
close and remains available all the time when the operation of input is used.
When the Create nodes operation is invoked the Nodes visualization filter for displaying nodes
on the screen is enabled automatically.
In order to create one node you just have to specify its coordinates in the fields of the left part of the
window and click the Add button.
The presence of the repeater enables to create a group of nodes at once. In order to do it, perform the
following actions:
− specify the coordinates of the first node of the group (X, Y, Z) in the text fields of the coordinates;
− check the Repeat checkbox;
− specify the number of repetitions in the N field;
− specify the values of the step of repetition in one or more directions (X, Y, Z) in the text fields
for the increments of coordinates;
− click the Add button.
Nodes are created in the axes of the global coordinate
system of the design model. The Automatic transfer of the
origin into the last created node option moves the origin and
the coordinates are now measured from this node.
You can specify the nodes that lie on a straight line, the
position of which is defined by the coordinates of the first
node and the increment of these coordinates. This line can be
also rotated about one of the axes of the global coordinate
system. The center of rotation is at the origin of the global
coordinate system. Changing the direction of input of nodes is
invoked by the respective option and enables to rotate the
nodes by the given angle about the specified axis of the global
coordinate system. If a group of nodes is input using a
repeater, all the nodes of this group will lie on a straight line
Figure 6.2-2. The Create Nodes dialog passing through the origin and rotated by a given angle.
box Constraints can be specified in the nodes simultaneously
with the input. The respective button is used for this purpose,
clicking which invokes the Constraints dialog box (see Sec.
7.4).
The operation of selecting coordinates of a node
enables to obtain the coordinates of the node by specifying its
number in the Node number field of the Select Node dialog
box (Fig. 6.2-3), and is used in cases when the increments are
measured from the node created earlier. Once this dialog box
Figure 6.2-3. The Select Node dialog is closed the coordinates of the node will appear in the X, Y, Z
box text fields.
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Delete Nodes
It is necessary to perform the following actions to delete the nodes:

− invoke the Delete nodes operation;
− select the nodes you want to delete in the design model (the selected node is displayed in red);
− click the OK button in the Nodes section of the toolbar or press the Enter key.
Nodes will be deleted together with the elements adjacent to them. If you have mistakenly deleted the
“wrong” node, it can be restored using the Cancel operation.
Despite the fact that the OK button has been already used a number of times, we
will remind you that only your "own" button can be used to perform this operation,
i.e. set in the respective section of the toolbar.
Restore Deleted Nodes
It is necessary to perform the following actions to restore the deleted nodes:

− invoke the operation, the filter displaying the deleted nodes on the model will be enabled
automatically;
− select the nodes you want to restore (they will be displayed in red);
Note that this operation restores only the nodes. In those cases when the nodes have been deleted
together with the elements connected with them, they can be restored with the help of the similar operation
in the Elements group of buttons.
Deleted nodes can be made visible on the model without invoking the operation of restoring. Click the
filters button , and the deleted nodes will be highlighted in yellow (or other color specified in the
settings).
Deleted nodes can be restored only if the packing of data was not performed after they had been
deleted.
Create Additional Nodes between Nodes
This operation enables to add new nodes on the line passing through two selected nodes. After
invoking the operation the Create Additional Nodes between Nodes dialog box appears (Fig. 6.2-4),
where you have to select one of the following five operations:
— create one node dividing the interval between two selected nodes in the given ratio
L1/L;
— create several nodes dividing the interval between two selected nodes into N equal
segments;
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— create one node at the given distance from the first selected node;
— create one node at the given distance from the second selected node;
— dividing the interval between two selected nodes into equal segments of the given
length (the remainder is attached to the second selected node).
In order to select the operation enable the respective radio button in the dialog box and specify the
numerical characteristics. It is necessary to perform the following operations after you close the dialog box
by clicking the OK button:
− select the first node (it is significant which node is selected first for the first, third, fourth and fifth
variants);
− select the second node;
In the icons of the operations where the order of the selection of nodes is important the first selected
node is shown in green, and the second one – in yellow. Constraints can be specified in the nodes
simultaneously with the input. The respective button is used for this purpose, clicking which invokes the
Constraints dialog box (see Sec. 7.4).
Figure 6.2-4. The Create Additional Nodes between Nodes dialog box
This operation enables to create nodes. When the new nodes are created on bar
elements, the latter are not divided. Special operations in the Elements toolbar are used
to divide bars.
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Move Nodes
This operation is used to move a node into the point with the specified coordinates (to actually change
the coordinates of the node) or to move several selected nodes in the given vector.
When moving several nodes each i-th node is
moved in space into the point determined by adding
the current coordinates of this node (Xi, Yi, Zi) with
increments specified for each direction (X, Y, Z).
In the result all the selected nodes are moved over the
given distance. The parameters of transfer are specified
in the Move Nodes dialog box (Fig. 6.2-5).
Figure 6.2-5. The Move Nodes dialog box

It is necessary to perform the following actions to move the nodes:
− click the Move nodes button in the Nodes section of the toolbar;
− the Move Nodes dialog box will appear where you have select the type of operation using the
respective radio buttons: Move in the given vector or Move the node into the given point (when
the second type of operation is performed, one node is moved);
− depending on the selected operation specify the increments to the coordinates or new coordinates of
the node;
− select nodes or a node in the model;
In the example given in Fig. 6.2-6 the selected nodes are moved in the positive direction (same with
the direction of the axis) along the X axis.
Figure 6.2-6. Example of using the operation of moving

the nodes in the given vector
Moreover, you can also use the move operation, where the increments of coordinates are defined by a
vector given by two nodes. In order to perform such a movement activate the respective option in the
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dialog box and click the OK button. Select the nodes you want to move and click the OK button in the
Nodes section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar (or press the Enter key). Then click on the first node of
the vector and stretch the rubber band to the second node; the movement will be performed after clicking
the OK button in the toolbar.
If you use the operation of moving nodes, you have to make sure that there are
no unacceptable changes of the shape of finite elements in the result.
Merge Nodes with the Same Coordinates
In the result of this operation only one node from each group of nodes with the same coordinates will
be left in the model, and the others will be deleted. In the elements adjacent to the deleted nodes the
numbers of the deleted nodes will be replaced with the numbers of the nodes remaining in the model.
The rules for merging are specified in the Pack Data dialog
box, which appears after invoking the operation and includes the
following options:
 Merge only the selected nodes — only the nodes selected
before invoking the operation are merged;
 Combine the load when packing nodes — the loads from
all the duplicate nodes are added and applied to the node
which remains in the model;
 Merge duplicate nodes with the specified merged
displacements — nodes are merged and the index of
merged displacements is deleted if the model does not
have any other nodes included into the same group of
merged displacements;
 Merge duplicate nodes if they belong to the same finite
element — after the node is deleted the element does not
change its type automatically.
The operation is performed after you close the dialog box
by clicking the OK button and does not require the confirmation
by clicking the similar button in the toolbar.
Nodes are considered as duplicate if the distance between
Figure 6.2-7. The Pack Data dialog them is less than the value of the accuracy of estimation of the
box duplicate nodes specified in the Pack Data dialog box.
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Generate Nodes along an Arc
This operation enables to create nodes along a circular arc

lying in the given plane. Control of the operation and specification
of the parameters of the arc is performed in the Create Nodes
along a Circular Arc dialog box (Fig. 6.2-8), which is invoked by
clicking the respective button.
This dialog box is used to specify the plane the new nodes lie in,
the number of nodes along the arc, start and end angles of the arc,
radius of the circular arc and its center. The center can be snapped
either to a node or to a point with the specified coordinates.
The button enables to invoke the dialog box (see Fig. 6.2-
3), where you can specify the number of the node. After clicking
the OK button the coordinates of this node will appear in the X, Y,
Z text fields (they can be changed if necessary) and will be used as
Figure 6.2-8. The Create Nodes the coordinates of the center.
along a Circular Arc dialog box
In the case when the center is specified by the coordinates, the new nodes will be added to the model
immediately after clicking the OK button in the dialog box. If the center is specified as lying in the node, you
have to select this node, click the OK button in the toolbar, and the new nodes will appear in the model.
Constraints can be specified in the nodes simultaneously with the input. The respective button is used
for this purpose, clicking which invokes the Constraints dialog box (see Sec. 7.4).
Move the Origin
Once this operation is invoked, the dialog box (Fig. 6.2-9) appears on the screen, where you have to
use the respective radio buttons to select the rule for specifying the point the origin is moved into. If you
have selected the transfer into the given node, then after closing the dialog box you have to select this node
in the model and click the OK button in the toolbar.
If the origin is moved into the point with the given
coordinates, then these coordinates are specified in the
respective text fields of the dialog box, and the origin will be
moved after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
The button enables to invoke the dialog box (see Fig. 6.2-
3), where you can specify the number of the node. After
closing this dialog box the coordinates of this node will appear
in the X, Y, Z text fields, and will be used as the new origin.
Figure 6.2-9. The Move the Origin
dialog box
This operation is often used when performing geometric transformations, for example when rotating a
part of the model by the given angle. Since it is performed by rotating a group of nodes (and therefore – the
elements attached to them as well) about the origin of the global coordinate system, the result will depend
on the position of the center of rotation.
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Create Nodes at the Specified Distance from the Selected Ones
The operation enables to create new nodes, each of which will be located at the given distance from
the nodes-prototypes selected in the model. Once the operation is invoked, the Create Nodes at the
Specified Distance from the Selected Ones dialog box appears. It contains the table where you have to
specify the distances in the form of increments to the coordinates of the selected nodes and the number of
repetitions (Fig. 6.2-10). If a few lines are filled in the table, the values specified in them are treated as
increments to the coordinates of the nodes input according to the values of the previous line.
Figure 6.2-10. The Create Nodes at the Specified Distance from the Selected Ones dialog box
In order to perform the operation you have to specify all the necessary information in the dialog box,
close the dialog box, select the nodes-prototypes in the model and click the OK button in the toolbar.
for this purpose, clicking which invokes the Constraints dialog box (see Sec.7.4).
New lines can be added to the table by clicking the Add button. The selected lines are deleted by
clicking the Delete button.
A completely zero line is considered as the input of increments equal to zero

which will lead to duplicate nodes.
Replace a Node in Elements
This operation enables to replace the node all the elements are adjacent to by another one.
The node you want to replace should be selected first (it is highlighted in red), and then the node it
will be replaced by (it is highlighted in green), and click the OK button in the toolbar. Once the operation
is performed, the node highlighted in red is not deleted.
If both selected nodes belong to the same finite element, a replacement will be
executed only after the user's confirmation, since it will lead to the appearance of a
degenerate element. You have to make sure that there are no unacceptable changes
of the shape of finite elements in the result.
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Select Nodes
You can use this option in cases when it is necessary (or convenient) to select nodes before invoking
the operation you want to perform with these nodes, for example, when copying or performing the
geometric transformations. After invoking this option you can use any cursor to select nodes. The selection
can be canceled by clicking the Rejection button in the Nodes section of the toolbar or the Reset all
marks button in the Display Filters toolbar.
The Control the Selection toolbar also contains this button (see Sec. 6.1).
Create Nodes at the Intersection of Grid Lines
This operation enables to create nodes at the intersection of grid lines in the given area of the grid.
The elevations are considered as the coordinates of nodes along the Z axis. The created nodes can be used
for all operations of input available in the software.
The control of the creation of nodes is performed in the Create Nodes at the Intersection of Grid
Lines dialog box (Fig. 6.2-11). You can create nodes in the area bounded by the specified marks of the
grid lines of the beginning – left list, and the end – the right list for each grid and each direction of grid
lines of a particular grid. Before specifying the area of the grid where the nodes are created, it is necessary
to uncheck The whole interval checkbox in the line corresponding to this grid (Fig. 6.2-11). Uncheck the
Involved in the intersection checkbox if you want to completely eliminate the creation of nodes at the
intersection of grid lines.
Figure 6.2-11. The Create Nodes at the Intersection of Grid Lines dialog box
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Figure 6.2-12. Grid lines with nodes at the intersections of grid lines
In order to prevent the appearance of duplicate nodes at the intersection of grid lines check the Do not
create nodes in the places of other nodes checkbox.
Generate a Generator by the Formula
This operation enables to generate nodes along a generator defined by the function а = f(b) and lying
in one of the planes of the global coordinate system. Once the operation is invoked the Generate a
Generator by the Formula dialog box (Fig. 6.2-13) appears, where you have to enter the formula of the
generator, select the plane the nodes will lie in, specify the initial (Beg.) and final (End) values of the
argument of the function, and also the number of nodes (Numb.) on the generator.
Figure 6.2-13. The Generate a Generator by the Formula dialog box

The following functions will be performed depending on the selected plane of generation:
 XОY plane — y = f(x);
 XОZ plane — z = f(x);
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 YОZ plane — z = f(y).

If nodes have to be connected by bars, you should check the respective checkbox. This will make the
Rigidity and Type of element buttons accessible. Clicking them invokes the respective dialog boxes
where you can specify the stiffness properties and the type of element (see Chapter 7).
for this purpose, clicking which invokes the Constraints dialog box (see Sec. 7.4).
Move Nodes to the Given Plane

Clicking the Move nodes to the given plane button drops down the menu (Fig. 6.2-14), where you
have to select the necessary operation.
If there are no selected nodes in the model, only one menu item is available. It enables to move the
selected nodes to the plane parallel to one of the planes of the global coordinate system. The setting of the
operation is performed in the respective dialog box (Fig. 6.2-15).
Figure 6.2-14. The Move nodes to the given

plane menu
Figure 6.2-15. The Move Nodes to the Given

Plane dialog box
If the X coordinate is selected in the Operation with the coordinate group, the nodes are moved to a
plane parallel to YОZ, if Y is selected, they are moved to a plane parallel to XОZ, and if Z is selected —
to a plane parallel to XОY.
Depending on the option selected in the Moving method group the transfer can be performed in three
ways. In the first case (the Move all the selected nodes to the averaging plane radio button is selected)
the selected nodes are moved in the given direction to the plane the point with the average coordinates
belongs to. In the second case (the Reduce coordinates of all the selected nodes to the coordinate radio
button is selected) the transfer is performed by reducing the given coordinate to the specified value in all
the selected nodes. The third method of moving (the Reduce coordinates of all the selected nodes to the
coordinate of the selected node radio button is selected) enables to transform the coordinates of the
selected nodes in such a way that all of them will have the value of the coordinate specified in the
Operation with the coordinate group equal to the coordinate of the selected node. In order to perform the
− select the nodes in the model the coordinates of which will change;
− invoke the operation by selecting the Move the selected nodes option in the drop-down menu (Fig.
6.2-14);
− specify the coordinate in the Operation with the coordinate group of the Move Nodes to the
Given Plane dialog box (Fig. 6.2-15);
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− select the Reduce coordinates of all the selected nodes to the coordinate of the selected node
radio button;
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button, and select the node with the necessary value of the
coordinate in the model;
− click the OK button in the toolbar.
Clicking the button invokes the Select Node dialog box (see Fig. 6.2-3), which enables to specify
the node one of the coordinates of which is used as a coordinate for snapping the selected nodes. This
operation is usually necessary in those cases when the model is obtained in the result of importing the data
from the graphic systems. It often happens so that the nodes which have to lie in one plane are in fact in its
vicinity. Such an “inaccuracy” may result for example in non-planar four-node elements.
If you first select nodes in the model, two types of transformations — Move to the line and Move to
the plane, will be available in the drop-down menu which appears after invoking the Move nodes to the
given plane operation. If you select Move to the line, you have to select two nodes in the model which
define a line in space and click the OK button in the toolbar. In the result all the selected nodes will be
projected and moved to this line. When the Move to the plane operation is selected, you have to select
three nodes in the model which do not lie on the same line and define a plane in space. After clicking the
OK button all the selected nodes will be projected and moved to this plane.
Round the Node Coordinates
This operation enables to round the coordinates of nodes of the design model with the specified
accuracy. When the operation is invoked, the Round the Node Coordinates dialog box (Fig. 6.2-16)
appears, where you have to specify the accuracy of rounding. Once the dialog box is closed by clicking the
OK button, the coordinates of nodes will be rounded with the specified accuracy. If you want to round the
coordinates only of a certain set of nodes, these nodes should be selected and the respective checkbox
should be checked in the dialog box.
You might need to round the coordinates of nodes after loading a model from graphics editors or
design systems.
Figure 6.2-16. The Round the Node Coordinates dialog box
If the model includes planar elements which do not lie in the planes of the principal
coordinate system, using this operation may distort their shape (for example, some
nodes may be moved from the original plane).
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Renumbering Nodes
The operation enables to renumber the nodes of the design model in accordance with the rules
selected by the user. The numbering can be performed in such a way so that the preselected nodes get the
minimum numbers, and the deleted nodes are placed in the end of the list. For all other nodes or only the
selected ones (if the Renumber only the selected nodes checkbox is checked) the rules for renumbering
are set in the table (see figure 6.2-17).
Figure 6.2-17. The Renumber Nodes dialog box

Select the components of the coordinates which will be taken into account when sorting by checking
the respective checkboxes, and set the priorities with the help of the Up and Down buttons. For example, if
the table has the form shown in the figure, all the selected nodes will have the first numbers, the deleted
nodes will have the last numbers, for all other nodes the minimum numbers will be assigned to the nodes in
the ascending order of the Z coordinate; if the nodes have the same Z coordinates, the renumbering will be
performed in the ascending order of the X coordinate and so on. The Reverse order checkbox can be used
for the coordinates, which enables to perform the renumbering in the descending order of values instead of
the ascending one.
Copy Node Properties
The operation is used in those cases when properties similar to those of the sample node have to be
assigned to several nodes of the design model. The set of copied properties includes:
 constraints;
 merged displacements;
 belonging to the groups;
 loads.
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Figure 6.2-18. The Copy Node Figure 6.2-19. The Parameters for Copying dialog box
Properties dialog box
The Copy Node Properties dialog box (Fig. 6.2-18) appears after invoking this operation. It contains
two groups of controls. The Sample node group provides the selection and visualization of a node the
properties of which are copied, and the Inheriting nodes group provides the selection and visualization of
nodes which obtain the properties of the sample node.
The copying enables to assign certain properties of the sample to the “inheriting nodes”, which can be
selected in the Parameters for Copying dialog box (Fig. 6.2-19). The dialog box can be invoked by
clicking the respective button after selecting the “sample” and “inheriting nodes”.
A set of properties is assigned with the help of checkboxes in the Main properties group in this
dialog box. Moreover, the rules for copying loads (loadings or groups, all or selectively) can be specified
in the Loads group. When the loads are copied selectively, the names of the copied loadings or groups are
selected from the respective lists. The following procedure is recommended for copying:
− specify the number of the sample node in the Node No. field in the Copy Node Properties dialog
box and click the Select button. The selected node will be highlighted in green in the model. If it is
more convenient to perform this action with the help of the cursor, click the Indication on the
model button and select the necessary node with the cursor;
− specify the numbers of the inheriting nodes in the List of nodes field and click the Select button to
select these nodes in the model. If it is more convenient to perform the selection with the help of
the cursor, click the Indication on the model button before performing this action;
− invoke the dialog box for assigning the properties to the inheriting nodes by clicking the
Parameters for copying button and specify the set of copied properties in it;
− click the Perform button in the Copy Node Properties dialog box after selecting all inheriting
nodes.
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6.3. Operations with Elements
Operations with elements are invoked from the Elements section (Fig. 6.3-1) of the Nodes and
Elements toolbar.
Figure 6.3-1. The Elements section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar
The Elements section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar includes a group of buttons which enable
to perform the following operations:
— add plate;
— add bars;
— add solid elements;
— add bars taking into account the intermediate nodes;
— create elements along an arc;
— delete elements;
— restore deleted elements;
— bar division;
— divide bars at the intersection point;
— division of 4-node plates;
— division of 4-node plates into 3-node ones;
— division of 3-node plates;
— division of solid elements;
— division of plates taking into account the intermediate nodes;
— division of bars taking into account the intermediate nodes;
— combine two bar elements;
— separate elements;
— move the element;
— attach additional nodes to the elements;
— detach all additional nodes from the faces of the elements;
— merge duplicate elements;
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— pack data;
— select elements;
— divide plates along the intersection line;
— combine 3-node elements into 4-node ones;
— extend the bar to the plate;
— chamfer bars;
— create a bar perpendicular to the selected one;
— divide bars by a polygon;
— renumbering elements;
— copy element properties;
— improve the meshing quality;
— meshing quality;
— export polygon from the selected plates.
Create Plates
This operation is used to add three- and four-node plate elements to the model (snap them to the
already created nodes). The software enables to create elements with pre-specified characteristics and with
"default" characteristics.
The characteristics can be specified in the Create Plate Elements dialog box (Fig. 6.3-2), which is
invoked by clicking the Add plate button. You can specify the following characteristics in this dialog box:
 number of nodes of the created elements (three or four);
 rule for calculating the forces (in the centers of elements or in the centers and nodes of elements);
 stiffness properties (the Rigidity checkbox and the respective button);
 direction of the force output (the Direction of forces checkbox and the respective button);
 type of element (the Type of element button);
 characteristics of the elastic subgrade (the Elastic subgrade checkbox and the respective button).
The nodes are selected and the elements are created after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK
button.
The rules for specifying the above characteristics are given in the respective sections (see Chapter 7).
The elements will have these characteristics until you invoke the Add plate operation again. Some
characteristics may be not specified when creating the elements, in this case they will be taken “by
default”.
If the Provide the positive direction of the local Z axis checkbox is checked, regardless of the
sequence of selection of nodes the new element will be added in such a way that the local Z1 axis will have
a positive direction (if the nodes were selected in a sequence which ensures the fulfillment of the given
condition, it will be taken into account when creating the element).
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Figure 6.3-2. The Create Plate Elements dialog box

If you want to create elements with the “default” characteristics, start the work by clicking on the
arrow on the right from the Add plate button. You can select one of the following variants in the drop-
down menu that appears after clicking the arrow:
 Create 3-node plates with the positive direction of the local Z1 axis;
 Create 4-node plates with the positive direction of the local Z1 axis;
 Create plates with the positive direction of the local Z1 axis;
 Create 3-node plates taking into account the sequence of the selection of nodes;
 Create 4-node plates taking into account the sequence of the selection of nodes;
 Create plates taking into account the sequence of the selection of nodes.
The first three variants provide the specified orientation of the Z1 axis when creating the elements and
do not guarantee allowing for the sequence of the selection of nodes by the user (a rectangular marquee or
a polygonal marquee can be used to select a group of nodes). The multiple selection makes no sense for the
last three variants, and only a pointer can be used; if the nodes have been already selected, their selection
will be cancelled.
After selecting the nodes the element will be created if you double left click or click the OK button in
the toolbar, or press the Enter key in the keyboard. The elements have the following characteristics by
default:
 type of element — is defined by the type of the design model and the number of nodes;
 stiffness properties — not specified;
 direction of the force output — coincides with the direction of the local X1 axis;
 characteristics of the elastic subgrade — not specified;
 calculation of forces — only in the center of the element.
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The Define an element by a list of nodes checkbox

enables to create a finite element without using the mouse,
and simply by listing the numbers of nodes. The numbers of
nodes can be specified in the dialog box which is invoked by
clicking the List of nodes button (Fig. 6.3-2). If an element
with additional nodes on the sides is created, then you have
to enter 0 in the part of the table which lists the additional
nodes to indicate that there is no additional node.
Figure 6.3-3. The Nodes of the Element

dialog box
Create Bars
This operation is performed according to the same rules as the previous one and enables to add bar
elements to the model (snap them to the already created nodes). The software enables to create elements
with pre-specified characteristics and with "default" characteristics.
In order to specify the characteristics before creating the elements you have to click the Add bars
button by pointing with the cursor at the icon with the image of the bar, the Create Bar Elements dialog
box (Fig. 6.3-4) will appear where you have to specify:
 the principle of creating bars (one by one or in a series);
 number of sections the forces are calculated in;
 hinges (the Hinges checkbox and the respective button);
 type of element (the Type of element button);
 rigid inserts (the Rigid inserts checkbox and the respective button).
The elements are created after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
The rules for specifying the above characteristics are given in the respective sections of this book (see
Chapter 7). The elements will have these characteristics until you invoke the Add bars operation again.
Some characteristics may be not specified when creating the elements, in this case they will be taken “by
default”.
arrow on the right from the Add bars button. You have to select the principle of creating bars — one by
one or in a series, in the drop-down menu and proceed to creating elements. The elements have the
following characteristics by default:
 type of element — is defined by the type of the design model;
 number of sections the forces are calculated in — not specified (a value defined in the calculation
parameters will be used in the analysis);
 hinges — no;
 characteristics of the elastic subgrade — not specified;
 rigid inserts — not specified.
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Figure 6.3-4. The Create Bar Elements dialog box
In order to create one bar place the cursor with a target over the node and left-click, stretch the
rubber band to the second node and click the mouse button again. The node selected first will be specified
as the first node of the bar, i.e. the origin of the local coordinate system of the element.
Figure 6.3-5. The Nodes in the Cursor Target dialog box
The process of creating a series of bars will continue until you click the button in the toolbar (or
press the Enter key in the keyboard). After this the operation of creating bars is not cancelled and can be
continued starting with any other node.
The operation of creating a series of bars can be interrupted by clicking the Rejection button—
in the toolbar or pressing the Esc key in the keyboard.
If there is more than one node in the cursor target, the Nodes in the Cursor Target dialog box (Fig.
6.3-5) appears. You have to select the necessary node in the list in this dialog box and click the Select
button.
The Define an element by a list of nodes checkbox enables to create a finite element without using
the mouse, and simply by listing the numbers of nodes. The numbers of nodes can be specified in the
dialog box which is invoked by clicking the List of nodes button (Fig. 6.3-2).
Create Solid Elements
Similarly to plates and bars you can create solid elements with pre-specified or default parameters. In
any case, first you have to specify the type of the element that will be created.
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Figure 6.3-5. The Create Solid Elements dialog box

In order to specify the characteristics before creating the elements you have to click the Add solid
elements button by pointing with the cursor at the icon with the image of the elements, the Create Solid
Elements dialog box (Fig. 6.3-5) will appear where you have to specify:
 type of element (you can create elements of three types — four-node pyramids (type 32), and six-
(type 34) and eight-node (type 36) elements);
 direction of the force output (the Direction of forces checkbox and the respective button).
The elements are created after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
The rules for specifying the above characteristics are given in the respective sections of this book (see
Chapter 7). The elements will have these characteristics until you invoke the Add solid elements operation
again. Some characteristics may be not specified when creating the elements, in this case they will be taken
“by default”.
arrow on the right from the Add solid elements button. Select the type of element in the drop-down menu
and proceed to creating elements. The elements have the following characteristics by default:
 direction of the force output — along the axes of the global coordinate system.
In order to create an element, you just have to select the nodes in the model the number of which must
correspond to the specified type of the element, and the element will be created automatically. The nodes
can be selected only by the cursor with a target.
Delete Elements
In order to delete elements you have to select them in the model (they will be highlighted in red) and
click the OK button in the toolbar or press the Enter key in the keyboard.
If the Do not delete "hanging" nodes after deleting the element checkbox is not checked in the
Environment Settings dialog box (hanging nodes are the nodes not adjacent to other elements of the
model except for the deleted ones), then such nodes are deleted together with the elements and can be
restored with the help of the Restore deleted nodes operation.
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Elements can be selected by any type of cursor. When the cursor with a target is used — you have
to place the target in the area of the element and left-click. If there are several elements in the cursor target,
their list will be given in a special dialog box Elements in the cursor target. Once the necessary element is
selected in the list, click the Select button. When a marquee is used only those elements are selected all
nodes of which are within the rectangle or polygon. Clicking on the selected element for the second time
deselects it.
Restore Deleted Elements
This operation enables to restore the deleted elements if the packing of data was not performed after
they had been deleted. It is necessary to perform the following actions to restore the deleted elements:
− select the elements you want to restore (they will be displayed in red);
When restoring the elements, deleted nodes these elements are adjacent to will be restored as well.
The deleted elements can be highlighted in the model with the help of the Deleted elements filter
.
Create Bars Taking into Account the Intermediate Nodes
This operation enables not only to create a new bar, but also to automatically divide it into several
elements taking into account all the intermediate nodes lying along the line of the bar. The operation can be
performed both for 2D and 3D design models according to the same rules as in the case of creating one bar
element or a series of bars.
The accuracy of determining whether a bar passes through a node is defined in the environment
settings by a variable which determines the accuracy of estimation of the duplicate nodes.
Divide the Bar
This operation is used to divide a bar into several bars and enables to perform the division in three different
ways:
— N equal segments (bars);
— into two bars in the given ratio;
— into two bars of the given size (in this case you have to specify the length of the new
bar adjacent to the first node of the original one).
The reference node of the bar (the first or the second one) can be specified for the last two methods of
division.
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Figure 6.3-6. The Divide the Bar dialog box

In order to select the method of division enable the respective option in the dialog box (Fig. 6.3-6)
and specify the numerical characteristics. After closing the dialog box select the elements in the model and
click the OK button in the toolbar.
When specifying the data you should remember that when dividing a bar in the given ratio the value
L1/L must be positive and less than one, and when dividing into two bars of the given size — the length of
the new bar must not be greater than the length of the original bar.
When performing the operation all the loads specified for the original bar will be transferred to the
new elements.
The boundary conditions of the original bar (hinges and sliders), and rigid inserts lying along the bar
will be transferred to the ends of the new series of bars. Rigid inserts out of the plane of the bar will be
moved correctly to the new elements only in the case if they have the same length and lie in one plane.
Divide Bars at the Intersection Point
This operation enables to divide two intersecting bars in such a way that the intersection point
becomes a node the new bars obtained in the result of the intersection are adjacent to. In order to perform it
you just have to select the necessary bars and click the OK button in the toolbar.
The boundary conditions of the original bar (hinges and sliders), and rigid inserts lying along the bar
will be transferred to the ends of the new bars. Rigid inserts out of the plane of the bar will be moved
correctly to the new elements only in the case if they have the same length and lie in one plane.
Combine Two Bar Elements
The operation enables to combine any two bar elements that have a common node, or a series of bar
elements that lie on one straight line into one element. The type of operation can be selected from the drop-
down menu that appears after clicking on the arrow on the right from the button (the operation of
combining two bars is selected by default). In order to perform the operation select the bars you want to
combine and click the OK button in the toolbar.
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If the elements have the same rigidities, the resulting element will have the same type of rigidity,
otherwise – the rigidities are not assigned (the same rules are used for orientation angle of the structural
axes, elastic foundation, and prestress). If the selected elements are of different types, the type of the
resulting element will be taken in accordance with the type of the model. The combined element will not
have any description of the boundary conditions, rigid inserts and loads.
Once the bars are combined you have to check the type of the obtained
element and the orientation of the local axes.
Create Bars along an Arc
This operation is used to create bar elements adjacent to the nodes lying along a circular arc. The
control of the input is performed in the Create Elements along a Circular Arc dialog box (Fig. 6.3-7).
Initial data necessary to perform the operation include:
 selection of a plane the new elements lie in (only the planes
parallel to the planes of the principal coordinate system are
allowed);
 number of elements along the circular arc;
 values of the start and end angles of the arc (for a full circle, for
example, they are 00 and 3600 or 0 and 6.28 radian respectively);
 radius of the arc;
 snap of the center of the circle (to the node or the values of the
coordinates).
If the center is specified by the coordinates, the new elements will
be added to the model automatically after closing the dialog box by
clicking the OK button. If the center lies in the node, then after closing
Figure 6.3-7. The Create the dialog box you have to select this node and click the OK button in
Elements along a Circular the toolbar or press the Enter key in the keyboard.
Arc dialog box When specifying the parameters of the arc you can also specify the
rigidities and the type of elements (the Rigidity and Type of element
buttons respectively).
In order to specify a node with a certain number as the center of the circle use the Obtain the
coordinates of the node with the specified number button , the Select Node dialog box will appear
(see Fig. 6.3-3), where you can specify its number. The coordinates of this node will appear in the X, Y, Z
text fields and can be changed.
Select Elements
This operation is similar to the respective operation in the Control the Selection toolbar. The
selection of elements will be performed taking into account the states of filters of this toolbar. The
operation and the selection of all elements can be cancelled by clicking the Rejection button in the toolbar
or the Cancel the selection button in the Display Filters toolbar.
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Merge Duplicate Elements
The operation enables to exclude the

duplicate elements from the model, i.e. such
elements of the same type, all nodes of
which have the same numbers. The rules for
combining are specified in the dialog box
(see Fig. 6.3-8).
This dialog box can be used to specify
or reject combining special finite elements,
deleting duplicate types of rigidity, ... .
If the model has no selected duplicate
elements, after invoking the operation the
combination will be performed for the entire
model, if there are selected duplicate
elements — the operation will be performed
only with the selected elements, provided
that the user confirms this by checking the
respective checkbox.
To indicate the duplicate elements in
the model, use the filters button .
Figure 6.3-8. The Merge Duplicate Elements dialog box
Divide 4-node Plates
This operation enables to divide the selected four-node elements into several elements.
The initial data necessary to perform the operation are specified in the Divide Plates dialog box
(Fig. 6.3-9) and include the number of divisions of the faces of the element lying along the directions of the
local X1 and Y1 axes. Duplicate nodes may appear in the model after performing the operation.
If the Pack duplicate nodes for the whole model checkbox is checked in the dialog box, then after
performing the division this operation will be invoked automatically. Otherwise, the user has to detect the
duplicate nodes and combine them (see Sec. 6.2).
Figure 6.3-9. The Divide Plates dialog box

When this operation is performed, elements with additional nodes on the sides are ignored.
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Divide 4-node Plates into 3-node Ones
The operation is used to divide four-node elements into three-node ones. The type of division is
specified in the dialog box (Fig. 6.3-10) which appears after invoking the operation. The procedure is
standard:
− invoke the operation;
− the dialog box will appear where you have to specify the type of division;
− select the necessary elements in the model;
Figure 6.3-10. The Divide Quadrilaterals into Triangles dialog box
Figure 6.3-11. Example of connecting finite element meshes with different division steps
This operation enables to connect the original mesh of 4-node elements with a mesh obtained by
dividing some elements with a factor of 2. In this case a “free” node appears on the edge of the original
elements lying on the border of the mesh refinement area. If you select such elements and apply the
following type of division to them, each element will be divided into three triangles and meshes will
be connected, as shown in Fig. 6.3-11.
Another example, when you have to divide four-node elements into three-node ones is the necessity
to "correct bad" quadrangular elements. In this case, you can use the following options:
 divide only non-planar;
 divide only non-convex.
If one of the above markers is selected, the operation will be performed only for the selected elements
with the respective properties.
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Divide 3-node Plates
The operation is used to divide three-node elements. When it is performed the sides of the selected
triangles are divided into equal segments the number of which is specified in the Divide 3-node Plates
dialog box (Fig. 6.3-12).
Figure 6.3-12. The Divide 3-node Plates dialog box

Moreover, after selecting the respective option in this dialog box a three-node element can be divided
into four-node ones (perpendiculars are dropped from the center of mass of the triangle to its sides).
Divide Solid Elements
The operation enables to divide solid (3-D) finite elements and provides mesh refinement with
different spacing both in the plane of the base of elements and along the height. Two types of division
depending on the type of elements are provided – by additional nodes and with a specified number of steps.
The first type of division is performed for elements of type 35 (15-node prism), 37 (20-node isoparametric
finite element) and 38 (10-node pyramid), which have additional nodes, and provides the division only if
there are such nodes. The division with a specified number of steps can be performed for these elements
and all other types of solid elements.
Figure 6.3-13. The Divide Solid Elements dialog box
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The Divide Solid Elements dialog box (Fig. 6.3-13) appears after invoking this operation, where
you have to perform the following actions:
 enable the marker buttons with an image of the types of elements that have to be divided;
 select the operation of division for each type (Divide by additional nodes or Divide into parts);
 close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and select the elements in the model;
 click the OK button in the toolbar.
Divide Plates Taking into Account the Intermediate Nodes
This operation enables to divide plate elements taking into account the nodes lying in their area
(including the nodes on the edges). A node is considered to be in the area of an element if the distance
from it to the nearest face does not exceed the value of accuracy of estimation of the duplicate nodes.
When the operation is performed, the quality of the obtained finite elements is not controlled. It is
recommended to perform the control using the Meshing quality operation, the description of which is
given below in this section.
Elements obtained in the result of division inherit the stiffness properties, subsoil parameters,
orientation of the axes of the force output and loads specified for the original element.
Separate Elements
This operation is used in cases when it is necessary to separate adjacent elements which have
common nodes from each other (e.g., to model an expansion joint or introduce elastic constraints between
the adjacent nodes of these elements). In order to perform the operation it is necessary to select nodes the
"cut" passes through, and elements which are separated from the selected nodes.
The essence of the performed action is that two nodes with the same coordinates will appear in the
place of each selected node – the original (selected node) and a new node. Only the selected elements will
be attached to the new node.
Simultaneously with the separation of elements you can also create a linear hinge along the separation
line, which is modeled by an automatic specification of the merged displacements in linear directions
between the pairs of duplicate nodes. The type of operation (separation or separation with the creation of a
hinge) can be selected in the menu which is dropped down by clicking on the arrow on the right from the
button invoking the operation.
The following procedure is recommended to perform the operation:
− invoke the operation of separation and select elements which have to be separated from the selected
nodes;
− click the Select nodes button in the Control the Selection toolbar and select nodes the “cut”
will pass through;
− click the OK button in the Elements section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar.
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Attach Additional Nodes to the Elements
The operation enables to attach one additional (intermediate) node to one or more faces of the plate
elements. The introduction of additional nodes enables to improve the quality of the results without
refining the mesh of elements, and to connect finite elements of the design model correctly (Fig. 6.3-14).
a) b) c)
Figure 6.3-14. Results of the application of the Attach additional nodes to the elements operation
a) initial model; b) connecting meshes of elements with different division steps; c) adding nodes on the
faces of the selected elements
In order to attach additional nodes the type of finite element must be changed beforehand to the type
corresponding to the type of high-precision finite elements given in the description of the library of finite
elements (see Chapter 3). Such elements include 50 and 45 shell elements, 27, 30 and 25 — deep beams,
20 and 15 — plates, and 35, 37, 38 — solid elements.
After invoking the operation the menu appears, the first item of which — Attach the existing nodes
to the faces of the elements attaches the existing nodes on the faces of the selected elements to these
elements. If the second item of the menu is selected — Add nodes on the faces of the elements, a new
node will be added to the center of each face of each selected element (Fig. 6.3-14, c).
A standard procedure is used to perform the operation:
− invoke the operation and select its type in the drop-down menu;
− select elements the nodes are attached to in the model, and click the OK button in the Elements
section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar.
Divide Bars Taking into Account the Intermediate Nodes
This operation enables to divide a bar into several elements taking into account nodes lying along the
original bar. The accuracy of determining whether a node belongs to the original bar is defined by the
Accuracy of estimation of the duplicate nodes parameter (the Environment Settings menu section).
The rules of inheriting the parameters of the original bar by the elements obtained in the result of
division are as follows:
 stiffness properties (if they have been specified) are inherited by new elements;
 hinges will be adjacent to the same nodes as in the original bar;
 rigid inserts specified along the directions of the local X1 axis, i.e. along the bar, will be adjacent to
the same nodes as in the original bar;
 rigid inserts specified in other directions will be deleted (a respective message will be generated
about it);
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 loads specified for the original bar will be transferred to the new elements.
In order to perform the operation you have to select necessary elements in the model and click the
button in the toolbar.
Move Elements
This operation is used to move a fragment of the design model consisting of the selected elements in
the given direction. The distance the fragment is moved, and the direction are specified in the Move
Elements dialog box (Fig. 6.3-15), which appears after invoking the operation.
Figure 6.3-15. The Move Elements dialog box

In order to perform the operation you have to:
− invoke the operation, a dialog box will appear, where you have to specify the value of
displacement;
− select elements of the model which are included in the fragment you want to move;
In the dialog box, you can use markers to require or refuse to delete the duplicate nodes or elements
after the move is performed.
If all elements adjacent to the node are moved, then this node will be moved together with the
elements. Nodes belonging simultaneously to the fragment you want to move and to the stationary part are
replaced by two nodes, one of which stays in place, and the other is moved together with the fragment.
a) b)
Figure 6.3-16. The original model (a) and the resulting model (b) after performing the operation of
moving
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If in the result of the transfer a new node will coincide with the existing one in the model, it will be
deleted and only the existing node will be left in the model. An example of performing the operation is
given in Figure 6.3-16.
Detach All Additional Nodes from the Faces of the Elements
This operation enables to “detach” all the additional nodes from the selected high-precision elements.
In order to perform it you have to select elements with additional nodes on their edges and click the OK
Detached nodes are not deleted automatically after performing this operation.
Combine Elements
This operation is used to combine pairs of three-node elements that have a common face into four-
node ones, and also to combine several plate elements into one. The second variant of performing this
operation can be selected after clicking on the “right arrow”. The combination is performed according to
the following rules:
 if the combination of three-node elements into four-node ones is selected, the possibility of
combining all pairs of selected triangular FE is analyzed, the operation is performed for the
allowable pairs;
 if plate elements are combined, only thee- or four-node elements can be obtained in the result
without taking into account the nodes adjacent to the faces;
 if the elements involved in the operation have the same rigidities, the rigidity of the resulting
element will correspond to the rigidity of the combined elements, otherwise the resulting element
will not have any stiffness properties;
 loads specified for the original elements are lost;
 the control of the geometric shape of the resulting elements is performed during the process of
combining.
The procedure of performing the operation is standard — invoke the operation (select a variant of
performance in the menu), select elements and click the OK button. If the operation is not performed for
the selected group of elements, you should try to perform it for a part of the group.
Considering that most parameters assigned earlier to three-node elements will be lost in the result of
the combination, it is recommended to use this operation on the early stages of the model generation.
Divide Plates along the Intersection Line
The operation enables to divide plate elements along the lines of their intersection and generate
consistent meshes of FE. Elements can intersect at any angle, but must not lie in one plane.
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In order to perform the operation after invoking it select the elements involved in it and click the OK
button in the Elements section of the toolbar.
Extend the Bar to the Plate
This operation enables to “extend” the selected bar to the selected plate. If the point of intersection of
the bar with the plate does not coincide with the existing node, the plate is divided and the mesh of FE is
generated.
Chamfer Bars
The operation is used to connect two bars lying in one plane by “extending” them to the point of their
intersection. A node is created at the intersection point of bars. If a value other than zero is specified for the
radius in the Chamfer Bars dialog box (Fig. 6.3-17.), the bars are connected by the arc of the given radius
which is divided into n segments.
Figure 6.3-17. The Chamfer Bars dialog box

Create Bars Perpendicular to the Selected One
This operation enables to create new bars coming from the selected nodes, directed perpendicular to
the specified bar element and dividing it at the intersection points. An example of performing this
operation is shown in Fig. 6.3-18, where
E — original bar element;
u1, u2, u3 — selected nodes;
ū1, ū2, ū3 — nodes created at the intersection points;
E1 – E4 — elements obtained in the result of dividing the original bar;
265
E5 – E7 — elements coming from the selected nodes.
Figure 6.3-18. Creating bars perpendicular to the selected one

The following procedure is used to perform the operation:
− invoke the operation and select an element perpendicular to the new bars you want to create;
− select nodes in the model from which the perpendiculars will be dropped to the selected element;
− click the OK button in the Elements section of the Nodes and Elements toolbar.
Meshing Quality Assessment
This operation enables to assess the quality of the finite element mesh and duplicates the similar
operation considered earlier when describing the generation of arbitrary meshes of finite elements on the
plane (see Sec. 5.12).
Improve the Meshing Quality
If the meshing quality (it can be assessed using the operation considered above) is not
satisfactory, you can use this operation to try and improve the quality criteria by an automatic transfer of
nodes.
The operation is performed in two steps. On the first step after invoking the operation and before its
execution a message appears about the necessity to select elements on the design model the shape of which
has to be changed. If you do not select any elements and just click the OK button – in the toolbar, all
elements of the model will be involved in the operation.
On the second step a similar message appears suggesting to select nodes the coordinates of which
must not be changed (for example, if you want to improve the quality of meshing of the floor slab
elements, nodes columns are adjacent to probably should be marked as fixed). If the nodes are not marked
and you click the OK button – in the toolbar, it will be assumed that there are no restrictions, and any
nodes can be moved.
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Export Polygon from the Selected Plates
The operation enables to save the polygon consisting from an arbitrary set of plate finite elements
lying in one plane in the format of the file with the initial data of the Consul section builder (extension
.con).
Renumbering Elements
Figure 6.3-19. The Renumber Elements dialog box

The operation enables to renumber the elements of the design model in accordance with the rules
selected by the user. The numbering can be performed in such a way so that the preselected elements get
the minimum numbers, and the deleted elements are placed in the end of the list. For all other elements or
only the selected ones (if the Renumber only the selected elements checkbox is checked) the rules for
renumbering are set in the table (see figure 6.3-19).
Select the components of the coordinates of the element mass center which will be taken into account
when sorting by checking the respective checkboxes, and set the priorities with the help of the Up and
Down buttons. For example, if the table has the form shown in the figure, all the selected elements will
have the first numbers, the deleted nodes will have the last numbers, for all other elements the minimum
numbers will be assigned to the elements in the ascending order of the finite element type; if the elements
have the same type, the renumbering will be performed in the ascending order of the Z coordinate and so
on. The Reverse order checkbox can be used for the parameters, which enables to perform the
renumbering in the descending order of values instead of the ascending one.
Copy Element Properties
The operation is used in cases when properties similar to the properties of the sample element have to
be assigned to several elements of the design model. The set of the copied properties depends of the type of
the element. The following properties are copied for bars:
 stiffness properties;
267
 boundary conditions (hinges and rigid inserts);

 orientation of the principal axes of inertia;
 prestressing;
 subsoil parameters;
 belonging to the groups (including groups of structural members) and the specified reinforcement;
 loads.
The following properties are copied for planar elements:
 stiffness properties;
 subsoil parameters;
 prestressing;
 orientation of force output axes;
 belonging to the groups (including groups of structural members) and the specified reinforcement;
 loads.
The Copy Element Properties dialog box (Fig. 6.3-19) appears after invoking the operation, which
contains two groups of controls. The Sample element group provides the selection and visualization of the
element the properties of which are copied, and the Inheriting elements group provides the selection and
visualization of elements which receive the properties of the sample element.
The copying enables to assign certain properties of the sample to the “inheriting elements”, the
selection of which is performed in the Parameters for Copying dialog box (Fig. 6.3-20). The dialog box
is invoked by clicking the respective button after selecting the “sample” and the “inheriting elements”.
Figure 6.3-19. The Copy Element Figure 6.3-20. The Parameters for Copying dialog box
Properties dialog box
Clicking the Parameters for copying button invokes the respective dialog box (Fig. 6.3-20), where
you can specify a set of properties using the checkboxes of the Main properties group. You can also
specify the rules for copying loads in the Loads group (loadings or groups, all or selectively). When the
loads are copied selectively, the names of the copied loadings or groups are selected from the respective
lists. The following procedure is recommended for copying:
− specify the number of the sample element in the Element No. field in the Copy Element
Properties dialog box and click the Select button. The selected element is displayed in the model
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in green. If it is more convenient to perform this action using the cursor, then click the Indication
on the model button and select the necessary element with the cursor;
− click the Parameters for copying button and invoke the dialog box where you can assign the
properties to the inheriting elements and specify the set of properties you want to copy in it;
− specify the numbers of the inheriting elements in the List of elements field and click the Select
button to select these elements in the model. If it is more convenient to perform the selection using
the cursor, then click the Indication on the model button before performing this action.
− after selecting all the inheriting elements click the Perform button in the Copy Element
Properties dialog box.
Divide Bars by a Polygon
This operation enables to divide the bars in the points of their intersection by a plane defined by a
polygon. The operation is used in those cases when there is no node lying on the bar in the intersection
point. For example, it can be useful for dividing the bars by a meshing plane before the meshing.
The following procedure is recommended for performing this operation:
− invoke the operation, and the following message will appear: “Select nodes that are the vertices
of the polygon”;
− create the polygon according to the rules similar to those for creating the polygon when
specifying the meshing contour;
− the “Select elements” message will appear once you finish creating the polygon (double left
click);
− select the bar elements which have to be divided in the model;
6.4. Input and Assign Parameters of Special Finite

Elements
Operations of control of the input and assigning characteristics to special finite elements are concentrated
in the Nodes and Elements toolbar of the pre-processor and can be opened by clicking the Special
elements button .
Figure 6.4-1. The Special elements group of buttons

The group of control buttons for creating special elements (Fig. 6.4-1) is used to perform the
— create 0-elements;
— create constraints of finite rigidity;
— create elastic constraints;
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— create external node dampers;

— create single-node peripheral elements of plate on the elastic subgrade;
— create two-node peripheral elements of plate on the elastic subgrade;
— create cable-stayed elements;
— create rigid bodies;
— create and specify parameters of unilateral constraints.
Create a 0-element
The operation is used to assign characteristics and create special finite elements of type 154 (so called
“0-elements”), which ensure that the linear and angular displacements are constrained in the directions of
the axes of the local coordinate system of the element, and provide the analysis for the specified
displacements which do not coincide with the direction of the axes of the global coordinate system.
The following procedure is recommended to create new elements:
− invoke the operation, the dialog box (Fig. 6.4-2) will appear where you have to specify the
directions in the local coordinate system of the element for which the displacements are constrained
or specified (the direction is specified by a number greater than zero in the respective text field);
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and create the elements according to the same rules
as for creating individual bars with the help of the rubber band.
Figure 6.4-2. The Characteristics of Null Elements (Element of Type 154) dialog box
It should be taken into account that the first node of the elements of this type must be adjacent to the
structure, and the second node – must be free (it can not belong to any element or be fixed).
When correcting the characteristics of the elements created earlier it is recommended to:
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− invoke the operation, the dialog box will appear where you have to select a table line with the
characteristics you want to change (the text fields will be filled with the respective values);
− change the values in the necessary fields or the name of the type in the respective field;
− depending on whether the characteristics of other types of rigidity will be corrected, click the
Replace and exit button (correction of other types is not performed) or the Replace and continue
button (involves the correction of other types).
Create Constraints of Finite Rigidity
This operation enables to create elements which model single-node constraints of finite rigidity
(element of type 51), and to specify their stiffness properties. The direction and stiffness properties of
constraints are specified in the Constraints of Finite Rigidity (Element of Type 51) dialog box (Fig. 6.4-
3), which depends on the index of the model type.
The following procedure is recommended to create new constraints:
− invoke the operation, the dialog box will appear, where you have to specify the values of the
stiffness of the constraint for the respective directions (a constraint is considered to be working in
the selected direction if the value of stiffness for this direction is greater than zero);
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and select the nodes in the model the constraints are
snapped to;
Figure 6.4-3. The Constraints of Finite Rigidity (Element of Type 51) dialog box
When correcting the characteristics of the already specified elastic constraints it is recommended to:
number of the type of rigidity you want to change;
− change the values of stiffness in the respective text fields or the name of the type of rigidity in the
respective field;
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Create an Elastic Constraint
This operation enables to create and specify stiffness properties of elements which model an elastic
constraint between two nodes (type 55).
Direction and stiffness properties of constraints are specified in the Elastic Constraints (Element of
Type 55) dialog box (Fig. 6.4-4), which depends on the index of the model type. The following procedure
is recommended to create new constraints:
stiffness of the constraint for the respective directions (a constraint is considered to be working in
the selected direction if the value of stiffness for this direction is greater than zero);
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and create the elements.
Elements are created according to the same rules as the individual bars – place the cursor with a target
over the node and left-click, stretch the rubber band to the second node and click the mouse button
again. Repeat the above actions to create another element. The node selected first will be specified as the
first node of the constraint, i.e. the origin of the local coordinate system.
It should be taken into account that this type of element can have zero length, i.e. be adjacent to nodes
with the same coordinates.
Figure 6.4-4. The Elastic Constraints (Element of Type 55) dialog box
Characteristics of the elastic constraint can be specified in the local or in the global coordinate system.
For the constraints of zero length they will be specified only in the global coordinate system. If the nodes
do not coincide, the local coordinate system of the element can be determined in the same way as for bar
elements with the help of the Orientation of the axes of inertia operation, which is described in detail in
Sec. 7.3.
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When correcting the characteristics of the already specified constraints it is recommended to:
number of the type of rigidity you want to change;
− change the values of stiffness in the respective text fields or the name of the type of rigidity in the
respective field;
Create Two-node Peripheral Elements of the Plate
The operation enables to specify characteristics and create two-node finite elements which model the
passive soil pressure beyond the slab. The characteristics of elements are specified in the Two-node
Peripheral Element of Plate (FE-53) dialog box (Fig. 6.4-5). The following procedure is recommended to
create new elements:
− invoke the operation, the dialog box will appear where you have to specify the characteristics of the
elastic subgrade described by a pair of coefficients С1 and С2;
Elements are created according to the same rules as the bars taking into account the nodes they
intersect.
When correcting the characteristics of the elements created earlier it is recommended to:
characteristics you want to change (С1 and С2 text fields will be filled with the respective values);
− change the values in the respective text fields or the name of the type of rigidity in the respective
field;
Figure 6.4-5. The Two-node Peripheral Element of Plate (FE-53) dialog box
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Create Single-node Peripheral Elements of the Plate
The operation enables to specify characteristics and create single-node finite elements which model
the passive soil pressure of the corner area of the foundation slab (type 54). The characteristics of elements
are specified in the Single-node Peripheral Element of Plate dialog box (Fig. 6.4-6) and include the
subsoil parameter С2 and the angle of the soil area φ.
Rules for creating and correcting the characteristics of an element are the same as the rules for a two-
node element described above. Elements are created in the same way as single-node elements which model
a constraint of finite rigidity (type 51).
Figure 6.4-6. The Single-node Peripheral Element of Plate dialog box
Create Cable-stayed Elements
The characteristics are specified and the cable-stayed elements (type 308) are created in the same way
as two-node elements which model elastic constraints — stiffness properties of the elements are specified
before creating them. The elements are created according to the same rules as bars. Information on the
implementation of elements of this type and the peculiarities of the analysis of systems which include
cable-stayed elements is given in Section 26.3.
− invoke the operation, the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box will appear where you have to
specify the stiffness properties of the elements of cable stays and the value of prestressing;
Stiffness properties of cable stays can be specified as parametric sections described numerically or
taken from the assortment of rolled steel profiles. “Zinc coated steel wire ropes” are available in the
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assortment of rolled steel profiles only for cable-stayed elements. Characteristics are specified according to
the same rules as for bar elements (see section Specifying Characteristics of Nodes and Elements). The
values of prestressing for cable stays (unlike bars) must be specified.
a) b)
Figure 6.4-7. The Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box
a) The General Data tab b) The Rolled Steel Profiles tab
After closing the dialog box the elements are created by stretching the rubber band between the nodes
the cable stays are adjacent to.
Create Unilateral Constraints
This operation is used to specify the characteristics and create elements of unilateral constraints (the
description of elements is given in Section 26.3), which enable to model the contacts between the
fragments of the model, and between the model and another structure or subgrade. Elements can be single-
node or two-node, and their application in the design model provides the execution of the nonlinear
analysis.
− invoke the operation, the Unilateral Constraints dialog box (Fig. 6.4-8) will appear where you
have to specify the type and characteristics of the constraint;
Single-node elements are created in the same way as single-node elements which model a constraint
of finite rigidity (type 51), and two-node ones — in the same way as bars.
The characteristics of a constraint define its axial stiffness EF, and performance conditions
(compression or tension). The direction of a constraint for single-node and two-node elements of zero
length is specified in the global coordinate system. Two-node elements of non-zero length define a
constraint in the local coordinate system of the element. The restrictions of displacements in one node in
two or more directions are modeled by creating several elements.
The initial state of the constraint is defined by the gap or by creating prestress specified as a
prestressing force.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to correct the characteristics of unilateral constraints:
− open the Unilateral Constraints dialog box;
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− select the line with the parameters of the element you want to correct in the Type of rigidity table
(characteristics of the selected type of rigidity will be input into the text fields of the dialog box);
− change the parameters;
− click the Replace and exit button if you do not want to change the parameters of other constraints,
or the Replace and continue button if other types of rigidity will be corrected as well.
Figure 6.4-8. The Unilateral Constraints dialog box

Create External Node Dampers
This operation enables to create elements which model the external dampers responsive to the velocity of
the node displacement in the directions of the degrees of freedom in the global coordinate system (element
of type 56), and to specify the viscous damping ratios. The direction and the coefficients are specified in
the Node Damper dialog box (Fig. 6.4-9.), which depends on the index of the model type.
Figure 6.4-9. The Node Damper dialog box

The following procedure is recommended to create dampers:
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damping ratios for the respective directions (a damper is considered to be working in the selected
direction if the value of the ratio this direction is greater than zero);
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and select the nodes in the model the dampers are
snapped to;
When correcting the characteristics of the already specified node dampers it is recommended to:
number of the type you want to change;
− change the values of ratios in the respective text fields or the name of the type in the respective
field;
6.5. Input and Assign Parameters of Rigid Bodies
Operations of creating and correcting rigid bodies are invoked from the Special elements section
of the Nodes and Elements toolbar. Clicking the Rigid bodies button drops down a menu which
contains a set of operations with rigid bodies (Fig. 6.5-1). They include:
 Create a rigid body;
 Change the configuration of a rigid body;
 Move the master node;
 Delete rigid body
 Add slave nodes
 Remove slave nodes
 Move slave nodes
If there are no rigid bodies in the model, the Create a
rigid body operation will be invoked immediately.
Figure 6.5-1. Menu of control of creating The rigid body is a set of nodes. This set has a
and correcting rigid bodies selected node (master node).
In terms of the results of the calculation it does not matter which node is the master node. The master
node is used when drawing a rigid body (lines connecting it with all the other nodes of the finite element
are drawn from this node). In order to select a rigid body you just have to indicate one of its nodes or a line
connecting the master node and one of the slave nodes.
Create a Rigid Body

The Characteristics of a Rigid Body dialog box (Fig. 6.5-2) appears after selecting this menu item. You
have to perform the following actions in this dialog box:
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 select the type of the rigid body using the

radio buttons in the Characteristics of a
Rigid Body group (two-dimensional, not
allowing internal strain, two-dimensional, not
allowing bending, three-dimensional);
 specify the codes of constraints (directions of
the degrees of freedom) of the nodes of a rigid
body (the checkboxes of directions are
checked by default depending on the selected
type of rigid body);
 specify the name of the rigid body if
necessary.
Figure 6.5-2. The Characteristics of a Rigid Body
dialog box
After clicking the OK button in the dialog box select the nodes belonging to the rigid body with the
mouse and click the button in the toolbar.
After performing the last action the rigid body will be displayed in the model as a “spider” (Fig. 6.5-
3), with its master node connected with other nodes of the body by lines. The master node will be
automatically assigned to the node of this new finite element located the closest to the geometric center of
the set of nodes.
Figure 6.5-3. Image of a rigid body.

It is necessary to explain the difference between two types of the two-dimensional rigid body:
 a body that does not allow internal strain (disc), can be deformed as the bending of a plane of the
original location of its nodes as it happens in a flat diaphragm installed to prevent distortion of the
cross-section of a thin-walled bar;
 a body that does not allow bending (stamp) remains flat though this plane can move and rotate,
and the nodes of such a body can move within such a plane.
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Change the Configuration of a Rigid Body

This operation enables to change the type of the rigid
body created earlier. The procedure for performing
this operation is as follows:
− select the above operation in the menu of
control of creating a rigid body;
− the Characteristics of a Rigid Body dialog
box will appear (Fig. 6.5-4), where you can
use the radio buttons to select the type of the
rigid body and the checkboxes to specify the
codes of constraints (directions of the degrees
of freedom) of the nodes of the rigid body;
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK
Figure 6.5-4. The Characteristics of a Rigid button;
Body dialog box (correction) − select the element of a rigid body;
Move the Master Node

Master node can be moved into any node of the rigid body. In order to do it select this operation in the
menu, select the existing element of the rigid body and the node it is moved into, click the OK button in
the toolbar.
Delete Rigid Body

In order to delete a rigid body you have to select the respective operation in the menu, select the element
you want to delete, and click the OK button in the toolbar.
Add Slave Nodes

In order to add slave nodes you have to select the respective operation in the menu, select the element of
the rigid body the nodes are added to, select the nodes of the design model which will be included in the
rigid body, and click the OK button in the toolbar.
Remove Slave Nodes

In order to remove the slave nodes you have to select the respective operation in the menu, select the
element of the rigid body the nodes will be removed from, select the nodes you want to remove, and click
the OK button in the toolbar. This operation removes the node only from the rigid body but does not delete
it from the model.
Move Slave Nodes

In order to move the slave nodes you have to select the respective operation in the menu, select the node
you want to move with a cursor (is highlighted in red) and the node it will be moved into (is highlighted in
blue), and click the OK button in the toolbar.
6.6. Groups of Nodes and Elements

Groups — named sets of nodes or elements that can be used repeatedly to perform various operations
(specification of stiffness properties, constraints and loads) when selecting reinforcement and printing the
results in the Documenter. Groups can be involved in the assembly mode along with the models. Loads
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from the structural fragment, tilt of the building and the foundation slab, etc. can be determined for the
groups of nodes. The principle of combining objects into groups and naming the groups are completely
determined by the user.
These can be particular areas of the structure, for example, floor slabs at different elevations, columns
of the floor, or other sets of objects. The main thing is that the groups are available in all modes of working
with the model, both at the stage of its creation or specification of parameters for processing the data in
postprocessors (for example, the calculation of DCF), and in the process of analysis and documentation of
the calculation results. The graphic environment of the complex is designed in such a way so that you can
always locate information within the group of nodes or elements necessary for the work.
The automatic combination of elements into groups is performed when importing the data from the
FORUM preprocessor and in the process of transformation of data given in .dxf and .dwg formats (each
layer of data is included into a separate group).
Groups described in this section can be (conventionally) called general groups. There are also groups
of reinforced concrete and steel structural members, which are described in Chapters 19 and 20
respectively.
In order to start the work with general groups (not structural ones) switch to the Groups tab (Fig. 6.6-
1) and invoke the toolbar (Fig. 6.6-2) using the Working with groups of nodes and elements operation
.
Figure 6.6-1. The Groups tab
List of groups of elements

List of groups of nodes
Figure 6.6-2. The Groups section of the toolbar

The operations of creating the groups can be invoked from the toolbar. The section contains buttons
for specifying the objects of the group (nodes — or elements — ), saving the group — ,
cancelling the selection — , cancelling the operation , Boolean operations with groups ,
controlling the groups and two lists for selecting the groups of nodes and elements created earlier.
After loading from the list all objects of the active group are displayed as selected in the model.
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Create Groups
Figure 6.6-3. The Groups of Nodes dialog box Figure 6.6-4. The Groups of Elements dialog box
In order to create a new group of nodes or elements it is necessary to:
− click the button defining the type of the objects of the group (nodes or elements);
− select the objects of the group in the design model;
− click the Save/modify group button ;
− specify the name of the group in the Groups of Nodes (Fig. 6.6-3) or Groups of Elements
(Fig. 6.6-4) dialog box and click the Add group button;
After saving the group, its name is input into the respective list of groups in the toolbar. Before
preparing the next group you have to cancel the selection of objects of the previous group by clicking the
button .
When creating a group of elements, you can automatically create a group of nodes connected with the
elements that will get the same name. Such nodes must belong to the elements of the selected group and at
the same time to at least one element that is not included in this group. To do this click the Create a group
of connected nodes button before clicking the Add group button.
Correct the Group

It is necessary to perform the following actions in order to change the information in the group:
− select the correct group from the list in the toolbar;
− modify it by including and/or excluding objects from it;
− click the button for saving the group;
− select the number or the name of the group you want to replace from the list;
− click the Replace group button;
Groups can be deleted in a similar way (it should be noted that in this context, deleting a group only
means removing it from the list of groups, and not deleting the elements of the group from the design
model). In this case, after selecting the group in the list of groups, you have to invoke the Save/modify
group operation, specify the number of the group in the dialog box and click the Delete group button. The
Edit button enables to make changes in the list of nodes/elements in the text format.
Select Group
To select a group just indicate its name in the respective list of the toolbar. All objects of the active group
are highlighted in red in the model.
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Thus, operations can be performed with the objects of the group immediately after invoking it. There
is one restriction — several groups can not be selected simultaneously from the lists in the toolbar, i.e. the
case when both groups of nodes and groups of elements, and objects belonging to different groups are
highlighted in the model at the same time is excluded. If it is necessary to obtain a combination of several
groups, you have to use the color scale of indication of groups (the Groups button in the Display Filters
toolbar).
Operations with Groups
This operation enables to generate a new group of nodes or elements in the result of performing one
of the logical operations of union, intersection, or difference with these groups. The procedure for
performing this operation is as follows:
− click the respective button invoking the operation of selection: — for working with groups of
nodes or — for working with groups of element;
− invoke this operation;
− select one group involved in the operation in the left and right lists in the Operations with Groups
dialog box (Fig. 6.6-5);
− click the button with the name of the performed operation;
− specify the name of the resulting group in the Group Name dialog box (Fig. 6.6-6) and click the
OK button.
A new group will be generated in the result and input in the end of the list of groups. These actions
can be performed with other groups as well, including those obtained in the result of the logical operations.
Once you have completed the work, close the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Figure 6.6-5. The Operations with Groups Figure 6.6-6. The Group Name dialog box
dialog box
Control the Groups
The operation is used to control the attributes of groups and enables to perform the following actions:
rename groups, sort groups by a certain criterion, delete groups and change the place of the selected group
in the list of groups. If the model has both groups of nodes and groups of elements, the type of groups the
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actions will be performed with can be selected in the drop-down menu which appears after invoking the
operation. Otherwise (there is one type of group) the menu will not appear, and the operation will be
performed with the available groups.
Operations are performed in the Control the Groups of Elements/Nodes dialog box (Fig. 6.6-7),
which contains a table with a list of groups. The columns of the table of groups include:
 the current number of the group;
 No. — number of the group in the order of creating;
 Name — name of the structural group;
 Number of elements/nodes in the group.
In order to rename a group place the cursor over the name of the respective group and double left
click. The table line will become available for editing.
Groups in the table are sorted by an attribute, which can be selected in the Sort by … drop-down list.
There are the following types of sorting:
 by the number (in the order of creating groups — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and vice
versa — when the Max/Min button is pressed);
 by the name of the group (in the alphabetical order when the Min/Max button is pressed; and vice
 by the number of elements/nodes in the group (ascending — when the Min/Max button is pressed;
and descending — when the Max/Min button is pressed).
Figure 6.6-7. The Control the Groups of Elements dialog box

The selected groups can be deleted by clicking the respective button.
In order to change the position of one or several groups in the list you have to select these groups and
move them in the list by clicking the Up or Down buttons.
If the design model has groups with the same names (for example, such groups may appear in the
result of the work of the FORUM preprocessor), clicking the Make the names unique button enables to
rename them automatically by adding the suffix No. XXX to the name.
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Figure 6.6-8. Union of groups

If several groups are selected, the Combine button becomes active and enables to create a group that
includes all the elements/nodes of the selected groups. You have to specify the name of the new group in
the dialog box (Fig. 6.6-8), or indicate that it is necessary to replace the existing group (it should be
selected in the drop-down list). The Delete initial groups checkbox enables to delete all groups involved
in the operation of combining.
All the specifications performed in the dialog box will be saved and executed after closing the dialog
box by clicking the OK button. The position of groups in the list of the toolbar will correspond to their
position in the list of the dialog box.
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7.Specifying Characteristics of Nodes and Elements
7. Specifying Characteristics of Nodes

and Elements
This chapter considers operations performed during the generation of a design model and dealing with the
specification (assignment) of characteristics for nodes and elements. They are included in the Assign
section of the toolbar (Fig. 7-1). The familiar procedure is used:
− select the operation;
− input the data;
− select the objects;
− assign the specified values (click the OK button in the toolbar or press the Enter key in the
keyboard).
When assigning certain characteristics to the nodes and elements the operation can be performed
selectively depending on whether these characteristics were assigned to the selected objects. The set of
rules for assigning the characteristics is given in the list in the toolbar on the right from the buttons
invoking the operations. The list contains the following rules for performing the operations:
For all the selected ones — the characteristics will be assigned to all the selected objects, regardless
of whether they were previously specified or not;
Without the replacement of the earlier specified ones — the characteristics will be assigned only to
those selected objects which do not have any specified characteristics;
Only with the replacement of the earlier specified ones — the operation will be performed only for
those objects for which the specified characteristics have already been assigned (replacement
operation).
When specifying the constraints in the nodes the rules for assigning the characteristics are defined in
the respective dialog box.
Figure 7-1. The Assign section of the toolbar

The following operations are invoked from the Assign toolbar:
— specify stiffness properties for bar, plate, multilayer, solid, axisymmetric, and
special finite elements;
— specify subsoil parameters;
— install constraints in nodes;
— specify the types of finite elements;
— install and remove rigid inserts;
— displacement of the plate midplane;
— install and delete hinges;
— specify the orientation of the local coordinate axes of the elements;
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— specify additional points for the calculation of forces/stresses;

— merge displacements in nodes;
— change the direction of the local Х1 axis of bars;
— change the direction of the local Z1 axis of plates;
— specify the directions of the stress output for plates and solid elements;
— delete duplicate types of rigidity;
— renumber rigidities;
— specify elements to take into account the geometric nonlinearity;
— invokes Cross for the calculation of subsoil parameters;
— specify prestressing of elements;
— specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements (see Chapter 19);
— specify the reinforcement layout of bars (see Chapter 19).
— specify the additional data for elements
7.1. Specifying Stiffness Properties

The set of parameters describing the stiffness properties of elements depends on the type of elements.
Therefore the software provides operations for assigning such properties to bar, plate, solid and other types
of finite elements.
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Bar Elements
Physical and mechanical characteristics of bar elements can be specified in the form of a numerical
description, or calculated by the software taking into account the type and sizes of the standard parametric
sections or a profile selected from the assortment of rolled steel profiles. These characteristics can be also
obtained with the help of Section Builder, Consul or TONUS.
Data are specified in the multi-tab Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box (Fig. 7.1-1). The set of tabs
of this dialog box depends on the method of describing the rigidity. You can switch between tabs by
clicking on the respective tab. The method of specifying the stiffness properties can be selected in the
General Data tab by selecting the respective radio button. Tabs corresponding to the selected method will
appear. The first tab also contains the Type of rigidity table with the following information for all the sections
specified earlier: number of the type of rigidity, image of the section, description of the section (sizes of the
section – for all sections except for the numerical description), name of the type of rigidity (if it has been
specified)
The designation EF is used in the table for rigidities the characteristics of which are specified as a
numerical description, and icon — for characteristics obtained with the help of Section Builder, Consul or
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TONUS. Combinations of the designation EF and the icon of one of the parametric sections are used for the
characteristics specified with the help of the numerical and parametric description.
Figure 7.1-1. The Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box

Name of the type of rigidity can be specified in the respective field. If the Use the description as the
name checkbox is checked, the contents of the Description column of the Type of rigidity table will be input
into this field.
When working with stiffness properties it is important to distinguish between the modes of the data input
and their correction. In the first case the characteristics of the new type of rigidity are input and this type is
assigned to the elements of the model, in the second case – the characteristics specified earlier are corrected.
Specifying a New Type of Rigidity
The following procedure is recommended to specify a new type of rigidity:
− select the method of specifying the stiffness properties in the General Data tab and specify the
name of the type of rigidity;
− open the tab for specifying the stiffness properties by clicking on it;
− specify the necessary data;
− click the OK button in the dialog box, the number of the type of rigidity will be assigned and the
dialog box will close;
− select the elements in the model this type of rigidity is assigned to;
− click the OK button in the Assign section or press the Enter key in the keyboard.
If the respective filter is active (the button is pressed) when you assign the stiffness properties to
elements, the results will be shown in the model (by numbers — number of the type of rigidity is displayed or
by color — color identification of elements).
Parametric Sections
The procedure for the data input is not regulated, however, to avoid errors, it is better to work out a certain
sequence of actions, such as this:
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− select the Parametric sections radio button;

− switch to the Parametric Sections tab (Fig. 7.1-2);
− select the material in the respective list or select “Other” in the list and specify the characteristics of
the material (values of the elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, etc.);
− specify the sizes of the section (it should be noted that the units of measurement can be changed in
the process of input) and click the Characteristics of the section button, which will enable to
check the correctness of the specified data in the Section Properties dialog box (Fig. 7.1-3);
− assign the specified type of rigidity to the elements of the model.
Figure 7.1-2. The Parametric Sections dialog box Figure 7.1-3. The Section Properties
dialog box
Numerical Description
This tab (Fig. 7.1-4) includes the most necessary set of text fields, which enables to specify the stiffness
properties for any type of bar. Therefore, before specifying the values of the properties, you have to select the
radio button with the name of the type of the elements this type of rigidity will be assigned to. Only those text
fields will remain available for input which must or can be filled for the given type of elements.
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Figure 7.1-4. The Numerical Description tab

The above procedure for the data input and assigning rigidities to the elements of the model is used when
working with this tab:
− select the Numerical description radio button;
− switch to the Numerical Description tab (Fig. 7.1-4);
− select the material in the respective list or select “Other” in the list and specify the characteristics of
the material (values of the elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, etc.);
− select the radio button with the name of the type of the elements this type of rigidity will be assigned to;
− fill the text fields available for input with data;
Working with the Assortment of Rolled Steel Profiles
The procedure for assigning stiffness properties to bar elements the section of which is taken from the
assortment of rolled steel profiles is as follows:
− select the Rolled steel profiles radio button;
− switch to the Rolled Steel Profiles tab (Fig. 7.1-5);
− select the type of steel in the list of materials or select “Other” and specify the value of the specific
weight of steel, elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio and the linear expansion coefficient in the
respective text fields of the Material group;
− select the assortment, type and size of the profile in the list;
The full list of assortments included in the SCAD Office system is given in the Appendix. They can be
included in or excluded from the list of available assortments in the Sections tab of the Parameters dialog box,
which can be invoked from the Settings menu.
If a compound parametric section from rolled steel profiles of one of seven types provided in the
software is selected, the following procedure will be used:
− check the Compound section checkbox in the Rolled Steel Profiles tab and click the button with
the image of the respective section;
289
− select the assortment, type and size of the profiles (only the profiles included in the section will be
available) in the list of assortments;
− specify the geometric parameters of arrangement typical for the selected section;
Figure 7.1-5. The Rolled Steel Profiles tab

It is recommended to follow the recommendations of codes when specifying the thickness of a gusset
plate in sections from double angles. For example, in SNiP the value of the gap is limited by the interval
0.8t2t, where t is the thickness of the angle.
For sections from double channels and I-beams the torsional
inertia moment is calculated neglecting the effect of the lacing.
If after specifying the parameters of arrangement you click the
Characteristics of the section button (Fig. 7.1-2), the Torsional
Inertia Moment dialog box (Fig. 7.1-6) with the respective
message will appear. You can specify a clarified value of the
moment of inertia obtained for example by Kristall.
Figure 7.1-6. The Torsional Inertia
Moment dialog box
Numerical and Parametric Description
Numerical and Parametric Description

Such a description combines two types of the representation of stiffness properties — in the form of
parametric sections and numerical. This enables to both provide information on the shape of the section, and to
present the characteristics of the section in the form of a numerical description. Such representation of stiffness
properties can be useful when selecting the reinforcement for a custom section, where a numerical description of
such a section (for example, obtained in the section builder) is used in the calculation process, and the selection
is performed according to the rules of the parametric section selected by the user.
290
In this case the dialog box contains three tabs General Data, Parametric Sections and Numerical
Description. The stiffness properties are specified in the given order of the tabs and according to above
rules for the respective tabs.
Custom Sections
The Custom sections operation enables to specify the stiffness properties for elements the sections of
which have been created with the help of Section Builder, Consul or TONUS. The following procedure is
recommended:
− select the Custom sections radio button in the General Data tab;
− select the material or “Other” and specify the characteristics of the material in the respective text
fields of the Material group in the respective tab (Fig. 7.1-7);
− click the Selection button in the Select section group and select the necessary section (files with
.sec, .cns or .tns extension);
− once the image of the section appears in the information window of the Select section group, click
the Apply button, and the stiffness properties of the section will be input in the respective text
fields;
− assign the specified type of rigidity to the elements.
Figure 7.1-7. The Custom Sections tab

Only the maximum (IU) and the minimum (IV) moments of inertia are known for a section of
an arbitrary shape created with the help of one of the section builders. After clicking the Apply
button the value of EIU is input into the EIY text field, and the value of EIV — into the EIZ text
field. The position of the principal axes of inertia is fixed by the rotation angle of the structural
axes described in Sec. 3.3
Correcting the Selected Section

It is necessary to perform the following actions for correcting during the specification of the stiffness
properties of the section created earlier by one of the section builders and used to specify the rigidities for the
elements of the model:
− click the Section Builder button in the Custom Sections tab, and the application for generating
sections which was used to create the considered section will be invoked;
291
− make all the necessary changes of the section and save the modified section under the same name
as the original one;
− close the application for generating sections, and the control will return to the Custom Sections tab
(the image of the modified section will appear in the information window);
− after clicking the Apply button the stiffness properties of the section will be recalculated taking
into account the performed changes;
− assign the specified type of rigidity to the elements.
Correcting the Characteristics of the Type of Rigidity Specified
Earlier
It is necessary to perform the following actions to correct the characteristics of the type of rigidity specified
earlier :
− invoke the Assign rigidities for bars operation;
− select the line with the number of the type of rigidity you want to change in the Type of rigidity
table;
− correct the characteristics (you can also change the method of specifying the rigidity, the name of
the type of rigidity, etc.);
− click one of the buttons — Replace and exit or Replace and continue. In the first case the dialog
box will close after changing the characteristics, and in the second one you can continue correcting
other types of rigidity.
The number of the type of rigidity does not change after performing the above actions. If after
correcting the parameters you click the OK button, a new type of rigidity will be created, and the
characteristics of the type specified earlier will remain without changes.
It should be noted that closing the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box by clicking the
Replace and exit button does not allow to assign the modified parameters to the other
elements of the model. This operation is available only after closing the dialog box by
Assigning the Type of Rigidity Specified Earlier to the Elements

It is necessary to perform the following actions to assign the type of rigidity specified earlier to the
elements:
− invoke the Assign rigidities for bars operation;
− select the line with the number of the respective type of rigidity in the Type of rigidity table;
− assign the selected type of rigidity to the elements of the model.
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Plate Elements
The Rigidities of Plates dialog box (Fig. 7.1-8) is used to specify the stiffness properties for shell, plate
and deep beam elements.
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Figure 7.1-8. The Rigidities of Plates dialog box, the Isotropy tab
The procedure for specifying the stiffness properties for plate elements when performing a linear
calculation is as follows:
a) isotropic material:
− invoke the Assign rigidities for plates operation;
− select the material or “Other” in the list of materials and specify the characteristics of the material
in the respective text fields of the Material group;
− specify the plate thickness;
− select the Isotropy radio button;
− select the problem of the theory of elasticity which will be used to perform the analysis — Plane
stress state (this theory is selected by default) or Plane deformation;
− assign the specified type of rigidity to the elements of the model;
b) orthotropic material:
− select the Orthotropy radio button (the Orthotropy tab will appear in the dialog box);
− specify the plate thickness;
− select the problem of the theory of elasticity which will be used to perform the analysis — Plane
stress state (this theory is selected by default) or Plane deformation;
− specify the values of the elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio and the linear expansion coefficients in
the directions X1 and Y1, and the value of the shear modulus in the Orthotropy tab (Fig. 7.1-9);
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Figure 7.1-9. The Rigidities of Plates dialog box, the Orthotropy tab
earlier :
table;
− correct the characteristics specified earlier;
The number of the type of rigidity does not change after performing the above actions.
If after correcting the parameters you click the OK button, a new type of rigidity will be created, and
the characteristics of the type specified earlier will remain without changes.
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Solid Elements
Stiffness properties can be specified in the Rigidity of Solid Elements dialog box (Fig. 7.1-10). If the
material is isotropic, the characteristics include four parameters (elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, specific
weight, and the linear expansion coefficient) and in this case the following procedure can be recommended:
− invoke the Assign rigidities for solid elements operation;
in the respective text fields of the Material group in the Rigidity of Solid Elements dialog box;
− select the Isotropy radio button (it is selected by default);
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Figure 7.1-10. The Rigidity of Solid Elements dialog box

When the transverse isotropy is considered, the Transverse Isotropy tab (Fig. 7.1-11) appears in the
dialog box, where you can specify the characteristics of the material.
A similar tab but with the respective set of characteristics (Fig. 7.1-12) appears when you have to specify
the orthotropic properties of the material (the specified values should satisfy the symmetry conditions
described in Section 3.5).
earlier :
− invoke the Assign rigidities for solid elements operation;
table;
Figure 7.1-11. The Transverse Isotropy tab Figure 7.1-12. The Orthotropy tab
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Specifying Stiffness Properties for Multilayer Elements
This operation enables to specify the stiffness properties for multilayer elements (a model including
the multilayer elements must have the type 8 or 9).
Figure 7.1-14. The Copy Layer dialog box
Figure 7.1-13. The Rigidities of Multilayer Elements

dialog box
This operation invokes the Rigidities of Multilayer Elements dialog box (Fig. 7.1-13). The
procedure for specifying the data in this dialog box is as follows:
− select the number of layers in the elements of the given type of rigidity from the list;
− specify (select from the list) the properties of the material for each layer in the Material column,
the thickness of the layer in the Thickness column, and the density of the material of the layer in
the Density column of the Description of layers table;
− select the line with the number of the layer the stiffness properties are specified for in the
Description of layers table;
− fill in the table with the characteristics of the selected layer, specifying the values of the elastic
modulus and the Poisson’s ratio;
− select the number of the next layer in the Description of layers table and repeat the above actions
of the specification of the characteristics;
− click the OK button and assign the specified type of rigidity to the elements of the model.
If the subsequent layer has the same characteristics as another layer specified earlier, you can use the
Copy data button to assign them. Clicking this button invokes the Copy Layer dialog box with a list (Fig.
7.1-14), where you can select the number of the original layer.
earlier :
− invoke the Rigidities of multilayer elements operation;
table;
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Specifying Stiffness Properties for Axisymmetric Elements
When the structures modeled by axisymmetric elements are considered (type of model 11), the
stiffness properties of elements are specified in the Rigidities of Axisymmetric Elements dialog box (Fig.
7.1-15).
Figure 7.1-15. The Rigidities of Axisymmetric Elements dialog box

The following procedure can be recommended to specify rigidities for axisymmetric elements:
− invoke the Assign rigidities for axisymmetric finite elements operation;
in the respective text fields in the Rigidities of Axisymmetric Elements dialog box;
− select the Isotropy radio button (it is selected by default);
When the transverse isotropy is considered, the Transverse Isotropy tab (Fig. 7.1-16) appears in the
dialog box, where you can specify the characteristics of the material. A similar tab, but with the respective set of
characteristics (Fig. 7.1-17), appears when you have to specify the orthotropic properties of the material.
earlier :
− invoke the considered operation;
table of the Rigidities of Axisymmetric Elements dialog box;
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Figure 7.1-16. The Transverse Isotropy tab Figure 7.1-17. The Orthotropy tab
7.2. Specifying Stiffness Properties for Special Finite

Elements
Stiffness properties are usually specified for special finite elements when they are created. This
operation can be used to reassign the stiffness properties of special finite elements created earlier and to
specify the respective stiffness properties for the elements after the change of the type of a finite element
(for example, after changing the type of a bar element to an element of the elastic constraint).
When specifying the stiffness properties of special finite elements after changing the type of an
element the following procedure for performing this operation is recommended:
− invoke the operation, the drop-down list will appear, where you have to select a line with the name
of the necessary type of the special element (only the lines containing the names of the elements
present in the model will be available in the list);
− the dialog box will appear, where you have to specify the stiffness properties or select them in the
Type of rigidity list;
− click the OK button and assign the rigidity to the elements of the model.
earlier:
table of the dialog box;
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Color Indication of the Rigidities

Although the color scales are considered in a separate section (see Chapter 4), the brief description of the
color scale of rigidities is given here (for reference).
The window of the color scale for the indication of rigidities of the elements is invoked from the
Display Filters toolbar (see Sec. 10.2) and contains a table with the data and a set of control buttons. The
table has seven columns, which contain:
− checkboxes — to enable/disable the color display of the given type of rigidity;
− numbers of the types of rigidity;
− color field showing the color of display of the given type of rigidity in the model;
− designation of the type of element or its section;
− size of the section, thickness of the plate or other parameters which characterize this type of
rigidity;
− name of the type of rigidity specified by the user;
− number of elements with the given type of rigidity in the model.
Buttons located at the top of the color scale enable to localize the selection of the types of rigidity
displayed in color depending on the type of elements and the method of the rigidity description:
— parametric specification of the sections of bar elements;
— sections from the assortments of rolled steel profiles;
— sections from rolled profiles and sheets created in Section Builder;
— numerical and parametric specification of rigidities of bar elements;
— numerical description of rigidities of bar elements;
— plate elements;
— solid elements;
— special finite elements (elastic constraints, constraints of finite rigidity, etc.).
If one or more of these buttons are active, their corresponding numbers (checkboxes) of the types of
rigidity will be active in the color scale as well. All buttons are active by default (Fig. 7.2-1, a). The button
enables or disables all buttons simultaneously. The buttons can be used in any combination.
The checkbox above the checkboxes of the types of rigidity enables to check or uncheck all the
checkboxes of the color scale at same time.
Click the Apply button — , if you want the elements with the rigidities corresponding to the
selected combination of buttons to be displayed in color (Fig. 7.2-1, b), and the Fragment button— , if
you want to obtain a fragment including only these elements.
If the current window displays not the whole model but only its part (the fragmentation of the design
model is performed), the set of the types of rigidity in the color scale can be limited only by the numbers
included in the current fragment. The Fragment scale checkbox is used to switch between the scales (Fig.
7.2-1, c).
The button is used to finish the work with the color scale.
299
a) b) c)
Figure 7.2-1. The Rigidities color scale
Delete Duplicate Types of Rigidity
“Duplicate types of rigidity” may appear when working with the model, i.e. with the same parameters
and different only by numbers. After performing this operation all elements that had the same parameters
are automatically assigned a common number of the type of rigidity.
If the duplicate types of rigidity have been given different names, the result of performing the
operation will depend on the response to the request in the message window (Fig. 7.2-2). If the answer is
positive, they will be reduced to one (minimum) number with its respective name. Otherwise, the
compression is not performed.
Figure 7.2-2. Message window

(the operation of deleting the duplicate types of rigidity)
Duplicate types of rigidity are deleted together with the duplicate types of the subsoil parameters.
Renumber Rigidities
This operation enables to sort/renumber the rigidities in the design model.

When this operation is invoked, the Renumber Rigidities dialog box appears (see Fig. 7.2-3) with a
list of rigidities. The table has the following columns:
 the current number of the rigidity;
 No. — number of the rigidity in the order of creating;
 Type — icon of the rigidity type;
300
 Name — name of the rigidity;

 Description — description of the rigidity;
 Number of elements, which have the respective stiffness properties.
Figure 7.2-3. The Renumber Rigidities dialog box

The characteristics of the rigidity the sorting is based on is selected from the Sort by list. There are
the following types of sorting:
 by the number (in the order of creating rigidities — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and
vice versa — when the Max/Min button is pressed);
 by the type of the rigidity;
 by the name of the rigidity (in the alphabetical order when the Min/Max button is pressed; and
vice versa — when the Max/Min button is pressed);
 by the description of the rigidity (ascending — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and
descending — when the Max/Min button is pressed);
 by the number of elements (ascending — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and descending
— when the Max/Min button is pressed).
In order to change the position of one or several rigidities in the list you have select these rigidities
and move them in the list by clicking the Up or Down buttons.
Moreover, this dialog box enables to rename the types of rigidity, or you can specify that the
description of the rigidity can be used as the name with the help of the button .
box by clicking the OK button. The position of rigidities will correspond to their position in the list of the
dialog box.
Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Material

When specifying the stiffness properties such properties of materials as the elastic modulus, specific
weight, Poisson’s ratio can be assigned automatically. The Material section of the dialog boxes (Fig. 7.2-
5) contains a drop-down list with the list of materials (Fig. 7.2-4). If you select the necessary material, all
the data will be taken from the database supplied with the software. The program displays the properties of
the selected material for control (elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, …).
301
Figure 7.2-5. The Material section
Figure 7.2-4. The Materials drop-down list
You can add, delete or change the data from the database of materials with the help of Materials
Editor, which is included in the SCAD Office package. If you select the last item in the list “Other...”, you
will be able to specify the data on the mechanical properties of the necessary material not included in the
database in the respective text fields. The software will obviously check the input information before the
calculation (for example, you cannot specify the Poisson’s ratio greater than 0.5, …).
7.3. Specifying the Properties of Elements
Specifying the Element Type
This operation enables to assign or change the types of finite elements. The Specify the Element
Type dialog box (Fig. 7.3-1) is used to assign the element type. It is invoked by clicking the respective
button in the Assign section of the toolbar (see Fig. 7-1).
You can perform the following actions in this dialog box:
− select the radio button with the name of the respective element (bar, shell, etc.);
− select the necessary element type in the list;
− select the elements in the model the selected type is assigned to, and assign it by clicking the OK
When the Accounting for geometric nonlinearity
checkbox is checked, the selected elements will be assigned a type
which enables to perform the analysis taking into account large
displacements.
When assigning a type to shell , deep beam and plate
elements you can check the Accounting for shear in plates
and shells checkbox. Instead of the specified type of element its
corresponding type will be assigned (the type number is
increased by 100), which enables to allow for shear according
to the Mindlin–Reissner theory.
Figure 7.3-1. The Specify the Element

Type dialog box
302
Before assigning the element type look through the short description which is displayed in the
information field of the dialog box after you select an element from the list, and on the icon with the image
of the local axes of the element.
The element type must correspond to the specified type of the design model. The correct choice of the
element type will help to avoid mistakes when solving the problem.
The specified type will be assigned only to the elements with the number of
nodes corresponding to the description of the element in Chapter 3.
Specifying Geometrically Nonlinear Elements
After invoking this operation select the elements in the model and click the OK button in the toolbar.
The selected elements are used to allow for large displacements when performing the nonlinear analysis.
Numbers of element types will be formed by adding 300 to the number of type of a linear element (for
example, the element of type 44 will be transformed into 344 and so on).
It should be noted that the library of geometrically nonlinear elements includes all types of bars,
shells and solid elements.
Install or Remove Rigid Inserts
This operation is used to install rigid inserts in bar elements. Rigid inserts can be described in two
ways: in the global coordinate system of the design model or in the local coordinate system of the element.
The Rigid Inserts dialog box (Fig. 7.3-2) is used to specify the characteristics of rigid inserts, where you
have to specify the method of describing inserts and their lengths.
If you are working in the local coordinate system, the local Х2 axis of the element goes from node 1 to
node 2, and the lengths of rigid inserts are specified as the lengths of projections on the respective local
axes. If the rigid insert is given in local axes and the value of length of the projection along the X1 axis is
not equal to zero, and zero values are specified along the Y1 and Z1 axes, the length of the projection along
the X1 axis (in fact, the length of the rigid insert) must be defined by a positive number. This rule is
accepted, because the imposition of a rigid insert on the flexible part of the bar taking place in this case is
physically meaningless. When inputting the data in the global coordinate system the software controls the
fact of imposing a rigid insert on the flexible part in the process of calculation and automatically changes
the direction of the insert.
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Figure 7.3-2. The Rigid Inserts dialog box

If you are working in the global coordinate system, the lengths of rigid inserts are specified as
projections on the axes of the global coordinate system, i.e. as vectors directed from the node of the
flexible part of the bar. It is necessary to perform the following actions to create rigid inserts:
− invoke the Install-remove rigid inserts operation;
− select the method of describing an insert using the radio buttons — in the local coordinate system
of the bar or in the global coordinate system;
− specify the name of the rigid insert if necessary;
− specify the data in the respective text fields and click the OK button in the dialog box;
− select the elements in the model the rigid inserts are installed in, and click the OK button in the
toolbar.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to correct the characteristics of rigid inserts created
earlier:
− select a line with the parameters of the inserts you want to correct in the table of the Rigid Inserts
dialog box, and the selected parameters will be input into the respective text fields;
− correct the parameters;
other rigid inserts.
Buttons located at the top enable to perform the filtration of the data specified earlier and leave the
table lines referring to the data only in the local or only in the global coordinate systems.
Keep in mind that when the display filter of rigid inserts is disabled, a line
connecting the nodes is displayed in the model, but not the element. If there are rigid
inserts, this line might not reflect the actual position of the element in the model.
Move the Plate Midplane
This operation enables to change the position of plate elements with respect to their snap nodes by
moving the midplane along the local Z1 axis. The value of displacement is specified in the dialog box
(Fig. 7.3-3, a), which appears after invoking the operation.
304
In order to perform the operation after specifying the displacement value it is necessary to select the
elements you want to move in the model and click the OK button in the Assign toolbar.
The displacement values specified earlier can be corrected by transferring the data from the selected table
line into the text fields with their subsequent correction and fixation with the Replace and exit or Replace and
continue buttons. The operation can be used for example to align the surface of the slab modeled by finite
elements of different thickness along the upper or lower face and in other cases (Fig. 7.3-3, b).
Figure 7.3-3, a. The Move the Plate Midplane Figure 7.3-3, b. The example of using the Move the
dialog box plate midplane operation
Install and Delete Hinges and Sliders
Boundary conditions can be assigned for bar elements as a freedom of mutual rotation about the axes
of the local coordinate system (cylindrical hinges) or a freedom of mutual linear displacements along these
axes (sliders).
It is assumed by default that such independent displacements are impossible due to the constraints
between the element and the node.
Boundary conditions in each node can be specified in the Boundary Conditions of Bars dialog box
(Fig. 7.3-4) with the help of the respective buttons. This dialog box is also used when it is necessary to change
the boundary conditions specified earlier (but not to cancel all of them).
In order to perform this operation you have to:
− click the respective button in the toolbar;
− the dialog box will appear where you have to specify the boundary conditions;
− select the places where the hinges should be installed (near the node in the coordinate system
X1Y1Z1 or at the transition to the flexible part in the coordinate system X2Y2Z2 presented on the
figure 3.3-12);
− select the necessary elements in the model;
A special operation Delete hinges is used to cancel the specified boundary conditions for all
directions. It invokes the Delete Hinges dialog box (Fig. 7.3-5). The concept of a “hinge” is generalized and is
used for both actual hinges and sliders.
305
Figure 7.3-5. The Delete Hinges dialog box
Figure 7.3-4. The Boundary Conditions of Bars

dialog box
Depending on the active buttons the deleting can be performed in one or in both nodes of the bar.
The actions of deleting are similar to the actions of assigning — select elements and click the OK
The filters button is used to display the hinges in the model.
Specifying the Orientation Angle of the Axes of the Bar Section
This operation is used to:

 change the orientation of the principal or structural axes of the bar section;
 specify the local coordinate system for a two-node elastic constraint of non-zero length.
The detailed information about the local coordinate system of the bar elements is given in the
respective section of the “Finite Element Library” chapter. Orientation can be defined by indicating the
rotation angle of the axes, specifying the coordinates of the point with respect to which the local Z1 or Y1
axes of the selected elements are rotated (depending on the selected option) or by moving with respect to
the first node. The operation allows you to orient both the principal axes of inertia and the structural axes.
The control of the operation is performed with the help of the Orientation of the Axes of Inertia
It is necessary to select the method for specifying the angles in the dialog box (rotation angle of axes
is selected by default) and specify the necessary data. All the other actions are familiar — click the OK
button in the dialog box, select elements and confirm the operation by clicking the OK button in the
toolbar.
In order to restore the values of angles assumed by default it is necessary to repeat the operation of
specification specifying the angle of 0.
The values of the rotation angles of the axes for the given element can be corrected in the Local axes
mode in the Information on the Element dialog box. The dialog box is invoked by clicking the button
in the Display Filters toolbar.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to correct the characteristics of the angles specified
earlier:
− select a line with the parameters you want to correct in the table of the Orientation of the Axes of
Inertia dialog box, and the selected parameters will be input into the respective text fields;
306

other angles of orientation.
Figure 7.3-6. The Orientation of the Axes of Inertia dialog box

The Cancel orientation button enables to restore the initial position of the structural axes of
elements. After closing the dialog box by clicking this button select the elements in the model, the initial
position of the structural axes of which you want to restore and click the OK button in the toolbar.
Specifying Intermediate Sections for the Calculation of Forces
This operation is used to calculate forces in the intermediate points along the length of the bar or in
the nodes of plate and solid elements (it should be noted that the forces are calculated by default only in the
beginning, middle and end of the bar and in the center of the plate). It is necessary to know the forces in
the intermediate sections of the bars, for example, to perform the selection of the reinforcement.
The control of the operation is performed in the Calculation of Forces in Additional Sections and
Nodes dialog box (Fig. 7.3-7).
It is necessary to select the elements (bars or plates), and
specify the parameters in the dialog box: for bars — number of
sections (general, including the sections in the beginning and in
the end of the bar), for plates and solid elements — type of the
output information.
All the other actions are standard — click the OK button
in the dialog box, select the elements, click the OK button in
Figure 7.3-7. The Calculation of the toolbar.
Forces in Additional Sections and In order to change the parameters of specification it is
Nodes dialog box necessary to repeat the specification with the new data.
If in the bar elements it is necessary to specify the number of sections of the output of forces
determined by default, i.e. specified in the Elements tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box (see
Sec. 11.9), you have to click the Default button in the considered dialog box before clicking the OK
button, and then select the necessary elements and perform the operation.
307
Change the Direction of the Local Х 1 Axis of Bars to the

Opposite One
This operation enables to change the direction of the local

Х1 axis of the bar to the opposite one, i.e. basically to swap the
first and the second nodes of the element.
If a concentrated load is acting on the bar, it will also
change its position in accordance with the direction of the
local axis. A similar problem may occur with hinges and rigid
inserts. Keep in mind that if the load on the bar is specified in
the local coordinate system, it will also change its direction in
accordance with the direction of the local axis. Therefore,
when this operation is invoked, the dialog box appears (Fig.
7.3-8), where you can specify options which enable to
automatically change the snaps of loads, position of hinges and
rigid inserts. Having clicked the OK button in the dialog box,
you have to select the necessary bar elements in the model and
click the button in the toolbar.
Figure 7.3-8. The Change the

Direction of the Local X Axis of Bars
dialog box
Change the Direction of the Local Z 1 Axis of Plate Elements
This operation enables to change the direction of the local

Z1 axis of plate elements to the opposite one.
If a concentrated load is acting on the plate, it will also
change its position in accordance with the direction of the
local axis. Keep in mind that if the load on the bar is specified
in the local coordinate system, it will also change its direction
in accordance with the direction of the local axis. Therefore,
when this operation is invoked, the dialog box appears (Fig.
7.3-9), where you can specify the option which enables to
automatically change the snaps of loads. Having clicked the
OK button in the dialog box, you have to select the necessary
plate elements in the model and click the button in the
toolbar. In order to select elements you can use the color or
vector indication of the direction of axes with the help of the
filters button .
Figure 7.3-9. The Change the
Direction of the Local Z Axis of
Plates dialog box
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Stresses along the Given Direction
The operation enables to specify the direction of force and stress output in plate elements
different from the default one — along the axes of the local coordinate system of the element. This is
important when analyzing the results of calculation of force factors given in the form of isolines and
isofields, since the disorder of the directions of local axes of the elements with irregular meshes (for
example, after meshing) does not allow to plot the isolines and isofields of force factors correctly (they
simply lose their meaning). Moreover, when selecting the reinforcement it is recommended to agree the
directions of the stress output with the orientation of reinforcement meshes.
Clicking the button invokes the menu, where you can select two variants: user defined directions
or the automatic specification (Fig. 7.3-10).
Figure 7.3-10
In the first case the operation enables to specify the following data for plates:
 A. direction of the ХN axis of the stress analysis which is defined by a line going from the first node
of the element to the point specified by the increments of the coordinates of this node in the global
coordinate system. The obtained line is projected onto the plane of the element;
 B. a point specified by the coordinates in the global coordinate system; the projection of the line
connecting this point with the first node of the element onto the plane of the element defines the ХN
axis of the stress analysis;
 C. direction of the ХN axis of the stress analysis coinciding with the direction of the given vector;
 D. direction of the ХN axis of the stress analysis by an explicit indication of the axis of the global
coordinate system.
If the automatic specification is selected, a direction along the global X axis is specified for all
horizontal plates, and along the global Z axis — for all vertical ones.
The ZN axis will coincide with the Z1 axis of the local coordinate system of the element, and the YN
axis will lie in the plane of the element and will form a right-hand system together with the ХN and ZN
axes.
The axes of the analysis of stresses in plate elements are specified in the Specify Axes of the Stress
Analysis dialog box (Fig. 7.3-11).
In order to perform this operation click the button invoking the operation in the toolbar and select the
method of specifying axes in the menu. If the automatic specification is selected, the operation will be
performed after the selection of this item in the menu. Otherwise, the Specify Axes of the Stress Analysis
dialog box will appear, where you can select the rule for specification of the force output axes using the
respective radio buttons.
The following actions are performed depending on the selected variant:
− if variant A or B is selected, the increments or the coordinates of the point are specified
respectively;
− if variant D is selected, the marker button with the name of the axis of the global coordinate system
defining the direction of ХN is activated.
After closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button you have to select the necessary elements in the
model and click the OK button in the Assign section of the toolbar.
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Figure 7.3-11. The Specify Axes of the Stress Analysis dialog box
If variant C is selected as the direction of the stress output, it is recommended to perform the
operation in the following order:
− select the elements in the model the operation is performed for;
− click the OK button in the toolbar, the message window will appear (Fig. 7.3-12) with a suggestion to
select two nodes in the model which define a vector;
− select two nodes in the model with a cursor with a target (the vector will be directed from the first
node to the second one);
− click the OK button in the toolbar again.
Figure 7.3-12. The message window
Figure 7.3-13. The Force Equalization in Solid Elements

dialog box
In order to cancel the performed specifications (the direction of the force output will coincide with the
axes of the local coordinate system of the elements) it is necessary to activate the mode of the specification
of axes and click the Cancel the alignment button in the dialog box. After closing the dialog box select
the necessary elements in the model and click the OK button.
You can also select the option in the dialog box when the direction of the YN axis will be specified
instead of that of the ХN axis. In order to do it select the Y axis option in the Orientation group.
The direction of the stress output in solid elements is specified in a similar way — . The data are
specified in the dialog box shown in Fig. 7.3-13.
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The following variants of the specification of the stress output axes are provided in the software for
solid elements:
 along the axes of the global coordinate system;
 by a vector defining the direction of the force output axes;
 in the cylindrical coordinate system;
 in the spherical coordinate system;
 in the local coordinate system of the element.
Coordinates of two points lying on the axis of the cylinder and defining the direction of the ZN axis
are specified in the cylindrical coordinate system. The XN axis is orthogonal to the ZN axis and passes
through the center of gravity of the element. The YN axis is orthogonal to the XN and ZN axes. Coordinates
of the center of the sphere (X1, Y1, Z1) and additional points (X2, Y2, Z2) are specified in the spherical
coordinate system. The XN axis goes from the center of the sphere through the center of gravity of the
element (X3, Y3, Z3). The YN axis lies in the plane defined by the three given points, it is orthogonal to the
XN axis and is directed in the direction of the point X2, Y2, Z2. The ZN axis is orthogonal to the XN and YN
axes.
Figure 7.3-14. Example of a design model

Fig. 7.3-14 shows an example of a design model for the left part of which the X axes of the force
output are specified along the direction of the X axis of the global coordinate system, and for the right one
(rotated part of the model) the axes are defined by the increments with respect to the first node of the
element (1, –0.577, 0), which corresponds to an angle of 30.
The display of the direction of axes of the calculation of forces in the design model is
enabled/disabled by clicking the filters button .
It is necessary to perform the following actions to correct the directions of the force and stress output
specified earlier:
− select a line with the parameters you want to correct in the table of the dialog box, and the selected
parameters will be input into the respective text fields;
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the directions.
Specifying the Direction of the Orthotropy Axes
This operation enables to specify the direction of the orthotropy axis X1 for the selected elements
according to the same rules as for the direction of the force and stress output axes. Therefore the dialog
boxes of the specification of axes of the force and stress output for plate and solid elements have the Align
the orthotropy axes checkbox, which enables to indicate that the specifications performed in the dialog
boxes relate to the orthotropy axes.
Specifying Subsoil Parameters
Subsoil parameters are considered as a separate type of data and are not included in the description of
stiffness properties of elements. Thus, elements with the same stiffness properties can have one type of
rigidity irrespective of the subsoil parameter specified for them.
When this operation is invoked, the menu appears (Fig. 7.3-15), where you have to select the
elements (bars or plates) the subsoil parameters will be assigned for.
Figure 7.3-15. Selecting the elements

If there are only plates in the design model, the menu does not appear and the dialog box for the input
of data appears at once.
The values of subsoil parameters for plate and bar elements are specified in the dialog boxes shown in
figures 7.3-16 and 7.3-17 respectively. The operation of assigning the subsoil parameters to the selected
elements of the model is performed by clicking the OK button in the toolbar.
You can use Cross to determine the subsoil parameters С1 (Winkler model) under the foundation
slab. The Calculation of subsoil parameters button — in the Assign toolbar enables to invoke this
application. The Calculation of subsoil parameters or Calculation of subsoil strain factors buttons in
the dialog boxes can be used to calculate the subsoil parameters С1 and С2. The Pasternak model is used
for calculating subsoil parameters, and the model given in the work of V.G.Piskunov and Y.M.Fedorenko
[1] — for determining the subsoil strain factors. Calculations are performed both for plate and for bar
elements.
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Figure 7.3-17. The Specify Subsoil Parameters

of Bars dialog box
Figure 7.3-16. The Specify Subsoil Parameters of

Plates dialog box
The obtained values of the subsoil parameters are automatically transferred into the respective text
fields. For bar elements this transfer is performed depending on the checked Apply along axis ...
checkboxes (Fig. 7.3-17).
The values of the subsoil parameters are corrected according to the same rules as other parameters, for
example, rigid inserts or the angles of orientation of the bar axes, i.e. by transferring the data from the
selected table line into the text fields with their subsequent correction and fixation with the Replace and
exit or Replace and continue buttons.
The Information on the Element dialog box has the Subsoil parameters button, which enables to
control the values of the subsoil parameters. Clicking it invokes the Specify Subsoil Parameters dialog
box (Fig. 7.3-16, 7.3-17). In order to change a parameter related to a particular element in the processor
you have to specify its new value and close the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Specifying the Prestressing of Elements of the Design Model
The operation enables to specify the local (internal) prestressing for bar, cable-stayed, plate and solid
elements. The initial data for the operation are specified in the Prestressing dialog box (Fig. 7.3-18),
where you have to use the respective radio buttons to select the elements the prestressing is specified for,
and to indicate the set of force factors which will be used for the specification. If the Extended mode
checkbox is not checked, the parameters of prestressing will be specified using a reduced set of force
factors. Otherwise, the maximum set of factors will be used for this type of elements. For example, a
reduced set of factors for bar and cable-stayed elements includes the specification only of a longitudinal
force, and the extended one — the specification of eight factors including a longitudinal force, torque, two
bending moments, two shear forces, and two values of reactions. The values of force factors are specified
in the table, the columns of which depend on the selected type of elements. Each set of parameters of
prestressing can have its own name specified in the respective field.
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Figure 7.3-18. The Prestressing dialog box

In order to specify the prestressing for the elements of the model you have to specify the parameters
in the dialog box, close the dialog box by clicking the OK button, select the elements in the model and
click the OK button in the Assign toolbar.
The values of prestressing are corrected by altering the table and saving these changes by clicking the
Replace and exit or Replace and continue buttons.
In order to delete the prestressing from the elements it is necessary to select the line with the
parameters you want to delete in the table of the Prestressing dialog box and select the rule for deleting
using the respective buttons — From all elements or only In the selected elements, and then close the
dialog box by clicking the OK button. If the first rule is selected, the values of prestressing specified
earlier will be deleted from all the elements where they were specified. In the second case the values will
be deleted from the elements selected in the model after clicking the OK button in the toolbar.
The Information on the Element dialog box has the respective button which enables to control the
values of the parameters of prestressing. The Prestressing button — in the Display Filters toolbar
enables to obtain both digital and color indication of the specified parameters.
Specification of the Additional Data for Elements
This operation enables to assign the elements some properties which are used quite rarely. The
following properties can be specified in the current version of the software:
 limit relative inelastic deformation μ according to KMK 2.01.03-96 (Uzbekistan);
 meshing density of the bar section at the physically nonlinear analysis;
 number of layers along the plate thickness at the physically nonlinear analysis.
Clicking this button drops down a menu, where you have to select a parameter which will be
specified. Then a dialog box will appear (Fig. 7.3-19), where you can specify the name and the value of the
characteristic.
The further procedure is identical to that described for the specification of other properties (rigidities,
subsoil parameters, ...).
The color scale of the additional properties can be enabled/disabled by clicking the filters button .
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Fig. 7.3-19. Dialog box for the specification of the additional data
7.4. Specifying Characteristics of Nodes
Installing Constraints in Nodes
Constraints in nodes of the design model are specified in the dialog box (Fig. 7.4-1), which is invoked
by clicking the respective button in the Assign section of the toolbar.
In order to install constraints in the node it is necessary to
select the directions of degrees of freedom on which the
constraints are imposed using the respective checkboxes, click
the OK button in the dialog box, select the nodes in the model
and perform the operation by clicking the OK button in the
Assign section.
Depending on the type of operation selected in the dialog box
the constraints in nodes will be replaced completely (deleted if all
Figure 7.4-1. The Constraints dialog
the checkboxes of directions are not checked) or added to those
box
specified earlier.
The Constraints dialog box is different for design models of type 8, 9 and 11 and depends on the
number of the degrees of freedom in nodes of the respective type of the model (12 degrees for type 8, 9
and two degrees for type 11). Fig. 7.4-2 shows the Constraints dialog box for the models of types 8 and 9,
and figure 7.4-3 — for the model of type 11.
You can use the filters button to display the constraints in the model.
Figure 7.4-2. The Constraints dialog Figure 7.4-3. The Constraints dialog box
box for an axisymmetric problem
for structures from multilayer shells
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Merged Displacements
If the groups of merged displacements have not been

created yet, clicking the button invokes the Create a
Group of Merged Displacements dialog box (Fig. 7.4-4),
where you can specify the directions of the degrees of freedom
in which the displacements of the group are merged and specify
the names of the groups.
Figure 7.4-4. The Create a Group of
Merged Displacements dialog box
In order to perform the operation it is necessary to select the directions of degrees of freedom in
which the displacements are merged using the respective checkboxes, specify the name of the group (the
groups should have unique names), confirm the specified data by clicking the OK button in the dialog box,
select the nodes in the model which are included in the group and perform the operation by clicking the
OK button in the toolbar. If the Merge displacements in duplicate nodes checkbox is checked, the
displacements are merged for the specified directions for all selected pairs of nodes.
If the design model already has groups of merged displacements created earlier, clicking the button
drops down the menu where you can select one of the following actions:
 Create a group of merged displacements (described above);
 Control the groups of merged displacements.
In the second case the dialog box is invoked (Fig. 7.4-5), which is used to control the attributes of groups
and enables to perform the following actions:
 rename groups;
 sort groups by a certain criterion;
 delete groups;
 change the place of the selected group in the list of groups (Up, Down buttons);
 change the set of the degrees of freedom.
Figure 7.4-5. The Control the Groups of Merged Displacements dialog box
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The columns of the table of groups include:

 the current number of the group;
 No. — number of the group in the order of creating;
 Number of nodes in the group;
 list of the degrees of freedom.
click. The table line will become available for editing.
The characteristics of the group the sorting is based on is selected from the Sort by list. There are the
following types of sorting:
 by the number (in the order of creating groups — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and vice
 by the name of the group (in the alphabetical order when the Min/Max button is pressed; and vice
 by the number of nodes in the group (ascending — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and
descending — when the Max/Min button is pressed).
In order to change the position of one or several groups in the list you have to select these groups and
move them in the list by clicking the Up or Down buttons.
If when specifying the data the user has created several groups with the same names, the Make the
names unique operation enables to rename them automatically (by adding the suffix № XXX to the name)
and obtain unique names.
You can delete the groups of merged displacements selected in the list with the help of the respective
button.
box by clicking the OK button. The position of groups in the list of the toolbar will correspond to their
position in the list of the dialog box.
You can use the filters button to display the groups in the model.
7.5. Specifying Subsoil Parameters for the Elements of

the Design Model with the Help of Cross
Cross enables to calculate the subsoil parameters under the foundation slab using the results of geological
surveys represented as characteristics of boreholes. The initial data for the calculation include the
information on the construction site including its overall dimensions, locations of boreholes and their
characteristics, location and geometry of existing buildings and structures on the site, and other data
provided in Cross [2]. This information must be prepared in advance in Cross and saved as a file with the
extension .crs. After this every time you invoke Cross you can use this information by opening the
respective file.
In order to determine the subsoil parameters it is usually necessary to perform several iterations using
the values of pressure on soil under the foundation slab obtained in the previous step for each subsequent
iteration. The value of the reaction of soil Rz is used as the pressure on soil. Before performing the first
calculation the subsoil parameters (they are usually the same for all elements of the slab) are specified by
the user. If the construction site is prepared, it is necessary to perform the following actions to establish the
connection with Cross:
− click the Calculation of subsoil parameters button in the Assign toolbar;
− select a fragment of the design model the subsoil parameters are calculated for (elements included
in the fragment must lie in one plane and form a united area);
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− click the button in the toolbar;

− if the current results of the calculation include the values Rz, the Select Loading dialog box
appears (Fig. 7.5-1). It has a drop-down list, where you have to select the number of the loading or
the combination of loadings defining Rz (or use the respective button to reject using the values of
reactions);
− give a positive response to the request to open the existing construction site in the dialog box (Fig.
7.5-2), and select a file with the extension .crs with the information on the site in the standard
Open dialog box of the Windows environment.
After performing the last action Cross with the site prepared earlier is invoked.
Figure 7.5-1. The Select Loading dialog box Figure 7.5-2. The message window
In the initial state the fragment of the design model (foundation slab) the subsoil parameters are
determined for is located in the lower left corner of the site (Fig. 7.5-3), and its contour selected by a cursor
in the form of an intersection of arrows can move together with the mouse. After moving the contour into
the right position, left click and the position of the slab will be fixed within the dimensions of the site (Fig.
7.5-4).
It should be noted that the fragment of the design model can not be located outside the dimensions of
the site, and intersect the lines bounding these dimensions as well as contours of other foundations (for
example, the existing buildings), located in the site earlier. When placing the slab within the dimensions of
the site it is enough to maintain the accuracy of positioning measured by several meters which almost does
not affect the results of the calculation.
If the existing and the analyzed foundations are close enough, the accuracy of positioning must be
higher.
At the first calculation the pressure on soil (load) and the footing bottom level are specified by the
user according to the rules described in the manual to Cross. After obtaining the value Rz only the footing
bottom level is specified for each subsequent iteration step (the additional load can be specified, if
necessary).
Vertical displacements of nodes of the slab can be considered as the comparative evaluation of the
result obtained at the current step with the result obtained at the previous step. The decision to terminate
the iteration process and to take the obtained subsoil parameters as the design ones is made by the user
depending on the nature of the considered problem.
318
Figure 7.5-3. Initial position of the foundation slab Figure 7.5-4. Final position of the foundation slab
after loading it into Cross after the fixation
After performing the analysis in Cross the rules for specifying the subsoil parameters for each finite
element are determined by the rules selected by the user in the dialog box (Fig. 7.5-5)
Figure 7.5-5. The Specify Subsoil Parameters dialog box

The rules for specifying the subsoil parameters for the elements of the design model can be selected
with the help of the respective radio buttons in this dialog box. There are the following two variants:
 specifying an “individual” value of the subsoil parameter for each finite element included in the
considered fragment (on the basis of the value calculated by Cross in the center of the element);
 specifying the given number of intervals of the values of parameters according to the specified
rules (the used value can be taken as the minimum, maximum or average value of the limits of the
interval).
Finally, the user can specify the values of the limits of the intervals, which must be used by the
software. In order to do it, check the Values of parameters checkbox and specify the necessary values of
the parameters in the table.
1. V.G. Piskunov, Y.M. Fedorenko, A dynamic method for monitoring layered slabs on elastic
subsoil. – Architecture and Construction in Belarus, No.5-6, 1994, p.19-22.
2. SCAD Office. Implementation of SNiP in Computer-Aided Design Applications. / V.S. Karpilovsky,
Kriksunov E.Z., A.A. Malyarenko, M.A. Mikitarenko, A.V. Perelmuter, M.A. Perelmuter,
V.G. Fedorovsky, V.V. Yurchenko, – M.: SCAD SOFT, 2014 – 480p.
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8.Specifying Loadings
8. Specifying Loadings
This chapter considers operations of specifying loads and generating loadings for static and dynamic
analysis. The control of the operations is performed with the help of the Loadings section of the toolbar
(Fig. 8-1).
Select a loading Select a group of loads
Figure 8-1. The Loadings section of the toolbar

Loads acting on the considered structure are specified as nodal forces and moments, and as
concentrated, trapezoid and distributed forces and moments on the elements.
Loadings can include any set of loads and are characterized by a number and a name. If some sets of
loads are included in several loadings, Groups of loads including these sets can be created in the process
of generating loadings. Groups are saved under the indicated names and can be added to any loadings.
The Loadings section includes the following operations:
— automatic specification of the self- — characteristics of loads of the “specified

weight; displacement” type described as a 0-element;
— parameters of dynamic loadings; — characteristics of loads of the “displacements of

constraints” type;
— inertial properties;
— save a group of loads;
— parameters of dynamic loads;
— save a loading;
— characteristics of nodal loads;
— remove all loads from the model;
— characteristics of loads on bars;
— delete loads;
— characteristics of loads on plate
— delete loadings and groups of loads;
elements;
— assemble loadings from the groups of loads;
— characteristics of thermal loads;
— specify the coefficients of the groups of loads;
— characteristics of loads on solid
elements; — pack (delete “empty”) loadings;
— change parameters (names) of loadings.
8.1. Specifying Static Loadings

The following procedure is recommended to specify static loadings:
− select the type of the load (nodal or on the elements) using the buttons in the toolbar;
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− specify the type, direction and value of the load in the dialog box with the parameters of the load;
− select nodes or elements the specified load is snapped to;
− click the OK button in the Loadings section of the toolbar or press the Enter key in the keyboard;
− repeat the above operations for other loads included in the current loading;
− click the Save/Add loading button after specifying all the loads of the current loading;
− specify the name of the loading and its characteristics in the Save Loading dialog box, and click
the OK button;
− click the Remove all loads button in the toolbar before specifying a new (next) loading.
The Save/Add loading operation — must finish the specification of loads of the current loading.
Otherwise the specified loads will not be taken into account in the calculation. Characteristics of loadings
specified in the Save Loading dialog box are automatically taken into account when generating design
combinations of forces (DCF). It is recommended to give loadings unique names characterizing the
purpose of loads.
The Remove all loads operation clears the temporary (buffer) memory where the loads of the current
loading are accumulated and enables to prepare for creating a new loading. This operation must obviously
be performed after saving the loading.
The rules for working with groups of loads and correcting loadings are described below.
Automatic Specification of the Self-weight
The operation is performed for bars, plates and solid elements — and only when the specific weight
of the material is specified in the stiffness properties. The self-weight of elements per unit length/area is
calculated as the product of the cross-sectional area of bars or the plate thickness and the specific weight of
the material. When the operation is performed for bars and the numerical or the numerical and parametric
description of rigidities is used, SCAD works according to the following algorithm — the value of EF is
taken from the numerical description, it is divided by the Young’s modulus E (we obtain an analogue of
the cross-sectional area) and multiplied by the specific weight of the material.
Figure 8.1-1. The Self-weight dialog box

Once the operation is invoked the Self-weight dialog box appears, where you can specify the self-
weight factor, and the rules for specifying the loads:
− specify the loads for all the elements or only for those selected in the model which enables to
specify different factors for different groups of elements;
− include or not include rigid inserts in the length of the element, i.e. allow for the “weight” of rigid
inserts;
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− replace the self-weight factor at the reactivation of the operation or sum the new value of the factor
and the previous one.
If in the process of performing the operation elements the self-weight load cannot be assigned to are
detected, a message window with the list of such elements appears. This message is duplicated into the list
of performed operations in the bottom of the window, where the operations of selecting the indicated
elements are provided.
Loads from the self-weight are modeled as distributed forces acting on the elements in the direction of
the Z axis of the global coordinate system. The filters button is used to display the distributed loads on
the model. When the filters button is pressed, the value of the load is displayed next to the image.
Nodal Loads
Nodal loads are specified in the Input Nodal Loads dialog box, which appears after clicking the
respective button in the Loadings section of the toolbar.
Figure 8.1-2. The Input Nodal Loads dialog box

If the loads in different directions are acting on nodes in one loading, such a set of loads can be
specified at once. The icon displaying the positive direction of the respective load will show the direction
of the load which has a text field with a cursor in it. The following procedure is recommended to input the
nodal loads:
− invoke the Nodal loads operation;
− specify the values of the loads acting on one node at the same time in the respective dialog box;
− select the nodes in the model the specified set of loads will be acting on;
− click the OK button in the toolbar or press the Enter key in the keyboard.
Characteristics of all the nodal loads specified earlier in the current loading are displayed in the table
of the Input Nodal Loads dialog box. These data can be used to specify new loads or correct those already
specified. The Direction list is used to select loads by the direction of their action (all the loads are
displayed by default).
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If when selecting one node, there are several nodes in the cursor target at once, their list will be output
in the Nodes in the Cursor Target dialog box (Fig. 8.1-3). The node selected in the list of this dialog box
is displayed in red in the model, and its coordinates are output in the respective text fields of the dialog
box. Click the Select button to select the node, the dialog box will close and you will be able to use this
node to specify the load.
Figure 8.1-3. The Nodes in the Cursor Target dialog box
Correcting Loads Specified Earlier

It is necessary to perform the following actions to correct the loads specified earlier:
− select the loading which includes the nodal loads you want to correct from the list of the toolbar of
the Loadings mode;
− select a line with the load you want to correct in the table with the list of the specified loads in the
Input Nodal Loads dialog box, and the characteristics of the load (direction and value) will be
input into the respective text field;
− change the characteristics of the load;
− click the Replace and exit button (the dialog box closes) if only this load changes, or Replace and
continue button if other nodal loads in the current loading will change as well.
There is one more method to correct/delete nodal loads implemented in the mode of obtaining
information on the node (filters button ).
After correcting all the loads it is necessary to save the loading.
Using the Characteristics of the Specified Load to Create New Ones
If when creating a new load it turns out that such a load (type, value, direction, …) has been already
used in the current loading, you can perform the following actions to apply it again:
− select a line with the characteristics of the necessary load in the table with the list of the specified
loads in the Input Nodal Loads dialog box (the characteristics of the load will be input into the
respective text field);
− click the OK button (the dialog box closes) and apply the selected load to the nodes of the model.
After specifying all the loads it is necessary to save the loading.
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Specifying Loads for a Group of Nodes

When creating nodal loads you can specify loads of the hydrostatic type for a group of selected nodes. The
law of their variation with the spatial coordinate corresponding to the "depth of the water body" is linear.
"The depth of the water body" can be specified in any direction.
When specifying such loads their value will change linearly from the specified initial value to the
final one depending on the coordinate of the node to which the load is applied in the direction of
propagation (direction of the increase of “depth” is specified by the user).
Example 2
Direction of load propagation Х,
direction of the load Z, range of
the load variation Р1 = 1, Р2 = 50.
Example 1
Direction of load propagation Z,
direction of the load Х, range of
the load variation Р1 = 1, Р2 = 30.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify loads for a group of nodes:
− the Input Nodal Loads dialog box will appear, where you have to check the On the group of
nodes checkbox;
− select the direction of the load (the operation is performed only for the directions along the axes of
the global coordinate system);
− select the direction of load propagation;
− specify the initial (Р1) and final (Р2) values of load and click the OK button in the dialog box (the
initial load value Р1 will be assigned to the node (nodes) with the minimum value of the coordinate
in the direction of propagation);
− select the nodes in the design model and apply the loads to them by clicking the OK button in the
Loadings section of the toolbar or pressing the Enter key in the keyboard.
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Loads on Bar Elements
Type, direction and value of loads on bar elements are specified in the Specify Loads on Bar
Elements dialog box (Fig. 8.1-4), which appears after clicking the respective button in the Loadings
section of the toolbar.
Figure 8.1-4. The Specify Loads on Bar Elements dialog box

The following types of loads are provided in the software:
 concentrated load;
 load distributed over a part of the element;
 uniformly distributed load on the whole element ;
 self-weight.
All types of loads can be specified in the global or in the local coordinate system. Moreover, a load of
the “hydrostatic” type can be applied to a group of elements.
The following procedure is recommended to specify loads on bars:
− invoke the Loads on bars operation;
− specify the coordinate system, type, direction, value, and, if necessary, — snap of the load in the
Specify Loads on Bar Elements dialog box (when the type of the load is selected, the dialog box
displays an icon showing the positive direction of its action);
− select the elements in the model the specified load is applied to;
Characteristics of all loads on bars specified earlier in the current loading are displayed in the table of
the dialog box. These data can be used to specify new loads or correct those already specified. A set of
marker buttons with an image of the type of load and the Direction drop-down list are used to select loads
by their type, direction of action and the coordinate system (all loads for all directions including the loads
from self-weight are displayed by default).
If when selecting one element, there are several elements in the cursor target at once, their list will be
output in the Elements in the Cursor Target dialog box (Fig. 8.1-5). The bar selected in the list of this
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dialog box is displayed in red in the model. Click the Select button to select the element, the dialog box
will close and you will be able to use this element to specify the load.
When specifying concentrated and trapezoidal loads the
control of snapping loads along the length of the element is
performed and if the load is outside the element, a message
with the list of elements the load is not applied to is generated.
This message is duplicated into the list of performed
operations in the bottom of the window.
Figure 8.1-5. The Elements in the

Cursor Target dialog box

− select the loading which includes the loads on bars you want to correct from the list of the toolbar
of the Loadings mode;
Specify Loads on Bar Elements dialog box, and the characteristics of the load (type, direction,
value, snap) will be input into the respective text fields;
− click the Replace and exit button if the characteristics of only one load change (the specified
changes will be applied after closing the dialog box), or the Replace and continue button if there
are several such loads in the current loading (in this case the changes will be displayed in the table
after clicking this button).
The correction mode is not used for creating new loads, because the characteristics of loads are
changed locally and are not saved. After finishing the work with the current loading it is necessary to
save it.
loads of the Specify Loads on Bar Elements dialog box (the characteristics of the load will be
input into the respective text fields);
− click the OK button (the dialog box closes);
− apply the selected load to the elements.
After specifying and correcting all the loads it is necessary to save the loading.
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Specifying Loads for a Group of Elements

When creating loads on bars you can specify loads of the hydrostatic type for a group of elements. The law
of their variation with the spatial coordinate corresponding to the "depth of the water body" is linear. "The
depth of the water body" can be specified in any direction.
When specifying such loads (in the form of trapezoidal loads along the length of the element) will
change linearly from the specified initial value to the final one in the direction of propagation (direction of
the increase of “depth” is specified by the user).
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify loads for a group of elements:
− the Specify Loads on Bar Elements dialog box will appear, where you have to check the On the
group of elements checkbox;
− select the direction of the load;
initial load value Р1 will be assigned to the node/nodes of the elements with the minimum value of
the coordinate in the direction of propagation);
− select the elements in the design model and apply the loads to them by clicking the OK button in
the Loadings section of the toolbar or pressing the Enter key in the keyboard.
Loads on Plates
Type, direction and the value of loads on plate elements (shells, plates, deep beams) are specified in
the Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box (Fig. 8.1-6), which appears after clicking the respective
button in the Loadings section of the toolbar.
Figure 8.1-6. The Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box

The following types of loads are provided in the software:
 concentrated load;
 uniformly distributed load on the element;
 uniformly distributed load between two nodes of the element (load along the line);
 trapezoidal load on the element;
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 trapezoidal load between two nodes of the element (load along the line);
 self-weight.
All types of loads can be specified in the global or in the local coordinate system. Moreover, a load of
the “hydrostatic” type can be applied to a group of elements.
The following procedure is recommended to specify loads on plates:
− invoke the Loads on plates operation;
− specify the coordinate system, type, direction, value, and, if necessary, — snap of the load in the
Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box (when the type of the load is selected, the dialog box
displays an icon showing the positive direction of its action);
− select the elements in the model the specified load is applied to;
Characteristics of all loads on plates specified earlier in the current loading are displayed in the table
of the dialog box. These data can be used to specify new loads or correct those already specified. A set of
marker buttons with an image of the type of load and the Direction drop-down list are used to select loads
by their type, direction of action and the coordinate system (all loads for all directions including the loads
from self-weight are displayed by default).
The dialog box displays an icon showing the positive direction of the load. Since a system for
describing local axes assumed for deep beams differs from that for plates and shells, the Deep beams radio
button should be selected when specifying loads on deep beams in the local coordinate system.
If when selecting one element, there are several elements in the cursor target at once, their list will be
output in the Elements in the Cursor Target dialog box (Fig. 8.1-5). The element selected in the list of
this dialog box is displayed in red in the model. Click the Select button to select the element, the dialog
box will close and you will be able to use this element to specify the load.
When specifying concentrated loads the control of snapping loads within the element is performed
and if the load is outside the element, a message with the list of elements the load is not applied to is
generated. This message is duplicated into the list of performed operations in the bottom of the window.
Loads along the Line
The load on plate elements can be distributed along the line connecting any two nodes of the element.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify this load:
− select the type of load (uniformly distributed or trapezoidal) and check the Along the line
checkbox in the Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box;
− specify the coordinate system, direction and value of the load (when the type of the load is selected,
the dialog box displays an icon showing the positive direction of its action);
− select the elements in the model to the nodes of which the load is snapped;
− select the nodes in the model belonging to the selected elements the load is snapped to;
− click the OK button in the Loadings section.
The operation will be performed correctly if each selected element will have only two selected nodes.
Otherwise an error message with the numbers of elements is generated.
− select the loading which includes the loads you want to correct from the list of the toolbar of the
Loadings mode;
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Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box, and the characteristics of the load (type, direction,
value, snap) will be input into the respective text fields;
There is one more method to correct/delete loads on an element implemented in the mode of
obtaining information on the element (filters button ).
After finishing the work with the current loading it is necessary to save it.
loads in the Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box (the characteristics of the load will be
input into the respective text fields);
Specifying Loads for a Group of Elements

When creating loads on plates you can specify loads of the hydrostatic type for a group of elements (or one
element). The law of their variation with the spatial coordinate corresponding to the "depth of the water
body" is linear. "The depth of the water body" can be specified in any direction.
When specifying such loads (in the form of trapezoidal loads over the field of the element) will
change linearly from the specified initial value to the final one in the direction of propagation (direction of
the increase of “depth” is specified by the user).
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify loads for a group of elements:
− the Specify Loads on Plate Elements dialog box will appear, where you have to check the On the
group of elements checkbox;
− select the direction of the load;
initial load value Р1 will be assigned to the node/nodes of the elements with the minimum value of
the coordinate in the direction of propagation);
− select the elements in the design model and apply the loads to them by clicking the OK button in
the Loadings section of the toolbar or pressing the Enter key in the keyboard.
Specifying Loads on Solid Elements
The software enables to specify the following types of loads on solid elements:
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 load from the self-weight;

 uniformly distributed load over the volume of the element;
 uniformly distributed load on the face of the element;
 concentrated load.
The type of load is selected from the drop-down menu which appears after clicking the “right arrow”.
An exception is the load from the self-weight which is specified in the same way as for other types of finite
elements by invoking the operation .
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify a uniformly distributed load for any type of
elements:
− invoke the operation by clicking the Loads on solid elements button (“right arrow” is not used for
this type of load);
− the Distributed Loads on Solid Elements dialog box will appear (Fig. 8.1-7), where you have to
select the coordinate system in which the loads will act and the direction of their action;
− specify the load value;
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and select the elements in the model for which the
load is specified;
Figure 8.1-7. The Distributed Loads on Solid Figure 8.1-8. The Loads Uniformly Distributed
Elements dialog box over a Face of … dialog box
You should keep in mind that the distributed loads in the local coordinate system can be
specified only for the elements of type 31 (parallelepiped) and 33 (triangular prism).
A uniformly distributed load on the faces of the elements is specified depending on the type of the
elements and is selected in the drop-down menu. The rules of the numbering of the faces are given in
Figure 3.5-1 and are duplicated in the icons in the respective dialog boxes.
The following rules for specifying the loads on the faces of the elements are recommended if the faces
are specified by their numbers:
− invoke the operation by clicking the “right arrow” and selecting a section from the drop-down
menu corresponding to the type of the elements;
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− the Loads Uniformly Distributed over a Face of … dialog box will appear (Fig. 8.1-8), where
you have to select the coordinate system in which the loads will act and the direction of their
action;
− select the number of the face in the drop-down list for which the loads will be specified;
load is specified;
Since the numbering of the faces is performed in the local coordinate system of each element, you
might not be able to specify the loads for all the necessary elements at once, because the directions of their
local axes do not coincide, and therefore the positions of the respective faces in the model do not coincide
as well. In this case you can use the operation of specifying a load which enables to select the faces not by
their number but by the (selected) nodes belonging to this face. This operation is invoked from the Load
on the faces of the selected solid elements section of the drop-down menu.
In order to perform the last operation you have to:
− invoke the operation by clicking the “right arrow” and select the above section of the drop-down
menu;
− a dialog box will appear (Fig. 8.1-9), where you have to select the coordinate system in which the
loads will act and the direction of their action;
load is specified;
− click the OK button in the toolbar;
− once the Select nodes message appears, select the nodes belonging to the loaded faces;
After performing the operation the number of the face to which the load is applied is specified in the
P2 column of the table of loads of the respective dialog box.
Figure 8.1-9. The Load on the Faces of the Selected Solid Elements
dialog box
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The correction of the parameters of the load specified earlier is performed according to the same rules
as for the other types of elements, i.e. using the Replace and exit or Replace and continue operations.
The following procedure is recommended for performing the correction operations:
− select the number of the loading which includes the loads you want to correct from the list of the
Loadings toolbar;
− click the right arrow and select the section of the menu with the type of load;
− select a line with the load you want to correct in the table of loads in the dialog box;
− change the parameters of the load and save the new values by clicking the Replace and exit or
Replace and continue buttons;
− after completing the correction save the new state of the loading using the respective operation and
the Replace option or create a new one on the basis of the previous loading.
When correcting the value of the load you should keep in mind that not the value of the load from the
self-weight but the coefficient with which this load is included in the current loading is specified in the P1
column of the tables of the dialog boxes. When changing the value of the coefficient (by selecting the
respective line in the table of loads of the dialog box) the marker of the type of load will automatically
switch into the Self-weight state.
Thermal Loads
Thermal loads are specified depending on the type of the element. The software enables to specify the
following types of thermal load:
 loads on bars:
 along the bar (in the direction of the local X1 axis);
 along the local Y1 axis;
 along the local Z1 axis;
 loads on plates:
 over the whole field of the element;
 bending about the local X1 axis;
 bending about the local Y1 axis;
 loads on deep beams:
 along the local X1 axis;
 along the local Z1 axis (the Z1 axis of the elements of the deep beam lies in the plane of the
element);
 loads on shells:
 along the local X1 axis;
 along the local Y1 axis;
 bending about the local X1 axis;
 bending about the local Y1 axis;
 loads on solid elements:
 thermal load throughout the whole volume of the element.
The following procedure is recommended to specify thermal loads:
− click the Thermal loads button in the Loadings section of the toolbar;
− select the type of elements the loads are applied to in the drop-down menu;
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− select a radio button defining the type of load in the Thermal Loads … dialog box, which depends
on the selected type of element (for example, thermal load on bars is specified in the respective
dialog box (Fig. 8.1-10);
− specify the parameters of the load;
− select the elements in the model the specified type of load is applied to;
If when specifying the loads the Thermal loads filters button is pressed, the specified loads will
be displayed in the model.
Figure 8.1-10. The Thermal Loads on Bars dialog box

Loadings mode;
− invoke the Thermal Loads operation;
Thermal Loads dialog box, and the characteristics of the load will be input into the respective text
fields (for example, a thermal load on bars is specified in the respective dialog box shown in Fig.
8.1-10);
− change the characteristics of the load (including its type if necessary);
− invoke the Thermal loads operation;
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loads in the Thermal Loads dialog box (the characteristics of the load will be input into the
respective text fields);
8.2. Analysis for the Specified Displacements

The program provides two variants of the analysis for the specified displacements — by using the so-called
null elements, which enable to specify the displacement the direction of which does not coincide with the
direction of the axes of the global coordinate system, and by specifying the displacement of a constraint in
the direction of the axes of the global coordinate system.
Loads through “Null Elements”
When performing the analysis for the specified displacements using the “null elements” (type 154)
the displacements are specified in accordance with the index of the model type as loads with respect to the
local axes of the “null element”.
A “null element” actually plays the role of a constraint specified in the coordinate system coinciding
with the local coordinate system of the element in the directions for which the nonzero stiffness is specified
in the element. Thus specifying the displacement with the help of a “null element”, you specify the
displacement of the constraint.
The value of the displacement is specified for linear displacements in the units of length indicated in
the dialog box (e.g., in meters), likewise for angular displacements — in the units of angles. The positive
direction of the linear displacements coincides with the direction of the local axes of the element, and that
of the angular ones — clockwise when viewed from the end of the respective axis.
Direction and value of the displacement are specified in the Analysis for the Specified Displacements
Figure 8.2-1. The Analysis for the Specified Displacements dialog box
The following procedure is recommended to specify loads:
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− click the Load of the "specified displacement" type (described as a 0-element) button in the
Loadings section of the toolbar;
− select the marker defining the direction of displacement in the Analysis for the Specified
Displacements dialog box;
− specify the value of the displacement;
− select the “null elements” in the model the specified displacement is applied to;
If when specifying the loads the Display specified displacements filters button is pressed, the
specified loads will be displayed in the model.
The specified displacements can be applied only in the directions for

which the nonzero stiffness is specified in the “null element”.

Loadings mode;
− invoke the Load of the "specified displacement" type (described as a 0-element) operation;
dialog box, and the characteristics of the load will be input into the respective text fields;
− change the characteristics of the load (including the direction if necessary);
− invoke the Load of the "specified displacement" type (described as a 0-element) operation;
loads in the dialog box (the characteristics of the load will be input into the respective text fields);
− apply the selected load to the “null elements”.
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Specifying a Load by the Displacement of a Constraint
In order to perform the analysis for the specified displacements you can specify a nodal load of the
special type — displacement of the constraint in the coordinate system of the problem.
The load can be specified only in the nodes where a constraint is imposed in the direction of the
specified displacement The value of the displacement is specified for linear displacements in the units of
length selected for the problem (e.g., in meters), likewise for angular displacements — in radians or
degrees. The positive direction of the linear displacements coincides with the direction of the axes of the
global coordinate system, and that of the angular ones — clockwise when viewed from the end of the
respective axis. Direction and value of the displacement are specified in Analysis for the Specified
Displacements dialog box (Fig. 8.2-2).
Figure 8.2-2. The Analysis for the Specified Displacements dialog box
The following procedure is recommended to specify loads:
− click the Load of the "specified displacement" type (described as the displacement of the
constraint) button in the Loadings section of the toolbar;
− select the marker defining the direction of displacement in the Analysis for the Specified
Displacements dialog box;
− specify the value of the displacement;
− select the nodes in the model the specified displacement is applied to;
If when specifying the loads the Display specified displacements filters button is pressed, the
specified loads will be displayed in the model.
Loadings mode;
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− invoke the Load of the "specified displacement" type (described as the displacement of the
constraint) operation;
dialog box, and the characteristics of the load will be input into the respective text fields;
− change the characteristics of the load (including the direction if necessary);
There is one more method to correct/delete loads on a node implemented in the mode of obtaining
information on the node (filters button ).
− invoke the Load of the "specified displacement" type (described as the displacement of the
constraint) operation;
loads in the dialog box (the characteristics of the load will be input into the respective text fields);
− apply the selected load.
8.3. Saving Loadings
After specifying all the loads it is necessary to save the current loading. It can be done with the help
of the Save/Add loading operation. After invoking this operation the Save Loading dialog box appears
(Fig. 8.3-1).
If the loading is new, it is necessary to specify its name, type and load type (these parameters can be
selected from the respective lists). You also have to specify the safety factor for load and the fraction of
duration for the loading. If the values of the loads are specified on the basis of their characteristic values,
you have to check the respective checkbox.
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Figure 8.3-1. The Save Loading dialog box

After specifying the characteristics of the new loading, it can be saved by clicking the Save as new
button. If it is saved after correcting the existing loading (saved earlier), the Replace button is used. Before
closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button it is necessary to specify whether you will continue
working with the current loading — the Save and continue specifying loads radio button is selected, or
with the new one — the Save and proceed to creating a new loading radio button is selected.
The peculiarity of the operation is its direct connection with the operation of preparing the initial data
for the generation of design combinations of forces (DCF) and displacements (DCD) (see Chapter 18). If
the parameters of the loading are specified correctly, they are used as the characteristics of the loading
when generating DCF. The changes of the characteristics of loading during the preparation of the initial
data of DCF are displayed in the Save Loading dialog box.
If the initial data are prepared in the formats of the so-called “old DCF” of versions 11.x and earlier,
then before generating or correcting the loadings it is necessary to invoke the operation of preparing the
data for the selection of DCF from the project tree, and thus convert the data into the new format. It usually
turns out that converting the format is not enough and it will be necessary to correct the data.
8.4. Groups of Loads

Groups of loads are similar to loadings and differ from them in that, firstly, they are not considered in the
calculation as loadings but are used only at the stage of generating loadings and, secondly, can be added to
any loading. Groups of loads are used in cases when a certain set of loads on nodes and/or elements is
included into several loadings in its original form or with different factors. They can be also used as an
"addition" to the accumulated loading in the structural analysis taking into account the sequence of erection
(the Erection mode), and for specifying the weight of the elements of the destroyed structures when
modeling the progressive collapse.
Groups of loads are created from the sets of loads or from the loadings created earlier.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to create a group of loads:
− specify the loads that have to be included in the group (the Remove all loads button — is used
to clear the buffer memory before creating a new group of loads);
− click the Add a group of loads button ;
− the Save Group of Loads dialog box will appear (Fig. 8.4-1), where you have to specify a unique
name of the group (it has to be a name, because groups do not have numbers) and click the OK
button.
After performing these operations the name of the created group will appear in the Select a group of
loads list in the toolbar.
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Figure 8.4-1. The Save Group of Loads dialog box

In order to include a group in the loading you just have to select a necessary group in the list. One
loading may include any number of groups.
Groups are added to the loading according to the following rules:
1. If the loading is described as a “characteristic load”, and the added group is described as a
“characteristic load”:
the load values of the group do not change.
2. If the loading is described as a “characteristic load”, and the added group is described as a “design
load”:
before being added to the loading the load values of the group are divided by the safety factor for
load specified when the group was created.
3. If the loading is described as a “design load”, and the added group is described as a “characteristic
load”.
before being added to the loading the load values of the group are divided by the safety factor for
load specified when the group was created and multiplied by the safety factor for load of the loading.
4. If the loading is described as a “design load”, and the added group is described as a “design load”.
the load values of the group do not change.
5. If the load buffer storage is empty, then when the group is loaded, the loads in the storage will be
described in the same way as this group with the safety factor for load specified for the group.
If a whole loading is considered as a group, it can be saved both as a loading and as a group.
It is necessary to clear the buffer memory from the loads with the help of the Remove all loads
operation — before creating a new loading or a group of loads. If it turns out that the buffer memory
contains loads which are not saved as a loading or a group, the respective warning with a suggestion to
save the loads or reject their saving is generated.
Specifying Loads Using Groups of Nodes and Elements

Groups of nodes and elements can be used efficiently to specify loads. If when preparing the design model
the same loads are applied to some elements in different loadings, it is convenient to combine these
elements into groups. Before specifying the load you have to select the necessary group, specify the
parameters of the load and click the OK button in the Loadings section of the toolbar.
Let’s consider the design model given in Fig. 8.4-2 as an
example. If in the process of describing loads on the selected
elements (they are shown with a thick line in the figure) load of
the same type is specified in different loadings, it makes sense to
combine these elements into a group. All the further work will be
performed as follows:
− select the necessary group from the Select a group of
elements list (the Groups section of the toolbar) before
specifying the loads;
− specify the type, direction and value of the load in the
Loadings section;
Figure 8.4-2. Design model − apply the load to the elements of the group.
(selected elements are shown with a
thick line)
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Figure 8.4-3. A concentrated force is applied to all Figure 8.4-4. A distributed load is applied to all the
the elements of the group elements of the group
In the result the specified load will be applied to all the elements, for example, the concentrated force
1 T in the Z direction (Fig. 8.4-3). Repeat the above actions for the same group applying the distributed
load 0.3 T to the elements (Fig. 8.4-4).
Thus if the same elements are used when specifying loads in one or several loadings, it is convenient to
combine such elements into named groups. You can work with groups of nodes in a similar way.
Generating Loadings from Groups of Loads
The operation is used to generate loadings from groups of loads. A group can be included into the
existing loading and a new loading can be generated from groups. A dialog box with the respective name
appears after selecting the type of operation in the drop-down menu.
The Include a group into loadings operation enables to add a group of loads with the given factor to
different loadings (Fig. 8.4-5). In order to perform this operation you have to:
− select a group from the Groups of loads list which is included into one or several loadings;
− in the table check the checkboxes of loadings the selected group is included into;
− specify the factors with which the group is included in the loadings;
The Generate a loading from groups operation (Fig. 8.4-6) enables to generate a new loading from
the groups of loads. Each group can be included in the loading with its factor. In order to perform this
− in the table check the checkboxes of groups the loading is created from;
− specify the factors for these groups;
− check the Characteristic loading checkbox, if the loads included in it should be saved as
characteristic values (if EN 1990 is selected for calculating load combinations, this control is not
available);
After closing the dialog box it is necessary to save the new loading using the Save/Add loading
button .
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Figure 8.4-5. The Include a Group into Loadings Figure 8.4-6. The Generate a Loading from
dialog box Groups dialog box
Specifying Factors for Groups of Loads
This operation enables to specify the factors for groups which are added to the loadings in a
“traditional” way, i.e. by selecting them from the list in the toolbar. You can select the order of
specification in the Specify the Scale Factors dialog box (Fig. 8.4-7) — use the specified value of the
factor for all included groups or ask for the factor for each group. In the second case after selecting the
group from the list the Load Scale Factor dialog box appears (Fig. 8.4-8), where you have to specify the
factor for the selected group.
Figure 8.4-7. The Specify the Scale Factors dialog Figure 8.4-8. The Load Scale Factor dialog box
box
8.5. Deleting Loads, Loadings and Groups of Loads
Deleting Loads
The control of deleting the loads from the current loading is performed with the help of the Delete
Loads dialog box (Fig. 8.5-1), which is invoked by clicking the respective button in the Loadings section
of the toolbar. It is necessary to perform the following actions to delete all loads from the selected nodes or
elements:
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− select the option with the name of the performed

operation All loads in one of the groups Delete nodal
loads from the selected nodes or Delete loads from
the selected elements in the dialog box;
− click the OK button (the dialog box will close);
− select elements or nodes in the model the loads are
deleted from;
Loads can be deleted selectively by specifying their type
and direction:
− select the option with the name of the performed
operation Selected loads and By the type, direction
depending on the type of loads (nodal or on elements);
− specify the parameters of the deleted load with the help
of the buttons or checkboxes;
− select elements or nodes in the model the loads are
Figure 8.5-1. The Delete Loads dialog
deleted from;
box
You can also delete loads of a certain value:
− select the option with the name of the performed operation Selected loads and By the value
depending on the type of loads (nodal or on elements);
− indicate the values of the deleted loads in the table;
− select elements or nodes in the model the loads are deleted from;
There is one more option for deleting loads implemented in the mode of obtaining information on the
node or element (filter buttons and , respectively). In this case loads can be deleted from a
particular object.
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Deleting Loadings and Groups of Loads
This operation enables to delete one or several loadings

and groups of loads. Operations of deleting are performed in
the respective dialog box (Fig. 8.5-2). Its list will contain the
names of loadings or groups of loads depending on the selected
radio button.
In order to perform the operation select the items you
want to delete in the list and click the Delete selected button.
All the loads specified in the loadings you are deleting are
removed from them, but the loadings technically remain. This
is due to the possible references to these loadings in the initial
data for the calculation of design combinations of forces,
combinations of loadings, etc.
Figure 8.5-2. The Delete Loadings and

Groups of Loads dialog box
Pack Loadings
This operation enables to delete all the loadings which do not have any loads from the project.
After packing the loadings it is necessary to check the initial data for the calculation of DCF and
combinations of loadings (Chapters 18 and 17), since the logical connections between loadings may be
disrupted.
8.6. Preparing Data for the Analysis for Dynamic Actions

Unlike the analysis for static actions, the initial data for the analysis for dynamic actions includes the
characteristics of the selected action, and the description of dynamic loads that generate vibrations of the
system.
Dynamic loadings must take inertial forces into account. These forces are associated with the nodal
masses and the masses located on the elements of the system. Masses can be specified explicitly similarly
to static loads, or based on the specified static loadings. All loads of such loadings (acting in the direction
of the Z axis of the global coordinate system) taking into account the coefficients specified for each
loading are interpreted as the weights of masses reduced to the nodes of the system. Different methods of
describing masses can be used simultaneously in one dynamic loading. Thus, three types of data necessary
to perform the analysis can be used for dynamic loadings: characteristics of the loading, description of the
load and description of masses. The load is not specified for some types of dynamic actions, for example
seismic ones. However, the respective loads have to be specified for actions of the pulse, impact and some
other types.
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When analyzing the systems different inertial characteristics can be used in different loadings (for
example, you can study the motion of the system taking into account temporary loads and the motion of the
same system without the temporary loads).
The software implements the analysis for the following types of dynamic actions :
− seismic actions in accordance with recommendations of the following codes:
 SNiP II-7-81* — Russian Federation;
 SNiP II-7-81* — with modifications from 01.01.2000 Russian Federation;
 SP 31-114-2004 — Russian Federation;
 SP 14.13330.2011 — Russian Federation;
 SP 14.13330.2014 — Russian Federation;
 SNiP II-7-81* (SP 14.13330.2011) — Russian Federation;
 SNiP II-7-81* (SP 14.13330.2014) — Russian Federation;
 MGSN 4.04-94 — Moscow, Russian Federation;
 NP 031-01 — (design codes for earthquake-resistant NPP) Russian Federation;
 DBN B.1.1.-12-2006 — Ukraine;
 DBN B.1.1.-12-2014 — Ukraine;
 SNiP B.1.2-4-98 — Republic of Kazakhstan;
 SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 — Republic of Kazakhstan;
 SNRA II-2.02.94 — Republic of Armenia;
 SNRA II-6.02.2006 — Republic of Armenia;
 SNT 2.01.08-99 — Turkmenistan;
 Az. DTN 2.3-1 — Republic of Azerbaijan;
 KMK 2.01.03-96 — Republic of Uzbekistan;
 SNiP KR 20-02:2009 — Kyrgyz Republic;
 codes of CIS (project);
− seismic actions specified by accelerograms:
 single-component accelerogram;
 three-component accelerogram;
 six-component accelerogram;
− wind actions in accordance with recommendations of the following codes:
 SNiP 2.01.07-85* — Russian Federation;
 SNiP 2.01.07-85* (SP 20.13330.2011) — Russian Federation;
 MGSN 4.04-94 — Moscow, Russian Federation;
− other actions:
 pulse;
 pulse with history tracking;
 impact;
 impact with history tracking;
 impact accounting for the effect of the mass of the impact body;
 harmonic oscillations taking into account the starting resonance;
 harmonic oscillations (analysis for the specified frequency);
 harmonic oscillations (taking into account the possible error in the determination of natural
frequencies);
 modal analysis;
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 direct integration of the equations of motion.

The considered direction of the action of inertial forces (direction of nodal masses) must correspond
to the dynamic translational degrees of freedom defined by the boundary conditions and the index of the
model type. It should be noted that some inertial forces can be neglected, therefore only the "directions of
masses" which should be considered in the calculation are specified. Masses on the elements are specified
in the same way as the distributed and concentrated loads.
The following procedure is recommended to prepare the dynamic loadings:
− invoke the Dynamic actions operation in the Loadings toolbar and select the Create a new
loading item in the drop-down menu;
− the Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box will appear where you have to specify the type
and parameters of the action and close the dialog box by clicking the OK button, and the new
loading will be automatically created;
− if it is necessary to specify the dynamic loads for the analysis of the action (for example, for the
impact action), invoke the Parameters of dynamic loads operation, specify the parameters of the
load corresponding to the dynamic action in the respective dialog box and after closing this dialog
box specify the places of the load application in the design model (it is necessary to save the
loading after performing the above actions);
− in the case of “manual” specification of masses their description is performed in the Masses dialog
box which appears after invoking the Inertial properties operation; after closing the dialog box it
is necessary to snap the masses to nodes and/or elements of the model.
The table below provides a list of the currently implemented dynamic actions. The table also contains
the Module number column with the internal identification of the type of action. In some cases this internal
number can appear in the diagnostic messages. Moreover, the last column contains force summation rules
(several rules which can be used depending on the options selected by the user are specified for some types
of actions).
Dynamic Module Summing rules
Code Name/Purpose
actions number
Seismic 20 SNiP II-7-81* Construction in Seismic Regions
actions 50 Project for CIS Construction in Seismic Regions SRSS
40 SNiP II.7-81* (01.01.2000) Construction in Seismic Regions
54 SP 31-114-2004 Rules for the design of residential
and public buildings for the
construction in seismic regions
SRSS
57 SP 14.13330.2011 Construction in Seismic Regions
M10%
(Updated edition of SNiP II-7-81*)
61 SP 14.13330.2014 Construction in Seismic Regions
(Updated edition of SNiP II-7-81*)
56 MGSN 4.19.05 MGSN SRSS
51 NP-031-01 Design codes for earthquake- SRSS
resistant nuclear plants M10%
53 DBN B.1.1-12:2006 Construction in Seismic Regions of
Ukraine
CQC
63 DBN B.1.1-12:2014 Construction in Seismic Regions of
Ukraine
30 SNiP B.1.2-4-98 (Republic Construction in Seismic Regions
of Kazakhstan)
SRSS
55 SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 Construction in Seismic Regions.
(Republic of Kazakhstan) Design codes
52 SNRA II-2.02.94 Seismic analysis. Building codes of
CQC
the Republic of Armenia
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Dynamic Module Summing rules

Code Name/Purpose
actions number
59 SNRA II-6.02.2006 Seismic analysis. Building codes of
the Republic of Armenia
60 AzDTN 2.3-1 (Republic of Construction in Seismic Regions
SRSS
Azerbaijan)
62 SNT 2.01.08-99 Construction in Seismic Regions
(Turkmenistan)
M10%
64 KMK 2.01.03-96 Construction in Seismic Regions
(Uzbekistan)
65 SNiP KR 20-02:2009 Earthquake engineering
SRSS
(Kyrgyzstan)
66 CHT 2.01.08-99* Construction in Seismic Regions
M10%
(Turkmenistan)
27 Seismic actions according to the
accelerogram
ENV
47 Seismic actions according to the
accelerograms (3 components)
58 Seismic actions according to the SRSS
accelerograms (6 components) M10%
CQC
Wind 21 SNiP 2.01.07-85* Loads and Actions SRSS
pulsations 31 MGSN 4.19-05 Multifunctional high-rise buildings
CQC
and complexes
32 SP 20.13330.2011, SP Loads and Actions (Updated
SRSS
20.13330.2016 edition of SNiP 2.01.07-85*)
Pulse 22 Pulse
42 Pulse with history tracking
SD
Impact 23 Impact
43 Impact with history tracking
33 Impact accounting for the effect of
the mass of the impact body
Harmonic 24 Analysis taking into account the
oscillations starting resonance
28 Analysis for the specified
frequency
SRRI
34 Analysis for the specified
frequency taking into account the
possible error in the determination
of natural frequencies
Modal 100 Modal analysis
analysis
Direct 101 Direct integration of the equations
integration of of motion
ENV
the equations
of motion
Designations:
SRSS — square root of the sum of the squares of the components
CQC — complete quadratic combination method
M10% — summation allowing for the proximity of frequencies (rule 10%)
SRRI —square root of the sum of the squares of the real and imaginary components
SD — summation allowing for damping
ENV — envelope (in time) of the calculated values
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8.7. Specifying the Parameters of Dynamic Actions

The parameters of dynamic actions can be specified with the help of the Dynamic actions operation,
which is invoked from the Loadings toolbar by clicking the respective button . If the first dynamic
loading is created, the Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box appears where you have to specify the
parameters. Otherwise a drop-down menu appears which includes two sections. The first section — Create
a new loading — is used in cases when a new dynamic loading is created, and the second one — Correct
the existing loading — to modify the existing dynamic loadings.
Creating a New Loading

After selecting this section in the menu the two-tab Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box
appears (Fig. 8.7-1). You can specify the following data in its first tab:
 type of action;
 name of the loading;
 indicator of conversion of static loads into masses and a set of parameters of conversion;
 variants of implementation of the selected type of action (table);
 method of determining the natural modes and frequencies.
The name and contents of the second tab depend on the selected type of action.
The following procedure is recommended to specify the parameters of a dynamic action:
− specify the name of the loading in the respective text field;
− select the type of action with the help of the radio buttons;
− if you want to convert static loads into masses, check the respective checkbox and perform the
following actions:
− select the number (name) of the static loading from the drop-down list;
− specify the value of the factor its loads will be multiplied by when generating the masses in
the Conversion factor field;
− click the Save button;
− repeat the above actions for other loadings involved in the generation of masses;
− in order to delete a loading from the generated list you just have to select a line with this
loading in the list and click the Delete button;
− select a variant of implementation of the specified dynamic action in the table by clicking on the
respective line;
− specify the method for determining the natural modes and frequencies with the help of the radio
buttons (if the Lanczos method is selected, you have to specify additional parameters necessary to
use this method);
− switch to the second tab of the dialog box (after selecting the type of dynamic action the second tab
of the dialog box becomes accessible, where you can specify the parameters of this action) and
specify the parameters necessary for the calculation of the selected variant of implementation of the
action;
Static loads are converted into masses according to the following rules:
 all local loads on the elements are converted into nodal loads;
 loads acting in the direction of the Z axis are left from the nodal forces thus obtained (they are
considered as masses for all linear degrees of freedom);
 sign of the calculated load is ignored.
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It should be noted that the division of the weight of mass (static loading) by the gravitational
acceleration is performed automatically and the conversion factor does not play any role. It is used for
other purposes, for example to specify the design values of static loads for the calculation of characteristic
values of masses.
The Characterisric load checkbox enables to indicate that the parameters of the current dynamic
action (for example, the nodal masses) are specified not by the design values but by the characteristic ones.
The Convert design masses into characteristic ones checkbox duplicates the information which is
specified in the 11.7 and is given here for information purposes (if EN 1990 is selected for calculating load
combinations, this control is not available).
Seismic analysis in SCAD enables to determine the inertial characteristics of the system by
recalculating the static loads. You should take into account the following:
a) Not every static load has a mass. For example, the static pressure of gas should not be recalculated
into a mass since it contradicts the physical meaning of such a loading (it does not create an inertial
force when an acceleration appears in the system).
b) If the value of the load from the self-weight is determined automatically, only the weight of the
bearing frame is taken into account. However even in this case it might be necessary to use an
enlarged value obtained in the manual calculation by multiplying by the structural weight factor
(weight of node connections, weight of the fire protection, etc.). In order to do this, you have to
specify this factor.
c) Seismic SNiP (see, for example, Table 2 of SP 14.13330.2011) considers that the design
combination will include not the full values of some loads, but multiplied by the combination
factors:
- weight of structures  0,90;
- values of temporary long-term loads  0,80;
- values of short-term loads  0,50.
Applying these factors to permanent loads is beyond question. For if we believe that the reduced
values of loads are considered (the characteristic value instead of the design one is used in practice), the
inertial component should naturally be considered in the same way.
Temporary loads should, however, be converted into masses more carefully. The thing is that when
selecting DCF after having created the respective mass and allowing thus for the inertial component of
this mass, such load might not be included in the combination. Therefore when the value of the
temporary load is significant, it is necessary to create several mutually exclusive variants of the seismic
analysis. For example, the variant of an “empty silo” without the load from the backfill, and the variant
of a “filled silo”.
It should be noted that neglecting a load when converting it into a mass leads to the decrease in the
periods of the natural oscillations, which in turn increases the spectral dynamic amplification factor  for
most structures with a period of natural oscillations greater than 0,1 sec, and this circumstance increases
the reliability.
If most parameters of the new loading coincide with those of the loading specified earlier, you can use
the Take the values of the parameters from the loading operation. In this case the new loading will get
the parameters of the dynamic loading selected from the list, and then the necessary parameters can be
changed.
Natural modes and frequencies can be determined using different methods: subspace iteration method,
method of steepest descent, or Lanczos method. A method can be selected using the respective radio
348
buttons. The Lanczos method enables depending on the type of the problem solved to specify the range of
frequencies the analysis is performed in, or to use the mode of an automatic determination of the necessary
number of modes of natural oscillations depending on the specified percent of the selection of modal
masses for each direction (for the analysis for seismic actions). It should be noted that the Lanczos method
can be used only together with a multifrontal or PARFES processor.
The selection of the percent of the modal mass is defined by the following considerations. If the
structure was infinitely rigid, it would be easy to calculate the value of the kinetic energy К=а2М/2 arising
in the process of movement of its mass М under the action of the specified ground acceleration а. If you
determine the potential energy for each mode of natural oscillations, the sum of such energies must be
equal to the value of K, and for an incomplete set of natural modes — to a certain fraction of K. Design
codes of some countries (USA, France) recommend to specify the fraction of the selected modal mass as
90% for horizontal and 75% — for vertical direction. These values are taken by default. The values of the
frequency range or the percent of modal masses are specified in the text fields which become accessible
after checking the respective checkboxes.
If the Lanczos method is used, the software additionally provides an automatic selection of the
number of natural oscillation modes based on the restrictions on frequency (all modes the frequencies of
which lie in the range from zero to the number specified by the user will be selected). If both the
restrictions on frequency and on the percent of modal masses are specified, both conditions will be used.
If the method of steepest descent or Lanczos method is selected, you can use either a diagonal or
consistent mass matrix (Use consistent mass matrix checkbox).
Figure 8.7-1. The Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box
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Correcting Parameters of the Existing Loading

If the Correct the existing loading item is selected in the menu of the Dynamic actions operation, the
Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box will additionally contain a drop-down list with dynamic
loadings specified earlier (Fig. 8.7-2). After selecting a loading you want to correct from the list its
parameters are restored automatically. You can modify several loadings successively selecting them from
the list.
All the input information is checked and recorded after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK
button. If the control detects errors in the specified parameters, a warning window appears.
If you use the OK button to close the dialog box in the correction mode, regardless of
whether changes have been made to the data or not, the project will be considered as
modified and a recalculation of the problem will be required.
Figure 8.7-2. The Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box

(the operation of correcting)
Peculiarities of Specifying Data on Seismic Actions

Correction factor is specified in the data of all seismic loadings for the correction of initial data if it is
necessary to take into account the requirements of codes more fully. This factor can take any positive
value, and the results of the analysis of inertial forces from the seismic action are multiplied by it. The
following cases of using the value of the correction factor different from one can be considered as
examples:
 the soil category requires to change the seismicity of the site (for example, decrease it by one
magnitude), which makes it necessary to specify magnitude 6 (see, for example, Table 1 of SP
14.13330.2014). Taking into account that the increase of seismicity by one magnitude doubles the
result, you can specify magnitude 7 for the site and take the correction factor as 0,5;
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 it is necessary to perform the check calculation of the actual existing structure for the impact of the
earthquake with an intensity of 8,5. It is sufficient to specify magnitude 8 for the site and take the
correction factor as 20,5 = 1,414, since the value of the ground acceleration is calculated by the
formula K*2N and (K*28,5)/(K*28) = 1,414.
Requirement for considering the seismic torque in the updated edition of Russian codes
“Construction in Seismic Regions” (SP 14.13330.2014) is as follows:
“5.16 When calculating buildings and structures with the length or width greater than 30 m using a
cantilever DDM apart from the seismic load determined according to 5.5, it is necessary to take
into account torque about the vertical axis of the building or structure passing through its shear
center. The value of the design eccentricity between the shear center and the center of mass of
buildings or structures in the considered level should be not less than 0,1B, where B is the size of
the building or structure in plan in the direction perpendicular to the force action Sk”.
There are similar requirements in the codes of Ukraine — DBN В.1.1-12:2006, Kazakhstan — RK
2.03-30-2006 and a number of other countries.
A design dynamic model (DDM) of plane or spatial types are usually used in SCAD and in this case
the above recommendation concerning a cantilever DDM is not relevant. However, a calculation for the
conditional torque may be required in cases when a regular structural model experiences only translational
displacements under the seismic action.
A typical example is a spatial frame with rows of identical transverse frames which bend
simultaneously and all discs of floors receive linear displacements.
If the considered object is like that and there is no torsion of floor discs, it is recommended to
artificially introduce the asymmetry into the model. This can be done by taking the self-weight (and hence
the mass) in one half of the building with a safety factor for load, and in the other — without this factor.
Then the natural torsion will appear and there will be no need to use the recommendation of Sec. 5.15 of
SNiP.
Number of modes taken into account is specified in all dialog boxes. However, if the percents of
modal masses which have to be reached for each direction are specified, and the Lanczos method is
selected for calculating eigenvalues and natural modes of oscillations, not less than the specified number of
modes will be determined.
Accounting for the vertical component of the seismic load is required for a number of cases of the
seismic load. However, it can not be taken into account automatically, since there are no such concepts as a
"horizontal or inclined cantilever structure", "bridge superstructure" or "... a span of more than 24 meters"
in the description of the design model assumed in SCAD and many other programs which use the finite
element method. These and other cases are calculated for the action of a vertical seismic load, if when
inputting the initial data you specify its direction along the Z axis.
Design values of SSS, for example, in accordance with the formula (8) of SP 14.13330.2014,
components of seismic response are calculated as the square root of the sum of squares of values
corresponding to different modes of natural oscillations. In the result of this nonlinear transformation
(Rosenblum estimate) displacements and internal forces do not correspond to each other and do not satisfy
the conditions of equilibrium, since for different modes of natural oscillations they appear at different
moments. This fact should be taken into account when analyzing the results of the calculation. The
correspondence of these components is guaranteed only for each mode individually.
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When calculating structures symmetrical in plan, displacements (and their corresponding forces) may
appear not only in the direction of action of the seismic force, but also in the orthogonal direction, although
based on the conditions of symmetry this should not happen. This occurs due to the implementation of
codes, which can be illustrated by a simple example.
Example. Let a vertical cantilever with a mass at the top have oscillation modes (vectors are written
in a line) f1(1)={1; 0} and f2(1)={0; 1}. Then at the direction cosines {1; 0} the first mode will be fully
taken into account, and the second mode will not work, and the answer in some dimensionless units will be
{1; 0}. However, if the same pair of multiple modes is determined as f1(2)={0,707; 0,707} and f2(2)
={0,707; -0,707}, we will get the answer {1; 1}. Components with opposite signs will not annihilate each
other because the squares (!) of components are summed and then the square root of the sum is determined.
It only remains to note that for multiple eigenvalues characteristic of symmetrical structures, when all
directions are equal, the solution f1(1), f2(1) and the solution f1(2), f2(2) are completely equal. Which of
them will be selected by the program (any, not just SCAD) is determined by such uncontrollable details as
rounding errors of floating point numbers.
The problem disappears when an accelerogram based analysis is performed, because there is no
“square root from the sum of squares” operation.
Allowing for the proximity of frequencies. For example, according to formula (9) of SP
14.13330.2014 components of seismic response have to be calculated taking into account the mutual
correlation of close frequencies. You can select the method of correlation when performing the analysis
according to some codes if several variants are allowed.
Calculation of residual modes. This checkbox prompts the software to add the “residual modes” to
the set of the natural oscillation modes, which will supplement the sum of modal masses to 100% in the
respective directions. These modes are “assigned” a frequency equal to that of the last mode determined on
the basis of a standard modal analysis. It should be noted that even if not a single eigenpair is determined,
the residual modes will still provide 100% of modal masses (the following requirement is introduced in the
codes: a certain percent of modal masses has to be taken into account “honestly”, and only the remainder
can be covered by the residual modes). It is assumed that there is no mutual correlation of the residual
modes.
Plots of the dynamic amplification factor — some codes allow to use special forms of the plot
(spectrum) of the dynamic amplification factor. The plot can be specified as a piecewise linear function
and saved in a file with the extension .spd. Besides a single plot you can also specify up to six plots —
separately for each direction of the action.
A format of the file with the description of the plot of the dynamic amplification factor is given below. A
file with a similar format can be obtained using Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the
SCAD Office system package (see Sec. 30.8). If a file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke
Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor for viewing the plot.
Dynamic amplification factor spectrum
#
0.030 1.030 0.060 1.45 0.100 2.500 0.147 3.100
0.202 2.820 0.261 2.64 0.359 2.560 0.464 2.030
0.681 1.400 1.000 1.06 1.565 0.650 0.966 0.390
A comment goes before the # symbol followed by the description of vertices of a polyline that
approximates the plot where the period in seconds and the value of its corresponding coefficient are
consequently specified for each point.
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Accelerogram files (extension .spc) are used in the accelerogram based analyses. They must be in the
same directory as the data of the problem. Several standard accelerograms come together with the
complex. You can find them in the software directory. Here is an example of one of them, having the name
1m1-z.spc:
Design accelerogram in cm/(sec*sec) for MDE on the site of a nuclear reactor.
Component - Z. Model - M1c. Amax = 42.2 cm/(sec*sec).
Number of points N = 2047; Time step Dt = 0.05000 sec.
#
0.01 2047 0.05
0.0 0.0 -0.0 -0.3 -0.6 -0.4 0.8 1.8 1.9 0.3
-1.6 -2.5 -3.5 -2.7 -1.7 -1.3 2.0 3.6 0.1 -0.6 ...
Ordinates of accelerograms can be specified in any units of measurement. The first number after the #
symbol is a conversion factor for the used units. The specified values are multiplied by it to obtain data in
m/sec2. In this case this factor is equal to 0,01. It is followed by the number of points (2047), the time step
(0.05 sec) and consequent values of ordinates. A period is used as a separator between the integer and
fractional parts. The tab enables to specify the scale factor for the ordinates of the accelerogram.
To facilitate the preparation of accelerograms SCAD Office includes a special program,
Accelerogram Editor, described in Section 30.7. If a file with an accelerogram is selected, the button
enables to invoke Accelerogram Editor to view the accelerogram and its parameters.
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP II-7-81*

Initial data are specified in the Seismic Action (SNiP II-7-81*) tab (Fig. 8.7-3) according to SNiP II-7-81*
[9, 10]. Without describing each control of this tab in detail we will focus on the issues which require
additional explanation. When preparing the initial data it is necessary to pay attention to the following
factors:
Seismicity is specified without taking into account the soil category. The change of seismicity
depending on the soil category should be taken into account when specifying the value of the correction
factor.
353
Figure 8.7-3. The Seismic Action (SNiP II-7-81*) tab

Correction factor is specified for the correction of the initial data if it is necessary to take into
account the requirements of SNiP more fully. This factor can take any positive value, and the results of the
analysis of inertial forces from the seismic action are multiplied by it.
Action direction is specified by the scale factors with respect to the axes of the global coordinate
system.
Coefficients allowing for the allowable damage, designs, design seismicity and characteristics of the
structure are specified by selecting them from the lists in accordance with the sections of codes indicated
beside the lists.
354
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP II-7-81* with Modifications

from 27.12.99
Figure 8.7-4. The Seismic Action tab

(edition of SNiP II-7-81* before 01.01.2000)
When preparing the initial data it is necessary to pay attention to the following factors:
Seismicity — is specified without taking into account the soil category. The change of seismicity
factor.
Correction factor is specified for the correction of results if it is necessary to take into account the
requirements of SNiP more fully. This factor can take any positive value, and the results of the analysis of
inertial forces from the seismic action are multiplied by it.
Action direction is specified by the scale factors with respect to the axes of the global coordinate
system.
Coefficients allowing for the allowable damage and characteristics of the structure are specified by
selecting them from the lists in accordance with the sections of codes indicated beside the lists.
The software implements SNiP II-7-81* “Construction in Seismic Regions” taking into account all
five changes made by the regulations of the USSR and Russian State Committee for Construction from
27.12.99. A module which enables to perform the analysis according to the edition of SNiP before
01.01.2000 is saved to support the projects the analysis of which had been performed before the changes
were made.
It should be noted that the change No.5 was fundamental. It introduced a set of new seismic zoning
maps of Russia, which implement different probabilities of design earthquake. Thus, different seismic
zoning maps are used for the design of buildings and structures of different importance.
Therefore, the coefficient K2 is excluded from the main design formula (1) of SNiP II-7-81* which
dramatically reduced the number of design gradations of the types of buildings and structures (taking into
355
account that this selection is implemented after the selection of a zoning map). Moreover, the plots of the
dynamic amplification factor are changed significantly in the direction of increasing values in almost the
entire real range of periods of natural oscillations. Therefore, a direct comparison of the results of the
calculations performed earlier using only the initial data used in the analysis according to SNiP before
applying the change No.5 is impossible. You have to specify the entire set of new initial data taking into
account the possible change of the seismic region.
Seismic Analysis according to SP 31-114-2004 of the Russian

Federation
Figure 8.7-5. The SP 31-114-2004 Construction in Seismic Regions tab

factor.
Coefficient of inelastic strain accounts for the inelasticity of the structure and the allowable damage
in it (is taken from Table 3 of SNiP II-7-81*).
requirements of SP more fully. This factor can take any positive value, and the results of the analysis of
Direction of the vector of the seismic action is defined by the vector specified in the global
coordinate system.
Minimum size in plan is used to determine the coefficient taking into account the seismic
wavelength spectrum (see Sec. B.2 of Annex B).
Allowing for the torsional component — if the torsional component is taken into account (the
respective checkbox is checked), it is necessary to specify the coordinates of the center of rotation and the
direction of the torsion vector.
356
Coordinates of the center of rotation — they should be taken as the coordinates of the center of
gravity of the subgrade area of the building, considering the subgade uniform over the entire area.
Direction of the torsion vector is specified by the vector of rotational acceleration.
Allowing for the proximity of frequencies — if this checkbox is checked, the formula 6.4, which
enables to take into account the mutual correlation of the generalized coordinates, is used for the neighbor
natural oscillation modes which differ by less than 10%.
Plots of the dynamic amplification factor — the considered codes allow to use special forms of the
plot (spectrum) of the dynamic amplification factor. The plot can be specified as a piecewise linear
function and saved in a file with the extension .spd. The plot can be obtained using Editor of Dynamic
Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see Sec. 30.8). If a file with a plot is
selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor for viewing the plot.
Besides a single plot you can also specify three plots — separately for each direction of the action.
Depending on the selected radio button the software can use a plot given in the codes (the According to
codes radio button), load a prepared file with a single plot (the Single plot radio button) or three files with
separate plots for each direction (the Separate for each direction radio button).
Seismic Analysis according to SP 14.13330.2011 (Updated edition

of SNiP II-7-81*) of the Russian Federation
Number of natural oscillation modes taken into account — according to this code the minimum
number of natural oscillation modes taken into account is specified in such a way so that “the sum of
effective modal masses is not less than 90% of the total mass of the system excited in the direction of the
seismic action for horizontal actions and not less than 75% — for the vertical one” (SP). The Lanczos
method (only together with a multifrontal or PARFES processor) is used for the automatic determination of
the necessary number of the natural oscillation modes.
factor. The value of design seismicity for a certain terrain can be specified by selecting from the list or
using the Select a settlement operation, which can be invoked by clicking the button on the right
from the list. In the last case the dialog box appears with a list of settlements according to Annex A. After
selecting the value of seismicity in the list and clicking the OK button the dialog box closes, and the
selected value is displayed in the Seismicity list.
Coefficient of energy dissipation accounts for the inelasticity of the structure (is taken from Table 6).
Coefficient accounting for the purpose of the structure and its importance is selected according
to Table 3.
Coefficient accounting for the allowable damage is selected according to Table 5.
Coefficient that depends on the construction area is selected according to Table 4.
requirements of SNiP more fully. This factor can take any positive value, and the results of the analysis of
coordinate system.
Allowing for the proximity of frequencies — if this checkbox is checked, the formula (9), which
enables to take into account the mutual correlation of the generalized coordinates, is used for the neighbor
357
Figure 8.7-6. The SP 14.13330.2011 Construction in Seismic Regions tab

Plots of the dynamic amplification factor — in addition to the ranges of plots of the dynamic
amplification factors given in the codes it is allowed to use special plots specified as a file. Such single plot
can be used for all three directions, or different plots can be used for each direction of action. Depending
on the selected radio button the software can use a plot given in the codes (the According to codes radio
button), load a prepared file with a single plot (the Single plot radio button) or three files with separate
plots for each direction (the Separate for each direction radio button). The plot can be obtained using
Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see Sec. 30.8). If a
file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor for
viewing the plot.
358
Seismic Analysis according to MGSN 4.19-05
Figure 8.7-7. The MGSN 4.19-05 tab

factor.
requirements of codes more fully. This factor can take any positive value, and the results of the analysis of
Type of structure — a steel or reinforced concrete structure is selected.
coordinate system.
Minimum size in plan is used to determine the coefficient taking into account the seismic
wavelength spectrum (see Sec. B.2 of Annex B).
Allowing for the torsional component — if the torsional component is taken into account (the
respective checkbox is checked), it is necessary to specify the coordinates of the center of rotation and the
direction of the torsion vector (Annex B of SP 31-114-2004).
Direction of the torsion vector — is specified by the vector of rotational acceleration.
359
Seismic Analysis according to SP 14.13330.2014 (Updated edition

of SNiP II-7-81*) of the Russian Federation
Figure 8.7-8. The SP 14.13330.2014 Construction in Seismic Regions tab

Design situation — according to SP 14.13330.2014 the calculations can be performed for two design
situations (operating basis earthquake or maximum design earthquake).
number of natural oscillation modes taken into account is specified in such a way so that “the sum of
effective modal masses is not less than 90% of the total mass of the system excited in the direction of the
seismic action for horizontal actions and not less than 75% — for the vertical one”. The Lanczos method
(only together with a multifrontal or PARFES processor) is used for the automatic determination of the
necessary number of the natural oscillation modes.
Coefficient of energy dissipation accounts for the inelasticity of the structure (is taken from Table 5)
Coefficient accounting for the purpose of the structure and its importance is selected according
to Table 3.
Coefficient accounting for the allowable damage is selected according to Table 4.
360
coordinate system.
Allowing for the proximity of frequencies — if this checkbox is checked, the formula (9) of SP,
which enables to take into account the mutual correlation of the generalized coordinates, is used for the
neighbor natural oscillation modes which differ by less than 10%.
button), load a prepared file with a single plot (the Single plot radio button) or three files with separate
plots for each direction (the Separate for each direction radio button). The plot can be obtained using
Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see Sec. 30.8). If a
file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor for
viewing the plot.
Accounting for nonlinear soil deformation — if this checkbox is checked and the specified
magnitude is 8 and greater increased only due the presence of Category III and IV soil, a reduction factor is
introduced (see notes to the formula (2) of SP).
361
Calculation according to the Design Codes for Earthquake-

Resistant Nuclear Plants NP-031-01
Figure 8.7-9. The Earthquake-Resistant Nuclear Plants tab

Number of natural oscillation modes taken into account — this code does not provide any
recommendations on the minimum necessary number of natural oscillation modes taken into account.
However, based on the recommendations of similar codes and the requirements of IAEA we recommend to
specify the number of modes in such a way so that “the sum of effective modal masses is not less than 90%
of the total mass of the system excited in the direction of the seismic action for horizontal actions and not
less than 75% — for the vertical one”. The Lanczos method (only together with a multifrontal or PARFES
processor) is used for the automatic determination of the necessary number of the natural oscillation
modes.
Action direction is defined by the vector specified in the global coordinate system.
Coefficient that allows for special conditions of operation of NP — the value is selected
automatically depending on the category and purpose of the structure (is selected from the drop-down list).
If the Other item is selected in the list, it is necessary to specify the coefficient in the respective text field.
Peak horizontal ground acceleration is taken depending on the seismicity of the site (is selected
from the drop-down list). If the Other item is selected in the list, it is necessary to specify the acceleration
in the given units of measurement in the respective text field.
Coefficient allowing for the peak ground acceleration in the Z direction should be taken as 2/3
according to Sec. 5 of Annex 3.
362
Logarithmic decrement of oscillations — parameter defining the damping of oscillations of

building structures and pipelines. The value of the coefficient is specified by the user or can be determined
with help of the Reference data on the internal friction operation in the respective dialog box.
According to Sec.6 of Annex 3 this coefficient is required only when the plot of the dynamic amplification
factor given in the code is used.
Plots of the dynamic amplification factor —in addition to the ranges of plots of the dynamic
amplification factors given in the Annex 3 (P.3.1) it is allowed to use special plots specified as a file. Such
single plot can be used for all three directions, or different plots can be used for each direction of action.
Depending on the selected radio button the software can use a plot given in the codes (the According to
Fig. P3.1. radio button), load a prepared file with a single plot (the Single plot radio button) or three files
with separate plots for each direction (the Separate for each direction radio button). The plot can be
obtained using Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see
Sec. 30.8). If a file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic
Amplification Factor for viewing the plot.
Allowing for the proximity of frequencies — if this checkbox is checked, the formula which
enables to take into account the mutual correlation of the generalized coordinates is used for the neighbor
Seismic Analysis according to Ukrainian Design Codes DBN В.1.1-

12:2006
number of natural oscillation modes taken into account is specified in such a way so that the sum of modal
masses is not less than 85% of the total mass of the system excited in the direction of the seismic action for
horizontal actions and not less than 75% — for the vertical one. The Lanczos method (only together with a
multifrontal or PARFES processor) is used for the automatic determination of the necessary number of the
natural oscillation modes.
Coefficient of inelastic strain accounts for the inelasticity of the structure and the local damage in it
(is taken from Table 2.3). The value of the coefficient depends on the seismicity of the construction site.
Importance factor of structures is selected from the list corresponding to Table 2.4. If the Other
item is selected in the list, the value has to be specified in the text field on the right from the list.
363
Figure 8.7-10. The Construction in Seismic Regions of Ukraine tab

Soil category is selected from the respective list. If the IV category is selected, it is necessary to
specify the coefficient accounting for nonlinear soil deformation in the respective field.
coordinate system.
Allowing for the torsional component (Annex D) — if the torsional component is taken into
account (the respective checkbox is checked), it is necessary to specify the coordinates of the center of
rotation and the direction of the torsion vector.
Minimum size in plan is used to determine the coefficient taking into account the sizes of the
structure in plan (Sec. D.6).
Number of storeys — number of storeys.
Plots of the dynamic amplification factor —in addition to the ranges of plots of the dynamic
364
button), load a prepared file with a single plot (the Single diagram radio button) or three files with
separate plots for each direction (the Separate for each direction radio button). The plot can be obtained
using Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see
Sec. 30.8). If a file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic
Amplification Factor for viewing the plot.
Seismic Analysis according to Ukrainian Design Codes DBN В.1.1-

12:2014
Figure 8.7-11. The Construction in Seismic Regions of Ukraine tab

number of natural oscillation modes taken into account is specified in such a way so that the sum of modal
masses is not less than 85% of the total mass of the system excited in the direction of the seismic action for
horizontal actions and not less than 75% — for the vertical one. The Lanczos method (only together with a
multifrontal or PARFES processor) is used for the automatic determination of the necessary number of the
natural oscillation modes.
365
Coefficient of inelastic strain accounts for the inelasticity of the structure and the local damage in it
(is taken from Table 6.3). The value of the coefficient depends on the seismicity of the construction site.
Importance factor of structures is selected from the list corresponding to Table 2.4. If the Other
item is selected in the list, the value has to be specified in the text field on the right from the list.
Soil category is selected from the respective list. If the IV category is selected, it is necessary to
specify the coefficient accounting for nonlinear soil deformation in the respective field.
coordinate system.
Allowing for the torsional component (Annex I) — if the torsional component is taken into account
(the respective checkbox is checked), it is necessary to specify the coordinates of the center of rotation and
the direction of the torsion vector.
Minimum size in plan is used to determine the coefficient taking into account the sizes of the
structure in plan (Sec. I.6).
Number of storeys — number of storeys.
using Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see Sec.
30.8). If a file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic Amplification
Factor for viewing the plot.
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP В1.2-4-98 of the Republic of

Kazakhstan
factor.
366
Values of coefficients K1, K2 and K are specified automatically by selecting the characteristics from
the drop-down lists coinciding with Tables 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 of SNiP respectively. The display of
coefficients in the text fields on the right from the drop-down list is given for reference. The fields become
available for input in the case if the Other item is selected in the list.
Options Limit the number of modes …, Allowing for the vertical seismic action, Allowing for
balconies, canopies, dropped ceilings … can be selected in any combination.
Options Allowing for hinged panels, partitions … and Allowing for structures towering over the
building are mutually exclusive.
Figure 8.7-12. The Seismic Action (SNiP B1.2-4-98) tab
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 of the

Republic of Kazakhstan
factor.
Values of coefficients K1 (allowing for the importance of the building), K2 (allowing for the designs
of the building), K3 (allowing for the height of the building) and K (allowing for the dissipation of the
energy of oscillations) are specified automatically by selecting the characteristics from the drop-down lists
coinciding with Tables 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 of SNiP respectively. The display of coefficients in the text fields
on the right from the drop-down list is given for reference. The fields become available for input in the
case if the Other (K1) or According to the results of the research (K2) item is selected in the list.
367
Options Non-load-bearing and self-supporting walls and Structures towering over the building,
Fasteners of technological equipment, Balconies, canopies are mutually exclusive.
using Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor included in the SCAD Office system package (see Sec.
30.8). If a file with a plot is selected, the button enables to invoke Editor of Dynamic Amplification
Factor for viewing the plot.
Figure 8.7-13. The SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 (Kazakhstan) tab
368
Seismic Analysis according to SNRA II-2.02.94 of the Republic of

Armenia
The values of other coefficients are taken from the tables of the code.
Figure 8.7-14. The Seismic Code of the Republic of Armenia (SNRA II-2.02.94) tab
369
Seismic Analysis according to SNRA II-6.02.2006 of the Republic

of Armenia
Figure 8.7-15. The Seismic Code of the Republic of Armenia (SNRA II-6.02.2006) tab
370
Seismic Analysis according to SNRA AzDTN 2.3-1 of the Republic of

Azerbaijan
Figure 8.7-16. The Seismic Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan (AzDTN 2.3-1) tab
Seismic Analysis according to SNT 2.01.08-99 and SNT 2.01.08-99*

of Turkmenistan
coordinate system.
371
separate plots for each direction (the Separate for each direction radio button). The values of other
coefficients are taken from the code.
Figure 8.7-17. The Construction in Seismic Regions (Turkmenistan) tab
Seismic Analysis according to KMK 2.01.03-96 of the Republic of

Uzbekistan
Direction of the vector of the seismic action is specified by the values of cosines of angles with
respect to the axes of the global coordinate system.
The values of other coefficients are taken from the tables of the code depending on the factor defining
them selected from the respective list. These values are displayed in the information fields on the right
from the list.
372
Figure 8.7-18. The Construction in Seismic Regions of Uzbekistan tab

The parameter μ (limit relative inelastic deformation) can be specified for each element with the help
of the Specification of the additional data for elements operation (see Sec. 7.3). If this parameter is not
specified for an element, its analysis is performed on the assumption of perfect elasticity (μ = 1) and the
reduction factor r in formula (2.8) of KMK 2.01.03-96 is taken as 1.
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP KR 20-02:2009 of the Kyrgyz

Republic
Direction of the vector of the seismic action is specified by the values of cosines of angles with
respect to the axes of the global coordinate system.
The values of other coefficients are taken from the tables of the code depending on the factor defining
them selected from the respective list. These values are displayed in the information fields on the right
from the list.
373
Figure 8.7-19. The Earthquake Engineering of the Kyrgyz Republic tab
Seismic Analysis Based on an Accelerogram

Data for performing the accelerogram based analysis are specified in the Seismic Analysis Based on One
Accelerogram tab (Fig. 8.7-20). In this analysis one accelerogram acts in the X, Y and Z directions. It is
necessary to specify the following information in this mode:
 number of natural oscillation modes taken into account;
 action direction of the seismic load is defined by the vector specified in the global coordinate system.
In addition to these data you also have to select a name of the file (by clicking the button )
containing ordinates of an accelerogram, and to specify the dissipation factor and the accelerogram scale
factor. Dissipation factor is usually specified as 0,1 for building structures and 0,2 — for engineering
structures.
374
The button invokes a dialog box which enables to obtain the reference information on the
coefficients of inelastic resistance of different structures (Fig. 8.7-21). After selecting the necessary type of
structure and clicking the OK button, you can transfer the respective value of the coefficient of inelastic
resistance to the data of the loading. Moreover, if the Other types of structures item is selected in the
Type of structure list, having specified one of the possible representations of information on the inelastic
resistance (for example, logarithmic decrement of oscillations), you can obtain the necessary dissipation
factor.
Figure 8.7-21. The Reference Data on the

Internal Friction dialog box
Figure 8.7-20. The Seismic Analysis Based on One

Accelerogram tab
Files of accelerograms (having an extension .spc) can be prepared with the help of Accelerogram
Editor, the description of which is given in Section 30.7.
The program enables to perform the analysis for the maximum duration of the accelerogram
multiplied by a coefficient specified by the user. The meaning of this coefficient is that the calculation
will be performed not only in the period of the accelerogram action but after the earthquake as well, when
the impact is over, but the movement is still there.
375
Seismic Analysis Based on the Specified Accelerograms

(3 Components)
Data for performing the seismic analysis
based on the accelerograms taking into
account the simultaneous actions in three
directions are specified according to the
same rules as for the analysis for one
direction. The difference is that the list of
accelerograms includes the names of three
files with ordinates of accelerograms in the
directions X, Y and Z, respectively (Fig.
8.7-22). Files of accelerograms (having an
extension .spc) can be prepared with the
help of Accelerogram Editor, the de-
scription of which is given in Section 30.7.
If the file with an accelerogram is
selected, the button enables to invoke
the Accelerogram Editor to view the
accelerogram and its parameters.
A scale factor can be specified for
each accelerogram. Each accelerogram is
loaded using the respective button .
Figure 8.7-22. The Seismic Loads According to the

Specified Accelerograms tab
The direction of action of the seismic load (in the XOY plane) is defined by the vector specified in the
global coordinate system.
structure and clicking the OK button, you can transfer the respective value of the dissipation factor to the
data of the loading. Moreover, if the Other types of structures item is selected in the Type of structure
list, having specified one of the possible representations of information on the inelastic resistance (for
example, logarithmic decrement of oscillations), you can obtain the necessary dissipation factor.
Seismic Analysis Based on the Specified Accelerograms

(6 Components)
The operation enables to perform a dynamic analysis for the case when a plot of the dynamic amplification
factor is specified for each of the six directions. When specifying the initial data it is necessary to specify
at least one plot. If a plot is not specified for a certain direction, it is considered that there is no action in
the given direction.
376
Figure 8.7-23. The Six-component Action tab
Plots of the dynamic amplification factor can be loaded by clicking the respective button and
selecting the necessary spd-file. If the file with a plot of the dynamic amplification factor is selected, the
button enables to invoke the Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor to view it (Fig. 8.7-23).
Moreover, it is necessary to specify the following data:
 number of natural oscillation modes taken into account;
 cutoff frequency — the upper limit of frequencies which are adequately represented in the model
for the calculation of the dynamic interaction of the structure with the subgrade. It can be selected
at the level of the doubled dominant frequency of the “structure-subgrade” system in the selected
direction, but not less than 10 Hz;
 logarithmic decrement of oscillations;
 correction factor is specified for the correction of results if it is necessary to take into account the
requirements of codes more fully. This factor can take any positive value, and the results of the
analysis of inertial forces from the seismic action are multiplied by it;
 allowing for the proximity of frequencies — you can select a rule for taking into account the
neighbor natural oscillation modes which differ by less than 10% (according to the "sum of
squares" rule, according to the recommendations of SP 14.13330.2011 (formula (9)) or ASCE4-98
(formula (3.2.19));
 summing the components – you can select a standard rule for summing the reactions (according to
the “sum of squares” rule) in the directions of a six-component seismic action or use the summing
377
with a fully correlated oscillation which is performed according to the following formula
R   R 
2 2
 x  Rux y  Ruy  Rz2  Ruz2 .
coefficients of inelastic resistance of different structures. After selecting the necessary type of structure and
clicking the OK button, you can transfer the respective value of the coefficient of inelastic resistance to the
data of the loading. Moreover, if the Other types of structures item is selected in the Type of structure
list, having specified one of the possible representations of information on the inelastic resistance (for
example, logarithmic decrement of oscillations), you can obtain the necessary coefficient of inelastic
resistance.
Wind Pulsation
Pulsation Component of the Wind Load

Pulsation component of the wind load determines the motion of the structure with respect to the
displaced equilibrium state the structure takes under the action of the average (static) component of the
wind flow (see Sec. 2.4). The intensity of wind pulsations is proportional to the force of the static wind,
therefore the calculation for wind pulsations requires references to the data on the static wind.
The method of analysis for the dynamic action of wind pulsations is determined by current SNiP on
the basis of the hypothesis of the static independence (absence of correlation) at the motion of the structure
for different modes of natural oscillations. This hypothesis does not always hold, and therefore it has been
adjusted in Moscow City Building Codes MGSN [3,7] to take into account the statistical interaction
between individual oscillation modes. It should be noted that it becomes meaningless to consider the
results of the calculation for a certain mode of natural oscillations.
For asymmetric design models it is sometimes necessary to provide for the action of the wind first
from one side and then from the other. It is often impossible to solve the problem considering the wind
load as alternating, since when the wind changes its direction to the opposite one, the values of
aerodynamic coefficients change as well (see for example model 9 from Annex E of SP 20.13330.2011). It
is also necessary to consider two different dynamic loadings.
Average (Static) Component of the Wind Load
Figure 8.7-24.
378
Static (or average) component of the wind load is described by a separate static loading taking into
account the position of the design model (see Fig. 8.7-24). Not only concentrated nodal forces but any
local loads provided in SCAD are used when specifying it. Using the distributed loads enables to describe
the wind action in accordance with the requirements of codes, according to the arrangements of wind loads
with their aerodynamic coefficients (see Annex 4 of SNiP 2.01.07-85* and Annex E of SP 20.13330.2011).
Wind Pulsations according to SNiP 2.01.07-85*

Characteristics of loadings for the analysis for wind actions according to SNiP 2.01.07-85* are specified in
the Pulsation Component of the Wind Load (SNiP 2.01.07-85*) tab (Fig. 8.7-25).
Figure 8.7-25. The Pulsation Component of the Wind Load (SNiP 2.01.07-85*) tab
When specifying the data it is necessary to pay attention to the
following:
 the direction of the wind action has to be specified;
 in accordance with the specified direction it is necessary to specify
the value of the width of the building across the wind direction
and its length along the wind action (Fig. 8.7-26);
 it is necessary to select the number of the wind static loading from
Figure 8.7-26. the list (it has to be selected even if this loading is the first in the
list), having made sure that the selected wind static loading
corresponds to the specified direction of the wind;
 correction factor (it is taken as 1 by default) must be greater than 0.
The number of modes of natural oscillations of a structure that have to be taken into account in the
analysis is usually specified as 3 — for plane structures and 6 — for spatial ones. However, there are also
such structures for which a much greater number of modes have to be taken into account.
379
For example, if the first modes of oscillations are orthogonal to the action of the wind. The number of
modes taken into account in the result can turn out to be less, since if the natural frequency is greater than
the limit frequency of the considered structure, then according to SNiP it is not taken into account.
All other characteristics are specified by selecting the necessary line in the lists.
Wind Pulsations according to Moscow City Building Codes (MGSN)

Characteristics of loadings for the analysis for wind
actions according to MGSN [3] are specified in the
Pulsation Component of the Wind Load
According to MGSN tab (Fig. 8.7-25). The analysis
is performed according to the method developed by
V.A. Kucherenko Central Research Institute
of Building Constructions. When specifying the data
it is necessary to pay attention to the following:
 it is necessary to specify the direction of the
wind action in accordance with which the
correlation coefficients will be determined (see
drawing 3 in SNiP 2.01.07-85*);
 it is necessary to select the number of the wind
static loading from the list (it has to be selected
even if this loading is the first in the list),
having made sure that the selected wind static
loading corresponds to the specified direction of
the wind;
Figure 8.7-27. The Pulsation Component of the  correction factor (it is taken as 1 by default)
Wind Load According to MGSN tab must be greater than 0.
Wind Pulsations according to SP 20.13330 (Updated Edition of SNiP

2.01.07-85*)
Characteristics of loadings for the analysis for wind actions according to SP 20.13330.2011,
SP 20.13330.2016 are specified in the Pulsation Component of the Wind Load (SP 20.13330.2011,
SP 20.13330.2016) tab (Fig. 8.7-28).
When specifying the data it is necessary to pay attention to the following:
 the direction of the wind action has to be specified (along the X axis, along the Y axis or in the
XoY plane; in the latter case the In the X direction and In the Y direction values define the wind
direction vector (not necessarily normalized) in the horizontal plane);
 in accordance with the specified direction it is necessary to specify the value of the width of the
building across the wind direction and its length along the wind action (Fig. 8.7-26);
 it is necessary to select the number of the wind static loading from the list (it has to be selected
even if this loading is the first in the list);
 correction factor (it is taken as 1 by default) must be greater than 0.
The number of modes of natural oscillations of a structure that have to be taken into account in the
analysis is usually specified as 3 — for plane structures and 6 — for spatial ones. However, there are also
such structures for which a much greater number of modes have to be taken into account.
380
For example, if the first modes of oscillations are orthogonal to the action of the wind. The number of
modes taken into account in the result can turn out to be less, since if the natural frequency is greater than
the limit frequency of the considered structure, then according to SP it is not taken into account.
All other characteristics are specified by selecting the necessary line in the lists.
Figure 8.7-28. The Pulsation Component of the Wind Load (SP 20.13330.2011, SP 20.13330.2016) tab
Pulse or Impact Action

The following types of calculations for impact and pulse actions are implemented in the program:
 impact;
 impact with history tracking;
 impact accounting for the effect of the mass of the impact body;
 pulse;
 pulse with history tracking.
The initial data for all above types of action are of the same type and are specified in the tab of the
dialog box (see Fig. 8.7-29). It is necessary to specify here the number of oscillation modes taken into
account and the coefficient of inelastic resistance. The button invokes the dialog box which enables to
obtain the reference information on the coefficients of inelastic resistance of different structures (see
Fig. 8.7-21).
Dynamic loads are specified with the help of the respective dialog boxes which are invoked by
clicking the button in the Loadings section (Fig. 8.7-34).
Three modules for the calculation of impact actions are implemented in the program.
If the mass of the impact body is small, the impact action can be considered as a pulse the value of
which is calculated as follows:
S = m v0 (1 + k0),
where m — mass of the impact body;
381
v0 — velocity at the beginning of impact;

k0 — coefficient of restitution, which depends on the properties of colliding bodies, and when there is
no more accurate data it is taken from Table 5.1 of the Handbook on the Dynamics of Structures [11].
Therefore the calculation for impact is performed as for a single bell-shaped pulse with the value S.
There are two possible variants of calculation:
 the evaluation of the maximum is performed in the
Impact module according to the formulas given in
[11], when the pulse is specified by the mass of the
impact body, its velocity, time of interaction and the
coefficient of restitution (these formulas give an
approximate estimation of the maximum reaction of
the structure);
 tracking of the history of behavior of the system
(integration of the equations of motion by the
method of expanding by natural oscillation modes)
and calculation of the maximum is performed in the
Impact with history tracking module. You should
understand that in this case the process takes much
more time, but enables to obtain more accurate
Figure 8.7-29. The Pulse or Impact estimations of maximum deformations and forces.
Action tab Pulse is specified by the mass of the impact body,
its velocity, time of interaction and the coefficient of
restitution.
Pulse and Pulse with history tracking modules, where an approximate estimation or integration of
the equations of motion is performed, have similar differences.
If the mass of the impact body is large, the Impact accounting for the effect of the mass of the
impact body module is used, and the evaluation of the maximum is performed without expanding by
oscillation modes. Mass of the impact body (it is assumed that there is only one impact body), which is
reduced to an equivalent kinetic energy concentrated at the impact point by the amount of motion, is
included in the moving system. Moreover, an indirect impact can be considered. Then an angle between
the direction of the impact and the normal to the area it is acting on has to be additionally specified.
Modal Analysis
The only characteristic necessary for performing the modal
analysis, the number of natural oscillation modes taken into
account, is specified in the Modal Analysis tab (Fig. 8.7-30).
If the frequency search range has to be specified instead of
the number of modes, you should use the Lanczos method.
Then the Lanczos method radio-button has to be selected and
the Analysis in the specified frequency range checkbox has to
be checked in the General Data tab of the Parameters of
Dynamic Actions dialog box, and the values of frequencies of
the beginning and end of the search interval have to be specified
in the From and To text fields. The number of calculated
frequencies will be not less than that specified in the Modal
Figure 8.7-30. The Modal Analysis tab Analysis tab.
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Harmonic Oscillations
One of the following problems can be solved when performing the analysis of a structure for harmonic
excitation:
 analysis for the specified frequency;
 analysis taking into account the starting resonance;
 analysis for the specified frequency taking into account the possible error in the determination of
natural frequencies.
In the first case the frequency of excitation is assumed to
be precisely specified and stable, the possibility of its
interaction with all calculated natural frequencies of the
structure is taken into account. The corresponding amplitude
values of the real and imaginary components of the inertial
forces under the action of harmonic force are determined by the
formulas 2.4.13 given in Sec. 2.4.
In the second case it is assumed that the specified
frequency is achieved by its gradual increase from the zero
value to the specified upper value, and the possibility of
resonant oscillations at natural frequencies less than the upper
value of the excitation frequency is taken into account.
Finally, the third case assumes that due to the
approximation of the design model (inaccuracy of the initial
data, possible changes in the location of masses, etc.) actual
Figure 8.7-31. The Harmonic natural frequencies can differ from the calculated ones by the
Oscillations tab value  ε.
Then the following variants of the position of the specified frequency ω with respect to the calculated
frequencies are considered:
 ω coincides with one of the calculated frequencies with the specified accuracy ωk — the calculations
are performed for a series of frequencies ωi ω/ωk;
 ω ≥ ωk and ω < ωk+1 — in this case two series of frequencies are assumed ωi – ε and ωi + ε;
 ω < ω1 – ε — assumed series of frequencies ωi – ε;
 ω > ω1 + ε — assumed series of frequencies ωi + ε.
Depending on whether the Absolute or Relative radio button is selected ε can be specified in absolute
values (for example, in Hz) or in relative ones (in percent).
Amplitude values of the real and imaginary components of the inertial forces under the action of
harmonic force, which are determined by the formulas 2.4.13 given in Sec. 2.4, are calculated for each of
these series of “refined” natural frequencies.
The initial data are specified in the Harmonic Oscillations tab (Fig. 8.7-31).
structure and clicking the OK button, you can transfer the respective value of the coefficient of inelastic
resistance to the data of the loading. Moreover, if the Other types of structures item is selected in the
Type of structure list, having specified one of the possible representations of information on the inelastic
resistance (for example, logarithmic decrement of oscillations), you can obtain the necessary coefficient of
inelastic resistance.
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Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion

It is necessary to perform the following actions to perform the
calculation using the direct integration of the equations of
motion:
− select the Direct integration radio button in the Type
of action group of radio buttons in the General Data
tab of the Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box;
− specify the name of the loading and parameters of
conversion of static loads into masses;
− prepare the description of action in the Direct
Integration of the Equations of Motion tab (Fig. 8.7-
32);
− invoke the Parameters of dynamic loads operation
and specify the dynamic loads in the Nodal Load
with Time dialog box.
Figure 8.7-32. The Direct Integration
The work of this dynamic module is specified in more
of the Equations of Motion tab
detail in Chapter 15.
Specifying Dynamic Loads and Masses
Masses and dynamic loads can be specified only in an already created dynamic loading.
The Inertial properties operation is used to specify masses. When this operation is invoked the
Masses dialog box appears (Fig. 8.7-33), where you have to select a method for specifying masses (in
nodes or on elements), specify the weight of mass and its snap (the snap is specified if the mass is
concentrated on the element), and snap the masses to nodes and elements according to the same rules as for
loads after closing the dialog box.
Figure 8.7-33. The Masses dialog box

The value of mass is characterized by its weight and is specified in tons (or other force measurement
units selected for a particular problem), i.e. as a product of mass and the gravitational acceleration.
When specifying masses in nodes it is necessary to specify the directions of the corresponding
dynamic displacements and the value of the mass (or the mass moment of inertia). Before specifying the
characteristics of masses applied to plate elements it is necessary to select the Plates radio button.
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Depending on the type of dynamic loading (pulse, impact, …) clicking the Parameters of dynamic
loads button invokes one of the dialog boxes shown in Figures 8.7-34, a–d.
When specifying loads for different types of calculation for dynamic actions you have to:
− specify the data in the respective dialog box;
− select nodes or elements in the model the specified actions are applied to;
After specifying masses or dynamic loads it is necessary to save the loading under a number
previously specified for the dynamic loading.
The specified parameters of dynamic loads will be input into the tables of the respective dialog box.
The procedure for correcting the data specified earlier does not differ from the similar operations when
specifying other loads:
− select a line with the parameters you want to correct in the table, and the contents of the line will
be input into the text fields;
− correct the data;
− use the Replace and exit or Replace and continue buttons depending on whether it is necessary
to change other data.
a) c)
b) d)
Figure 8.7-34. Dialog boxes for specifying the characteristics of dynamic loads
a) Pulse;b) Harmonic Oscillations; c) Impact; d) Nodal Load with Time
8.8. Correcting the Parameters of Loadings/Groups of

Loads
This operation enables to change the types of loadings, types of loads, safety factors and fractions of
duration of one or several loadings and/or groups of loads. The operations are performed in a two-tab
dialog box.
The first tab contains a table with a list of all loadings and their parameters, each of which can be
changed, and the second one provides information on the groups of loads.
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The numbering of loadings and groups of loads can be changed. In order to do this you have select the
necessary loadings/groups of loads and move them in the list by clicking the Up or Down buttons.
Figure 8.8 Correcting the Parameters of Loadings/Groups of Loads

If you check the checkbox in the Exclude from the analysis column, the respective loading will be
excluded from the calculation.
1. Dynamic Analysis of Structures for Special Actions. Designer's handbook / B.G. Korenev and I.M. Rabinovich—
M.: Stroyizdat, 1981.
2. V.K. Egupov, T.A. Kamandrina, Seismic Analysis of Buildings. — Kyiv: Budivelnyk, 1969.
3. MGSN. Multifunctional Buildings and Complexes / Government of Moscow.— M.: 1994.
4. International Building Code of CIS. Construction in Seismic Regions. (Project), 2002. — Earthquake
Engineering. Safety of Structures. 2002, No. 3, p. 27-54
5. S.V. Polyakov, Earthquake-resistant Building Structures.— M.: High school, 1983.
6. Codes for Earthquake-resistant Nuclear Power Plants. NP-031-01. Gosatomnadzor of Russia. — Bulletin of
Gosatomnadzor of Russia. 2001, No.6, p.7-31.
7. Manual for the Analysis of Buildings and Structures for the Wind Action / Kucherenko V.A. Central Research
Institute of Building Constructions.— M.: Stroyizdat, 1978.
8. SNiP 2.01.07-85*. Loads and Actions. Building rules and regulations / State Comm. for Construct. of Russia. –
Moscow, 2001. — 44 p.
9. SNiP II-7-81*. Construction in Seismic Regions/Ministry of Construction of Russia, 1996. — 52 p.
10. SNiP II-7-81*. Construction in Seismic Regions /State Comm. for Construct. of Russia. – Moscow, 2000. —
44 p. + Annex 2 G 10 maps.
11. Handbook on the Dynamics of Structures. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1972. — 511 p.
12. Code of the Republic of Armenia. Earthquake Engineering. Design standards. SNRA II-2.02-94.
13. Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan. SNiP b.1.2-4-98. Construction in Seismic Regions. Almaty. 1998, 41 p.
14. Construction in Seismic Regions of Ukraine. DBN В.1.1-12:2006. – K.: Ministry of Construction, Architecture
and Housing and Communal Services of Ukraine, 2006. – 84 p.
15. Rules for Designing Residential and Public Buildings for Construction in Seismic Regions. SP 31-114-2004. –
M.:, 2005. – 41 p.
16. SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006. Construction in Seismic Regions. Building Codes and Regulations of the Republic of
Kazakhstan. – p. 41-74.
17. SP 14.13330.2011. Construction in Seismic Regions (Updated edition of SNiP II-7-81*) M.:, 2010. — 91 p.
18. SP 14.13330.2014. Construction in Seismic Regions (Updated edition of SNiP II-7-81*) M.:, 2014. — 126 p.
19. Code of the Republic of Armenia. Earthquake Engineering. Design standards. SNRA II-6.02-2006.
386
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9. F O R U M Preprocessor
9. FORUM Preprocessor
9.1. General Principles for Creating a Model
Unlike finite element models where a design model is made up from separate finite elements, the model in
FORUM preprocessor is based on enlarged elements (objects) which are as close as possible by their purpose
and name to the functional components of a real structure. They include such commonly used objects as
columns, beams, walls, floors and roofs. Groups of objects can be combined into modules. They are usually
combined based on their position when elements which model one storey of a building or one section of a
multisectional building are included in one module, though other conditions of grouping are possible as well
(for example, all columns of a building may be combined into one module).
Menus Toolbar
Show/hide objects
Model
Project tree
Display Filters toolbar

Visualization toolbar
Figure 9.1-1. General view of the FORUM preprocessor window

This approach to modeling is often used in systems of computer-aided design of the architectural part
of the project, which creates prerequisites for the transition from the architectural model to the design one
and, to some extent, facilitates the generation of geometry of the design model, for which the architectural
model can serve as a sub-base.
An obvious advantage of integrated models is their relative simplicity compared with the corresponding
finite element models, which greatly facilitates the control of large models.
FORUM preprocessor included in SCAD++ is used to both generate integrated models and finish models
imported from architectural systems.
The presence of an integrated model consisting of objects enables to automate the process of
combining finite elements into structural members (by belonging to one object) and into groups of
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elements. The transition from an integrated model to a finite element design model of SCAD complex is
performed by an automatic or user-managed transformation of objects into sets of finite elements.
The control of the preprocessor is performed with the help of menus, toolbars, filters and dialog
boxes. To make it easier for the users of SCAD complex to master the preprocessor the rules for working
with the program and many operations adopted in SCAD are saved where it is reasonable. Therefore, the
description of such "common" operations (such as the removal and transfer of nodes, the transfer of the
origin of the global coordinate system, etc.) is not given in this section.
Toolbar
The toolbar contains six sections: Control, Model, Operations with Nodes, Operations with Elements,
Loads, and Groups. Switching between sections is performed by clicking on “tabs” with their names.
Figure 9.1-2. The Control section of the toolbar

The Control section (Fig. 9.1-2) includes the following operations:
— Exit — finish the work with the program;

— New project — create a new project;
— Open project — load an existing project;
— Save — save the project under its current name;
— Pack data — the deleted nodes and elements, nodes not belonging to elements, “empty” modules
(modules not containing any elements) are removed from the project;
— Print — print the current image of the model (or its fragment);
— Save the screen image — the current image of the model is saved as a Windows metafile (in a file
with extension .emf or .wmf) and can be used, for example, when preparing a report;
— Save as HTML — the current image of the model is saved as an HTML-file and can be used for
example to put it on the Internet;
— Save the fragment of the model — save the fragment of the model as an individual project;
— Settings — specify the units of measurement and the type of representation of numerical
information, select fonts, ...;
— Express control of the model — express-control of some parameters of the model;
— Correct elements — invalid elements (in terms of shape) are deleted or replaced;
— clear the list of messages.
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Figure 9.1-3. The Model section of the toolbar

The following operations can be invoked from the Model section (Fig. 9.1-3):
— Specify grid lines —specify the parameters of grid lines;
— Generate nodes on the grid — specify the input area for nodes at the intersection points of grid
lines;
— Create standard structures — such as for example a staircase, or a truss;
— Create module —specify parameters and create a new module;
— Control the modules — a table with a list of modules similar to the tables of control of the groups
of nodes and elements;
— create columns, beams, floor slabs and walls, respectively;
— Geometric transformations;
— Copy — copy modules and elements;
— Copy the fragment of the model;
— Creation and modifications of trajectories;
— Assemble the model from several models (Assembly mode);
— Generate the resulting project — automatic generation of a mesh of finite elements;
— Delete data on the model;
— Delete selected objects;
— Operations on modules — transfer elements from one module to another;
— Save the fragment of the model — save the fragment of the model as an individual project;
— Confirmation (OK) — command for performing the selected operation;

— Rejection — cancel the selected operation.
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Figure 9.1-4. The Operations with Nodes section of the toolbar

The Operations with Nodes section of the toolbar (Fig. 9.1-4) includes the following operations:
— Create nodes — create nodes by specifying their coordinates;
— Generate nodes on the grid — specify the input area for nodes at the intersection points of grid
lines;
— Delete nodes;
— Restore deleted nodes;
— Create nodes at the specified distance from the selected ones — create new nodes at the
specified distance from the selected ones;
— Generate nodes along an arc — create nodes along a circular arc lying in the given plane;
— Create additional nodes between nodes — create nodes which divide the segment between the
existing nodes according to the specified rule;
— Move nodes to the given plane;
— Move nodes — move the selected nodes by the specified distance;
— Merge duplicate nodes — delete nodes the coordinates of which coincide with the coordinates of
the nodes created earlier;
— Install constraints in nodes — the operation is similar to that described in Section 7.4;
— Merged displacements in nodes — the operation is similar to that described in Section 7.4;
— Replace a node in elements;
— Move the origin;
— Geometric transformations;
— Round the node coordinates;
Figure 9.1-5. The Operations with Elements section of the toolbar

The Operations with Elements section of the toolbar (Fig. 9.1-5) includes the following operations:
391
— Delete elements;
— Restore deleted elements;
— Delete duplicate elements — delete the elements of one type, all the nodes of which coincide with
the nodes of the elements created earlier;
— Move elements — move the selected elements by the specified distance;
— Specify subsoil parameters (see Section 7.3);
— Specify the orientation of the local coordinate axes of the elements — rotate the section of the
element by the specified angle;
— Specify the directions of the stress output for plates (see Section 7.3);
— Change the stiffness properties — change the stiffness properties of the selected elements;
— renumber rigidities;
— specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements (see Chapter 19);
— specify the reinforcement layout of bars (see Chapter 19) ;
— Install hinges and delete hinges — specify and delete hinges and sliders;
— Move the plate midplane — change the position of the slab or wall by the parallel translation of
the midplane by the specified distance;
— Bar division — divide beams and columns into several elements;
— Division of bars taking into account the intermediate nodes — divide beams and columns into
several elements taking into account all the nodes they intersect;
— Divide bars at the intersection point — divide intersecting elements;
— Connect walls and floors — extend walls to their intersection line (including floors);
— Correct the description of openings — combine intersecting openings;
— Delete openings — delete openings in the elements of slabs and walls;
— Extend the bar to the plate — extend the bar to the specified plate element;
— Chamfer bars — extend the bars to their intersection point;
— Divide bars by a polygon;
— Expansion of the plate by an offset from the faces — increase the overall dimensions of the
plate by an offset from all its faces by the specified distance;
— Division of floors and walls by beams and columns lying in their plane;
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— Divide plates along the intersection line — divide the intersecting plate elements along their
intersection lines;
— Operations with a pair of planar objects — combine, intersect, ... plate elements lying in one
plane;
— Create surfaces of revolution — create surfaces of the cylinder, cone and sphere type from plane
elements;
— Create elements along an arc — create beams along a circular arc;
— Change the types of elements — the ability to change the type of the element (wall, partition,
column, floor, roof);
— Create a 0-element;
— Create constraints of finite rigidity — create and specify parameters for constraints of finite
rigidity;
— Create an elastic constraint — create and specify parameters for elastic constraints;
— Create single-node peripheral elements of the plate — create and specify parameters for single-
node peripheral elements of the plate on the elastic subgrade;
— Create two-node peripheral elements of the plate — create and specify parameters for two-node
peripheral elements of the plate on the elastic subgrade;
— Create cable-stayed elements — create and specify parameters of cable-stayed elements;
— Rigid bodies — create, correct and specify parameters of rigid bodies;
— Create unilateral constraints — create and specify parameters of unilateral constraints;
Loads
Figure 9.1-6. The Loads section of the toolbar

The Loads section of the toolbar (Fig. 9.1-6) includes the following operations:
— Parameters of the load specification mode;
— Tables of loads;
— Specify the types of rooms;
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— Delete loads;
Groups
a)
b) c)
Figure 9.1-7. The Groups section of the toolbar (a),

toolbars for specifying structural groups of
elements of r/c (b) and steel (c) structures
The Groups section of the toolbar (Fig. 9.1-7) includes two operations — for specifying structural
groups of elements of r/c and steel structures. The description of rules for creating and working with the
respective structural groups is given in Sections 19 and 20.
9.2. Structure of the Model

The model in its general form is represented as a four-level tree structure — “model” (Fig. 9.2-1, b),
“module” (Fig. 9.2-1, c), “group of the elements of the same type”, “element” (Fig. 9.2-1, d). The modules
and elements can have unique names (identifiers). Moreover, the elements have serial numbers in the
model. Description of peculiarities of the data representation at each level and of the possible operations
with the objects of these levels is given below.
b) complete model of the

a) project tree building
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c) module (storey) d) element (floor)

Figure 9.2-1. Structure of the model
Structuring enables to create a model as a collection of structural members of a particular type, and
the elements (including the finite elements) will belong to a particular structural member at all stages of the
transformation – generation of a design model, calculation, analysis of the results and design.
The structure of the model is displayed in the form of a project tree (Fig. 9.2-1, a), which is created
automatically during the generation of the model.
Nodes
Positioning elements in the model is performed by snapping them to the nodes. Nodes can be created in the
model as intersection points of grid lines, or with the help of the respective operations.
Modules
The modules can have different physical meaning, for example storeys, separate parts of the structure,
parts of the building divided by an expansion joint etc. There must be at least one module in the model.
Before introducing elements into the model a module that includes these elements must be created. In some
cases modules are created automatically. This occurs when you create a new model, perform the operation
of copying a module, and also when importing data from architectural systems (for example, ArchiCAD®).
Elements
Depending on the purpose of the model objects (elements) in the structure can be classified into the
following five types: column, beam, wall, floor and roof. The first two types are two-node objects, and are
modeled by bars in the finite element design model. The last three ones are planar and can have any
number of nodes, include inner contours modeling openings and holes, and in the process of transformation
into a design model are divided into three- and four-node shell elements (by default), plates or deep beams.
Objects of the roof type can get into the model when importing data from architectural design
systems, or when creating floors (Floor/roof button). Unlike floors you cannot specify loads on roofs in
FORUM. If it is necessary to specify such loads, it should be done in a finite element model.
The position of traditionally vertical (column, wall) or horizontal (floor, beam) elements in the model
is not controlled in FORUM preprocessor allowing you to create a horizontal wall or column, or a vertical
floor.
When creating the elements you have to specify their geometric parameters and characteristics of the
material they are made of. The program enables to copy the properties of the elements created earlier when
creating the new ones and correct the geometry of the elements.
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9.3. Creating a New Model

The following procedure is recommended for creating a new model:
− click the New project button — in the Control section of the toolbar;
− specify the identification data on the project and the units of measurement of the main values in the
New Project dialog box (hereinafter it is assumed that the dialog box is closed after specifying the
data by clicking the OK button);
− specify the name of the file in which the project will be saved in the Save As… dialog box;
− click the Specify grid lines button — in the Model section of the toolbar;
− specify the parameters of grid lines in the Specify Grid Lines dialog box;
− click the Generate nodes on the grid button — in the Model section of the toolbar;
− specify the boundaries of the area within which the nodes will be created on the intersections of
grid lines in the Generate Nodes at the Intersection of Grid Lines dialog box;
− click the Create module button — in the Model section of the toolbar;
− specify the name of the module and select the color which will be used to display the module in the
model in the Parameters of the Module dialog box. After performing this operation the project
tree will contain a section (empty so far) with the elements of a new module ;
− click the button with an image of the element you are creating (for example, column) — in the
Model section of the toolbar;
− specify the parameters of the element (material, shape and sizes of the section, rules for specifying)
in the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box;
− create the element.
If the model consists of several modules, then after creating the elements included in the current
module, you have to create a new module and repeat the operations of creating elements.
New Project
Creating a new project in FORUM preprocessor is similar to creating a new finite element project.
You just have to specify the FORUM type in the New Project dialog box (Fig. 9.3-1).
Figure 9.3-1. The New Project dialog box
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Creating a New Module
Creating a model in the FORUM preprocessor begins with creating a module (button in the Model
section). The Parameters of the Module dialog box will appear (Fig. 9.3-2) where you have to specify the
name and display color.
A module can be created at any step of creating a model.
The newly created module automatically becomes active, i.e. it
will contain all the elements created at once after creating the
module.
It should be noted that when the elements are created, they
always get only into the active module, the name of which is
highlighted in the project tree. In order to make the module
active, you just have to click on its name in the project tree.
Figure 9.3-2. The Parameters of the
Module dialog box
The parameters (name and color) of the active module can be edited after clicking the Properties
button in the upper part of the Project tree panel (Sec. 9.7).
Create Elements
As noted above the software enables to create five types of elements: columns, beams, walls, floors and
roofs. It is necessary to specify the physical and mechanical characteristics of the material and geometric
parameters for each type of element. Moreover, each element can have an identifier (name). The serial
numbers of elements in the model are automatically assigned when these elements are created.
Columns
After invoking the operation of creating columns the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box appears
(Fig. 9.3-3). The General Data tab of this dialog box enables to specify the grade of the column (or of the
group of columns), type of the section (parametric, rolled steel, …), to select the input method (with the
fixed height or by two nodes). The specification of the parameters (shape of the section and physical
properties) is almost the same as the operation of specifying the rigidities of bar elements in a finite
element model (see Section 7.1).
There are two methods for creating columns in the model.
If the Column height radio button is selected, the column is
created by clicking on one snap node of the column, and the
column height is defined by the value specified in the text field
(if the value is negative – the column will be directed
downwards from the snap point). If the Immediate execution
option is selected in the Select Cursor menu, the column will
be created and displayed on the screen immediately after
clicking on the snap node. Naturally, columns created in such a
Figure 9.3-3. The Rigidity of Bar way are always vertical.
Elements dialog box
If the Column height is determined at the input radio button is selected, the column will be created by
snapping to two nodes (a “rubber band” is stretched from the first node to the second one). If this method is
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used, the control of the position of the column (vertical or inclined) is not performed, which enables to
implement non-standard situations. When this method of creating columns is used, you can use the Create a
series checkbox to add a series of columns. They will be created until you click the button in the toolbar
(or press the Enter key on the keyboard). The Taking into account the intermediate nodes checkbox
enables not only to create new columns, but also to automatically divide each of them into several elements
taking into account all the intermediate nodes lying along the line of the column.
Beams
Beams are created in the same way as columns, but always by stretching the “rubber band” between
two nodes. There are no restrictions on the position of the beam in the model.
Figure 9.3-4. The General Data tab

Figure 9.3-5. The Characteristics of the
Floor/Roof (Slab) dialog box
Floors
A floor is created as a flat multi-node element of an arbitrary shape. It is done with the help of a
"rubber band" which is stretched from node to node and ends by clicking on the first node of the floor for
the second time. The position of the floor in the model is not controlled – it can be inclined or even
vertical. This enables to use of a floor element to create elements of roofs and even walls. Holes and
openings can be made inside the contour of the floor, the shape and the number of which is not limited.
After invoking the operation of creating a floor the Characteristics of the Floor/Roof (Slab) dialog
box appears (Fig. 9.3-5). This dialog box enables to specify the grade of the floor (or the group of floors),
its thickness and material. The dialog box contains a table with the parameters of the floors created earlier.
In those cases when an automatic specification of loads is assumed (see Section 9.9), it is necessary to
specify the Type of room the created floor belongs to. The type is selected from the respective drop-down
list.
A floor can be created by selecting bars forming its contour. In this case before performing the
considered operation you have to select the respective bars and check the Create from the selected bars
checkbox. The floor will be created after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
The selected bar elements must meet the following requirements:
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 have a non-zero length;

 be continuous, i.e. form a closed line without self-intersections.
Walls
A wall is created as a flat multi-node element of an arbitrary shape. There are three methods for
creating a wall in the model. In the first case it is done with the help of a "rubber band" by clicking on all
nodes of the wall and ends by clicking on the first node of the floor for the second time. In this case the
position of the wall in the model is not controlled.
In the second case a wall with a fixed height is considered.
In order to create it you just have to click on two nodes (a “rubber
band” is stretched between them).
The third method of creating walls — along a circular arc.
In this case a wall is considered as a set of rectangular segments
the number of which depends on the specified parameters. To
create a wall you have to click on three nodes (in the beginning,
end, and on the arc) and click the OK button in the toolbar. After
invoking the operation of creating a wall the Characteristics of
Figure 9.3-6. The Characteristics of the Wall dialog box appears (Fig. 9.3-6) where you have to
the Wall dialog box specify the parameters of the wall and select the input method.
You have to specify the grade of the wall (or the group of walls),
its thickness and material in this dialog box.
Holes and openings can be made inside the contour of the wall, the shape and the number of which is
not limited.
In those cases when an automatic specification of the load is assumed (see Section 9.9), you have to
select whether a wall is Load-bearing or it is a Partition in the Purpose of the wall drop-down list. This
will enable to generate a model taking into account the respective properties of the wall. In the case of a
partition only the load will be included in the design model.
The dialog box contains a table with the parameters of the walls created earlier.
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Copying Models and Modules
This operation is similar to the Copy model operation

described in Section 5.14. The only difference is that only one
selected module can be copied here. In order to copy a module
you have to check the respective checkbox. A list of names of
modules will become available. It is necessary to select a
module you want copy in this list, and then indicate the
elements of this module you want to copy (walls, floors, ...)
with the help of the checkboxes of the Copy group (Fig. 9.3-7).
The copying is performed after closing the dialog box by
clicking the OK button. Each copy is saved as an individual
module and has a name of the copied module with an added
number of the copy (for example, a module with the name “1-st
storey” will be copied under the name “1-st storey, copy
No.1”).
Figure 9.3-7. The Copy the Model

dialog box
Transferring Elements from One Module to the Other
This operation enables to reorganize the content of the

module — “transfer” in this case means that the element
included in the Initial module will be included in the Resulting
module after performing the operation .
After invoking this operation the Operations on
Modules dialog box appears which includes two radio buttons
for specifying the type of the objects you want to transfer and
lists for selecting the initial modules (from which the modules
are taken) and resulting ones (where they should be
transferred) (Fig. 9.3-8).
The following procedure is used to transfer the selected
elements into the resulting module:
− select the radio button of the respective option in the
Operations on Modules dialog box;
Figure 9.3-8. The Operations on
Modules dialog box
− select the module the elements are transferred into in the Select the resulting module list;
− select the elements you want to transfer in the model;
− click the OK button in the Model section.
If the option of transferring all elements from one module to the other is selected, you have to select
the initial module in the left list, and the resulting module – in the right list, and click the OK button. The
dialog box will close, and the elements will be transferred.
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Control the Blocks
The operation is similar to the control og groups. It is used to control the attributes of blocks and enables to
perform the following actions: rename blocks, sort blocks by a certain criterion, delete blocks and change
the place of the selected block in the list of blocks.
9.4. Creating Standard Structures
The software enables to generate the design models of standard structures (substructures) commonly
used in design practice. To do this, select the type of structure from the drop-down list in the dialog box
(see Fig. 9.4-1), specify the geometric parameters and stiffness properties.
Figure 9.4-1. The Standard Structures dialog box
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The following types of structures are implemented in the program:
Staircase, straight Staircase, dogleg
Round slab with a round hole Round slab with a rectangular hole
Semicircular slab with a semicircular notch Semicircular slab with a rectangular notch
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Rectangular slab with a round hole Rectangular slab with a rectangular hole
Rectangular slab with a semicircular notch Rectangular slab with a rectangular notch
Rectangular slab with several round holes Rectangular slab with several rectangular holes
Truss-roof Truss-roof shifted by half step
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9.5. Operations with Nodes

All operations with nodes of models of the FORUM type are invoked from the toolbar (Fig. 9.5-1).
Figure 9.5-1. The Operations with Nodes toolbar

These operations are similar to the respective operations with finite element models described in
Section 6.2.
9.6. Operations with Elements

Functions of the Operations with Elements section of the toolbar are described below. Most operations
are similar to the respective operations with finite element models (see Section 6.3), therefore only the
operations specific to the integrated models are described here.
Change the Stiffness Properties
These operations enable to change the stiffness properties of the selected bar or plate elements. They
are similar to the respective operations for finite element models (see Section 7.1). The only difference is
that the concept of grade is used here instead of the type of rigidity.
Connect Walls and Floors
As a rule, the problem of inconsistencies between walls or floors arises after importing the model
from architectural systems. The considered operation is used to eliminate inaccuracies of the model by
connecting such objects. When it is invoked a dialog box appears (Fig. 9.6-1). Its first tab enables to select
a set of actions to adjust the model by checking the respective checkboxes.
Figure 9.6-2. The Connect Walls tab

Figure 9.6-1. The Automatic Connection tab
The following set of actions is provided here:
− connect walls;
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− connect walls and floors;

− divide bar elements at the intersection point with the edges of flat elements;
− divide bar elements at the intersection point with the surfaces of flat elements;
− connect the selected elements;
− divide bars at the nodes lying on the bar.
If the Connect walls checkbox is checked, the dialog box will have two tabs. The second tab
(Fig. 9.6-2) enables to specify the maximum distances (between walls and between lower nodes along the
vertical), at which the software should consider two walls as such that have to be connected.
The procedure for performing this operation is as follows: invoke the operation, specify the
parameters, select the elements, confirm (by clicking the OK button).
Clicking the arrow drops down the menu (Fig. 9.6-3), in which you can select only one of the above
operations. Moreover, the menu contains the Connect floors along the vertical item, which enables to
invoke the dialog box (Fig. 9.6-4), where you can select whether the created floors should be aligned along
the upper or lower faces.
Figure 9.6-3. Menu of operations
Figure 9.6-4. The Connect Elements dialog box

It should be noted that when the walls and floors are connected, the floor does not change its position
– the operation is performed by extending the wall.
Correcting Openings
The problem of incorrect placement of openings with respect to the wall or floor usually arises when
importing data from architectural systems. Sometimes this can be done on purpose in FORUM to model
doorways by moving the window to the contour of the wall (by moving nodes). The considered operation
is used to eliminate this kind of inaccuracies of the model. The intersecting openings (Fig. 9.6-5, a) will be
combined into one opening in the result, and the contour of the opening crossing the contour of the element
will form a new contour (Fig. 9.6-5, b). In order to perform the operation invoke it, select the elements
with an incorrect arrangement of openings and click the OK button in the toolbar.
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a) b)
Figure 9.6-5. Openings before (a) and after (b) performing the operation of correcting
Delete Openings
This operation enables to delete openings in the elements of walls, floors and roofs.
Figure 9.6-6. The Delete Openings dialog box
The following procedure is used to perform it:

− invoke the operation and the Delete Openings dialog box will appear (Fig. 9.6-6);
− select an element in the model or in the project tree which contains an opening or openings you want
to delete;
− the Delete Openings dialog box displays the list of openings of the selected element indicating the
numbers of nodes of each opening;
− select the opening you want to delete in the list (the opening will be highlighted in the model) and
click the Delete button in the dialog box;
− repeat the previous action for other openings of this element you want to delete;
− after this operation without closing the dialog box select the next element in the model or in the
project tree which contains openings you want to delete and repeat the above actions;
− close the dialog box after deleting the openings.
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If when selecting one element, there are several elements in the cursor target at once, you can select it
in the Elements in the Cursor Target dialog box.
If one or several elements were selected before invoking this operation, the element with the
minimum number will be selected automatically.
Extend the Bar to the Plate
This operation enables to extend a bar (column of beam) to the selected planar object (floor or wall).
In order to perform the operation invoke it, select the objects you want to apply this operation to and click
the OK button in the toolbar.
Expansion of the Plate by an Offset from the Faces
The operation is used to change the dimensions of the plate by constructing an equidistant line, i.e. a
line equidistant from all faces of the plate by the specified distance. Information necessary for performing
the operation is specified in the respective dialog box (Fig. 9.6-7) and includes the value of the offset
(distance from the faces). The Change the external contour and Change contours of holes checkboxes
define the rules for performing the operation and enable to construct an equidistant for only one type of
contour or specify different values of the offset for the outer contour and holes.
If the contour is non-convex and the value of offset is such that after changing the dimensions the
faces intersect, an envelope is constructed without taking such segments into account (i.e. the contour on
such a segment will become convex).
Figure 9.6-7. The Expansion of the Plate by an Offset from the Faces dialog box
Divide Plates along the Intersection Line
The mutual intersection of planar objects is taken into account in the process of an automatic
generation of a finite element mesh at the transition from the FORUM preprocessor to the SCAD
preprocessor. The mesh is generated “on both sides” of the intersection line (Fig. 9.6-8).
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a) b)
c) d)
Figure 9.6-8. a) Intersection of two planar objects in FORUM

b) the result of an automatic mesh generation in SCAD preprocessor
c) the same objects after performing the Divide plates along the intersection line operation
d) after deleting “redundant” objects
In those cases when a part of the element lying on one side of the intersection line should not get into
the design model, you can use the Divide plates along the intersection line operation, and each planar
element will be divided into several parts along the intersection lines with other planar elements. In this
case "redundant" elements can be deleted with the help of the FORUM preprocessor.
In order to perform the operation you have to invoke it, select the intersecting objects in the model
and click the OK button in the toolbar.
Before performing the generation of a finite element mesh the check of planar objects is performed. In
those cases when non-planar elements are detected in the model, a message is generated. If you continue
the generation (ignore the message), the finite element mesh in the area of intersection of the non-planar
elements might be generated incorrectly.
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Operations with a Pair of Planar Objects
If two planar objects lying in the same plane have a non-empty intersection, this operation enables to
perform their union, intersection, ... The type of operation is selected in the dialog box (Fig. 9.6-9), which
appears after clicking the button .
Figure 9.6-9. The Operations with a Pair of Planar Objects dialog box
You have to select the necessary operation in this dialog box, select two planar objects lying in the
same plane in the model, and click the OK button in the toolbar. An example of using the operation of
union is shown in Figure 9.6-10.
a) b)
Figure 9.6-10. Intersecting planar elements before a) and after b)

performing the operation of union
Create Surfaces of Revolution
This operation is similar to that described in Section 5.6. The only difference is that only plate models
can be generated here, and the user has to specify the type (floor, roof or wall) of the newly created
elements.
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Division of floors and walls by beams and columns lying in their

plane
This operation is used in those cases when the floor slabs and/or walls have to be divided into several
parts using the lines passing through beams and columns lying in their plane as a separation line.
The most typical example of using this operation is the preparation for the transfer of information
about the geometry of the model from the FORUM preprocessor to MONOLIT.
In MONOLIT the general floor layout is arranged on the orthogonal grid of nodes located at the
intersections of structural members – beams, walls and columns. Floors are supported on the load-bearing
walls and columns. The load on the columns and walls is transferred through a system of secondary and
main beams, and also directly to the walls, if the slab is supported on them.
The considered operation is used in those cases when the model generated in FORUM has to be
modified taking into account the rules provided in MONOLIT, i.e. divide the specified floor section along
the beam lines.
 invoke it by clicking the button in the Operations with Elements toolbar;
 select only the elements (beams, columns, floors, and walls) involved in this operations;
 click the OK button in the toolbar.
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9.7. Project Tree

The project tree is created automatically in the process of the
generation of the model. The tree includes a panel with a set of
control buttons, the actual project tree and the status bar with
the name of the active module.
The tree has a multi-level structure and includes the
following levels of representation of the model: model, module,
group of elements, element. There are five types of groups of
elements: columns, walls, beams, floors, roofs. The control of
the tree is performed with the help of two types of marker-
buttons of type a and b.
Name of the module
Name of the element
Number of the element
Figure 9.7-2. Fragment of the project tree

Markers of type a are used to unfold or fold a tree
level beside which they stand. An unfolded group of elements
Floors is shown in the figure. If there is no marker of type a, it
means, that there are no elements of the respective type in the
module.

Markers of type b are used to disable ( ) and enable ( ) the display of objects on the screen. You can
disable the whole model (for example, in order to make only one module visible), one or several modules,
groups of elements and individual elements.
An active module is an important concept when working with the tree. New elements are
automatically included only in the active module. The name of the active module is recorded in the status
bar under the project tree, and it is marked by a gray rectangle in the tree. In order to activate the module
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you have to click on its name in the tree. Besides the active module a group of elements and an individual
element (it is highlighted in color in the model) can be active.
Control Panel
Controls take up the upper part of the panel of the project tree (Fig. 9.7-3). They include the following
buttons: Delete, Properties, Select and Modify.
The Delete button enables to delete the active objects
(selected in the tree). This applies to the whole model, and to
modules, groups, and individual elements. The Properties
button is used to access and adjust the parameters of the active
element. Clicking the Select button selects the active object in
the model. The Modify button is used to modify the geometry
(for example, to specify the openings) of such elements as
Figure 9.7-3. Controls on the panel of walls, floors and roofs.
the project tree
View and Adjust the Parameters of Elements

Parameters of the objects selected in the tree can be viewed or adjusted using the Properties button.
If the model (the upper level) is an active object in the tree, then the General Information on the
Project dialog box (Fig. 9.7-4) appears after clicking this button. It provides data on the numerical
characteristics of the model. If the module is active, the Parameters of the Module dialog box appears
(Fig. 9.7-5), which contains its name and color.
The color can be changed in the standard Color dialog box
which appears after clicking on the color field. If an element is
selected in the tree, for example, “floor”, the Characteristics of
the Floor/Roof (Slab) dialog box appears (Fig. 9.7-6), which
provides information on the area of the section and length, or on
the area of the element and thickness depending on the type of
the element.
Figure 9.7-4. The General Information

on the Project dialog box
Figure 9.7-6. The Characteristics of the Floor/Roof (Slab)

dialog box
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Module dialog box
Adjusting the Geometry of Elements

If a two-dimensional element (wall, floor, roof) is active, you can use the Modify button to adjust the
geometry of the elements of such type. In this case adjusting means changing the borders (contour) of the
element, creating window and door openings, holes etc. A special program, which is actually a
modification of Consul, is invoked to perform the above operations.
Consul and FORUM operate with different objects; the concept of contour is used to describe them.
It is a bar section in the first program, and a structural member — in the second one.
A contour can be external, i.e. a boundary of the element. Internal contour is a boundary of a hole or
an opening. Vertices of the contour are nodes in terms of the model. The window of the adjusting program
(Fig. 9.7-7) includes a menu, a toolbar, a work area (with scrollbars when necessary) and a status bar.
All actions are performed in the work area with a cursor. When moving the cursor over the screen or
when performing some commands, the shape of the cursor changes. For example, when selecting an item
from the menu or the toolbar the cursor takes the form of an arrow, when processing a command the cursor
turns into an hourglass (busy cursor). If the cursor is placed over the section contour, it is displayed as a
cross with its center coordinates defining its current position.
When placed over the node the
cursor takes the form of a cross with a
target.
standard cursor — for
selecting a function, a mode or an
operation;
cross with a central target —
for selecting one node;
Dimensions
cross with a rectangle — for
selecting a group of nodes or elements
by a rectangular or polygonal marquee;
cursor is used to move nodes,
Figure 9.7-7. Window of the program openings and holes, and to copy and
for adjusting the geometry of the elements duplicate them.
Coordinates of the current position of the cursor are output in the second field of the status bar.
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Dimensions of the Element
This operation enables to change the dimensions of the

work area the element is displayed in, and it is used in those
cases when the adjustment deals for example with increasing
the dimensions of the element. Dimensions are specified in the
Overall Dimensions dialog box (Fig. 9.7-8). After closing this
dialog box a rectangle limiting the new dimensions of the
element is displayed in the work area.
Figure 9.7-8. The Overall Dimensions

dialog box
Coordinate Grid
You can use a coordinate grid to make the adjustment of elements more convenient. Parameters of a
coordinate grid are specified in the Grid Settings dialog box (Fig. 9.7-9), which opens once you invoke
the respective command. The text fields of this dialog enable you to specify horizontal and vertical grid
spacing, and an angle of the grid in degrees with respect to the horizontal axis. The grid is rotated about the
origin. This operation can be also invoked from the Parameters menu (Grid spacing item).
It should be noted that the grid spacing and its angle can be changed many times during the creation
of the internal contours (openings and holes) or editing the external one.
The program implements the mode of snapping the cursor
to the nodes of the grid, which facilitates the adjustment of the
geometry of the elements. Initialization of the snapping mode is
performed by clicking the button in the toolbar. If this
mode is enabled when you create and adjust the contours of
elements and openings, the new nodes will be automatically
snapped to the grid node nearest to the cursor.
Figure 9.7-9. The Grid Settings dialog The grid will be displayed once its parameters are entered
box (Fig. 9.7-9). Its visualization is turned on and off by the button
, in the toolbar.
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Edit the External Contour
Clicking the Polygonal External Contour button in the toolbar invokes the operation of editing the
external contour of the element.
Place the cursor over any point of the contour to
start the editing. After the cursor changes its shape
(to a cross for an arbitrary point or to a cross with a
target for a vertex), press the left mouse button and
“drag” the selected point to a new position. The new
vertex is fixed by double-clicking the left mouse
button. An element with an edited external contour is
shown in Fig. 9.7-10. Particular attention should be
paid to door openings which are basically “recesses”
in the external contour, and not holes.
Figure 9.7-10. Editing the external contour
When moving the vertices the intersection of the sides of the external contour
and the intersection of sides of the internal contour with those of the external one
are not allowed.
Creating Openings and Holes

The program provides three types of commands for creating the internal contours:
 creating a contour in the form of a closed polygon — button in the toolbar;

 creating a contour in the form of a circle with dynamically assigned sizes (Edit menu);
 creating a contour in the form of a circle with a given radius (Edit menu).
The sequence of operations for creating and editing a contour in the form of a closed polygon does
not differ from that for an external contour.
When creating an internal contour in the form of a circle with
a dynamically assigned radius, place the cursor over a point of the
section corresponding to the center of the circle, click and hold the
left mouse button, and drag the cursor until you reach the required
dimensions of the circle. Double click the left mouse button or click
the left mouse button and press the spacebar on the keyboard to fix
Figure 9.7-11. The Radius dialog
the contour of the hole. If you want to interrupt this operation, click
box
the right mouse button.
If the operation with specifying the radius of a circle is selected, it is performed in the respective
dialog box (Fig. 9.7-11). After closing the dialog box (the OK button) in order to create a hole you just
have to click on the snap point of the center of the circle and click the left mouse button.
The number of points (nodes) on the circle is specified with the help of the operation which is
initialized by clicking the button in the toolbar. The number of points on the arc is proportional to the
length of the arc.
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When creating polygonal internal contours, their intersection with the

external one and with each other is not allowed.
When specifying the number of points on a circle, remember that if the
specified number of points on the arc is too big, it can lead to the appearance
of degenerated finite elements and as a result to the loss of the accuracy of
the solution.
Parametric Holes
This command is invoked from the Edit menu (Fig. 9.7-
12) and enables you to create a rectangular or circular hole with
specified dimensions and base point. Data for performing the
operation are specified in the Parametric Hole dialog box. The
type of hole (Circular or Rectangular) can be selected with the
help of the radio buttons. Position of the point by which a
rectangular hole will be snapped to the point with the
coordinates specified in the dialog box (Y, Z) is selected from
the Base point drop-down list. The hole will appear after
closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Figure 9.7-12. The Parametric Hole

dialog box
Delete Holes and Openings
To delete a hole or an opening, invoke this command, place the cursor over any point inside the
internal contour you want to delete and click the left mouse button.
Round an Angle
An angle can be rounded by inscribing a circular arc of a given radius in it. After you invoke this
command, place the cursor over a vertex of the contour (internal or external) and when the cursor takes the
form of a cross with a target, click the left mouse button. In the invoked Radius dialog box (Fig. 9.7-13),
specify a radius and click the OK button.
An element with rounded angles is shown in Fig. 9.7-14. The number of points (nodes) on the full
circle is specified with the help of the Number of points on the circle operation which is initialized by
clicking the button in the toolbar. The number of points on the arc will be proportional to the length of
the arc.
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Figure 9.7-13. The Radius dialog

box
Figure 9.7-14. A door opening with rounded corners

Create an Arc on the Contour
This command enables to construct an arc on the internal or external contour. It is constructed through
three points, two of which (the beginning and end of the arc) must lie on the contour. The contour can
“bend” both inwards into the body of the element, and outwards. The first and the last point may lie on the
adjacent sides of the contour. Number of nodes on the arc depends on the number of points on the full
circle specified with the help of the Number of points on the circle operation and will be proportional to
the length of the arc.
a) b) c)
Figure 9.7-15. Create an arc on the contour:

a) on a straight section of the contour; b) on the adjacent sides of the contour; c) “into the body” of the
contour
An arc cannot go beyond the boundary of the element. If this happens, then before constructing the
arc you need to change the overall dimensions using the respective command, and then with the help of the
Move Vertices item move the element within the new limits so that the arc does not intersect the boundary
of the element. Perform the following steps to construct an arc:
 place the cursor over the beginning point of the arc and left-click;
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 place the cursor over the ending point of the arc and left-click;
 place the cursor over the third point (the arc will be displayed on the screen) and left-click.
Examples of using the Arc command are shown in the Fig. 9.7-15. An initial arc and the final result
are shown for each case.
Case c) shows the results of changing the contour “into the body” of the element, case b) — on the
adjacent sides, case a) — on the straight section of the contour. It should be noted that in case c) we did not
have to change the dimensions of the element.
Move Nodes
This command enables to move a group of nodes selected by a rectangular or polygonal marquee.
Follow these steps to perform this operation:
− invoke the command;
− select a marquee in the drop-down menu;
− select the nodes you want to move with a marquee;
− move the cursor inside the marquee and when it changes its shape, move the marquee together with
the selected nodes to a new position.
The new position of the nodes is fixed by clicking the left
mouse button.
If you need to move the nodes by a specified distance, then
after you move the cursor inside the marquee, click the right
mouse button and specify the displacement value in the Move
Figure 9.7-16. The Move dialog box dialog box (Fig. 9.7-16).
When moving the nodes the intersection of sides of the external

contour of the element, and the intersection of polygonal openings with
the external contour are not allowed.
Copy Holes and Openings
This command enables to copy one or more openings (holes) selected by a rectangular or polygonal
marquee. To do this, follow these steps:
− invoke this command;
− select the type of a marquee in the drop-down menu;
− select the openings you want to copy by this marquee (all nodes
of the openings must be selected by the marquee);
− move the cursor into the marquee, and after the cursor changes
its shape, click the left mouse button, and move the marquee
together with the selected openings to a new position;
− confirm the new position by clicking the left mouse button.
Figure 9.7-17. The Copy dialog box
If the copy of the hole has to be put into a certain place inside the element, then click the right mouse
button after moving the cursor into the marquee, the Copy dialog box (Fig. 9.7-17) will appear where you
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have to specify the value of the displacement. The openings will be copied after closing the dialog box and
When moving the openings their intersection with each other and the
intersection of sides of the openings with those of the external contour are
not allowed.
Duplicate Holes and Openings
This command enables to duplicate one or several openings (holes) selected by the marquee several
times. To do this, follow these steps:
− select the type of a marquee in the drop-down menu;
− select the openings you want to duplicate by this marquee (all
nodes of the openings must be selected by the marquee);
− move the cursor into the marquee, and after the cursor
changes its shape click the right mouse button;
− the Copy dialog box (Fig. 9.7-18) will appear where you
have to specify the values of the displacement along the axes
and the number of copies;
Figure 9.7-18. The Copy dialog box − click the OK button in the dialog box, it will close, and the
operation of duplicating will be performed.
When copying the openings their intersection with each other and the
intersection of sides of the openings with those of the external contour are
not allowed.
Edit the Coordinates of the Nodes
This command enables to edit the coordinates of the nodes

in a tabular form. Click on the Table of Vertices button and
this table (Fig. 9.7-19) will appear on the left from the work
area. The dialog box includes a list of contours in the order of
their creation and the table with the coordinates of vertices
selected from the contour list. Perform the following steps to
edit the position of nodes:
− select a contour from the list;
− change the coordinates of nodes in the table of
coordinates (the nodes will be marked on the contour
with color circles);
Figure 9.7-19. Coordinates of vertices
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− or delete the selected node (the Delete and Undo delete buttons);
− confirm the obtained result (button ).
The button cancels the last action on editing the contour performed before clicking the
confirmation button .
When moving the nodes the intersection of the sides of the external
contour of the element and the intersection of sides of the holes and
openings with those of the external contour are not allowed.
Delete the Nodes
This command enables to delete nodes of both the external and internal contours of the element. To
do this, follow these steps:
− select the type of cursor in the drop-down menu (for selecting one node or a marquee for deleting
several nodes);
− click on the node you want to delete or select a group of nodes you want to delete with a marquee;
− click the left mouse button.
Show Grid
This button is used to enable/disable the display of a coordinate grid within the dimensions of the
element.
Snap Cursor to the Grid
If this button is pressed, when creating and adjusting the contours of elements or openings the vertices
(nodes) will be automatically snapped to the nearest node of the coordinate grid.
Nodes on the Circle
This operation enables to specify the number of nodes on the full circle which will be used when
rounding angles and creating round holes. 21 points are specified by default.
When specifying the number of nodal points on the circle you should
remember that by increasing their number you reduce the distance
between them and degenerate elements can appear in the result in the
process of generation of a finite element mesh and consequently the
accuracy of solution can be lost.
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Show Nodes
If this button is pressed, the nodes are displayed on the external and internal contours of the elements.
9.8. Display Filters

Filters (Fig. 9.1-1) are used to control the display of the model and perform the same functions as in the
case of a finite element model.
9.9. Specifying Loads

The FORUM preprocessor enables to specify temporary and permanent loads (including loads from the
self-weight of structural members). Loads can be defined by characteristic or design values. Moreover,
they can be given as loadings or as groups of loads which are formed at the moment of generation of the
finite element model.
The mode is based on the principle of snapping the load to floors (slabs) depending on the functional
purpose of rooms to which they belong (except for the load from the self-weight, which is determined
automatically for all the elements of the structure).
The Loads toolbar contains the following set of buttons for the control of the load specification
process:
— parameters of the load specification mode;

— tables of loads;
— specify the types of rooms;
— delete loads.
Parameters of the Load Specification Mode
The operation is used to set the mode of formation of loadings in the process of generating a finite
element model. The setting is performed in the Characteristics of Loads dialog box (Fig. 9.9-1).
Figure 9.9-1. The Characteristics of Loads dialog box

The dialog box includes three text fields for specifying safety factors for load that are used when
generating the design loads. The dialog box also contains two groups of radio buttons which enable to
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select values with which the loads will be considered in the finite element model (characteristic or design),
and the representation of loads – in the form of groups of loads or loadings.
If the mode of generating groups of loads is selected, each type of load will be included in a separate
group. The formation of loadings from groups is performed in the SCAD preprocessor.
Tables of Loads
The control of the process of formation of loads in the automatic mode of the load specification (only
the automatic mode is available in this version) is performed based on the data recorded in the tables of the
Description of Loads dialog box (Fig. 9.9-2, 9.9-3). The dialog box includes three tabs with tables, two of
which contain the description of permanent and temporary loads (reduced to one square meter of floor) and
the third one contains a table with the rules of distribution of permanent loads depending on the type of
room (Allowing for Permanent Loads tab). The initial content of the tables is conventionally called
"standard" and can be changed by the user.
A set of permanent loads (for example, the self-weight of floor slab, the weight of floors and the
weight of partitions) and only one temporary load can correspond to each type of room.
Permanent Loads
Permanent loads can include both loads from the self-weight of the structural members and other types of
load.
The list of permanent loads and their values are given in the table in the Permanent Loads tab of the
Description of Loads dialog box (Fig. 9.9-2). The table contains characteristic and design values of loads,
and the safety factor for load.
Load from the self-weight is formed automatically and changes with the parameters of the structural
members of the model. In order to automatically take the self-weight of elements into account you have to
check the respective checkbox in the considered tab.
Figure 9.9-2. The Description of Loads dialog Figure 9.9-3. The Description of Loads dialog box,
box, the Permanent Loads tab the Temporary Loads tab
The program enables to supplement or change the original list of loads. The buttons at the bottom of
the dialog box are used to do this.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify a new type of load:
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− click the Add button, and a new line will appear in the table;
− specify the name of the load in the Name column;
− specify the characteristic and design values of loads in the Characteristic value and Design value
columns. The value of the safety factor for load will be specified automatically after switching to
another tab or opening the Description of Loads dialog box for the second time (it is actually enough
to fill any two columns — the third one will be filled automatically);
− in order to use a list of permanent loads including a newly specified type of load when working with
other projects you have to click the Save button and specify the name of the file which can be loaded
into another project with the help of the Load button in the standard dialog box.
You can return the default state of the table when necessary using the Default button.
Load values are given in units of force per unit area (for example, in t/m2).
Temporary Loads
By default this table mainly corresponds to the table of SNiP “Loads and Actions”. Loads given in the
table are applied only to the floor slabs. The snap of the load to the floor is specified automatically
depending on the type of room specified for the considered floor in the Characteristics of the Floor/Roof
(Slab) dialog box (Fig. 9.9-5). Thus, in order to specify the loads correctly, floors on different functional
areas of the storey have to be specified by different floor elements. Assigning a type of the room to a part
of the element is not provided in the software.
Rules for working with the Temporary Loads table for changing the content of the table are similar
to those described above for the Permanent Loads table.
Figure 9.9-4. The Description of Loads dialog box, Figure 9.9-5. The Characteristics of the
the Allowing for Permanent Loads tab Floor/Roof (Slab) dialog box
Allowing for Permanent Loads

This table (Fig. 9.9-4) contains rules for snapping permanent loads to floors depending on the type of
rooms. Types of rooms repeating the list in the table of temporary loads are specified in the first column of
the table. The second column shows the color which will be used to display the rooms of this type in the
model after activating the Types of rooms filter — . Other columns the names of which coincide with
the list of permanent loads contain checkboxes indicating (when checked) the presence of this type of load
in the room of a certain type.
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If the respective checkboxes are checked for each type of room, then in the process of generating a
design model the loads will be added or included into different groups the names of which will coincide
with the name of the source of the load depending on whether the loadings or groups of loads are created.
Thus, the process of forming loads comes down to an automatic determination of loads from the self-
weight for all elements of the model, and to the specification of a set of permanent loads and a temporary
load depending on the type of room for each floor.
Peculiarities of Allowing for the Self-Weight of Enclosing

Structures and Partitions
If the loads from the self-weight are automatically taken into
account in the model, the loads from the enclosing structures
and partitions of different type can be taken into account in
two ways. Firstly, as a uniformly distributed load (in this case
the respective checkboxes are checked in the table of
permanent loads) and secondly, as a load "along the line". In
the second case the partitions or enclosing structures have to
be created in an integrated model as walls, and when
describing their characteristics the "Partition" item has to be
selected in the Purpose of the wall list in the Characteristics
Figure 9.9-6. The Characteristics of of the Wall dialog box (Fig. 9.9-6).
the Wall dialog box
If the whole partition or it's part is over the opening, the load from it will not be
transferred.
Specify the Types of Rooms
Types of rooms can be specified both in the process of

creating floor slabs, and in the finished model. In the latter
case, you should use the respective operation. Once it is
invoked the dialog box appears (Fig. 9.9-7), the drop-down list
of which contains all types of rooms from the Temporary
Loads table of the Description of Loads dialog box (Fig. 9.9-
Figure 9.9-7. The Specify the Types 3). The Loads button enables to see the list (and parameters)
of Rooms dialog box of permanent loads corresponding to the selected type of
rooms in accordance with the table of loads.
After selecting the necessary type of room in the list and closing the dialog box by clicking the OK
button you have to select the floors in the model this type is assigned to, and click the button in the
toolbar.
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Delete Loads
If you invoke this operation, select the floors in the model and click the button in the toolbar,
then the selected elements will not have a specified type of room, and the loads will not be applied to them
during the generation of the finite element model.
Control of the Permanent Loads
The Types of rooms filter enables to obtain a color scale of the types of rooms (Fig. 9.9-8,a) and,
respectively, of the permanent loads on the floors. The control of this color scale is similar to the control of
other scales, for example, of stiffness properties of elements. In order to obtain a summary table of loads
applied to the floor of a room of a particular type, you have to double-click on the column of a color scale
with the name of the rooms.
a)
Figure 9.9-9. The Permanent Loads dialog box

The [Element No.…] Specify the Types of
Rooms dialog box (Fig. 9.9-8, b) opens in the result. It
enables to change the type of the room, and the Loads
button of this dialog box enables to invoke the
Permanent Loads dialog box (Fig. 9.9-9) with a table,
which lists loads applied to the floor of this type, and
b)
contains their characteristic and design values (reduced
Figure 9.9-8. The Types of rooms color scale to a unit area), and shows the total load per 1 m2, with
the exception of the self-weight.
9.10. Export the Model to SCAD
The button invoking the operation of generating the project in the input formats of the SCAD
complex is in the Model section of the toolbar. The mode of exporting data into SCAD enables to save the
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information in the formats of the FORUM preprocessor (files with the extension .opr), and in the formats
of the SCAD project (files with the extension .spr).
Planar objects of the following type Floor, Wall, Roof and bar elements — Column and Beam are
transferred into SCAD and are represented in the complex by elements of type 1080, 1060, 1085, 1020 and
1040 respectively.
In order to make a design model from an integrated one, it is necessary to specify the types of bar
elements for the respective bar objects, and perform meshing of the planar objects (the complex
automatically recognizes the selected planar object as a meshing contour). All parameters of objects
(properties of the material, shape and dimensions of the section etc.) are saved for all obtained finite
elements. The figures show an integrated model in FORUM preprocessor (Fig. 9.10-1) and in SCAD
complex (Fig. 9.10-2).
Figure 9.10-1. Integrated model in FORUM Figure 9.10-2. Finite element model in SCAD
preprocessor complex
Generation of a Finite Element Model

An automatic generation of a finite element model can be performed on the basis of an integrated model. In
this case the control of the generation of a finite element mesh is performed in the Generate the SCAD
Project dialog box (Fig. 9.10-3). Here, as in the previous case, the finite elements inherit all parameters of
objects (properties of the material, shape and dimensions of the section etc.).
This dialog box appears after invoking the Generate the resulting project operation — in the
Model section of the toolbar.
In order to align finite element meshes of different planar elements it is necessary to first of all align
their borders, i.e. contours of the elements. A single contour division step is specified in the respective text
field of the considered dialog box. This step is constant for external and internal contours of the elements,
and for bar elements lying inside the contour of planar elements.
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Regardless of the value of the contour division step,

custom values of the mesh spacing can be specified for walls,
floors and roofs. This enables, for example, to generate a
relatively fine mesh on floors, where the reinforcement will be
selected, and a coarse mesh on walls, which will be used in the
model only to transfer wind loads.
In those cases when a detailed analysis and design has to be
performed not for all modules of the design model, you can change
the parameters of the mesh for certain types of elements for each
module.
Figure 9.10-3. The Generate the SCAD

Project dialog box
This is done in the Clarification of the Parameters of Generation of the Resulting Project dialog
box (Fig. 9.10-4), which can be invoked by clicking the Specify the FE mesh spacing button. This dialog box
contains a table with the names of modules and mesh spacing for dividing planar elements in each module.
Since the contours of elements are divided with the same spacing, the alignment of the mesh is provided
throughout the whole model.
Groups of elements are generated automatically together with the generation of the mesh in the design
model. Finite elements that belong to one object and all elements belonging to a module are combined into
groups by default. Rules for creating groups can be changed in the Control the Creation of the Groups of
Elements dialog box, which can be invoked by clicking the respective button.
An option corresponds to each type of grouped elements
in this dialog box (Fig. 9.10-5). Moreover, you can invoke the
project tree by clicking the Specify button, where you can
include or exclude them from the groups by checking or
unchecking the respective checkboxes.
If the Rigid body in the joint of the column and floor
slab intersection checkbox is checked in the Generate the
SCAD Project dialog box, then in the process of generation of
the finite element mesh this mesh will be generated taking into
account the sizes of the column sections at the points of
junction of columns to the floor slabs, and the finite elements
within the column sections will be replaced by the rigid bodies.
Figure 9.10-4. The Clarification of the If the Taking into account the punching analysis checkbox
Parameters of Generation of the is checked as well, both rigid bodies and finite elements in the
Resulting Project dialog box column section will be generated in the joint (Fig. 9.10-9).
Clicking the Control button on the right from the
considered options invokes the Control dialog box (Fig. 9.10-
6), where you can check the respective checkboxes to indicate
the floor slabs for which the mesh will be generated taking into
account the sizes of the column sections and the punching
analysis.
After closing the Generate the SCAD Project dialog
box by clicking the OK button, a standard Save As … dialog
box appears where you have to specify the name of the file of
the resulting model.
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The process of generating a finite element mesh is

reflected by an indicator (Fig. 9.10-7) in the message window
and can be interrupted by clicking the Cancel button.
Figure 9.10-7. The Generation process message window
Figure 9.10-5. The Control the

Creation of the Groups of Elements
dialog box
Figure 9.10-6. The Control dialog box
Every time you specify the spacing of a finite element mesh, you should keep
in mind that if the spacing is too small, the dimension of the problem can exceed
the capabilities of your computer of storing work files and files of the results of
calculation. It is recommended to specify a small spacing only for those objects of
the model for which it is necessary (it is usually done in those cases when it is
expected to perform the selection of reinforcement).
Modeling the Joint of the Column and Floor Slab Intersection

If the Refinement of the mesh under the columns checkbox is checked in the Generate the SCAD
Project dialog box (Fig. 9.10-3), then at the generation of a finite element model the mode of generating a
mesh modeling the intersection area will be activated in the areas of the column and slab intersection. The
area is a rigid body the dimensions of which are equal to the overall dimensions of the rectangle
corresponding to the column section. Depending on the position of the column with respect to the edge of
the slab the area will have a different configuration. For example, Figure 9.10-8 shows the configuration of
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a rectangular column bearing areas on the plate in the middle of the plate - a) and at the edge of - b), c), d)
these configurations and the corresponding rigid bodies. For example, Figure 9.10-8 shows the
configuration of the bearing areas of the rectangular column on the slab in the middle of the slab – a) and
on the edge – b), c), d) and rigid bodies corresponding to these configurations.
a) b) c) d)
Figure 9.10-8. Modeling the area of intersection of a column and a floor slab
In some cases the program can not automatically generate the intersection area (for example, if the
distance between the columns or between the face of the column and the edge of the slab is very small).
The results of the automatic mesh generation should always be controlled and, if necessary, the
adjustments should be made in the design model.
The result of the generation also depends on whether the Taking into account the punching analysis
checkbox is checked (Fig. 9.10-9):
Figure 9.10-9. Joints (without the punching analysis option and with it).
Accounting for Loads

Parameters of a finite element model are specified in the Generate the SCAD Project dialog box, which
can be invoked by the Generate the resulting project operation. Loadings or groups of loads will be
generated only if the Accounting for the specified information on the loads checkbox is checked.
If the generation of groups of loads is provided in the settings of the project, a separate group will be
created for each type of load, for example "Self-weight", "Floors in the building" etc. In the case of the
generation of loadings the distribution of loads among different loadings is performed by the user.
The distribution is performed in the Generate Loadings dialog box (Fig. 9.10-8), which appears after
clicking the OK button in the Generate the SCAD Project dialog box. It is recommended to use the
following procedure in this dialog box:
− specify the name of the loading in the Name of the loading field;
− use the radio buttons to select the type of loads included in the current loading (permanent or
temporary), and the list of the respective loads will be shown in the left table;
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− select the load included in the current loading in the table and transfer it into the right table (the list
of loads included in the current loading) by clicking the button with a single arrow;
− repeat the last action for other loads included in this loading (if all loads from the left table are
included in the loading, you can use the button with two arrows);
− click the Save as new button to save the loading under the specified name.
Figure 9.10-8. The Generate Loadings dialog box

The load value is specified in the second column of the right table, and the coefficient with which this
load will be included in the loading is specified in the third one. The coefficient can be changed if
necessary. You should keep in mind that the values given in the table correspond to the settings of the load
generation mode, i.e. if the design values were specified in the settings, they will be in the table as well (in
this case the multiplication by the safety factor for load is already performed). An exception is the load
from the self-weight, the value of which is not given in the table, because it depends on the section and
material of different elements.
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Results of Generation Dialog Box

The Results of Generation dialog box (Fig. 9.10-9) appears
after completing the generation of a finite element design
model. It provides the information on the number of elements
and nodes obtained in the resulting model, and also a list of
planar objects for which the mesh generation failed for some
reasons. By default these objects will be included in the
resulting project as contours (elements of type 1080, 1060,
1085). If you check the Delete elements from the resulting
project checkbox, the contours will be deleted. If the
Fragment elements checkbox is checked, only these elements
will be left on the screen of FORUM.
If you check the Open in a new window checkbox before
closing this dialog box, the generated model will be loaded
automatically.
Figure 9.10-9. The Results of

Generation dialog box
Figure 9.10-10. Model generated in the FORUM preprocessor
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Figure 9.10-11. Finite element model in SCAD Figure 9.10-12. Results of the calculation
complex
Fig. 9.10-11 shows the generated finite element model of the problem given in Fig. 9.10-10. Fig. 9.10-12
shows this model at the analysis of the results of the calculation in SCAD complex.
When generating a finite element model the directions of local axes of plate
elements are not tracked automatically. By default, the direction of the output of forces in
finite elements occupying a vertical position in the resulting model will coincide with the
direction of the Z axis of the global coordinate system, and in other elements – with the
direction of the X axis. If, on the basis of any considerations, for example, the direction
of the layout of reinforcement bars, another direction of the output of forces is preferable,
it can be specified with the help of the respective operation in FORUM or in a finite
element preprocessor.
9.11. Connection with Architectural and Graphic Systems

Creating a design model for the strength analysis of bearing structural members of buildings and structures
is quite a difficult problem. A design model is based on the geometric sizes and topology of the
architectural part of the project. The widespread introduction of specialized software systems into the
architectural design has enabled not only to automate the design process, but also to get a numerical model
of the design object, i.e. its description in the database of the architectural system. Therefore the problem
of organizing access to this information and creating a design model on its basis is very important.
Naturally, the design model is not a copy of the architectural solution. However, the main dimensions,
snaps of the columns and bearing walls, floor outline, the position of openings and holes largely repeat
those specified by the architect. This enables to perform an automated generation only of the integrated
design model based on the data of the architectural solution. Automatic generation of a detailed design
model (but not complete) on the basis of the integrated model is possible only for a very narrow class of
simple objects. This is due to the fact that most systems of strength analysis of structures are based on the
finite element method, and for their design models, in addition to the geometric data taken from the
architectural design and supplemented by generating a finite element mesh you also have to specify the
boundary conditions, the data on the physical and mechanical properties of materials, and the information
on loads. This requires specifying additional information necessary to perform the strength analysis.
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It is necessary to perform the following actions to generate a design model on the basis of an
architectural solution:
1. Generate the integrated design model of the building consisting of such objects as columns, beams,
walls, floors (slabs) and the roof on the basis of the internal representation of data of the architectural
system;
2. Delete objects from the structural model which are not included in the design model, for example,
partitions, enclosing elements, architectural details, etc;
3. Adjust, if necessary, the position of objects in the design model and supplement it with new elements
not taken into account in the architectural solution;
4. Automatic or user-controlled generation of a finite element mesh with the simultaneous specification
of stiffness properties of finite elements;
5. Specify the boundary conditions of elements;
6. Specify loads and special initial data.
The last two operations are performed in SCAD complex, where additional modifications can be
made to the design model.
Software tools for exporting data into formats of the FORUM preprocessor project are developed for
such popular architectural systems as Revit Structure, ArchiCAD, ALLPLAN, and others.
9.12. Example of Creating a Model in the FORUM

Preprocessor
As an example, let’s consider the generation of a very
simple model (Fig. 9.12-1) in the FORUM preprocessor. The
following procedure can be recommended to do this:
− (action 1) click the New project button — in the
Control section of the toolbar, specify the identification
data of the project and the units of measurement of the
main values in the New Project dialog box (hereinafter, it
Figure 9.12-1. Design model is assumed that the dialog box is closed after specifying
the data by clicking the OK button);
− (2) the Save As… dialog box will appear where you have
to specify the name of the file the project will be saved in;.
− (3) click the Specify grid lines button — in the Model
section of the toolbar and specify the parameters of grid
lines in the Specify Grid Lines dialog box (click the filters
Figure 9.12-2. The Create Nodes at the button — Display grid lines to display the grid lines).
Intersection of Grid Lines dialog box
(4) Click the Generate nodes on the grid button — in the Model section of the toolbar and specify in
the dialog box (Fig. 9.12-2) the boundaries of the area within which the nodes will be created on the
intersection of grid lines. The elevations are considered as coordinates of nodes along the Z axis. The
nodes will be displayed in the model after clicking the filters button — Nodes.
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− (5) Click the Create module button — in the Model

section of the toolbar and specify the name of the module
and the color which will be used to display the module in
the model in the Parameters of the Module dialog box
(Fig. 9.12-3). A section (empty for now) with the elements
of a new module will appear in the project tree after
performing this operation.
Module dialog box
The newly created module automatically becomes active,
i.e. it will contain all the elements created immediately after
creating the module.
− (6) Click the button with the image of the created element
(for example, column) — in the Model section of
the toolbar and specify the name of the column, the type
of the section (parametric or rolled steel) and the input
method in the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box (Fig.
9.12-4).
There are two methods for creating a column.
If the Column height radio button is selected, the column
is created by specifying one snap node of the column, and the
column height is defined by the value specified in the text field
Figure 9.12-4. The Rigidity of Bar (if the value is negative – the column will be directed
Elements dialog box downwards from the snap point). Naturally, columns created
in such a way are always vertical. Specify the height of the
column of 4 m.
The column section and the characteristics of the material
are specified in the Parametric Sections tab (Fig. 9.12-5).
Let’s specify a square section 40х40 cm and click the OK
button in the dialog box.
− (7) Place the cursor in the work area and click the right
mouse button. The Select Cursor menu will appear,
where you have to select the Immediate execution
option and the Cross with a frame cursor.
− (8) Select all nodes lying at the 0,0 level with a
rectangular marquee, and we will obtain a model shown
in Fig. 9.12-6.
Figure 9.12-5. The Rigidity of Bar
Elements dialog box
the Parametric Sections tab
− (9) Beams — are always created by stretching the “rubber band” between two nodes. There are
no restrictions on the position of the beam in the model. General Data, Parametric Sections, and
Rolled Steel Profiles tabs are similar to the respective tabs used when creating columns.
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Figure 9.12-6. Model after creating columns Figure 9.12-7. Model after creating beams
Let’s specify a rectangular section 4060 cm for beams and create beams by connecting the upper
nodes of edge columns along numbered and lettered grid lines with a “rubber band”. The obtained model is
shown in Fig. 9.12-7.
− (10) The Characteristics of the Floor/Roof (Slab)
dialog box (Fig. 9.12-8) appears after invoking the
operation of creating a floor slab — . You have to
specify the name of the floor slab (or of the group of
floor slabs), its thickness and material in this dialog box.
Let’s specify concrete В25 and thickness 0,2 m for the
floor slab.
A floor is created as a flat multi-node element of an
arbitrary shape. It is done with the help of a "rubber band"
which is stretched from node to node and ends by clicking on
the first node of the floor for the second time.
Figure 9.12-8. The Characteristics of
the Floor/Roof (Slab) dialog box
The position of the created floor is shown in Fig. 9.12-9.
− (11) Let’s use the operation of copying to create the
second storey. In the Copy the Model dialog box (Fig.
9.12-10) specify the type of the object you want to copy
— Copy the selected module, direction (Z) and step of
copying (4 m), and the number of copies (1).
Figure 9.12-9. Model after creating a

floor slab
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After specifying these data and closing the dialog box by

clicking the OK button, the resulting model will appear on the
screen (Fig. 9.12-11).
Figure 9.12-10. The Copy the Model

dialog box
Model obtained in the result will include two storeys with
the height of 4 m.
− (12) Let’s create a foundation slab according to the rules

Figure 9.12-11. Model after copying the given above (action 10). The final model is shown in Fig.
second storey 9.12-12.
We have generated quite a typical integrated model in the
result. The following operations were used to create it:
 creating grid lines and generating nodes on them;
 specifying parameters and elements of columns, beams
and floor slabs;
 copying modules;
 3D display of the model.
− (13) The Generate the resulting project operation

in the Model section of the toolbar enables to make a
Figure 9.12-12. Final model in the finite element model from an integrated one. The
FORUM preprocessor Generate the SCAD Project dialog box (Fig. 9.10-3)
appears after invoking this operation, where you can
specify the parameters necessary for the automatic
generation of a finite element mesh. You have to specify
the contour division step and mesh spacing for each type
of element here.
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Specify the spacing of 1 m for contours and all types of elements and click the OK button in the
dialog box (Fig. 9.12-13). After closing the dialog box the standard Save As … dialog box appears where
you can specify the name of the file of the resulting model.
The message window which accompanies the process of mesh generation provides comments to the
operations performed and an indicator of the progress of the process.
The generation ends with the Results of Generation dialog box (Fig. 9.12-14). It provides the
information on the number of elements and nodes obtained in the resulting model, and also a list of planar
objects for which the mesh generation failed for some reasons.
Figure 9.12-14. The Results of

Generation dialog box
Figure 9.12-13. Generate the SCAD project
If you check the Open in a new window checkbox in the Results of Generation dialog box, the
resulting model will be loaded automatically. It should be noted that all the information on the model
including grid lines is transferred from FORUM to SCAD. The model in the SCAD preprocessor and the
results of the calculation in the postprocessor are shown in Fig. 9.12-15.
Figure 9.12-15. Design model in the SCAD preprocessor and postprocessor
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10.Control of the Display of the Design Model
10. Control of the Display of the

Design Model
Various display control operations can be used when creating a design model and analyzing the results.
They include a set of operations of fragmentation and positioning of the image of the model which can be
invoked from the Visualization toolbar, and different display filters which enable to highlight and mark
nodes and elements of the model based on the specified criteria. The Display Filters toolbar contains the
filter control buttons.
10.1. Visualization Toolbar

The movable Visualization toolbar (Fig. 10.1-1) contains buttons for the control of the visualization of the
design model. They enable to rotate the image of the model about the given axes, project the model on the
planes of the rectangular coordinate system, and to perform different fragmentation operations.
Operations of the control of visualization have a priority over other operations. This means that if the
mode of specifying the initial data is active (e.g., the mode of specifying the constraints) and one of the
operations of visualization is invoked, the control will be given to the latter. The previously invoked mode
stays active, and you can continue to work with it after performing the operation of visualization.
The position and sizes of the Visualization toolbar are saved and automatically restored after loading
the complex. The button of setting and hiding the Visualization toolbar is located in the Control
section of the toolbar.
Figure 10.1-1. The Visualization toolbar
Rotation of the Model
The model can be rotated about the given axis by clicking the respective buttons in the toolbar. Each
click rotates the model by one step, the value of which can be set using the Set the rotation angle button
. In order to rotate the model by the specified step (300, 450, 600, 900, 1200, 1350, 1800) you just have to
place the cursor over the respective rotation button, and select the step from the drop-down list using the
right mouse button. In order to restore the initial position of the model, click the button — Restore
the initial projection of the model.
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Set the Rotation Angle
The Set the Rotation Angle dialog box (Fig. 10.1-2) is

used to set the rotation step. The value of the angle can be
selected or specified by the user in the window of the list. The
specified step also acts in the case of the active operation of
continuous rotation.
Figure 10.1-2. The Set the Rotation

Angle dialog box
Continuous Rotation of the Model
If the button of the mode of continuous rotation of the model is active, clicking any rotation button
will invoke the continuous rotation of the model in the given direction. In order to stop the rotation of the
model you have to depress the button of continuous rotation.
Orbit
These buttons enable to invoke the mode in which the movement of the mouse (when the left button
is pressed) rotates the model on the screen. The direction in which the model has to be rotated is defined by
the direction of movement of the mouse. The free rotation can be performed by clicking the button ,
and the rotation only about the Z axis of the global coordinate system and the X axis of the screen
projection — by clicking the button (which is usually used when working with models of buildings
and structures). You can also rotate the model about the Z and X axis without clicking the button , and
using a special combination Shift+"the middle mouse button". The center of rotation is the center of the
fragment (including the grid lines and the origin of the global coordinate system, if the display of these
objects is requested).
Project the Model on the Coordinate Plane
These operations enable to project the image of the model onto one of the planes of the global
coordinate system. The selection of the projection plane is performed with the help of the respective
buttons in the toolbar. The projection directions shown in the icons of the buttons are provided by default.
In order to view the model “from the other side” you should use the operation of rotation about the
respective axis having set the rotation angle of 180° beforehand, or select the necessary position of the
model in the drop-down menu, which appears after right-clicking (Fig. 10.1-3).
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Figure 10.1-3. Projection menu
Click the button — Restore the initial projection of the model if you want to return the image
of the model to its initial projection.
Isometric Projection
This operation enables to obtain an isometric projection of the image of the model. If you click this
button, the projection will be generated in such a way so that the view of the observer will be directed
towards the first octant. The selection of other octants becomes available in the drop-down menu which
appears after right-clicking (Fig. 10.1-4.) The used octant numbering is given in Figure 10.1-5.
Figure 10.1-4. Menu of isometric

projections
Figure 10.1-5. Octant numbering
Selecting a Planar Fragment
In order to select the fragment of the model lying in the plane parallel to one of the planes of the
global coordinate system, it is necessary to specify the plane by clicking the respective button in the
toolbar, and then select the node in the model belonging to this plane. More than one node belonging to
different fragments of the model can be selected, and all these fragments will be selected in the result. In
those cases when a fragment lies in an arbitrary plane, you have to select three nodes lying in the plane of
the fragment. All elements and nodes belonging to this plane will be highlighted. If the button
Inverted fragmentation is pressed, all nodes and elements not belonging to the respective plane will be
selected.
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If the selection is correct, click the green button to perform the operation, and if a mistake was
made, click the red button , and repeat all the above actions.
When setting the modes of the cursor in the Select Nodes and Elements toolbar (see Section 6.1) you
can reject clicking the confirmation button, i.e. automatically perform the active operations immediately
after selecting the object of the operation. This mode can be set by activating the Immediate execution
option — button in the Control the Selection toolbar. In this case the confirmation of the
fragmentation is not required, and the fragment will be selected at once after selecting the node (nodes).
Click the button — Initial display of the model if you want to return to the image of the
complete model.
Select a Fragment with a Marquee
In order to work with an arbitrary fragment of the design model you should use the operation of
fragmentation by a marquee (Fragmentation by a “marquee”). A marquee can be rectangular or it can
have an arbitrary shape (Fig. 10.1-6 and 10.1-7). After selecting the operation a cursor of the rectangular
marquee appears automatically. You can change the type of the marquee in the menu which appears after
right-clicking.
Figure 10.1-6. Fragmentation by a rectangular marquee

In order to select a fragment by a rectangular marquee it should be selected in such a way so that all
the nodes and elements which should be included in the fragment are inside the marquee.
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Figure 10.1-7. Fragmentation by a polygonal marquee

Marquee of an arbitrary shape is specified by a consecutive fixation of the vertices of the area of the
fragment by the left mouse button. The area is closed, i.e. the first and the last points are connected
automatically after double left-clicking. After setting the marquee the nodes within this area and elements
all the nodes of which are inside this area will be highlighted.
If the button Inverted fragmentation is pressed, all nodes and elements not inside the marquee
will be selected.
If the fragment is selected correctly, the confirmation is performed by clicking the green button .
The rejection of the fragmentation is performed by clicking the red button .
If when setting the modes of the cursor in the Select Nodes and Elements toolbar the Immediate
execution option is selected, the confirmation of the fragmentation is not required, and the fragment will
be selected at once after closing the marquee. Only the elements all the nodes of which are inside the area
of the marquee will be included in the fragment, and also individual nodes inside this area.
If there are no elements inside the fragment, only nodes will be displayed on the screen after clicking
the button — Nodes in the Display Filters toolbar (Fig. 10.2-1).
Click the button — Initial display of the model if you want to return to the image of the
complete model.
Cut on Projections
This operation enables to select a fragment of the design model by consecutively clipping an area on the
projections of the model on the coordinate planes by a marquee. Four windows appear on the screen after its
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initialization. Three of them display the projections of the model on the XОZ, XОY and YОZ planes, and the
fourth one displays the general view of the model and the control menu (Fig. 10.1-8).
Figure 10.1-8. Windows with the projections of the design model

The rules for working with the operation of clipping on the projections are as follows:
 the windows of the projections are independent, and any of them can be increased or decreased;
 clipping can be performed in any order, many times and in any window;
 setting the cursor of a marquee (rectangular or of an arbitrary shape) and working with the cursors
are similar to the function of selecting a fragment with a marquee;
 part of the design model within the fragment is highlighted;
 the clipping mode can be inverse, and in this case the fragment will include everything that was not
included in the selected area;
 direct and inverse clipping may repeatedly alternate;
 setting the clipping modes and exiting the functions are performed with the help of the toolbar.
Figure 10.1-9. Clipping control toolbar
The clipping control toolbar (Fig. 10.1-9) enables to set the modes of inverted fragmentation —
and displaying free nodes (not belonging to the elements) — , rotate the model — , cancel the
fragmentation — or output the obtained fragment in the work area of the screen — .
You can exit the cut on projections mode by clicking the button in the toolbar. Click the button
— Initial display of the model if you want to return to the image of the complete model.
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Fragmentation on the Grid Lines
If grid lines were specified when generating the design model, a fragment can be selected by
specifying the clipping area with the specified names of grid lines and/or elevations serving as the
boundaries of this area. A clipping area can be selected in the Fragmentation on the Grid Lines dialog
box (Fig. 10.1-10).
Figure 10.1-10. The Fragmentation on the Grid Lines dialog box

In order to select the necessary part of the model, you should perform the following actions for the
respective areas of grid lines:
− check the Involved in the fragmentation checkbox;
− uncheck The whole interval checkbox if it is necessary to select not the whole interval but only a
part for a certain segment;
− select the beginning and the end with the help of the From and To columns for the longitudinal and
transverse directions;
− perform the similar actions with the elevations.
If The whole interval option is used, and a part of the model lies beyond the specified grid lines (for
example, the elevations were not specified), then in order to obtain the full display of the model in the
given direction you should check the Do not take boundaries into account checkbox.
Undo and Redo Fragmentation of the Design Model
These operations enable to perform the transition from one fragment of the design model to the other
and back in the order of performing the fragmentation. Fragmentation can be performed by clipping a part
of the model by a rectangular marquee or polygon, clipping on projections, by selecting the given plane or
with the help of color scales.
Zoom in the Image
The Zoom in the image operation enables to zoom in the image of the design model and its fragment.
Unlike the fragmentation by a marquee where only the selected part of the model is displayed on the
screen, this operation enables to work with the whole model. The scale of the image changes in such a way
so that the selected part of the model occupies the whole work area of the screen (Fig. 10.1-11), and the
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access to the other, invisible, part is performed by moving the image of the model (you should move the
image while holding the middle mouse button). Thus, the user can move the image on the screen.
Figure 10.1-11. Zoomed-in view

After initializing the operation by clicking the respective button the magnified image is set similarly
to selecting a rectangular fragment of the model.
If the proportions of the rectangle are close to the proportions of the window (height to width ratio),
the obtained image of the part of the model will correspond to the fragment in the marquee. Otherwise, the
fragment displayed on the screen will be slightly larger than expected.
The Restore the original size button restores the original size of the image.
Full Screen Mode
Full screen mode is used when working with large design models and enables to increase the work
area by temporarily hiding the Windows taskbar, menu and the heading of the window. The image
occupies the entire physical screen. Clicking the button for the second time returns the window to its initial
state. If the window does not have the maximum size, invoking the operation leads to its maximization.
Rendering Engine
The software provides a variety of rendering engines. The first one is based on the DirectX
technology. This technology provides the fast rendering of the design models. The high operating speed of
DirectX is largely ensured by the fact that the technology is supported by all modern video cards. One of
its disadvantages is the fact that in some cases the digitization and putting other text information over the
image can have not very high quality. DirectX is used by default (except for the cases when SCAD detects
problems with the support of DirectX — for example, when the operating system does not have the
necessary version of DirectX). In this case the software automatically switches to the second rendering
engine based on the GDI technology native for Windows. The user can also change the rendering engine.
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In order to do it, click the button in the toolbar and select an alternative rendering engine from the drop-
down menu. Switching to GDI is recommended only in the case when it is necessary to change the display
of the text information. You should not do it in other cases, since the operating speed of GDI is much less
than that of DirectX.
You should also keep in mind that you can not obtain an image with the effects of transparency,
lighting and perspective in GDI.
Fragmentation Using the Tree
For the projects of the FORUM type this operation invokes a project tree where you can exclude
individual modules (or parts of modules) from the fragment of the model.
Fragmentation of the Selected Objects
If there are selected nodes and/or elements in the design model, the fragment containing only the
selected objects: selected nodes, selected elements and nodes belonging to them, will be left on the screen
after clicking this button.
Search of Nodes with the Given Characteristics
This operation enables to select nodes occupying a certain position in the model or specified by their
numbers. The search is performed for the following factors:
− distance from the point with the specified coordinates;
− distance from the specified nodes;
− distance from the specified elements;
− search among the nodes with the specified numbers.
These factors can be used in any combination in the search of nodes. Nodes satisfying all the above
factors will be selected in the result. The search area can be specified as a sphere (Radius radio button) or
as a parallelepiped (Range radio button). A parallelepiped is generated by changing the coordinates of the
considered node or point to the following values Δx, Δy, Δz.
Distance from the point with coordinates — the search of nodes lying in the vicinity of the point
with the specified coordinates is performed;
Search among the nodes with numbers — the search of nodes with the specified numbers is
performed;
Distance from nodes — all nodes lying in the vicinity of the nodes specified in the list are selected
according to the rules described for the Distance from the point with coordinates operation;
Distance from elements — the search of nodes lying in the vicinity of the element is performed.
Depending on the option defining the search area the evaluation of whether an i-th node is in the vicinity of
the specified element is performed with respect to the nodes of the element (option — Distance from
nodes) or any point belonging to the element (option — Distance from body). It is considered that a node
satisfies the search conditions if at least one node of the element (Distance from nodes) or at least one
point belonging to the element (Distance from body) is within the search area with the considered node in
its center.
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The control of the selection is performed in the dialog box which appears after invoking the operation.
Depending on whether the Select elements checkbox is checked only nodes will be selected in the result of
the search or nodes with their adjacent elements.
If the Inversely checkbox is checked, all objects the properties of which do not match those specified
in the dialog box are selected.
The objects will be selected after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Save the Screen Image
This operation is used to generate a metafile with the current model in a vector format. It enables to
obtain a metafile (extension .wmf), enhanced metafile (extension .emf) or placeable metafile (extension
.wmf). The obtained image can be included in the report, for example, when preparing the results of the
calculation in the Documenter or in MS Word.
A standard dialog box appears after invoking this operation, where you have to select the necessary
format of the metafile, specify the name of the metafile and the name of the catalogue it is saved into (it is
saved into the working catalogue by default).
Save as HTML
The display of the design model, including all types of the graphical representation of the results of the
calculation can be saved in the HTML format. This enables to view the image using the tools for
visualization of HTML files of different browsers which have a WebGL support. Mouse buttons and a
scroll wheel are used for the control of the display, including:
− rotation of the model on the screen is performed by moving the mouse while holding the left mouse
button;
− an image can be zoomed out by rotating the scroll wheel forward;
− an image can be zoomed in by rotating the scroll wheel backward;
− an image can be moved on the screen by moving the mouse while holding the scroll wheel.
If the obtained image has to be put on the web-site or transferred to another computer, the x3dom
directory, which is created in the same location as the HTML-file, has to be copied together with the
HTML-file.
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Save and Restore the View of the Model on the Screen
When generating a design model and analyzing the results of the calculation, as a rule, a relatively
small number of views of the model or of its fragments on the screen is used. A particular view can be used
in the subsequent sessions if the information on it is saved as a file with data. This information is universal
and can be used when working with any other design model.
In order to save the information on the current position, perform the following actions:
 select a view with the help of the display filters and click the Save/Restore model position
button — ;
 a menu will appear where you have to select the Save model position item, and then select a
directory and specify the file name in the standard Save As… dialog box;
 close the dialog box by clicking the Save button.
In order to restore a particular position of the model, perform the following actions:
 click the Save/Restore model position button — ;
 a menu will appear where you have to select a file name;
 after loading the information the model or its fragment will take the position on the screen
corresponding to the selected view.
10.2. Display Information on the Design Model
General Comments on Displaying the Information on the Model

The control of the display of information on the design model is performed with the help of the filters.
They enable to set not only the type of the displayed information, but also the rules of the visualization.
The movable Display Filters toolbar contains the controls of the filters (Fig. 10.2-1).
In addition to the display control operations the filters toolbar also contains buttons which are often used
when working with the model. They include, for example, buttons for obtaining information on a certain
node or element, cancelling the selection of all objects, determining the distance between the specified nodes
etc.
The multi-tab Set the Information Display Filters dialog box (Fig. 10.2-2) enables to set many
filters. In order to invoke the dialog box, place the cursor over the Display Filters toolbar and right-click.
The setting is performed by enabling/disabling a number of different settings in the respective tabs of the
filters. For example, you can set the display rules in the Bars and Plates filters, in accordance with which
the elements occupying a certain position in the model will be shown (see Fig. 10.2-21).
Figure 10.2-1. The Display Filters toolbar

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Figure 10.2-2 shows the General Settings of the Display Filters tab of this dialog box which enables
to:
 save the state of filters when switching between working modes;
 when the filters are active display the information not for all elements or nodes of the design model
but only for the selected ones. Checking/unchecking the Display information on the model only for
the selected elements and nodes checkbox will affect the display settings in the same way;
 do not digitize the elements/nodes corresponding to the disabled intervals of the color scale.
Figure 10.2-2. The Set the Information Display Filters dialog box
(the General Settings of the Display Filters tab)
It is necessary to pay attention to some timing aspects of the visualization dealing with the filters
setting. Even if you use the DirectX rendering engine, the output of the text information takes quite a long
time. The more setting options are simultaneously enabled for different filters, the longer it will take to
perform the functions of displaying the model on the screen.
The output time will increase insignificantly for small design models. However, if the model contains
tens of thousands nodes and elements, the user will have to be patient and wait until it is displayed on the
screen taking into account all the settings.
If the user has changed the setting of a certain filter, the respective button will have an additional
indicator showing that the standard settings have been changed. For example, the display filter of bar
elements (in the standard and modified states) is as follows: , .
The Show/hide visualization toolbar button is in the Control section of the toolbar.
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Figure 10.2-3. Tree for setting the display filters

The settings of the display filters are duplicated in the form of a tree in the left part of the window of
each task. You can hide or expand the tree to the necessary width by moving the separator line (Fig. 10.2-3).
The filters settings performed in the tree are duplicated in the filters panel and vice verse. Moreover, the View
menu also contains the operation of disabling the tree and it has to be performed before loading the first task.
Saving and Resetting the Filters

The current state of the filters can be saved in the files with the extension .SCADFilters. Thus, it becomes
possible to create a series of filter settings and enable the necessary variant depending on the working
mode (pre- or postprocessor, bar or combined model etc.). The state of the display filters and of the
visualization of the results is saved. When you load the task for the first time all filters will be in the initial
state.
Working with files of the filters state is performed from the Settings menu in the Save the state of
filters… (saving the current state) and Reset filters… (reading the necessary variant of the filters setting)
sections. The access to the last several files is possible directly from the menu.
The compatibility of file formats for saving the filter settings is not
guaranteed at the transition to new versions of SCAD. If the compatibility is not
provided, a respective message will be generated if you try to load a file. In this
case the files have to be created again.
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Setting the Output of the Digital Information

Type, size, style and color of the font of the digital information on the design model are specified in the
Font Setting tab (Fig. 10.2-4) of the Parameters dialog box, which is invoked from the Settings section
of the Settings menu (or by clicking the button in the toolbar).
The description of this dialog box is given in section 31.3.
Figure 10.2-4. The Parameters dialog box, the Font Setting tab
Print the Design Model
Any displaying of the design model on the screen can be printed. The Control section of the toolbar
and the Visualization toolbar contain buttons for invoking the printing mode. You can enter the
information falling in the special field of the printed document in the Text of Comments for Printing
dialog box (Fig. 10.2-5), which appears after invoking the mode.
Figure 10.2-5. The Text of Comments for Printing Figure 10.2-6. The Glossary dialog box
dialog box
Printer setting is performed in the dialog boxes of the driver software supplied by the manufacturers
of the equipment together with the printers. You should pay attention to such settings as the position of the
image on the page: Portrait format (vertically) or Landscape (horizontally), and also to the color and
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resolution controls. The isofields and isolines are printed on the color printer in the colors specified on the
screen.
If the Save record checkbox is checked, the text of the comment will be saved and you will not have
to enter it again, and you can just output it using the Glossary button of this dialog box (Fig. 10.2-6). You
have to select a line with the necessary text in this dialog box and click the OK button; and the selected
text will be transferred as the text of the comment. You can delete the unnecessary text using the respective
button.
When printing in color you should pay special attention to the color of the
text information (numbers of nodes and elements, types of rigidity, values of
displacements etc.). Light colors (white, yellow, light gray etc.) are not visible on
the paper. You should select such a font color which will be visible not only on
the screen but on the paper as well.
The image is printed in accordance with the selected rendering engine (DirectX or GDI). Thus, if
DirectX is selected, the program will print a raster image, and in the case of GDI a vector image will be
printed. Usually the results of printing are almost the same, but if the image is output to a PDF-file (and
largely magnified in the PDF viewer) the final images may differ significantly. The quality of the raster
image in PDF-files can be improved if you increase the resolution of the output file, disable the reduction
of the resolution for images, disable the compression of images with losses etc. in the settings of the
respective PDF-printer. If all these actions do not give the necessary result, you can change the rendering
engine to GDI before printing (you should remember about such limitations of GDI as the absence of
support of lighting, transparency, perspective, etc.).
Reset Display Filters
If in the process it becomes necessary to cancel all filter settings made earlier, you can use the Reset
display filters button. After pressing it, all filters will be disabled, and their settings will be transferred to
the state assigned to them by default.
Display Information on the Nodes

This section considers functions of the display filters designed for working with a design model dealing
with the display of nodes and information on them.
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Output Numbers of Nodes
This filter is used to display the numbers of nodes on the design model. The filter settings (Fig. 10.2-
7) enable to output the numbers and/or names of nodes, and the coordinates of nodes.
Figure 10.2-7. The Numbers of Nodes tab Figure 10.2-8. The Nodes tab
Display Nodes
Nodes are displayed on the design model as bordered squares the color of which depends on the
performed operation. The following colors for marking nodes are assumed by default:
 displaying a node in its original form — blue;
 selected node in the modes of the parameter specification — red;
 selected node in the fragmentation modes — green;
 deleted and duplicate nodes — yellow.
This filter is enabled automatically in some modes, for example, in the modes of assembling the
model from submodels, creating nodes, fragmentation etc., but it can be disabled by the user. You can
cancel the automatic display of nodes by unchecking the respective checkbox in the Environment
Settings dialog box, which is invoked by the respective command in the Settings menu.
The following rules for displaying nodes on the screen can be specified in the Nodes tab of the Set
the Information Display Filters dialog box (Fig. 10.2-8):
 display only the nodes of the visible elements;
 display only the nodes with constraints;
 reduced image of nodes.
The size of the image of a node can be changed with the help of the respective operation in the
Design Model tab of the Environment Settings dialog box.
Display the Deleted Nodes
If the operation of packing data was not performed, deleted nodes and elements are present in the
model in the hidden form. This filter enables to display the deleted nodes. If necessary the nodes can be
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restored with the help of the respective operation in the Nodes and Elements section (if you invoke this
operation, the filter of displaying the deleted nodes will be enabled automatically).
Filter setting is not provided.
Display Duplicate Nodes
Once this filter is enabled, the search of the duplicate nodes is performed, which are
highlighted in yellow in the model by default. “Duplicate” nodes are nodes the distance between which
is less than the value specified in the environment settings.
When setting the filter (Fig. 10.2-9) you can change the accuracy of estimation of the duplicate nodes,
hide duplicate nodes with the specified merged displacements, and hide duplicate nodes used in one
element.
Display Constraints
Figure 10.2-9. The Duplicate Nodes tab Figure 10.2-10. The Constraints tab
Constraints in nodes of the design model are displayed as rectangles. You can select the size of
rectangles in fractions of the maximum value in the Constraints tab (Fig. 10.2-10) of the filters settings.
The control of the filter enables to display the constraints on the model only for the specified
directions and to select the mode of the color display of constraint with marking for directions or for
combinations of directions.
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The following displaying of constraints is possible if the

color marking is enabled:
 rectangles with color fields, the color of which indicates
the direction of the specified constraints. The upper
three color fields in rectangles correspond to the
constrains in linear directions, and the lower ones
correspond to the constraints in angular directions. The
setting of the color scale is performed in the Color
Settings dialog box (see Sec. 10.5);
 the color scale of constraints (Fig. 10.2-11), where all
the specified combinations of constraints in nodes are
given. Using the possibilities of the color scale you can,
for example, display only the nodes with the selected
Figure 10.2-11. The color scale of the combinations (by checking/unchecking the checkbox)
display of Constraints or delete the constraints from the nodes by clicking the
Delete button.
The column marked with a red square indicates the number of nodes with constraints of the given
type, and the next column provides this information in the form of a diagram.
Display Groups of Merged Displacements
When this filter is invoked a color scale appears

(Fig. 10.2-12), where each group of nodes with merged
displacements has its corresponding color and a line with the
directions of merged displacements. The work with a color
scale is performed according to the rules described above.
Nodes included in the groups are marked with rectangles of the
corresponding color in the design model.
You can cancel the merging of displacements for nodes of
the selected groups using the Delete button.
The column marked with a red square indicates the
number of nodes included in the group of merged
Figure 10.2-12. Color scale of the displacements, and the next column provides this information in
the form of a diagram.
mode for displaying the merged
displacements
Determine the Distance between Nodes
This operation enables to determine the distance between two nodes of the design model. Once it is
invoked the Distance Between Nodes dialog box (Fig. 10.2-13) appears displaying the results of the
measurement.
In order to determine the distance select the first node in the model (let’s call it the basic node), which
is marked by a yellow ring, and then the second one (it is marked by a purple ring). Coordinates of the
selected nodes, displacements between nodes given by three coordinates and the distance between them are
displayed in the respective text fields.
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In order to determine the distance between the basic node

and the other node of the design model you just have to select
this node in the model without activating the filter again. In
order to change the basic node, use the respective button in the
dialog box. You can specify a new basic node after clicking it.
The coordinates of nodes can be corrected in the initial
data input mode, i.e. they can be moved into the points with
other coordinates. In order to do it, specify the new values of
the coordinates in the respective text fields and click the Apply
button.
Values of the coordinates of one node can be assigned to
the other one with the help of a set of buttons located between
the text fields of the node coordinates in the Distance Between
Nodes dialog box (Fig. 10.2-13).
Coordinates can be moved only between the values of one
direction. Otherwise, they have to be input using the keyboard.
In order to perform the operation click the button near the text
field of the changed coordinates and click the Apply button
after duplicating the value into the field of the other node. The
results are displayed in the design model.
Figure 10.2-13. The Distance Between
Nodes dialog box The standard operation Undo is used to undo an
operation.
If this operation is invoked in the postprocessor, the
Displacement button appears, which enables to obtain the
displacements of the selected nodes, displacements for each
coordinate axis and the total displacement in the special dialog
box (Fig. 10.2-14).
Figure 10.2-14. The Displacement of

Nodes dialog box
Information on the Node
This operation enables to obtain the complete information on the given node, including the
information on the coordinates, constraints, loads, adjacent elements, and displacements (in the analysis of
the results of the current loading). The Information on the Node dialog box contains the controls of the
operation (Fig. 10.2-15).
In order to obtain the information click the filters button and specify the method for selecting the node
in the model in the dialog box. In order to find a node you can specify its number in the Node number
field and click the Find button or select a node with a cursor if the Indication on the model button was
pressed before. The selected node is marked by a green circle in the model, and the information on it will
be displayed in the dialog box.
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The coordinates of the node are output in the Coordinates group, and the values of displacements are
output in the Displacements group (only in the mode of the analysis of the results).
In the mode of generating the design model the
coordinates of the node can be changed directly in the
Information on the Node dialog box. The changes are saved
by clicking the Apply button. The Constraints button invokes
the dialog box where you can view (and change in the
preprocessor) the constraints in the selected node.
Clicking the Loads button invokes the Loads on Node
dialog box (Fig. 10.2-16) with the information on all loads
applied to the node in each loading. This mode enables to
selectively delete the loads from the current (active) loading or
change the load values. In order to delete it select a line with the
load you want to delete in the list which is specified as Current
(loading), and click the Delete button.
The value of the load selected in the list is output in the
respective information window. In order to correct the load
value, select it in the list, change the value in the text field and
click the Modify button.
The load will be deleted or changed only in the case if the
loading is saved using the button in the Loadings section.
The Reactions in constraints and DCR (design
combinations of reactions in constraints) buttons will be
available in those cases when the respective calculations were
performed, and a constraint was imposed in the considered
node. Once they are invoked, tables with the results of these
calculations will be displayed in the respective dialog boxes.
If the design combinations of displacements were obtained
in the result of the calculation, the DCD button will be available
in the Information on the Node dialog box. Clicking it makes
the table with the combinations of displacements accessible.
Similarly, if the design combinations of punching were
obtained in the result of the calculation, the Design
Figure 10.2-15. The Information on combinations of punching, Punching loads and Punching
the Node dialog box loads for combinations of loadings buttons will be available in
the Information on the Node dialog box. Clicking them makes
the tables with the results accessible.
The Fragment adjacent elements button enables to create
a fragment containing only all the elements adjacent to the
node. Clicking the Select adjacent elements button makes all
the elements adjacent to the node selected.
If necessary, the considered node can be deleted or marked as selected. The respective buttons are
used to perform these operations.
The Belonging to the groups button invokes the dialog box containing a table with all groups of
nodes the selected node belongs to. You can exclude a node from the group by unchecking the checkbox
near the respective group and clicking the OK button. The Show all groups checkbox enables to obtain
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the list of all groups of nodes. If you check the checkbox near the group the node does not belong to and
click the OK button, the node will become an element of this group.
If a design model has groups of merged displacements, similarly to groups of nodes you can check
whether a selected node belongs to a certain group of merged displacements and/or exclude or include it in
a group (Fig. 10.2-18).
Figure 10.2-16. The Loads on Figure 10.2-17. The Belonging to Figure 10.2-18. The Merged
Node dialog box the Groups dialog box Displacements dialog box
a) b)
c)
Figure 10.2-19. Dynamic data on the node:

a) nodal masses; b) inertial forces;
c) accelerations
Values of displacements and rotation angles will be displayed for the selected node in the graphical
analysis of the results of the calculation for the current loading (oscillation modes, buckling modes,
combinations of loadings). If the direct integration of the equations of motion is analyzed, it becomes
possible to view the graphs of the variation of the components of displacements with time (see Chapter
15), and if the non-linear analysis is performed, you can view the stepwise displacement history of the
nonlinear loading (provided that the number of steps with the saved results is greater than one). The
postprocessor also has buttons which enable to obtain tables with reactions in constraints (see Sec. 12.6),
design combinations of displacements (see Sec. 18.8), and the loads from the fragment of the model (see
Sec. 21.3). If the current loading is a dynamic one, the respective buttons enable to obtain a tabular
representation of the weights of nodal masses, inertial forces and accelerations (Fig. 10.2-19).
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The Information on the Node dialog box may occupy any position on the screen (or outside the
work area of SCAD). You do not have to close it when performing the operations of specification or
correcting the geometry of the model.
In those cases when the set of buttons or information provided by default in the Information on the
Node dialog box includes items which are not used or rarely used, it is possible to configure the dialog box
to display only the necessary data. To do this, use the Settings operation, which is invoked by clicking the
respective button in the considered dialog box or by right-clicking. After invoking this operation, a
menu appears, which enables to include or exclude these items from the dialog box. The settings will be
used later in all dialog boxes and for all models. If the user has changed the setting, the button Settings
will have an additional indicator showing that the standard settings have been changed.
Display Information on the Elements

You can output the following information with the help of the display filters for finite elements:
 numbers, types of elements, numbers and names of the types of rigidity;
 presence of hinges and rigid inserts in bar elements;
 directions of the local axes of elements and the force output axes in plate and solid elements;
 diagrams of deflections and forces, combinations of forces, reinforcement for bar and plate
elements (in the information on element in the mode of the analysis of results).
Most of the information can be output in the digital form or in the form of a color scale. It should be
noted that only one color scale for elements can be output at a time.
If you activate the filters with the attributes of the
elements, the information will be output in accordance with the
model shown in Fig. 10.2-20. "Readability" of the information
will largely depend on the sizes of the elements on the screen. If
the sizes are small, the attributes usually can not be written
within the field of the plate or bar. In these cases it is
recommended to select a fragment with the necessary part of the
model or set the Zoom in the image mode in the Visualization
toolbar.
The current setting of the filters is saved before closing the
Figure 10.2-20. Position of attributes in project or exiting to the project tree. In the initial state (by
bar and plate elements default) the information is output in the numerical form for all
nodes and elements of the model.
Display Filters of Elements
These filter buttons are used to enable or disable the display of elements of a certain type — bars,
plates, solid or special elements, and if you are working with enlarged elements they are used to enable or
disable the display of columns, beams, walls, slabs and roofs. All buttons are active in the initial state, i.e.
all types of elements are displayed in the model. If they are disabled, the respective types of elements will
not be displayed in the model.
A more detailed setting of filters is performed in the multi-tab Set the Information Display Filters
dialog box in the Bars and Plates tabs (Fig. 10.2-21), where the display rules are set according to which
the elements occupying a certain position in space in the model will be displayed.
The tab for setting the display of special finite elements (Fig. 10.2-22) contains checkboxes for
different types of special elements, checking or unchecking which enables to display only the necessary
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types of elements on the screen. There are additional checkboxes for selecting the directions of constraints
of finite rigidity.
Figure 10.2-21. The Set the Information Display Figure 10.2-22. The Set the Information Display
Filters dialog box, the Plates tab Filters dialog box, the Special FE tab
Display Numbers of Elements
The Numbers of Elements tab of the Set the Information Display Filters dialog box contains the
controls for displaying the numbers of elements (Fig. 10.2-23). This tab enables to specify the display of
numbers on the model depending on a certain type of elements, or on the position of the elements in the model.
Figure 10.2-23. The Numbers of Elements tab Figure 10.2-24. The Types of Elements tab
Checkboxes of the Bars group are used for working with bar elements and enable to specify the
output of numbers of bars depending on their position in the modеl. If the Display the bar lengths
checkbox is checked, the values of lengths of elements are displayed instead of the numbers of elements.
Checkboxes of the Plates group are used for specifying the rules for outputting the numbers of plate
elements depending in their belonging to the coordinate planes. Moreover, there are two checkboxes for
enabling or disabling the display of numbers of solid and special elements. You can also display names of
elements instead of their numbers, or display the names and numbers simultaneously.
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The Font Setting tab enables to specify the type, color and size of the font (see Sec. 31.3).
Display the Types of Elements
The Types of Elements tab of the Set the Information Display Filters dialog box contains the
controls of the filter of the element type display (Fig. 10.2-24). The controls of this tab are used to set the rules
for displaying the information depending on the type of elements, and on their position in the model. Moreover,
you can also use colors for the indication of different elements by their type on the model.
Four groups of checkboxes are provided for setting the filter. First three groups enable to set the filters
similarly to the filter of the numbers of elements. Checkboxes of the fourth group determine the rules of the
color indication.
The color indication mode (the Color display of types of elements checkbox is checked) enables to
assign a color for each type of finite element. The Types of FE dialog box with a color scale appears
(Fig. 10.2-25). The controls of this dialog box enable to perform the following operations:
 check or uncheck all the checkboxes of the color scale (the Check/uncheck checkboxes );
 apply the specified combination of checkboxes of the color scale to the model (the Apply button
);
 fragment the model in such a way so that it has only the elements the type of which coincides with the
checked checkboxes of the color scale (the Fragment button );

 disable the mode of the color indication (the Close button).
a) b)
Figure 10.2-25. Color scale of the Figure 10.2-26. Color scales of hinges
indication of the types of elements a) as color checkboxes; b) by coloring the bars
The column marked with a red square indicates the number of elements of the respective type, and the
next column provides this information in the form of a diagram.
In order to change the color double click on the color field and select a new color in the standard
Windows dialog box. Double clicking on the cell with a type of the finite element invokes the dialog box
where you can change the type of FE.
When displaying the numbers of the types of elements in the numerical form the type, color, and size
of the font are specified in the Font Setting tab (see Sec. 31.3).
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Display Hinges
Regardless of the specified direction(s) the hinges are displayed in the model as rings at the ends of
the flexible part of the bar elements or near the nodes (depending on the parameters of the hinges).
The settings of the filter provide the color display of hinges and elements containing hinges (Fig.
10.2-26). In the first case each combination of released constraints at the ends of the flexible part of the
elements obtains its color in the color scale and in the model. In the second case bars are marked in color in
the model depending on the combinations of hinges specified for them.
The column marked with a red square indicates the number of hinges of the given type in the model,
and the next column provides this information in the form of a diagram.
Display Deleted Elements
If the operation of packing data was not performed, deleted nodes and elements are present in the
model in the hidden form. This filter enables to display the deleted elements. If necessary the elements can
be restored with the help of the respective operation in the Nodes and Elements section (if you invoke this
operation, the filter of displaying the deleted elements will be enabled automatically).
Filter setting is not provided.
Display Duplicate Elements
Once this filter is enabled, the search of the duplicate elements is performed, which are
highlighted in yellow in the model by default. “Duplicate” elements are elements of the same type all
the nodes of which coincide.
Display Types of Rigidity
The setting of the display filter of the types of rigidity is performed in the Types of Rigidity tab
(Fig. 10.2-27) similarly to the setting of other filters.
If you specify the color display of the types of rigidity, you will obtain a scale shown in Fig. 10.2-28,
where each type of rigidity, except for color, has a corresponding button with an icon displaying the type
of elements or a section of bar elements. The next column contains the following characteristics of the type
of rigidity:
 bar elements, specified by an explicit description of the section, — sizes of the section or grade of
the section from the assortment of rolled profiles;
 bar elements, specified by the numerical description of the rigidity —axial stiffness;
 plate elements — thickness of the element;
 solid elements — elastic modulus of the material;
 rigid bodies, elastic constraints, constraints of finite rigidity — direction of the constraint;
 unilateral constraints — rigidity of the constraint etc.
If the names were given to the types of rigidity, they are output in the column following that with the
characteristics. The last two columns contain data on the number of elements with this type of rigidity
given in the numerical form and in the form of a diagram.
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Bar elements the rigidity of which is defined by the characteristics of parametric sections will have
icons in accordance with the section type — , etc. Sections from the assortment of rolled profiles
are displayed by “their” icons: , , … If the rigidities are described numerically, and also for special
finite elements the button will have the following form . If the numerical-parametric description of
rigidities is used, the button will take the following form — . And the button appears for sections
which were prepared with the help of Section Builder, Consul or TONUS. Elements without specified
stiffness properties are displayed in yellow (by default) in the model and are indicated by the icon in
the scale.
The general symbol — is used for all types of plate elements, and — is used for solid ones.
Figure 10.2-27. The Types of Rigidity tab of the Set the Figure 10.2-28. Color scale of the
Information Display Filters dialog box indication of numbers of the types of
rigidity
Clicking these buttons invokes dialog boxes with the respective stiffness properties where you can
perform only the correction of the parameters of the types of rigidity. They differ from the similar dialog
boxes which are invoked from the Assign toolbar and are described in detail in Sec. 7.2 in that they do not
have the OK button, and the new parameters are saved by clicking the Replace and exit button.
When specifying the color display in the Set the Information Display Filters dialog box you can
output the color scales of the thicknesses of planar elements, subsoil parameters C1 or C2 of plates or those
C1Y, C2Y , C1Z or C2Z of bars (Fig. 10.2-29). You can switch to the coefficients of another type directly in
the dialog box of the color scale of the subsoil parameters (for example, switch from the Winkler
coefficients C1 to the Pasternak coefficients C2).
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Figure 10.2-29. Color scales of the indication of the thicknesses of plates and the subsoil parameters
Moreover, you can use the settings to display the names of the types of rigidity on the design model,
and simultaneously output the color display and the numbers of the types of rigidity (digitization).
It should be noted that the output of the color scheme of rigidities (and other characteristics as well) is
possible not only on the “wire” model, but also at the active filter for deleting the lines of the invisible
contour, including the displaying of sections of bars and thicknesses of plates (Fig. 10.2-30).
Figure 10.2-30. Color display of the types of rigidity

taking into account the sections of bars and thicknesses of plates
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Ranges of Stiffness Properties
This operation enables to perform a comparative analysis of the stiffness properties of elements. The
analysis is performed for the bar and plate elements for the following parameters:
 bars and plates — elastic modulus, Poisson's ratio,
specific weight, damping parameter;
 bars — axial and bending stiffness;
 plates — thickness, cylindrical stiffness...
The spectrum of stiffness properties is output in the
respective dialog box (Fig. 10.2-31), where you can specify the
following settings:
 select the type of the analyzed factor from the drop-down
list;
 using the checkboxes in the table select only the types
of rigidity you are interested in;
Figure 10.2-31. The Range of Stiffness  double left click on the line of the respective type of
Properties dialog box rigidity to invoke the dialog box where you can correct
the stiffness properties.
The column marked with a red square indicates the
number of elements with the respective type of rigidity, and the
next column provides this information in the form of a diagram.
In all other respects working with this dialog box is similar to working with any other color scale.
Young’s Modulus
This filter enables to obtain a color scale with the values of the elastic modulus in different finite
elements of the design model.
Display Rigid Inserts
Rigid inserts are displayed on the design model in the scale and for the directions specified for them.
It should be noted that if the display filter of rigid inserts is disabled, a line connecting the nodes will be
displayed in the model, but not the element. This line may not correspond to the actual position of the
element in the model. In some cases this filter is activated automatically in the postprocessor. This occurs,
for example, at the display of the diagrams of forces (since they relate to the flexible part of the bar) or at
the display of the deformed model.
The setting of the display filter of rigid inserts in performed in the Bar Rigid Inserts tab (Fig. 10.2-
32). Three types of displaying can be selected here: the geometric one described above, the color scale
(Fig. 10.2-33) or simultaneously both the geometric display and the color scale.
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Figure 10.2-32. The Bar Rigid Inserts tab Figure 10.2-33. The Bar Rigid Inserts dialog box
Display the Displacement of the Plate Midplane
Data on the displacement of the plate midplanes can be displayed similarly to the rigid inserts of bars:
geometrically, as a color scale, or simultaneously both the geometric display and the color scale.
Display Directions of the Local Axes of Elements
Local axes of elements are displayed in color as three axes located in the center of the element.
Moreover, plate elements can be displayed in color depending on the direction of the local Z1 axis. The
setting of the filter is performed in the Local Axes tab (Fig. 10.2-34).
Figure 10.2-34. The Local Axes tab Figure 10.2-35. The Direction of Z1 Axes dialog box
If the radio button of the color indication of plates is enabled, the Direction of Z1 Axes dialog box of
the color scale appears after activating the filter (Fig. 10.2-35). The controls of this dialog box enable to
select a fragment of the model which includes only the plates the local Z1 axis of which is directed upwards
(positive direction) or downwards. For elements parallel to the YOZ plane the positive direction of the Z1
axis coincides with the direction of the X axis of the global coordinate system. For elements parallel to the
XOZ plane the positive direction of the Z1 axis coincides with the direction of the Y axis of the global
coordinate system. The rules for working in this dialog box are the same as for the color scale. It should be
466
noted, that the concepts of “positive” and “negative” directions are conditional. The upward direction of
the Z1 axis is assumed to be positive for the horizontal elements.
If the Color scale of local axes of two-node elements checkbox is checked, two-node elements with
the values of the angles of orientation of the principle axes of inertia different from the default ones
(specified by the user) are displayed in color in the design model.
Display Directions of the Force Output
This filter is used to display the directions of the output of

forces in plate and solid elements. Two arrows are output in the
center of each solid element indicating the direction of the XN
and YN axes of the output of forces. After activating the filter an
arrow is output in the center of each plate element the direction
of which coincides with the direction of the output of forces
specified for it. Forces in the given direction are considered as
those directed along the local XN axis. In the initial state the
direction of arrows coincides with the direction of the local X1
axis of elements.
The filter setting (Fig. 10.2-36) enables to switch from the
Figure 10.2-36. The Auxiliary Axes of display of the output of forces to the display of the orthotropy
Plates tab axes.
Information on the Element
This mode enables to obtain information on the type of the finite element, number of sections of the
output of forces, stiffness properties, applied loads, angles of orientation of the local axes, hinges and rigid
inserts. The diagrams of the deflections and forces, tables with the values of the design combinations of
forces and other results are output in the mode of the analysis of the results. The Information on the
Element dialog box (Fig. 10.2-37) contains the controls of these operations.
In order to obtain the information click the filters button and specify the method for selecting the
necessary element in the dialog box. In order to find an element you can specify its number in the Element
number field and click the Find button or select an element with a cursor if the Indication on the model
button was pressed beforehand.
The selected element is marked by a green ring, and the information on it is output in the dialog box
where an element is displayed corresponding to its position in the structure, its nodes and their numbers,
and also the directions of the local coordinate system. The node of the origin of the local coordinate system
is marked by a yellow rectangle. The image can be rotated with the help of the mouse. Double left-clicking
restores the image to its initial position.
Depending on the type of the element, specified data and the performed calculations the dialog box
may contain a certain set of buttons which enable to view the respective information, and to change it in
the mode of the data preparation. This dialog box provides the access to the following main data.
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The Nodes button invokes the dialog box (Fig. 10.2-38 )

which contains a table with the list of nodes of the element. You
can change the numbers of nodes when preparing the data. If an
element with additional nodes on the sides is considered, node
number 0 in the part of the table listing the additional nodes
means that there is no additional node. You can attach/detach
additional nodes by changing 0 to the number of the existing
node and vice verse.
Type of element — type of the finite element is specified
here, Number of the rigidity type — number of the rigidity
type, Number of sections — the number of intermediate
sections where the forces are calculated is output for bar
elements.
Clicking the Loads button invokes the Loads on Element
dialog box (Fig. 10.2-39) with the information on loads applied
to the element in each loading. This mode enables to selectively
delete the loads from the current (active) loading. In order to
delete it select a line with the load you want to delete in the list
which is specified as Current (loading), and click the Delete
button.
The value of the load selected in the list is output in the
respective information window. In order to correct the load
value, select it in the list, change the value in the text field and
click the Modify button. The load will be deleted or changed
only in the case if the loading is saved using the button in
the Loadings section.
The Number of the rigidity type button invokes the
dialog box with the stiffness properties of the element which
can be corrected. The main thing you should remember when
using this operation is that only the characteristics of the
analyzed element will be changed which corresponds to
creating a new rigidity type.
If it is necessary to change the characteristics of a certain
type of rigidity, this operation has to be performed by invoking
the respective operation from the Assign section or using the
Figure 10.2-37. The Information on
color indication of the numbers of the rigidity types (Fig. 10.2-
the Element dialog box 28).
The Orientation of the Axes of Inertia dialog box can be invoked for two-node elements by clicking
the Local axes button, the Hinges button invokes the Boundary Conditions of Bars dialog box, and the
Rigid inserts button invokes the Rigid Inserts dialog box where you can correct the parameters specified
earlier. When preparing the data you can change the Subsoil parameters and Prestressing for the selected
element with the help of the respective buttons. If necessary the considered element can be deleted or
marked as selected. The Delete and Select buttons respectively are used for performing these operations.
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Figure 10.2-38. The Nodes of the Element dialog box

Figure 10.2-39. The Loads on Element dialog box
Clicking the Select adjacent elements button makes the current element and all the elements having
common nodes with the current selected.
It should be noted that the modification of the characteristics of elements is available only in the
preprocessor. Using the above functions in the mode of the analysis of the results is purely informative.
Diagrams of deflections (in the local coordinate system) or forces can be plotted in the mode of the
analysis of the results of the calculation for bar elements. Dialog boxes with diagrams (Fig. 10.2-40 and
10.2-41) can be invoked by clicking the respective buttons. The obtained diagrams can be output in the
report document by clicking the Report button, or tables with the values of factors on the basis of which
the diagrams were plotted can be loaded into Excel®.
If the direct integration of the equations of motion is analyzed (Chapter 15), you can view the graphs
of the variation of the components of forces (stresses) with time.
The Stresses in sections button enables to analyze the distribution of normal, shear or equivalent
(according to the Mises theory) stresses in sections of bar elements for the current loading (or the
combination of loadings) (Fig. 10.2-44). The Stresses button invokes the dialog box with the table of
stresses for plate and solid elements (Fig. 10.2-42). Similarly, the Principal and equivalent stresses
button enables to obtain a table with the respective information (Fig. 10.2-43).
Figure 10.2-40. Displacement (deflection) diagrams
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Figure 10.2-41. Force diagrams
Figure 10.2-42. The Stresses dialog box Figure 10.2-43. The Principal and Equivalent
Stresses dialog box
The Belonging to the groups button invokes the dialog box (Fig. 10.2-45) which provides a list of
groups containing this element. The Show all groups checkbox enables to expand the list and obtain a full
set of groups. Each line of this list has a checkbox indicating whether an element belongs to a group. You
can add the selected element to the group or delete it from it by checking or unchecking the checkboxes.
The Type of group column shows whether a group is general or it is a group of structural members (steel or
reinforced concrete). The View button enables to view the groups of structural members.
Figure 10.2-45. The Belonging to the Groups dialog box
Figure 10.2-44. The Stresses in Sections dialog

box
If the generation of design combinations of forces has been performed, you can use the DCF button to
obtain the information on the design combinations of forces in the selected element in the tabular form in
the special dialog box (see Sec. 18.12). A similar dialog box (invoked by clicking the DC of deflections
button) provides information on the design combinations of deflections in bar elements.
When performing the calculation for the progressive collapse the DCF (progressive collapse) button
becomes available and the tables will include data corresponding to the rules of this calculation (see
Chapter 22). Moreover, in this case you can obtain the information on the utilization factors of restrictions
for the considered element by clicking the Progressive collapse button.
If the element belongs to a group of structural steel or reinforced concrete members, the buttons
which enable to obtain information on the results of the selection of reinforcement or check according to
the design codes for reinforced concrete or steel structures will appear for this element. It is described in
detail in Chapters 19, 20.
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The Information on the Element dialog box can occupy any position in the work area or outside it.
You do not have to close this dialog box when performing the operations of specification or correcting the
geometry of the model.
In those cases when the set of buttons or information provided by default in the Information on the
Element dialog box includes items which are not used or rarely used, it is possible to configure the dialog
box to display only the necessary data. To do this, use the Settings operation, which is invoked by clicking
the respective button in the considered dialog box or by right-clicking. After invoking this operation, a
menu appears, which enables to include or exclude these items from the dialog box. The settings will be
used later in all dialog boxes and for all models. If the user has changed the setting, the button Settings
will have an additional indicator showing that the standard settings have been changed.
Displaying Loads, Masses and Specified Displacements

This section is devoted to the consideration of the issue of displaying loads in SCAD.
Display Nodal Loads
The rules for displaying loads of this type are specified in the Nodal Loads tab (Fig. 10.2-46).
Controls of this tab enable to select a load by its type (forces, moments) and direction of the action for the
current loading. If the lines with the load values are selected in the Load value list, only the loads the
values of which coincide with the selected values will be displayed in the model (if they are specified in
the current, i.e. active loading).
Nodal loads are displayed in the following way:
 forces — as an arrow along the respective axis;
 moments — as a double arrow along the axis about which the moment acts.
In both cases the direction of the arrows is defined by the sign of the force or moment.
By default the forces are displayed as red arrows, and moments — as green arrows.
Figure 10.2-46. The Nodal Loads tab Figure 10.2-47. The Concentrated Loads tab
It should be noted that a force is positive if it is directed against the axis, and a
moment is positive if its vector determined according to the right-hand screw rule acts
against the axis direction.
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Display Local Concentrated Loads
The rules for displaying loads of this type are specified in the Concentrated Loads tab (Fig. 10.2-
47). Controls of this tab enable to select loads for displaying in a loading by their type (forces, moments),
direction of action, type of elements, and the coordinate system they are applied in (local, global).
Moreover, the tab also contains a list of load values similar to the Nodal Loads tab. Concentrated loads
are displayed in the following way:
 forces — as an arrow along the respective axis;
 moments — as a double arrow along the axis about which the moment acts.
The sign convention coincides with that described for nodal loads but taking into account the
coordinate system (local or global).
Display Local Distributed Loads
The Distributed Loads tab (Fig. 10.2-48) is used for specifying the rules for displaying loads of this
type. Controls of this tab enable to select loads by their type (forces, moments), direction of action, type of
elements, and the coordinate system they are applied in (local, global). Moreover, the tab also contains a list
of load values similar to the Nodal Loads tab.
Figure 10.2-48. The Distributed Loads tab Figure 10.2-49. The Masses in Nodes tab
The uniformly distributed loads on bar elements are displayed in the following way:
 forces — as a bound pair of arrows applied to the nodes of elements along the respective axis;
 moments — as a bound pair of double arrows applied to the nodes of the element along the
respective axis about which the moment acts.
The loads on plate elements are displayed in the following way:
 forces — as three or four bound arrows (depending on the number of nodes in the element), applied
to the nodes of elements along the respective axis;
 moments — as three or four bound double arrows applied to the nodes of the element along the
The uniformly distributed loads on solid elements are displayed as an arrow applied to the center of
the element and directed along the respective axis.
Trapezoidal loads on bar elements are displayed in the following way:
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 forces — as a bound pair of arrows applied to the element along the respective axis;
 moments — as a bound pair of double arrows applied to the element along the respective axis
about which the moment acts.
The following system of designations is assumed for plate elements:
 forces — as three or four bound arrows (depending on the number of nodes in the element), applied
to the nodes of elements along the respective axis;
 moments— as three or four bound double arrows applied to the nodes of the element along the
By default the forces are displayed as red arrows, and moments — as double green arrows. The sign
convention coincides with that described for nodal loads but taking into account the coordinate system
(local or global) in which the loads are applied.
Display Thermal Loads
Thermal loads are displayed as wavy arrows applied to the centers of the elements for which this type
of load is specified.
The setting of display of this type of load is not provided.
Display Masses and Dynamic Actions
If the active loading is a dynamic one, the icons for displaying nodal, concentrated and distributed
loads change, and the user can obtain a graphical display of masses.
Tabs similar to those for setting the display of loads are used for the control of the display of masses
and dynamic actions (see Fig. 10.2-49). The controls of the output are in many respects similar to those
described above for nodal loads.
Masses are displayed in the model as lines without arrows (they do not have a sign) along the
respective axis.
Display Specified Displacements
This filter is used for displaying loads specified as the displacement of the constraint (calculation for
specified displacements). Similarly to nodal loads a setting which enables to select the directions of action
or individual values that have to be visualized is provided for the loads of this type. The value of the
specified displacement can be output on the screen using the filters button Values of loads — .
Generate a Map of Distributed Loads
The operation of generating a map of distributed loads is used for the control of total uniformly
distributed loads specified in the current loading. In the result of performing this operation elements of the
design model are displayed in different colors depending on the value of the total load.
The setting is performed in the Map of Distributed Loads tab (Fig. 10.2-50), which is invoked when
setting the filter and has the following parameters:
 Type of elements — bars or plates;
 Coordinate system for specifying the loads — local or global;
 Direction of the load action — X, Y or Z;
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 Range of loads — all loads or the loads in the given range (in the last case it is necessary to specify
the range of the load values).
The values of the total loads can be output in the centers of elements with the help of the filters button
Values of loads — .
Figure 10.2-50. The Map of Distributed Loads tab Figure 10.2-51. The Map of Nodal Loads tab
Map of Nodal Loads
The operation of generating a map of nodal loads is used for the control of the total nodal loads
specified in the current loading. In the result of performing this operation the nodes of the design model are
indicated by color markers depending on the value of the total load.
The setting is performed in the Map of Nodal Loads tab (Fig. 10.2-51), which is invoked when
setting the filter and has the following parameters:
 Direction of the load action — X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ;
 Range of loads — all loads or the loads in the given range (in the last case it is necessary to specify
the range of the load values).
The values of the total loads can be output with the help of the filters button Values of loads —
.
Indication of the Number of Loads
This filter is used for displaying a color map of the number

of loads on the element/node. Each element/node of the model
or fragment will be displayed in a certain color dependingon the
number of loads applied to it in the given loading. A standard
color scale enables to select the type of the objects (nodes or
elements) and control the display including the fragmentation of
elements depending on the number of loads (Fig. 10.2-52) .
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Figure 10.2-52. Color scale of the

Indication of the number of local loads
Output the Values of Loads and Masses
The values of loads are output according to the following rules:

 for nodal and concentrated loads — next to the arrow displaying the load;
 for uniformly distributed loads on bars — in the center of an area bounded by a pair of arrows;
 for uniformly distributed loads on plates and solid elements — in the center of an element;
 for trapezoidal loads — values of the load next to the arrows;
 for masses — similarly to nodal loads (letter M stands before the value of the mass);
 for dynamic actions (pulse, impact, harmonics) prefixes IM, SM, HM respectively are used when
outputting loads.
The type, color and size of the font for indicating the load value can be changed in the Font Setting tab of
the Parameters dialog box which can be invoked from the Settings menu.
When outputting the loads their image is scaled in accordance with the value of the load. The scaling
is performed separately for forces and moments.
Display Axes of the Global Coordinate System
When working with the model the global coordinate system is always displayed in the lower left
corner of the window and shows the current position (rotation) of the design model. After activating the
filter the coordinate system is moved into the point with the coordinates 0, 0, 0.
Setting of this filter is not provided.
Display Grid Lines
This operation enables to display the specified

grid lines and elevations in the model. The Grid
Lines tab of the Set the Information Display
Filters dialog box contains the controls for
displaying the grid lines (Fig. 10.2-53). The controls
of this tab enable to perform the following actions:
− set the mode for displaying all or individual
groups of grid lines and marks, fully or only in
the specified interval for each direction;
− select the rules for displaying marks of grid
lines;
− specify the display of grid lines only in the
Figure 10.2-53. The Grid Lines tab dimensions of the structural fragment;
− enable the Display the grid mode;
− display the dimension lines.
In order to specify the selective display of grid lines for each direction select the Tabular control of
the grid lines display radio button and perform the necessary settings in the tables.
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The Display direction checkboxes enable to display or hide the grid lines in longitudinal or transverse
directions, and marks as well. If The whole interval checkbox is not checked, you can specify the marks of
grid lines which are displayed on the screen. In this case you will obtain access to the From and To lists. A
mark of the first grid line of the fragmentation area is selected in the first list, and that of the last one — in the
second list. This selective display can be specified for each group of grid lines.
Grid lines can be displayed together with the dimension lines. Depending on the active markers the
dimensions are displayed as snaps to the first grid line or as intervals between grid lines.
Display Dimension Lines
This operation enables to display the dimension lines on the screen. They are set along the bottom and left
edges of the work area. Filter settings are performed in the Dimension Lines tab (Fig. 10.2-54) and enable to
display the grid. Dimension lines and the grid are output only in the case if the fragment or the whole model are
projected onto one of the planes of the global coordinate system (Fig. 10.2-55). The spacing of dimension
lines can be selected automatically or specified by the user.
Figure 10.2-54. The Dimension Lines tab Figure 10.2-55. Display of the dimension lines and the
grid
Deleting the Lines of the Invisible Contour
The following modes of display of the design model can be set in the Invisible Lines tab of the Set
the Information Display Filters dialog box (Fig. 10.2-56):
 deleting the lines of the invisible contour or the contour display;
 the same with the three-dimensional display of the profile of bar elements;
 the same with the display of the thickness of plates.
You should take into account the following facts when invoking this operation:
 when the GDI rendering engine is used the time needed for deleting the lines of the invisible
contour depends on the sizes of the design model and can be quite considerable for large systems.
If the options for displaying the profiles of bar elements and thicknesses of plates are active, the
time for deleting increases considerably;
 the Environment Settings dialog box enables to specify the gap between the bar elements (the
Offsets for displaying the profiles group of buttons in Fig. 10.4-1). The gap is necessary to
correctly display the intersection of elements at the three-dimensional display of profiles;
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 the gap defines the distance from the end of the bar to the node in fractions of the sizes of the
section; if a zero gap is specified, the intersection of bars coming to one node is unpredictable and
the time necessary to delete it can be increased in several times;
 the profiles of short bars the length of which is commensurable with the sizes of their cross-section
are not output in the GDI rendering engine.
a)
Figure 10.2-56. The Invisible Lines tab

b) c)
Figure 10.2-57. The display of profiles of bar elements and plates

a) with the enabled Display with removal of invisible lines option;
b) with the enabled Transparency filter; c) with the enabled Contour display option
Transparency, Lightning, Perspective
These three buttons of the Display Filters toolbar enable to obtain an image with the effects of
transparency, lighting and perspective respectively. All three options are available only in the case if the
display is performed in the DirectX rendering engine.
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Color Display of the Groups of Nodes and Elements
These filters invoke the respective color scale (Fig. 10.2-58), where each group of nodes or elements
has a corresponding color and a line with the name of the group. Thus, nodes and elements of the model
belonging to these groups are highlighted in a certain color. The following operations are available when
working with color scales:
 selecting active groups into a fragment (groups of nodes can be included in a fragment without
elements or with adjacent elements);
 deleting active groups.
Groups with checked checkboxes are considered to be active. Any operations of correction,
specification and visualization can be performed with nodes and elements of groups included in a fragment.
These groups can be saved as individual models (button in the Control section).
In order to obtain a new fragment consisting of other groups it is necessary to check the respective
checkboxes and click the Fragment button.
You can return to the display of the full model by performing the fragmentation at the active state of
all groups in the color scale or by clicking the Initial display of the model button of the visualization
filters.
a) b)
Figure 10.2-58. Color scales

a) Groups of Nodes; b) Groups of Elements
It should be noted that the color display of groups will not work simultaneously
with other rendering engines where elements/nodes are displayed in color.
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Color Display of the Specified Reinforcement
The filter is used for the color indication of elements with different types of the specified
reinforcement. The color scale (Fig. 10.2-59) contains switches , , which enable to obtain color
scales for plates or bars respectively.
Figure 10.2-59. The Specified Reinforcement of Plates color scale
Display Groups of Structural Members
These filters are used for the color indication of groups of structural members for the check and
selection of rolled steel sections — or groups of reinforced concrete elements — . The color scale
(Fig. 10.2-60) includes names of groups, checkboxes, and Apply and Fragment buttons which perform the
same functions as the similar controls of the color indication of the groups of elements.
Figure 10.2-60. The Groups of Reinforcement color scale

There are the following icons next to the color markers in structural groups of elements of reinforced
concrete structures:
— group of plate structural members;
— group of bar structural members;
— bar structural member.
The following icons are used for structural groups of elements of steel structures:
— group of structural members;
— structural member.
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If a structural group is specified as an additional one, the above icons are displayed on a green
background. The column marked with a red square indicates the number of elements included in the
groups, and the next column provides this information in the form of a diagram.
Cancel the Selection of Nodes and Elements
Technically this operation does not belong to the display filters, but it can be used quite often when
working with the model and therefore it is included in the Display Filters toolbar. All the selected or
marked elements and nodes will be deselected after clicking this button.
Navigator
The navigator enables to determine the position of the visible part of the design model after
performing the operations of fragmentation by a marquee and cutting on projections. A window with the
image of the design model where its visible part is displayed in red appears after invoking the navigator.
Show Elements Included/Not Included in the Given Erection Stage
It enables to see the elements working in the erection stage (see Chapter 14). The Erection Stages tab
of the Set the Information Display Filters dialog box enables to display the information on the
coefficients of variation of the elastic modulus on the model.
Prestressing
If the design model has elements with prestressing, this filter enables to obtain a color scale (Fig.
10.2-61) displaying the values of prestressing and/or values of prestressing assigned to the elements. Filter
settings (Fig. 10.2-62) enable to select the types of elements (plates, bar/cable stays, or solid elements),
specify the force factor you are interested in, and select the style of display: color and/or digitization.
Figure 10.2-61. The Prestressing color scale

Figure 10.2-62. The Prestressing tab
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Color Display of Modules
If you activate this option for the models of FORUM type, all elements belonging to a certain module
will be displayed in the color assigned to this module.
Types of Rooms
You can obtain a color scale (Fig. 10.2-63) and the

coloring of floors into different colors depending on the type of
room assigned to them for the models of the FORUM type for
which the information on the types of rooms is specified.
Figure 10.2-63. The Types of Rooms

color scale
10.3. Displaying the Results of the Calculation

The means for the visualization of the results of the calculation (deformations, forces, stresses) are
described in this section.
Visualization of Results Toolbar

The toolbar is available in the mode of the analysis of the results of the calculation and includes the
controls for the setting of the image when outputting isofields and isolines, displaying the values of the
considered factor on the model, and the visualization of deflections of bar elements (Fig. 10.3-1).
Figure 10.3-1. The Visualization of Results toolbar
Displaying the Deflections in Bars
This filter enables to display the deformed model taking into account the displacements in the
intermediate points of the bar in the mode of the graphical analysis of the results of the calculation. The
filter can be activated in the mode of the animation or generation of video clips (AVI-files).
It should be taken into account that if the mode of the display of deflections is activated, the time
necessary to generate a deformed model slightly increases.
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Finite Element Mesh on Isofields
This option should be activated if you have to display a finite element mesh simultaneously with
isofields/isolines (see Fig. 10.3-2).
Figure 10.3-2. Isofields without a finite element mesh and with a mesh
Displaying the Deformed Model
Filter enables to obtain an image of the deformed model. If the filter is used, both deformed
and initial models will appear on the screen. Displacement scale factor can be used when generating a
deformed model. In order to do it, click the Displacement scale factor button and select the necessary
scale factor in the menu that will appear.
Output the Values on Isolines, Isofields and Diagrams
This filter is available in the mode of the graphical analysis of the results and works only “above” the
color display of the considered factor (isolines, isofields, etc.) or diagrams. It enables to display the values
obtained in the result of the calculation in the centers of elements and/or nodes.
In order to display only the numerical values of the factor on the model, after outputting, for example,
the isolines it is necessary to disable all the active positions in the respective color scale (using the Off
button).
If the Output the values of stress in the plate nodes and solids checkbox is checked in the Results
tab of the Environment Settings dialog box, the respective values will be displayed on the model together
with the values in the centers of elements.
If some of the intervals are disabled in the dialog box of the color scale, the digitization (or its
absence) on the disabled intervals depends on whether the Do not digitize the disabled intervals of the
color scale checkbox is checked in the General Settings of the Display Filters tab of the Set the
Information Display Filters dialog box (see Fig. 10.3-3).
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Figure 10.3-3. Example of digitization of a part of isofields
Selective Output of Values on Isolines, Isofields, and Diagrams
The numerical values of different factors can be displayed not for all but only for the selected
nodes/elements (Fig. 10.3-4). Since the selection of nodes and elements usually deals with the performance
of certain operations, a special selection is used for the selective digitization, which is enabled by the
Select objects for displaying information marker button — . This button is located in the Control
the Selection toolbar and is duplicated in the status bar.
The following procedure is used to perform the selection when outputting the results of the
calculation:
− enable the filter Display information on the model only for the selected elements and nodes —
;
− enable the filter of the output of numerical values — ;
− enable the marker button — ;
− select the necessary objects in the model.
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Figure 10.3-4. Example of a complete and selective digitization

It should be noted that by using the combination of buttons and in the postprocessor you can
localize the output of other information on nodes and elements in the model as well, for example, the
numbers of nodes or the names of the types of rigidity
Control of the Output of Isofields

The program provides two forms of representation of isofields — with a contrast transition between adjacent
colors (Fig. 10.3-6 a) and a gradient one which provides a smooth transition between the colors of adjacent
ranges (Fig. 10.3-6 b). In order to switch to the gradient drawing check the respective checkbox in the
Digitization of Isofields/Isolines tab of the Set the Information Display Filters dialog box (Fig. 10.3-5).
Figure 10.3-5. The Digitization of Isofields/Isolines tab
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a) b)
Figure 10.3-6. Contrast a) and gradient b) forms of representation of isofields

If some ranges of the color scale are disabled, areas of isofields with active ranges might be invisible
in the spatial model (Fig. 10.3-7). You can “Open” the invisible areas by checking the Transparency of
disabled isofield intervals checkbox (Fig. 10.3-8).
Figure 10.3-7. Isofields of active ranges are “hidden” Figure 10.3-8. Isofields of active ranges are visible
10.4. Environment Settings

Environment settings can be specified by invoking a multi-tab dialog box from the Settings menu. This
dialog box contains three tabs: Design Model, Results and Animation Control.
The Design Model tab (Fig. 10.4-1) contains the following controls of the display:
 an option of the separate display of plates, which enables to display the plate elements (Fig. 10.4-2)
with an interval dividing the adjoining elements (this option enables to control the position of bar
elements located between the plates);
 an option of “filling” the distributed loads on bar elements, which enables to visually separate the
loads on bars and plates (Fig. 10.4-3);
 slider for selecting the displayed size of nodes;
 slider for selecting the size of color markers;
 slider for selecting the backlight level when the filters button Enable/disable lighting is used;
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 checkbox which enables to save the results of work automatically and a line for specifying the time
interval between the operations of saving;
 buttons for selecting the value of the offset from nodes at the three-dimensional display of bar
elements which enables to avoid inaccuracies at the visualization in the case when several bar
elements come into one node (if the sizes of the offsets exceed the length of the bar, the profile is
not displayed);
 checkbox which enables to save the environment settings when switching from the preprocessor to
the postprocessor;
 limitation on the number of lines in the log file of changes and on the number of possible undo
operations.
Separate display of plates “Fill” the distributed loads

on the bars
Adjusting the backlight level
Specification of the
displayed size of nodes
Specifying the value of the
offset from the node
Specification of the sizes

of color markers
Figure 10.4-1. The Design Model tab of the Environment Settings dialog box
Figure 10.4-2. Design model with a separate display of Figure 10.4-3. Uniformly distributed load on bar and
plates plate elements
Moreover, this tab also enables to specify the values of the accuracy of estimation of the duplicate
nodes necessary when performing the assembly of the model from submodels and other operations of
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synthesis of the design model including deleting of duplicate nodes, creating bar elements from a group of
nodes lying on a straight line etc.
If the Do not delete ""hanging"" nodes after deleting the element checkbox is checked, deleting an
element does not automatically delete nodes which are not adjacent to any other element.
The Fast rotation option invokes the mode of drawing the model at its rotation when only the “wire” design
model is drawn. After the rotation the screen displays the model in a new position with all the information.
If the Automatic activation of the display of nodes checkbox is checked, the display filter of nodes will
be enabled automatically (this filter is not disabled automatically) at the beginning of work of any operation
where the selection of nodes is required (for example, deleting nodes, creating a bar, ...).
The auto-save operation is performed according to the following rules
 each model can have its time for autosaving;
 autosaving of the model is performed in the case if the model was modified during the time
interval between the last saving and the current time;
 if the autosaving is performed the respective message appears in the log.
The Results tab (Fig. 10.4-4) contains the following controls of display:
 checkbox which enables to output the values of force factors in the nodes of plate elements;
 specification of the shell shallowness criterion (cosine of the angle between the normals to the
adjacent areas of the design model), which enables to determine the relationship between the force
factors of the adjacent areas of the design model (see below);
 the checkbox for hatching the diagrams and selection of the hatch spacing. If the spacing between
the hatching lines (Hatch spacing of the force diagrams) is set as one, it corresponds to the
maximum density of hatching. If the spacing values are equal to 1.5 or 2 the density of hatching
decreases in 1,5 or 2 times respectively. An example of the display of diagrams on the design
model at the checked Hatch the force diagrams checkbox is shown in Fig. 10.4-5;
 the option of saving the reactions in nodes from the modes of dynamic loadings.
Figure 10.4-5. Displaying diagrams on the design model

Figure 10.4-4. The Results tab
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The Shell shallowness criterion parameter enables to distinguish between two cases schematically
shown in Figures 10.4-6, 10.4-7. In the first of them (Fig. 10.4-6) the dihedral angles between finite elements
which formed after replacing a smooth surface of a shell by a faceted structure from flat finite elements are
small. When determining the values of stresses in the nodes it is allowed to use the averaged data taken from all
finite elements adjacent to the nodes (assuming that the directions of force output in these elements are specified
correctly). In the second case (Fig. 10.4-7), when the angle of a building is considered, the dihedral angle
between the walls is large. In this case, the stress fields should be generated separately for each wall. Then the
averaging in nodes will be performed for each wall separately.
Thus, the Shell shallowness criterion defines the maximum value of the cosine of the angle between the
normals to the surface of adjacent elements depending on which the rule for generating stress fields will be
selected:
 if on the design model the angle between the normals to the surfaces of adjacent elements is less
than the angle specified by the value of the parameter Shell shallowness criterion, the values of
stresses in the vertex of an angle are averaged for all elements adjacent to the node (Fig. 10.4-6);
 if on the design model the angle between the normals to the surfaces of adjacent elements is greater
than the angle specified by the value of the parameter Shell shallowness criterion, the values of
stresses in the vertex of an angle are averaged for two elements, for example, as shown in Fig.
10.4-7.
Figure 10.4-6. Isofields on shallow shells
Figure 10.4-8. The Animation Control tab
Figure 10.4-7. Isofields on the corner line
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By default, the software assumes the value of this parameter as 0.95, which roughly corresponds to
the angle of 18o. If you specify the value of the parameter as 1, the averaging is not performed, and each
element will have its “own” system of isofields.
The graphical display of the results (for example, isofields of stresses) can be performed on a
deformed or on a non-deformed model. The respective checkbox in the Results tab enables to select the
necessary variant.
When working with a postprocessor it is often necessary to select nodes/elements (for example, in
order to create groups). A special group of buttons enables to specify the rules for working in a situation
when there is a deformed model on the screen. The selection can be performed only on a non-deformed
model, only on a deformed model or on both. If one of the models is not displayed on the screen, the
selection mode will be automatically provided for the model displayed on the screen.
The Animation Control tab (Fig. 10.4-8) enables to specify the parameters of the animation control
in the modes of the analysis of displacements and buckling modes for static and dynamic loadings. The
number of steps (frames) in one scene of the “movie” and the number of scene repetitions are specified as
the parameters for static loadings and buckling modes. The number of periods and the number of steps in a
period are specified for the modes of dynamic loadings.
The frame rate is a general parameter.
Like other parameters the environment settings are saved in the file of the
project (for example, spr-file). If the dialog box for setting these parameters is
invoked from the Settings menu when there are no open models, the saved
values will be used for all newly created projects.
Color setting which are used for the newly created projects are saved in the following files:
 custom.color;
 presentation.color;
 soft.color;
 standard.color;
 white.color.
These files are in the following directory "C:\Users\All Users\SCAD Soft\Data\". If you save these
files before installing a new version and copy them after the installation into the above directory, you will
be able to use (for new projects) the colors set earlier.
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10.5. Color Palette Settings

The operation of setting the colors of all elements of the information display on the design mode is
provided for convenience of working with the software. The color palette setting is invoked from the
Settings menu and it is available both in the mode for preparing the initial data, and when analyzing the
results of the calculation. The settings are performed in the multi-tab Color Settings dialog box (Fig.
10.5-1, a–g), which includes the following tabs: Model, Nodes, Elements, Loads, Results, Constraints,
Enlarged Elements.
a) b) c)
d) e) f)
Figure 10.5-1. The Color Settings dialog box

tabs: a) Model, b) Nodes, c) Elements, d) Loads,
e) Results, f) Constraints, g) Enlarged Elements
g)
In order to set the color for any of the possible display elements it is necessary to select its name from
the list of elements and set the necessary color using the Select color button. The results of the selection
will be displayed in the preview window with all the earlier performed settings in the background. You can
switch to the set color by clicking the Apply button.
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The software provides several “standard” color palettes Standard, White background, Soft, ...,
which can be used by selecting the necessary variant from the Color palette drop-down list. Respective
colors will be loaded which can be changed later. The changed color setting can be saved by clicking the
respective button. The Restore by default button enables to restore a standard color palette, i.e. the color
palette after the initial installation of the software.
Color settings are saved in the file of the project (for example, spr-file). If the
dialog box for setting these parameters is invoked from the Settings menu when
there are no open models, the saved colors will be used for all newly created
projects.
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11.Control of the Calculation
11. Control of the Calculation

The calculation can be performed only if the initial data of the current project contain the obligatory
minimum of information, i.e. geometry of the design model, description of stiffness properties of all
elements, and at least one loading.
The calculation can be invoked from the respective section of the Project tree. A multi-tab
Calculation Parameters dialog box appears after this (Fig. 11.1-1).
It is necessary to specify a working mode of the processor (Complete analysis or Continued
analysis) in the General Parameters tab of this dialog box and select a solution method (Gaussian,
Multifrontal, Iterative or PARFES). You also have to specify the necessary settings of the calculation
process in this and other tabs.
11.1. General Parameters
Figure 11.1-1. The General Parameters tab of

the Calculation Parameters dialog box
It is recommended to use the Continued analysis mode after modifying the initial data not dealing
with nodes, constraints and elements (for example after correcting the loads).
Before describing the settings let’s consider the Additional actions button which can be found in
each tab and which defines the rules for working with the specified parameters. Clicking this button
invokes a menu where you can select one of the following three actions:
 restore the values by default — restores the initial settings (defined by the software);
 save the values as the template — enables to save the settings in a file of SCAD settings and to
subsequently load them into other tasks;
 restore the values from the template — restores the settings which were saved by the previous
operation.
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Like other parameters the calculation settings are saved in the file of
the project (for example, spr-file). If the Calculation Parameters dialog box is
invoked from the Settings menu when there are no open models, the saved
values will be used for all newly created projects. It is recommended to
perform the analysis of efficiency of multi-threaded calculations (see below),
and set the optimum number of threads for all newly created models.
The following settings are provided in the General Parameters tab:

 Solution check — this checkbox is used to enable or disable the procedure of checking the
accuracy of the solution;
 Accuracy of the check — it is specified if the Solution check checkbox is checked and defines the
error in the mode of checking the solution of a system of equations (10% by default); if it is
exceeded a message indicating the obtained value of the error is generated and the calculation is
terminated;
 Allowing for loads in constraints — when this option is activated the log will include the values
of total loads in nodes taking into account the loads in nodes with imposed constraints;
 Sum of moments of all forces about the axes of the global coordinate system — when this
option is activated the log will include the values of components of the principal moment of
external forces;
 Automatic invocation of design postprocessors after the main analysis — if this option is
activated, calculations of combinations of loadings, design combinations of forces and some other
problems for which the initial data are prepared will be performed after performing static and
dynamic calculations;
 Do not take into account the loads on rigid inserts when specifying the uniformly distributed
loads on bar elements — this option enables to exclude a part of the external load which falls on
the inserts from the calculation;
 Calculate reactions in constraints — if this option is activated, reactions in constraints will be
determined in the result of the calculation;
 Maximum number of threads — enables to limit the number of threads the software can run in
the calculation; if you select the option automatically, the software will select the optimal number
of threads; if you want to run other applications during the calculation, you can limit the number of
threads, thus leaving some computing power for other programs (the button enables to analyze
the efficiency for different number of threads);
 RAM usage — percentage of the RAM usage for storing data not dealing with the solution of
systems of equations;
 the software also enables to select which values of displacements/forces/stresses will be output in
the postprocessor — design or characteristic (if EN 1990 is selected for calculating load
combinations, these controls are not available and the program always calculates the characteristic
values of displacements/forces/stresses).
Not only the computer processor (CPU), but also the processors of a video card
are often used for the parallelization of computing operations. SCAD performs
parallel calculations using only the possibilities of multi-threaded CPU. Processors
of a video card (GPU) are used only for the graphical operations. This is due to the
fact that integral losses for the operations of data exchange are too large in the
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regular graphics cards (which are used by the vast majority of users). This leads to a
situation when the acceleration of actual calculations is offset by the exchange
operations, which usually leads to the increase of the total operation time.
The usage of GPU can probably be effective for nonlinear problems of small
dimension which require many iterations. Moreover, the necessary operating speed
can be provided by special quite expensive video cards of Tesla type. However they
are not used in the current version of the software, because the increase of the
efficiency compared to CPU is observed only for very large stiffness matrices with
very low density (see [21], [22]).
The second tab changes depending on the selected solution method: Parameters of the Gaussian
Method (Fig. 11.2-1), Multifrontal Method (Fig. 11.3-1), Parameters of the Iterative Method (Fig.
11.4-1) or PARFES (Fig. 11.5-1).
11.2. Gaussian Method

If the Gaussian method is used, the Accuracy of the matrix
decomposition is specified in the respective tab (Fig. 11.2-1);
it defines the minimum value of the element of a stiffness
matrix which is considered to be different from zero (the value
of 106 is assumed by default). If a number less than the
specified accuracy appears on the main diagonal in the process
of the matrix decomposition, such a situation is interpreted as
the dimensional instability of the system.
RAM usage (%) — indicates the percentage of RAM
used for storing the information in the process of solving a
system of equations (40% by default).
Moreover, you can also select the stiffness matrix
optimization method, and indicate the minimum value of the
Figure 11.2-1. The Parameters of the order of the system of equations at which the optimization is
Gaussian Method tab not performed.
11.3. Multifrontal Method

The Accuracy of the matrix decomposition is specified in the
Multifrontal Method tab (Fig. 11.3-1); it defines the minimum
value of the element of a stiffness matrix which is considered to
be different from zero (the value of 1012 is assumed by
default). If a number less than the specified accuracy appears on
the main diagonal in the process of the matrix decomposition,
such a situation is interpreted as the dimensional instability of
the system.
optimization method. If the Full check at the solution
Figure 11.3-1. The Multifrontal checkbox is checked, the control of the accuracy of the solution
Method tab is performed for all loadings.
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11.4. Iterative Method

The Required accuracy of the iteration process and the Full
accuracy check at the solution option are specified in the
Parameters of the Iterative Method tab (Fig. 11.4-1). The
latter enables to obtain the information on the error of the
solution for each loading.
It is recommended to change other parameters only on the
instruction of the developers.

Iterative Method tab
11.5. PARFES
The Accuracy of the matrix decomposition is specified in the
PARFES (Parallel Sparse Direct Solver) tab (Fig. 11.5-1); it
defines the minimum value of the element of a stiffness matrix
which is considered to be different from zero (the value of 1012
is assumed by default). If a number less than the specified
accuracy appears on the main diagonal in the process of the
matrix decomposition, such a situation is interpreted as the
dimensional instability of the system.
optimization method.
Figure 11.5-1. The PARFES tab
11.6. Stability
The following parameters are specified in the Stability tab (Fig. 11.6-1):
 Upper search interval limit — the maximum allowable increase of loads which defines the search
range of the value of the stability factor of safety (2 by default);
 Accuracy of the calculation of stability factors of safety — accuracy of determining the stability
factor of safety (0.01 by default);
 Accuracy of the determination of the buckling modes — allowable error at the determination of
the buckling mode (106 by default for linear displacements);
 Maximum number of iterations at the determination of the buckling modes — number of
iterations after which a poorly convergent process is interrupted (100 by default);
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 Number of buckling modes — parameter defines the default value for the number of buckling
modes of the problems in which the data on stability are not yet specified;
 Allowing for tangential displacements in the geometric stiffness matrix of shells — parameter
enables not to take into account the tangential displacements in the analysis of the stability of
shells;
 Allowing for possible buckling at the bending of bars1 — parameter enables not to take into
account the possible buckling at the bending of bars (if this checkbox is not checked, the results of
the stability analysis will correspond to the results of the previous versions of SCAD, where this
possibility was not implemented).
Figure 11.6-1. The Stability tab

The tab with the settings of the stability analysis mode given in Fig. 11.6-1 is available at the initial
customization of the software (all projects must be closed). Information on the upper search limit of the
stability factor of safety, accuracy of its calculation, and the number of buckling modes are specified for
each particular problem. The values of the above parameters are loaded by default into the respective
fields of the General Stability Check of the System dialog box (see Section 23) and can be changed.
11.7. Dynamics
The Dynamics tab (Fig. 11.7-1) enables to select the method of the solution of the eigenvalue problem
(subspace iterations, method of steepest descent or Lanczos method). A “preferred” variant for all loadings
is specified here, it can be changed later when specifying the initial data to the dynamic loading. Additional
parameters of the mode are also specified at that time.
Lanczos method of the solution of the eigenvalue problem is specified in the Dynamics tab and has
the highest priority.
Checkboxes in this tab enable to specify the information which will be output into the analysis log:
 dynamic data;
 plots of the dynamic amplification factor;
1
The analysis of in-plane bending is considered for bars with a narrow rectangular section in a classic work by
Timoshenko S.P. Course of the Theory of Elasticity. — Kiev: Naukova Dumka, 1972. 508 p.
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 coefficients for the calculation of inertial loads (for example, the dynamic amplification factors 
and coefficients  depending on the deformation mode of the building or structure will be derived
for the seismic actions).
You also have to specify here the accuracy of the solution of the eigenvalue problem for the Lanczos
method, and for the method of subspace iteration and the method of steepest descent.
The software implements the block Lanczos method with spectral transformations [16] – [17], which
provides four calculation modes: modal, interval, seismic, and the mode of verification of the design
model. Two options can be selected in the Dynamics tab (the analysis mode or the mode of verification of
the design model). If the first option is selected, the program will automatically (depending on the data of a
certain dynamic loading) select the mode (modal, seismic, or interval). If the mode of verification of the
design model is selected, only the oscillation modes will be calculated (errors in the design model can be
found on their basis); the calculation of displacements, forces, ... will not be performed in this case.
Modal analysis — determines the number of
frequencies and oscillation modes specified in the Modal
Analysis tab of the Parameters of Dynamic Actions
dialog box (see Section 8.7). If a greater number of
eigenpairs have converged in the iteration process, the
results of the calculation will contain all these pairs.
Interval mode — determines all eigenpairs
(frequencies and modes) in the frequency range specified in
the Dynamics tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog
box when setting the operation of the Lanczos method.
Seismic mode determines frequencies and natural
oscillation modes until the sum of modal masses for each
direction X, Y and Z exceeds the values specified in the
Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box. Like in the
case of interval mode it is not known beforehand what
number of eigenpairs has to be determined.
Figure 11.7-1. The Dynamics tab of the
Calculation Parameters dialog box
Verification of the design model mode — enables to detect the dimensional instability of the design
model. The number of zero eigenvalues or those very close to zero will show the degree of degeneration of
the stiffness matrix, and their respective vectors – modes of the motion of the mechanism. Visualization of
the motion modes in the mode of the analysis of displacements enables to obtain information suggesting
how to correct the design model. The initial shift in the Lanczos method is used in the initial data of the
verification mode. It is set to zero by default and is changed automatically. In some (quite rare) cases this
parameter can be specified according to the recommendations of the developers.
Experiments show that quite often the Lanczos method is numerically unstable at small problems.
Therefore it is possible to specify the minimum number of dynamic degrees of freedom. If in the
problem this number is less than the selected one, the program will automatically use a different method.
One of the ways of specifying masses in the dynamic calculation is the transformation of a static
loading. This tab contains the Convert design masses into characteristic ones checkbox which defines
the rule for such a transformation, which is used for all dynamic loadings (if EN 1990 is selected for
calculating load combinations, this control is not available).
If the code contains instructions on how to take into account the proximity of frequencies and the user
has set the respective option (for example, in the calculations according to SP 14.13330.2014), then forces
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are summed according to the corresponding formula given in the code. If you want to sum displacements
and reactions according to the same rules, check the Sum displacements and reactions of the oscillation
modes allowing for the proximity of frequencies checkbox.
11.8. Nonlinearity
The following parameters are specified in the Nonlinearity tab (Fig. 11.8-1):
 Accuracy of the iteration process;
 Do not automatically add a static part of the dynamic wind loading to the nonlinear loading;
 Number of steps added to the nonlinear loading for the static part of the dynamic wind;
 Avoid spurious unloading.
Figure 11.8-1. The Nonlinearity tab Figure 11.9-1. The Elements tab
The user can generate a nonlinear loading by including a static part of the dynamic wind into it.
11.9. Elements
The Elements tab (Fig. 11.9-1) enables to specify the default number of force output points in bars.
This number will be used in the calculation of forces in bars for all bar elements where this parameter is
not set explicitly in a specific element (elements).
Limitations set by the following parameters are used in the control of the geometric shape of finite
elements:
 Maximum aspect ratio of solid and plate elements (deep beams);
 Maximum aspect ratio of plates and shells;
 Minimum allowable angle;
 Maximum allowable distortion of elements;
 Maximum allowable distortion of isoparametric elements;
 Default number of force output points in bars.
Violation of limitations defined by the above parameters is interpreted by the software as an error, the
respective message is generated, and the calculation is not performed.
Finite elements of the rigid body type are implemented using the Lagrange multipliers. The following
parameters are used (for a detailed description see [23]):
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 lower penalty parameter;

 upper penalty parameter.
You can change their default values only if it is recommended by the developers.
11.10. Special Settings

The following parameters are specified in the Special tab (Fig.
11.10-1):
 Maximum number of iterations for solving the
eigenvalue problem;
 Optimization of RAM usage — if this checkbox is
checked, the calculation is performed in a separate
process, otherwise the main process of SCAD is used;
 Use the virtual memory of the operating system — if
you have to solve very large problems and the amount
of RAM is limited, you can check this checkbox (it
might significantly slow down the calculation, but it
increases the dimension of the problems that can be
solved).
Other parameters in this tab can be changed only if it is
Figure 11.10-1. The Special tab recommended by the developers.
11.11. RAM Usage

The speed of calculations, especially for large problems, depends on the amount of RAM available for
the problem. The rules of the memory distribution on different stages of the calculation process can be
defined by the user. Special settings of the “percentage of memory” are provided in two tabs of the
Calculation Parameters dialog box — in the General Parameters tab, where the parameters not
depending on the selected method of calculation are specified, and in the tab of settings depending on the
selected method of calculation.
The specified “percentage of memory” is applied to obtain the maximum possible segment of
continuous RAM available to the process. It should be noted that if a 32-bit version of the program is used,
not more than 3.2 GB is available for each process, regardless of the amount of RAM installed on your
computer.
It is necessary to distinguish between three different situations that arise in the process of calculation.
1. Matrix decomposition (for example, using the PARFES method), when the memory is required
only for the “pieces” of the stiffness matrix. In this case, if the RAM usage is specified as 70% in
the PARFES tab, the software will try to take up to 70% of the free memory available for the
process.
2. Calculation of displacements, when the memory is required for the right parts (vectors of loads),
calculated displacements and “pieces” of the decomposed stiffness matrix. Let’s assume that it is
specified in the General Parameters tab that 40% of memory can be used. The software will take
40% of the free memory available for the process and will use them for the right parts and
displacements. The remaining memory (but not more than 70%) will be used for the “pieces” of
the decomposed stiffness matrix. If there is less than 70%, as much as possible memory will be
used.
3. Calculation of forces, DCF. The memory is requested according to the settings in the General
Parameters tab.
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The checked Use the virtual memory of the operating system checkbox in the Special tab enables
the software to use not only RAM in the calculation but also the virtual memory. This checkbox should not
be used without the recommendations of the developers, since it can significantly slow down the
calculation process.
11.12. Optimization of the Stiffness Matrix

The Parameters of the Gaussian Method, Multifrontal Method, and PARFES tabs enable to select
the stiffness matrix optimization method.
The following optimization methods are provided in the software:
 Cuthill-McKee method
 Parallel section method
 Factor trees method
 Nested sections method
 Minimum degree algorithm
 Multilevel method
 Sloan method
 Gibbs-Poole-Stockmeyer method
 Gibbs-King method
Moreover, the list of methods also contains the Automatic selection of the optimization method
item. If it is selected, the software will try to perform the optimization by several methods and will select
the best one. Depending on the used solution method the automatic selection will be performed from the
methods listed in the table.
Gaussian method Multifrontal method PARFES
Cuthill-McKee method +
Minimum degree algorithm + +
Multilevel method + +
Sloan method + + +
As already mentioned in Chapter 2, the problem of determining the optimal renumbering of the
degrees of freedom belongs to “difficult problems”, therefore all the optimization algorithms are heuristic.
If the automatic selection does not significantly reduce the parameters of the stiffness matrix (for example,
the profile of the matrix), it is advisable to try other methods implemented in the software by explicitly
selecting them from the list.
Optimization of matrices for problems with a small number of degrees of freedom is unreasonable,
since the time spent on the optimization may exceed the time for solving an unoptimized problem.
Therefore you can specify the limit value of the number of the degrees of freedom in the Do not perform
the optimization when the order of the system is less than... field; the matrix optimization will be
performed when they are reached.
11.13. Multi-threaded Calculations

Most modern CPU (Central Processor Unit) are multi-core, i.e. they include several independent
physical cores which can work simultaneously. Moreover, each core can alternately implement multiple
threads (“hyper-threading” technology), thereby creating multiple logical processors on the basis of each
physical core.
When performing the calculation operations (decomposition of the stiffness matrix, calculation of
displacements, forces etc.) almost all calculations are performed using a multi-threaded mode, i.e. with the
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parallel processing of data. The user can specify (select from the list) the maximum number of threads that
can be used for the current problem.
When the number of threads increases, the efficiency of the program usually increases as well and the
calculation time reduces. This growth will be observed in cases when the number of threads specified by
the user does not exceed the number of physical cores.
If the Automatically item is selected in the Maximum number of threads list, the “optimal” number
of threads is determined by the program and it will be taken as half the sum of the number of physical and
the number of logical cores. If the specified maximum number of threads is greater than the number of
physical cores, then depending on a particular model of CPU the efficiency can increase insignificantly,
and in some cases it can even decrease (threads begin to “interfere” with each other).
The button in the General Parameters tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box enables to
analyze the efficiency of a particular CPU. Clicking on it invokes the operation of determining the optimal
number of threads. The results of performing the operation are displayed in the respective dialog box (Fig.
11.13-1).
Figure 11.13-1. The Determine the Optimal Number of Threads dialog box
It is recommended to analyze the dependence of the efficiency on the number of threads before
specifying the Maximum number of threads. This is due to the fact that for many CPU using the
maximum number of logical threads at the minimum increase of the computing efficiency of SCAD may
lead to a significant reduction of the operating speed of other programs working parallel with SCAD.
11.14. Description of Solvers
Linear and Nonlinear Statics

A system of linear algebraic equations is solved in linear static problems
Kx = b, (1)
where K – symmetric (usually sparse) stiffness matrix which appears when the finite element method is
used for solving the problems of structural mechanics and solid mechanics; x, b – vectors of unknowns and
right-hand sides (loadings). The Newton-Raphson method or the modified Newton-Raphson method is
used in the nonlinear static problems. A system of linearized algebraic equations (1) is solved at each
iteration, where K – symmetric tangential stiffness matrix, x – vector of the increment of displacements
and rotation angles at the current iteration, b – residual vector.
Both the direct methods, and the iterative one – conjugate gradient method with preconditioning, are
used in SCAD for solving the system of linear algebraic equations (1).
Direct methods – multifrontal and PARFES – use the generalized Cholesky decomposition
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K = L∙S∙LT , (2)
where L – sparse lower triangular matrix, S – diagonal of coefficients which generalizes the Cholesky
decomposition in case of indefinite matrices typical when solving the problems of the modal analysis and
stability. Then the software performs the forward substitution
Ly = b → y , (3)
diagonal scaling
Sz = y → z , (4)
and back substitution
LTx = z → x. (5)
Moreover, the Gaussian method uses the decomposition:
K = L∙U, (6)
where L, U – lower and upper triangular matrices respectively, and then the forward (3) and back
substitutions are performed
Ux = y → x. (7)
When the iterative method is used the original problem (1) comes down to
B-1Kxi = B-1bi, i ∈ [1, Nr] , (8)
where i – number of the right-hand side, Nr – number of the right-hand sides, B – preconditioning operator
constructed in such a way so that the system of equations Bzik = rik → zik , having the same order as (1)
was solved much faster than (1), and the system of equations (6) had a better conditioning than (1):
Cond(B-1K) < Cond(K), where Cond(...) – conditioning number. Then the convergence of (6) will be
faster. Here rik = bi – Kxik – residual vector at the current iteration step k. The solution procedure consists
of two stages: creating preconditioning and the iterative process of the conjugate gradient method.
Conditions at which the iterative process is completed are described below.
Multifrontal Solver
This is a direct method for solving systems of linear algebraic equations (1). In SCAD this method
implements the idea of the superelement method with an automatic division of the initial design model into
substructures without the user intervention and is given in the publications [1-5] as the block substructure
multifrontal method BSMFM. Decomposition of a large dimension sparse matrix comes down to a
sequence of decompositions of dense matrices of relatively small dimensions (frontal matrices), which
enables to use effectively almost all methods for achieving high performance available on multi-core
desktops. The decomposed matrix is stored in dense blocks. If the dimension of the problem exceeds the
RAM capabilities, the blocks of the decomposed matrix are saved in a file on the disk.
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The accuracy of the matrix decomposition is defined by the parameter t, which enables to identify the
matrix singularity or poor conditioning at the factorization (it is taken as 10-12 by default – Fig. 11.3-1).
A diagonal of the stiffness matrix K is compiled before the decomposition. If at any stage of the
decomposition of the frontal matrix it turns out that |Ljj/Kjj| < t, where Ljj – diagonal element of the
factorized matrix, then the stiffness matrix is either singular or poorly conditioned. In order to be able to
continue the decomposition of the matrix, the element Ljj is assigned a large value (1050). A list of all the
degrees of freedom where it occurred is output at the end of the decomposition. Parameter t can be
reduced to 10-14. However, if the messages on the dimensional instability appear again, the calculation
should be aborted. It is likely that this design model is dimensionally unstable. It is necessary to determine
the cause of the dimensional instability and eliminate it (block Lanczos method can be used in the mode of
the verification of the design model).
Moreover, it can turn out that the design model leads to a poorly conditioned system of linear
algebraic equations. Such systems are highly sensitive to small perturbations of the right-hand side and
accumulate large errors in the decomposition of the matrix. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the
cause of the poor conditioning and eliminate it. Reducing the parameter t further (for example, to 10-50) –
is like ignoring the thermometer readings when having the flu or riveting a pressure relief valve in the
boiler.
RAM usage is a parameter that regulates the maximum amount of RAM for the solver. If you want to
solve the problem as quickly as possible, set 80 – 90%. Then the solver will not use the slow disk memory
until all free RAM is exhausted. If the free RAM is enough to solve this problem, matrix decomposition
will be performed as quickly as possible. If it is not enough, the solver will still use the disk memory. If the
“RAM usage” exceeds the amount of RAM required for the decomposition of the matrix without using the
disk, the solver uses only the required amount of RAM, and not the specified value. If you want to solve
simultaneously several problems on one computer, then the “RAM usage” should be specified for each
problem in such a way so that all the simultaneously solved problems would not exceed the amount of the
free RAM. You should be careful when assigning this parameter a value of more than 90%, because at a
certain computer configuration it can cause an intense exchange with the page file of the operating system,
significantly slow down the calculation process and temporarily block the computer. Further the solution of
the problem will continue.
The practice of calculations shows that the control at the matrix decomposition based on the analysis
|Ljj/Kjj| < t, does not work in all cases, because when specifying the parameter εt we do not have any
information on the conditioning of the matrix K. If the value of εt is too small, the dimensional instability
can be missed, while a large value can cause a “false alarm”. Therefore, it is recommended to use the “full
check at the solution” option, which enables to perform the analysis of the following values for each
loading i = ||bi – Kxi||2/||bi||2, i ∈ [1, Nr], where i – number of the loading, Nr – number of loadings, bi –
load vector, xi – vector of the solution, ||…||2 – Euclidean vector norm, i – measure of error. For well-
conditioned systems of equations i < 10-8. If i > 10-4, we consider that the solution is unacceptable
because the error is too big. Value 10-8 < i < 10-4 indicates that the system of equations is “poorly
conditioned” – the design model is correct, but small modifications can make it incorrect. The calculated
values i are placed in a file with extension p04 in the SWORK directory. The calculation of i is
performed only for the linear static analysis and it is blocked at the analysis of frequencies and natural
oscillation modes, stability and nonlinear analysis. If the Full check at the solution checkbox is not
checked, i is not calculated.
The task of ordering the matrix is the reduction of the number of non-zero elements in the factorized
stiffness matrix, which enables to make the matrix decomposition dozens of times faster, and the forward
and back substitutions – a few times faster [4]. Unfortunately, it is not known in advance which method of
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ordering is the best. Therefore, if the problem is solved for the first time, it is advisable to leave the choice
of the method of ordering to the solver. In order to do it select the “Automatic selection of the optimization
method” item in the calculation parameters. If the topology of the design model has not changed and the
recalculation is performed, and the method of ordering works slowly, you can specify a method of ordering
which was selected by the software in the previous calculation in the mode of the automatic selection.
Then the solver will take the specified method and will not waste time searching for the best method. If the
stage of the optimization of the stiffness matrix is performed quickly, you should use the automatic
selection of the method of ordering at the further recalculations as well.
PARFES
PARFES [6-11] – Parallel Finite Element Solver – direct method for sparse matrices, designed specifically
for multi-core computers and workstations with shared memory (shared memory computers). PARFES
belongs to the class of supernode solvers and implements a block version of the Cholesky decomposition.
Almost in all cases this method shows higher performance and accelerance at the increase of the number of
processors on the shared memory computers than the multifrontal solver. In order to achieve peak
performance the whole problem must fit in RAM. Otherwise the solver automatically selects the OOC
mode (out of core) which uses the external disk. The performance of the method at the stage of the matrix
decomposition decreases insignificantly in this mode in comparison with the RAM operation mode, but the
duration of the forward/back substitutions increases significantly. In the case of a large problem and small
RAM the OOC mode becomes unavailable, and PARFES selects the OOC1 mode. In this mode the solver
uses a much smaller amount of RAM than in the OOC mode, but it performs a much greater number of
exchanges with the disk, which results in a significant decrease of the performance at the stage of the
matrix decomposition. The duration of the forward and back substitutions remains the same as in the OOC
mode.
PARFES works with any method of ordering. It uses all methods of achieving the high performance
available in the shared memory computers.
The accuracy of the matrix decomposition, RAM usage, full check at the solution and the selection of
the ordering method completely correspond to the options of the multifrontal method given above.
Iterative Solver
It implements the conjugate gradient method with preconditioning of the incomplete Cholesky
decomposition B = H∙HT, where H – lower triangular matrix. The incomplete Cholesky factorization
method is developed in SCAD. It is based on the sparse matrix technology, which enables to accelerate the
convergence considerably at a moderate increase of the size of the incomplete Cholesky factor H [12-13].
The ordering is performed by the minimum degree algorithm [14].
Rejection and post rejection parameters ψ, ψ1 (0 < ψ < ψ1 < 1) (Fig. 11.4-1) control the ability of
preconditioning to accelerate the convergence. Only “small elements” remain – Hij2 ≥ ψ HiiHjj, at the
matrix decomposition. The smaller ψ, the closer the incomplete Cholesky factor H to the complete factor L
and the faster the solution converges, but the greater the amount of RAM is required to store H and the
more time is required to perform the incomplete Cholesky decomposition, and to perform the iterations.
There might not be enough amount of RAM for very small values ψ. Then the solver increases ψ 10 times
and tries to perform the incomplete Cholesky decomposition again. It continues until the incomplete
Cholesky factor H is saved in RAM. Therefore when performing the recalculations on the same computer
it is advisable to use the experience of the first calculation and take the value of the parameter ψ at which
the incomplete factorization was completed. This way you will avoid unnecessary attempts at
decomposition.
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On the other hand, if the value ψ is too small, the duration of the incomplete factorization can increase
significantly on the computers with large amount of RAM. Actually there are no methods of determining
the optimal value of the parameter ψ. It depends on the conditioning of the system of linear algebraic
equations, amount of RAM, dimension of the problem, number of right-hand parts, and the need to
perform modal/seismic analysis. Therefore, we give the following recommendations. On a 32-bit platform
the value of the parameter ψ is taken as 10-9 by default, and you should begin with this value. On the 64-bit
platform, the majority of computers today have a large amount of RAM available for the operating system.
Therefore, we recommend taking the value ψ within 10-12 – 10-14. If for the current problem it turns out that
the size of H exceeds the RAM capabilities, the solver will “correct” you and reduce ψ. If the incomplete
Cholesky decomposition takes unreasonably long time, you should abort the calculations and increase ψ.
After completing the factorization the secondary rejection is performed – only the elements for which
Hij2 ≥ ψ1 HiiHjj remain. It enables to speed up the procedure of forward/back substitutions in the iteration
process and reduce the amount of required RAM. The value ψ1 is usually taken three orders of magnitude
greater than the value ψ.
The procedure of incomplete factorization is parallelized. The parallelization of the iterative
procedure is performed by iterating each right-hand side independently of the others on a separate thread.
Therefore, time for solving the problem containing a large number of loadings depends greatly on the
number of cores (processors) on your computer.
The iterative process continues until i > t, where i = ||bi – Kxi||2/||bi||2, i ∈ [1, Nr], t – required
accuracy.
The iterative solver can be efficient for solving very large problems (several millions of equations),
and also in those cases when the direct solvers work in the modes which require the use of the disk space.
The iterative solver is available for the following types of analysis: linear and nonlinear statics, modal
and seismic analysis (spectral method).
Gaussian Method
Gaussian method (see [15]) is the direct method for symmetric sparse matrices. It implements the LU
decomposition (6). The selection of the pivot element is not performed, because we deal with diagonally
dominant symmetric matrices in the finite element design models of structural mechanics and solid
mechanics. The “accuracy of the matrix decomposition”, “RAM usage”, and the “stiffness matrix
optimization method” have the same meaning as for PARFES and multifrontal solver.
11.15. Description of the Dynamic Solvers

The problem of determining the lower frequencies and the natural oscillation modes of the buildings and
structures when solving by the finite element method comes down to solving an algebraic partial
generalized eigenvalue problem
K   jM  V  0
For the convenience of the calculations this problem can be given in the following form
K    jM V  0 , (11.15.1)
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where Kσ = K – σ∙M, K – stiffness matrix, M – diagonal or consistent mass matrix, σ – shift

parameter1, V = {v1, v2, …, vn}, vi, i ∈ [1, n] – first n eigenvectors which have to be determined, j –
eigenvalues λ1 ≤ λ2 ≤ … ≤ λn, and λi = ωi2 = (2∙π∙fi)2, where fi [Hz] – frequency of the natural oscillations.
The dimension of the problem is equal to N  n, where N — number of the degrees of freedom.
Three methods of the modal analysis are implemented in SCAD. The subspace iterations method and
the method of the steepest descent are classic and are described in many books on computational linear
algebra (see, for example, [18]). The implementation of the block Lanczos method has some peculiarities,
therefore this method is described in more detail below.
Subspace Iterations Method

It is a classic iterative method described, for example, in Chapter 14 of [18].
The following criterion for the estimation of the eigenvalue (j) calculation error is used in the
algorithm:
(j k1) (j k )
 ,
(j k )
where  (kj 1) ,  (k)
j — two successive eigenvalues on the k+1, k iteration steps, and  denotes the
accuracy specified in the Dynamics tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box (Fig. 11.7-1) for the
subspace iterations method. The iterations stop if the calculation error is less than the specified value  or
the number of iterations exceeds the limitation specified in the Special tab of the Calculation Parameters
Method of Steepest Descent

This classic method is based on the minimization of the generalized Rayleigh quotient [18, § 1.7]. The
search of the minimum is performed by the iterative gradient descent method.
The following criterion for the estimation of the eigenvalue (j) calculation error is used in the
algorithm:
(j k1) (j k )
 ,
(j k )
where  (kj 1) ,  (k)
j — two successive eigenvalues on the k+1, k iteration steps, and  denotes the
accuracy specified in the Dynamics tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box (Fig. 11.7-1) for the
method of steepest descent.
The iterations stop if the calculation error is less than the specified value  or the number of
iterations exceeds the limitation specified in the Special tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog
box (Fig. 11.10-1).
1
A non-zero shift value is used in the analysis of the dimensionally unstable structures.
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Lanczos Method
The description of the algorithm of the block Lanczos method is published in the paper [16]. The
implementation of the Lanczos method used in SCAD provides four calculation modes: modal, interval,
seismic and the verification of the design model mode, which are described below.
Modal mode. The frequencies and the natural oscillation modes the number of which is specified in
the Modal Analysis tab of the Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box (Fig. 8.7-1) is determined. The
initial shift value is specified in the Dynamics tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box (Fig. 11.7-1).
The default shift is σ = 0. The Lanczos method has to be selected in the Parameters of Dynamic Actions
dialog box (Fig. 8.7-1), and the Analysis in the specified frequency range checkbox has to be unchecked.
Interval mode. The interval mode determines all eigenpairs in the interval [a,b]. After selecting the
Lanczos method in the Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box (Fig. 8.7-1), it is necessary to check
the Analysis in the specified frequency range checkbox and specify the start a and end b frequencies
which define the frequency range [a, b]. Keep in mind the fact that the spectrum of the natural frequencies
of the design models of most of the structures is very dense, and there may be several thousand natural
frequencies in the range of a few Hertz.
Seismic mode. It determines the frequencies and the natural oscillation modes until the specified sum
of modal masses for each of the principal directions of the seismic action OX, OY, OZ is provided (OXYZ
– global coordinate system). Moreover, if the cutoff frequency is specified (in order to do it check the
Maximum frequency limitation checkbox, a dialog box will appear where you have to enter the value of
this frequency), the algorithm will finish its work as soon as one of the two events occurs.
 The sum of the modal masses will be obtained for each of the directions of the seismic action OX,
OY, OZ.
 The cutoff frequency is reached.
Verification of the design model mode. It is developed for the identification of the errors in the
design models leading to the dimensional instability which are difficult to detect. The main idea of the
method is that if the structure is dimensionally unstable, the problem (11.15.1) contains zero eigenvalues
the number of which is equal to the number of the missing constraints the imposition of which would
eliminate the dimensional instability, and the natural oscillation modes corresponding to these frequencies
represent the mechanism motion modes. The analysis of these modes and their animation should help the
user to identify where the constraints have to be imposed to make the design model dimensionally stable.
The justification of the approach and the examples of its application are given in[18], [19].
In order to enable the verification mode it is necessary to create a dynamic loading – modal analysis,
select the Lanczos method and specify the required number of the eigenpairs slightly higher than the
expected number of the degrees of freedom of the mechanism (number of the missing constraints). Select
the Lanczos method, verification mode and specify a small initial negative shift, for example -0.001 Hz, in
the Dynamics tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box. If the value of the initial shift is taken by
default (as 0 Hz), the algorithm will substitute the value of -1 Hz. You should keep in mind that the closer
to zero the value of the shift, the faster the convergence of the zero frequencies. On the other hand, if the
value of the shift is too small, the matrix K – σM is close to a special one in the case of a dimensionally
unstable system, and the Lanczos method becomes numerically unstable.
If the system is dimensionally unstable, the matrix K is special and therefore it can not be factored.
However, the matrix K – σM is not special if the matrix M can be decomposed by the Cholesky
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decomposition. Therefore, small non-zero elements are added in the positions of the zero diagonal
elements of the mass matrix. For this reason, the eigenvalues obtained in the verification of the design
model mode can differ from those obtained in other modes.
Example. The design model of a flat truss is given in the Figure 11.15-1. The missing diagonal is
shown by a red dashed line. The oscillation mode corresponding to the zero frequency is shown in the
Figure 11.15-2. The initial shift is assumed to be -0.001 Hz.
Figure 11.15-1. Flat truss. The missing bar is shown by a dashed line
Figure 11.15-2. Oscillation mode for the “zero” frequency (f = -1.804e-006 Hz)
Information on the calculation. Full information on the calculation can be found in the file with the
extension *.p04, which is saved in the SWORK directory. In particular, this file contains the data on the
accuracy of the determination of the eigenpairs (see Prec column). In the verification of the design model
mode the accuracy is calculated on the basis of the Kaniel-Saad criterion [18, § 12.4], in all other cases —
v i   i K 1Mv i
it is the value equal to 2
, i  1, n  .
vi 2
It is recommended to view at least the accuracy of the obtained results after performing the
calculation. The accuracy of the determination of an eigenpair is considered to be acceptable, if the Prec
value does not exceed the value of the “accuracy of the solution of the eigenvalue problem (Lanczos
method)” parameter (Fig. 11.7-1). Moreover, values of the modal masses mx, my, mz given in the table, as
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well as the sums of modal masses ∑mx, ∑my, ∑mz, calculated as the sums of modal masses from the first to
the current natural modes, are very important information for the seismic analysis, and for the calculation
for the wind pulsations, because they enable to determine which oscillation modes make a significant
contribution to the dynamic response of the structure, and which ones do not.
1. S. Fialko, Application of the multifrontal method in SCAD for the analysis of large scale design models of
buildings and structures, BST PROJECT, No.9, 2005. – p. 61 – 63.
2. S. Fialko, Application of the multifrontal method in SCAD for the analysis of large scale design models of
buildings and structures, CADmaster #30/5.2005 (additional) – p. 74 – 78.
3. S. Fialko, A Sparse Shared-Memory Multifrontal Solver in SCAD Software, Proceedings of the International
Multiconference on Computer Science and Information Technology; October 20-22, 2008, Wisła, Poland, 3
(2008), ISSN 1896-7094, ISBN 978-83-60810-14-9, IEEE Catalog Number CFP0864E-CDR, pages 277–
283. (http://www.proceedings2008.imcsit.org/pliks/47.pdf).
4. S. Fialko, Direct methods for solving systems of linear equations in modern FEM-complexes – M.: SCAD
SOFT, 2009.
5. S. Fialko, A block sparse shared-memory multifrontal finite element solver for problems of structural
mechanics. Computer Assisted Mechanics and Engineering Sciences, 16, 2009. p. 117 – 131.
6. S. Fialko, PARFES: A method for solving finite element linear equations on multi-core computers. Advances
in Engineering software. v 40, 12, 2010, p. 1256 – 1265.
7. S. Fialko, Direct Parallel FEM Solver PARFES for Multi-Core Computers. III International Scientific and
Practical Conference "Theory and Practice of Analysis of Buildings, Structures and Structural Elements.
Analytical and Numerical Methods." November 17, 2010, Russia, Moscow, MGSU, p. 496 – 508.
8. S. Fialko, Parallel Finite Element Solver for Multi-Core Computers. Federated Conference on Computer
Science and Information Systems, September 9–12, 2012. Wrocław, Poland. IEEE Xplore Digital Library,
978-83-60810-51-4, IEEE Catalog Number CFP1285N-USB. p. 525 – 532. URL:
http://fedcsis.org/proceedings/fedcsis2012/pliks/101.pdf .
9. S. Fialko, Application of AVX (Advanced Vector Extensions) for Improved Performance of the PARFES –
Finite Element Parallel Direct Solver. Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information
Systems, September 8–11, 2013. Kraków, Poland. IEEE Xplore Digital Library, p. 447 – 454.
https://fedcsis.org/proceedings/2013/pliks/98.pdf .
10. S. Fialko, Parallel solvers in finite element software for multi-core shared memory computers. Strength of
Materials and Theory of Structures. 2015. No. 94, p. 155 – 171. URL: http://opir.knuba.edu.ua/files/zbirnyk-
94/13-94.pdf.
11. S. Fialko, Parallel direct solver for solving systems of linear equations resulting from finite element method
on multi-core desktops and workstations. Computers and Mathematics with Applications 70 (2015) 2968–
2987. doi:10.1016/j.camwa.2015.10.009.
12. S. Fialko, Methods for solving large-scale problems of structural mechanics using multi-core computers.
Civil Engineering Journal CEJ/2013 #5(40), p. 116 - 124. URL:
http://www.engstroy.spb.ru/index_2013_05/fialko.html .
13. S. Fialko, Iterative methods for solving large-scale problems of structural mechanics using multi-core
computers. Archives of civil and mechanical engineering (ACME), 14, 2014, p. 190 – 203.
14. A. George, J.W.H. Liu, The evolution of the minimum degree ordering algorithm, SIAM Rev. 31 (March)
(1989) 1–19.
15. S. Pissanetski, Sparse Matrix Technology. — M.: Mir, 1988. —410 p.
509
16. S. Fialko, Realization of block Lanczos method with shifts in SCAD software applying to seismic analysis of
structures. CADmaster #40/5.2007. (additional). – p. 102 – 105.
17. S. Fialko, Efficient methods for solving the generalized algebraic eigenvalue problem. In the book
Perelmuter A.V., Slivker V.I. Design models of structures and a possibility of their analysis. –
Second edition, Kiev, 2002, p. 570-597.
18. B. Parlett, Symmetric eigenvalue problem. Numerical methods, M. Mir, 1983.
19. S. Yu. Fialko, E. Z. Kriksunov and V. S. Karpilovskyy, A block Lanczos method with spectral
transformations for natural vibrations and seismic analysis of large structures in SCAD software, in Proc.
CMM-2003 – Computer Methods in Mechanics, Gliwice, Poland, 2003, pp. 129 —130.
20. S. Yu. Fialko, Modular multi-level method for solving finite element problems of structural mechanics.
Habilitation Thesis. Kiev, KNUCA, 2004.
21. M. Naumov, “Parallel Solution of Sparse Triangular Linear Systems in the Preconditioned Iterative
Methods on the GPU”, https://research.nvidia.com/publication/parallelsolution-sparse-triangular-linear-
systems-preconditioned-iterativemethods-gpu
22. S.Yu. Fialko, F.Zeglen, Preconditioned Conjugate Gradient Method for Solution of Large Finite
Element Problems on CPU and GPU, Journal of Telecommunications and Information
Technology, 2016, No. 2, 26-33.
23. S.Yu. Fialko, Application of rigid links in structural design models, International Journal for
Computational Civil and Structural Engineering , 2017, 13 (3), 119-137.
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12.Graphical Analysis of the Stress Strain State
12.Graphical Analysis of the Stress

Strain State
Graphical analysis of the results of the calculation is performed in the same environment as the preparation
of the initial data. Only the toolbar changes (Fig. 12-1) and new display filters appear.
The following types of graphical representation of results are provided in this mode: a deformed state
of the structure, color markers, and isofields (for plate elements) of displacements, force diagrams in bar
elements, stress fields for plate and solid elements. Moreover, the results of work of different
postprocessors are displayed, groups of nodes and elements are created, etc.
Figure 12-1. Toolbar of the mode of the graphical analysis of the calculation results
Different toolbars are provided for performing these operations. You can switch to them using the
following tabs:
 Control — access to the data, printing, etc.;
 Displacements — analysis of the deformed state;
 Force Diagrams — analysis of forces in bar elements;
 Stress Fields — analysis of stresses and forces in plate and solid elements;
 Postprocessors — analysis of the results of postprocessing;
 Groups — generation of the groups of nodes and elements, in particular for transferring the data to
postprocessors;
 Reinforced Concrete — check and selection of reinforcement in elements of reinforced concrete
structures;
 Steel — check and selection of sections in elements of steel structures.
12.1. General Principles of Controlling the Display of

Results
Before considering the operations of displaying the results of the calculation, let’s first consider the rules of
their implementation and the display controls.
The following procedure is recommended for the graphical analysis of the results:
− select the respective loading from the list:
 for static loadings – number of the considered loading or combination of loadings;
 for dynamic loadings – number of the oscillation mode;
 for integration in time – time of the analysis;
− select the type of the analyzed information in the list of factors;
− click the button displaying the type of representation of the information.
Results obtained in the process of solving the problem can be analyzed in several windows with
different fragments of the design model. The windows can simultaneously display the results of the
calculation for different factors and different fragments of the model. Color scales of one problem
belonging to different windows are displayed simultaneously, which enables to compare the information
they contain. Initialization of a new window is performed with the help of the New Window operation in
the Window menu (see Sec. 4.1 for more details).
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A description of some display controls common for all operations of the analysis of results is given
below.
Selecting Loading
Number of loading, combination of loads or other results of the calculation is selected from the Select
loading list (Fig. 12.1-1) in the Displacements, Force Diagrams, Stress Fields toolbars. The following
designations are used for the identification of the output information:
Select loading list − L –index of the loading followed by the number of the
loading (Fig. 12.1-1). Number of the mode and the value of
the period are additionally output for dynamic loadings at
the expansion in oscillation modes. For the residual modes
List of factors Scale the following notations are used +MX,+MY, +MZ. Name
of the loading is specified only in the line with the value of
the period of oscillations of the first mode;
− LS – amplitude from the static load component (for
example, wind);
− SD – amplitude from the total dynamic load;
− LS+SD – amplitude from the static (for example, wind) and
total dynamic loads;
− RD – real component of each action at the calculation for
harmonic oscillations;
− RI – complex component of each action at the calculation
for harmonic oscillations;
− S1, S2…– total amplitude from the real and complex
components depending on the number of actions;
Figure 12.1-1. The Select loading list − LS+S1, LS+S2... – amplitude from the static load
component and i-th total amplitude from the real and
complex components depending on the number of actions;
− Т – savepoint number and the time from the beginning of
the process at the direct integration of the equations of
motion (see Chapter 15);
− С – index of the combination of loadings followed by the
number of the combination and its formula;
− М – index of natural oscillation modes followed by the
number of the mode and period of oscillations;
− МX, МY, ... – results for a 6-component action at the
accelerogram based analysis;
− S – index of a buckling mode for loadings;
− SС – index of a buckling mode for combinations of
loadings.
Peculiarities of the identification of loadings for the nonlinear analysis, variations of models and
erection are described in the respective sections.
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Selecting the Considered Factor

The considered factor is selected from the list in the
Displacements, Force Diagrams, Stress Fields, and
Postprocessors toolbars (Fig. 12.1-2).
Changing the number of the loading or the type of the
considered information can take some time, which largely
depends on the dimension of the problem.
It should be noted that the operating conditions of a
Figure 12.1-2. List for selecting the structure can lead to zero values of some factors.
directions of displacements
For example, there is no displacement in direction of the Y axis for a truss system in the XOZ plane.
If the value of a factor in the whole design model is small, it is necessary to increase the number of
significant digits using the Units of Measurement of Results tab of the Parameters dialog box.
Scale of Display
When displaying a deformed state of the model and force diagrams you can change the scale of the display
of displacements or diagrams. The scale can be selected in the Displacement scale factor and Diagram
scale factor lists.
Displaying Markers, Isolines, Isofields, and Isosurfaces

Displacements and force factors for plate and solid elements can be output as isolines or isofields, and also
as color markers in nodes (for displacements) and in the centers of elements (for forces and stresses).
Moreover, isosurfaces can be displayed for solid elements. The type of display can be selected with the
help of buttons in the respective toolbars:
— display isofields;
— display isofields and isolines;
— display isolines;
— display isolines with a constant step;
— display isosurfaces;
— color display of stresses;
— display isofields with a constant step;
— display isofields with the selected value.
If the values of the considered factor have to be displayed on the diagrams, isolines or isofields, use
the operation —Digitization of isofields/isolines (Sec. 10.3). The following values of the factor are
displayed on the model in the result of performing this operation: for force diagrams — maximum absolute
value of the force in the element, for displacements — value in the nodes of the model, and for stresses —
values in the nodes and in the centers of finite elements (depending on the settings performed in the
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Environment Settings section of the Settings menu). The Font Setting tab of the mulit-tab Parameters
dialog box enables to change the font, color and size of numbers.
Numerical values of factors can be displayed only for the selected nodes and elements (Fig. 12.1-3).
The Select objects for displaying information operation in the Control the Selection toolbar is used
to select such objects. In order to display the values only for the selected nodes and elements check the
Display information on the model only for the selected elements and nodes checkbox in the General
Settings of the Display Filters tab of the Set the Information Display Filters dialog box or activate an
equivalent operation in the Visualization of Results toolbar. If you simultaneously click the buttons
, in the Visualization of Results toolbar and the button in the Control the Selection toolbar,
every time you place a cursor over the model with the display of the results of the calculation, the
numerical value of the considered factor of the selected object will appear.
Figure 12.1-3. Selective digitization of isofields
Output of Isolines and Isofields with a Constant Step of the

Considered Factor
These operations enable to output the isofields and isolines, and the number of isolines is determined
depending on the specified step.
Positive and negative values of the factor are displayed on isolines and isofields in two different colors
(Fig. 12.1-4), and the range of values of the same sign from minimum to maximum is given in the form of
fields (lines), which differ by the intensity of the selected color (gradient scale). Ranges of the values of the
factor are displayed in the color scale shown in Fig. 12.1-5.
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Name of the factor
Number of elements/
nodes in the given range
of values of the factor
Color scale settings
Fragmentation
Figure 12.1-4. Display of isofields on the design
model Checkbox which enables
the fragmentation scale
Figure 12.1-5. The Displacements color scale
Figure 12.1-6. The Settings dialog box

The step of isolines is specified in the Setting dialog box (Fig. 12.1-6). The step equal to 1/10 of the
maximum value of the factor is selected by default. Isolines and isofields with a new step are output after
closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Units of Measurement
When analyzing the displacements and force factors you can change the units of measurement, for
example, display the results of displacements not in meters, but in inches or in millimeters.
The Settings operation — enables to do it. It is invoked from the respective menu or from the
Control toolbar. The units of measurement of the results of calculation are specified in the respective tab
of the Parameters dialog box (see Sec. 31.1) or with the help of the Express Setting of the Units of
Measurement tool (see Sec. 31.2).
Displaying the Design Model
The Display design model button in the toolbars of the Graphical analysis of the calculation
results mode enables to “erase” the graphical representation of the results from the current model. Only the
design model or its fragment is displayed in the result. All active operations of the visualization of results,
for example, color scales, will be disabled.
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12.2. Analysis of Displacements

Analysis of the deformed state of a model is performed with the help of controls in the Displacements
toolbar (Fig. 12.2-1).
Select loading or
Type of displacements oscillation mode
Scale factor
Figure 12.2-1. Toolbar of the mode of the analysis of displacements
The Displacements toolbar contains buttons for invoking the following operations:
— display the initial model together with the deformed one (Fig. 12.2-2. a);
— display the deformed model (Fig. 12.2-2, b);
— output values of displacements in nodes;
— display design model;
— display deformations on projections;
— display isofields of displacements (Fig. 12.2-2. c);
— display isofields and isolines of displacements;
— display isosurfaces of displacements in solid elements (Fig. 12.2-2, d);
— display isolines of displacements with a constant step;
— display isolines of displacements;
— display isofields of displacements with a constant step;
— display isofields of displacements with the selected value;
— determine the tilt of the building;
— determine the tilt of the foundation slab;
— work of external forces and the total load;
— determine the center of mass;
— frequencies and periods of oscillations;
— weights of nodal masses;
— inertial forces;
— accelerations;
516
— unsupported lengths of bar elements;

— animation of displacements;
— save the video with the animation;
— save the deformed model.
The toolbar also contains the following lists: Type of displacements, Select loading and
Displacement scale factor.
The results of the calculation of displacements are graphically displayed as isofields, isolines,
isosurfaces, and markers of linear displacements and rotations about the axes of the global coordinate
system, as well as the total displacements calculated as X 2  Y 2  Z 2 .
You can change the scale of displaying the displacements when outputting the deformed model,
generating videos and animations of displacements. The scale factor (Fig. 12.2-1) is selected from the
suggested list of values.
a) b)
c)
d)
Figure 12.2-2. Visualization of the results of the calculation of displacements

a) deformed model together with the initial one b) deformed model
c) isofields of displacements on the deformed model d) isosurfaces of displacements
Figure 12.2-3. The Movie dialog box Figure 12.2-4. Deformed model with the enabled
filter of the display of deflections
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Animation and generation of videos can be performed for the whole design model or for its
fragment. Videos are saved in a file with the .avi extension. These files are placed in the directory with the
files of the results or any other directory and can be viewed with the help of standard Windows tools for
the visualization of videos.
A standard Save As dialog box appears after finishing the function of generating a video, where you
have to specify the file name. The Movie dialog box (Fig. 12.2-3) opens after saving the file, where you
can view the created video. The Environment Settings operation from the Settings menu enables to
change the default parameters of the animation mode, for example, increase or decrease the number of
repetition cycles.
A deformed model accounting for the displacements in intermediate points of the bar can be displayed
for bar elements (Fig. 12.2-4). The Display deflections in bars filter enables to do it (see Sec. 10.3).
If this filter is enabled, the function of animation is also performed with the visualization of deflections.
You can use the Deflection diagrams operation in the Information on the Element dialog box to analyze
the deflections in one element (Sec. 10.2).
Determination of the Coordinates of the Center of Mass
This operation enables to determine the X, Y and Z coordinates of the center of the specified masses
for each dynamic loading . The Determine the Center of Mass dialog box (Fig. 12.2-5) appears on the
screen after invoking this operation, which provides a table with the list of dynamic loadings and
coordinates of the center of mass.
If you select a line with the name of the loading, two lines with the center of mass of the given
loading at their intersection will be displayed on the design model (Fig. 12.2-6). Both the specified masses
and those obtained by transforming the static loads are taken into account when determining the center of
mass.
Figure 12.2-5. The Determine the Center Figure 12.2-6. Design model with the displayed center of
of Mass dialog box mass
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Determination of the Tilt of the Structure
In order to determine the tilt of the structure , it is necessary to specify a group or groups of nodes the
displacements of which define the value of the tilt. The Determine the Tilt of the Structure dialog box
(Fig. 12.2-7) appears after invoking the operation.
It is necessary to select the name of the group from the Groups of nodes list in this dialog box, and
the value of the tilt will appear in the table for each loading.
Figure 12.2-7. The Determine the Tilt of the Structure dialog box
A tilt is calculated according to the following algorithm:
 a line which is the best for approximating the position of nodes of the group in their initial
coordinates is determined for the selected group of nodes;
 a similar operation is performed for the same group taking into account the displacements of nodes
in each loading;
 angles between the projections of the obtained lines on the XОZ, YОZ planes are the tilt along X
and tilt along Y.
The Report and Table buttons enable to obtain a report document in the MS Word or MS Excel
format respectively.
Determination of the Tilt of the Foundation Slab
In order to determine the tilt of the foundation, it is necessary to specify a group or groups of nodes
the displacements of which define the value of the tilt.
The Determine the Tilt of the Foundation Slab dialog box (Fig. 12.2-8) appears after invoking the
operation. It is necessary to select the name of the group from the Groups of nodes list in this dialog box,
and the value of the tilt will appear in the table for each loading.
A tilt is calculated according to the following algorithm:
 a plane which is the best for approximating the position of nodes of the group in their initial
coordinates is determined for the selected group of nodes;
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 a similar operation is performed for the same group taking into account the displacements of nodes
in each loading;
 the angle between the obtained planes is the tilt.
Figure 12.2-8. The Determine the Tilt of the Foundation Slab dialog box
The Report and Table buttons enable to obtain a report document in the MS Word or MS Excel
format respectively.
Periods and Frequencies of Oscillations
This operation enables to obtain a table with the list of characteristics of dynamic loadings. In the
result a table with eigenvalues, frequencies, periods of oscillations and percentage of modal masses for all
dynamic loadings and for each oscillation mode specified in the initial data is output in the Periods and
Frequencies of Oscillations dialog box (Fig. 12.2-9).
Figure 12.2-9. The Periods and Frequencies of Oscillations dialog box
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The Report and Table buttons enable to export the table to MS Excel or to generate an RTF-file by
loading it into the associated program.
Weights of Nodal Masses
This operation enables to display the weights of nodal masses on the design model as color markers. A color
scale of the weights of nodal masses (Fig. 12.2-10) specified by the user and obtained automatically by
transforming the static loads into masses is output in the result.
Figure 12.2-10. Distribution of nodal masses Figure 12.2-11. Distribution of inertial forces
Inertial Forces
This operation enables to display the distribution of inertial forces on the design model as color markers. A
color scale of inertial forces for each oscillation mode (Fig. 12.2-11) is output in the result.
Accelerations
Figure 12.2-12. Accelerations in nodes

This operation enables to display as color markers the accelerations obtained in the result of the calculation in
the nodes of the design model for each oscillation mode and for the total dynamic load (Fig. 12.2-12).
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Unsupported Lengths of Bar Elements
This operation enables to display the unsupported lengths of bar elements as a color scale.
Figure 12.2-14. Unsupported lengths of bars

The dialog box of the color scale (Fig. 12.2-14) enables to select the plane of inertia of the bar (X1OZ1
or X1OY1), and the form of presentation — the values of the unsupported lengths or the unsupported length
factors (ratio of the unsupported length to the length of the flexible part).
Saving the Deformed Model
This operation enables to generate a new design model on the basis of the deformed model obtained
from the active (considered) loading.
A drop-down menu suggesting to create a deformed model or a deformed model with prestressing
appears in the result. Coordinates of the nodes of the new model are generated according to the following
rule Xi + Xi, Yi + Yi, Zi + Zi.
Saving the results of the calculation as a corrected design model of a structure can be performed in the
following ways:
a) saving a deformed model in which the coordinates of the nodes are corrected by adding the
displacements obtained in the calculation;
b) saving the internal forces and the deformed model;
c) saving the internal forces.
Variant “а” is especially useful when designing suspension systems and determining the geometry of
the structure. Then starting from an initial geometry of the unstrained system and saving its deformed
model obtained in the nonlinear calculation we can obtain a geometric image the system will have for
example under the action of self-weight.
Variant “b” enables to save the deformed model and internal forces which is necessary when
designing prestressed structures. In this case the results of the calculation of a system subjected to thermal
or other kinematic actions are usually saved.
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If an oscillation mode which has corresponding inertial forces is selected, you can select the third item
Save the inertial forces as a group of loads in the menu. This group of loads can be used later to create
static loadings and to perform, for example, the stability analysis at the action of the selected oscillation
mode (you should keep in mind that the oscillation modes are alternating).
If the design model of the frame building is considered and the first buckling mode is selected, then
this operation enables to save the deformed model for taking into account the initial imperfections in
accordance with the recommendations of Eurocode 3 (see below).
The last item of the menu Save weights of nodal masses as groups of loads allows to create groups of
nodal loads (for each dynamic loading) corresponding to the weights of the nodal masses.
Accounting for the Initial Imperfections

In accordance with the recommendations of Eurocode (EN 1993), when choosing the configuration of
the design model that takes into account the initial imperfections, a deformed model corresponding to the
first buckling mode (at the minimum values of the elastic critical load) can be adopted. The normalizing
factor, which indicates the maximum possible displacement of the node, can be specified by the user. If the
normalization is carried out in accordance with the recommendations of EN 1993, the value of the
maximum displacement (Δ) is calculated by the formula
H  1
Δ  0.51   ,
200  m
where H  height of the building, m  number of compressed columns on the floor.
The generation of the design model taking into account the initial imperfections is invoked in the
Displacements section of the toolbar. The model can be saved on the disk according to rules similar to
those for saving the deformed model with the help of the respective operation. It is necessary to perform
the following actions to obtain a design model taking into account the initial imperfections:
 Perform the stability analysis with the determination of the first buckling mode;
 Switch to the graphical analysis of the calculation results;
 Select the line with the results of the calculation of the first buckling mode in the Select loading list of
the Displacements toolbar;
 Invoke the Save the deformed model operation, and the Calculation of the Initial Imperfections by
the Buckling Mode dialog box will appear (Fig. 12.2-15);
 Specify the absolute value of the maximum displacement of the node in the Maximum displacement of
nodes by the buckling mode text field;
 If the calculation is performed taking into account the recommendations of Eurocode 3, the value of the
maximum displacement can be calculated automatically according to the above formula (the Calculate
button with the EU flag icon);
 After invoking the Calculate operation in the Calculation of the Maximum Displacement dialog box
(Fig. 12.2-16), it is necessary to specify the height of the building and the number of compressed
columns in the basement or on the first floor (the values from the design model are taken by default);
 Close the dialog box by clicking the OK button;
 The Maximum displacement ... text field (Fig. 12.2-15) will contain the displacement value, which is
considered as the maximum one when the initial imperfections for the given model are taken into
account;
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 Closing the dialog box (Fig. 12.2-15) by clicking the OK button opens the standard Save As … dialog
box, where you can specify the file name and save the design model in which the coordinates of the
nodes are modified taking into account the initial imperfections.
Figure 12.2-15. The Parameters for Saving the Model by the Buckling Mode dialog box.
Figure 12.2-16. The Calculation of the Maximum Displacement dialog box.
12.3. Analysis of Forces in Bars

Analysis of forces in bars is performed with the help of controls in the Force Diagrams toolbar (Fig. 12.3-
1).
Type of factor Select loading Diagram scale factor
Figure 12.3-1. Toolbar of the mode of the analysis of forces in bar elements
This mode provides the following operations for displaying the results:
— force diagrams;
— change the display axis of diagrams N and Mk;
— color display of the values of forces;
— color display of the values of forces with the selected value;
— color indication of the positive values of forces;
— color indication of the negative values of forces;
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— save the model with prestressing.
The toolbar also contains the following lists: Select type of force, Select loading, and Set the
diagram scale factor.
When outputting the diagrams you can change the scale of their display. The scale changes in
accordance with the value of the scale factor selected from the suggested list of values.
The Force diagrams button in the Information on the Element dialog box (see Sec. 10.2) enables to
analyze diagrams of all force factors of one element.
Force diagrams can be hatched. The activation and control of the operation of hatching are performed in
the Results tab of the Environment Settings dialog box (Fig. 12.3-4), which is invoked from the Settings
menu. If the hatch spacing (Hatch spacing of the force diagrams) is set equal to one, it corresponds to the
maximum density of hatching. If the spacing is equal to 1.5 or 2, the density of hatching decreases by half or
twice respectively.
Fig. 12.3-2, а provides an example of the display of diagrams on the design model when the Hatch
the force diagrams checkbox is checked.
The filters button enables to display the maximum absolute numerical values of the considered
factor.
At the color indication of values of force factors (the button — for the indication of positive
values and — for negative ones) the elements are displayed in a color corresponding to the maximum
value of the factor in the element. Any button can be used for the indication of values of normal forces,
since the coloring of elements of the model and the scale will simultaneously include both positive and
negative values. If when using the considered operations you activate the filter of displaying the profiles of
bar elements taking into account the removal of lines of the invisible contour, the visualization of the
profile will be performed taking into account the color scale (Fig. 12.3-3).
The Color display of the values of forces operation— provides a gradient coloring of each
element (Fig. 12.3-2, b) depending on the changes of the value of the considered factor along the element.
This operation does not take into account the fact of activating the filter of displaying the profiles of bar
elements taking into account the removal of lines of the invisible contour.
c
b
Figure 12.3-2. Display of forces on the design Figure 12.3-3. Color scale of forces on the model
model with the visualization of the profiles of bars
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When the Color display of the values of forces with the selected value operation— is used, the
elements of the model are colored in the shades of two colors. One of the colors is used for the elements or
some of them for which the value of the factor is greater than the selected value, and the other color is used
for the elements with the value of the factor less than this value. The closer it is to the selected value the
less is the intensity of the color. Elements with the value of the force factor within the range of the selected
value are displayed in a third color (Fig. 12.3-2, c). The range of the selected value is specified in the
Settings dialog box, which is invoked from the dialog box of the scale by clicking the Color scale settings
button (Fig. 12.3-4).

Two values are specified in the Settings dialog box: Threshold — the value of the factor defining the
middle of the selected range, and Excluded range — the value of the factor characterizing the width of the
range. For example, if the threshold is set equal to 1, and the selected range is equal to 0.2, the values of
the factor within the selected range will be from +1.2 to -1.2.
12.4. Analysis of Forces and Stresses in Plate Elements
Control of the Display of Forces and Stresses

The analysis of force factors in plate and solid elements is performed with the help of the operations in the
Stress Fields toolbar (Fig. 12.4-1).
Type of factor Select loading
Figure 12.4-1. Toolbar of the mode of the analysis of stresses in plates

The toolbar of this mode includes the following operations for displaying the results:
— display isofields of stresses;
— display isofields and isolines of stresses;
— display isosurfaces of stresses in solid elements;
— display isolines of stresses;
— display isolines of stresses with a constant step;
— display isofields of stresses with a constant step;
— display isofields of stresses with the selected value;
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— plot stress diagrams along a secant line;
— save the model with prestressing.
The toolbar also contains two lists for selecting the name of the force factor and the number of
loading (Fig. 12.4-1). If the design model has multilayer finite elements, the toolbar will contain one more
drop-down list for selecting the number of the layer the stresses in which have to be visualized.
The filters button enables to display the numerical values of the force factor on isofields and
isolines. The values can be displayed in the centers of elements and in nodes. In order to obtain the values
in nodes it is necessary to activate the respective option in the Environment Settings dialog box (it can be
invoked from the Settings menu).
Isolines and isofields are output according to the same rules as in the analysis of displacements in plate elements
(Fig. 12.4-2).
When analyzing the numerical values of force factors given in the color scale of isofields and isolines,
it is necessary to take into account that their default values are given allowing for the averaged values in
nodes from all elements coming into this node. Moreover, depending on the settings of the filter of
digitization of isolines and isofields (see Fig. 12.4-8), these values can be based on the minimum or
maximum values of the factor in the node, and also show the residual. It should be noted that the values of
force factors in the nodes of the considered element are given in the information on the element without
averaging and can differ from the values on isofields.
b)
a)
c)
Figure 12.4-2. Display of isofields and isolines of stresses on the design model
a) with the display of the FE mesh; b) without the display of the FE mesh; c) with the selected value
Generation of the design combinations of forces is performed on the basis of the values of factors
obtained in the centers of elements. In order to estimate these particular values, it is necessary to use the
mode of displaying with the help of color markers — . Moreover, the lines of the invisible contour are
not deleted in this mode, which enables to determine the points of the design model with extreme values of
the factors more accurately.
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The software enables to generate isolines and isofields of stresses for the upper and lower faces of
planar elements. These stresses are designated as follows in the list of force factors in the Stress Fields
toolbar:
x, y — stresses on the lower face of the elements in the X1 and Y1 directions respectively;
x↑, y↑ — stresses on the upper face of the elements in the X1 and Y1 directions respectively.
Selective Marking of Force Factors
When displaying the results of the calculation of the force factors in plate elements they can be
selectively digitized (see Sec. 12.1).
Figure 12.4-3. Example of the selective digitization of force factors
Plotting Stress Diagrams
This operation enables to plot diagrams of force factors along the specified line (secant line) in the shell,
plate and deep beam elements.
After invoking this operation it is necessary to draw a secant line through the part of the model you
are interested in and the Stresses dialog box will appear (Fig. 12.4-4). This dialog box contains the
following controls:
 list of force factors the name of the factor is selected from;
 buttons and for switching the direction of display of diagrams depending on the sign
(positive values of factors are shown in the diagrams in red);
 Scale — diagram scaling control;
 Spacing — diagram hatch spacing control (relative distance between hatching lines);
 Remove points — removing leaders with the values of the factor on the diagram;
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 the Save the image as a wmf. file button — for saving diagrams in the Windows Metafile Format
(the .wmf extension);
 diagrams will be plotted in the section of the model which is formed by a plane passing along the
secant line and perpendicular to the plane of the screen.
The following features should be taken into account when plotting diagrams:
 regardless of the length of the secant line the diagrams will be plotted on all parts of the model
(fragment) lying in the secant plane;
 diagrams are not plotted for bars lying in the secant plane.
Type of factor
ф
Figure 12.4-4. The Stresses dialog box

In order to display the values of the considered factor on the diagram you just have to place the cursor
over a point in the diagram and left-click. If you want to delete a leader with the value of the factor, click
on the same point again.
Isofields of Stresses in Plates

When a finite element approach in displacements is used,
the calculation of stresses involves a number of problems. The
local calculation of stresses for each element results in the stress
fields with discontinuities at the inter-element boundaries
(Fig. 12.4-5). A certain method of averaging the contributions
of stresses of individual elements into their common node
(averaging over the star of elements of the node) is used in
these cases to obtain nodal stresses.
It is provided in the program that for each finite element these
forces are calculated in the centers (in the center of gravity) and in
Figure 12.4-5. Discontinuous stress the points of junction with the nodes of the design model.
field
Then the arithmetic mean value of the given forces is calculated for the node for the junction points of
all elements coming into the node and defining the considered force provided that such elements are
located approximately in one plane. The very concept “ approximately in one plane” is regulated by the
value of the “shallowness parameter”, which is by default taken as 0,95 (it is the cosine of the angle
between the normals to adjacent elements approximately equal to 18), but can be changed by the user.
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The isofields or isolines are plotted based on these arithmetic mean values, the same values are output
on the screen at the respective setting of the mode of outputting the results.
Concerning the above it should be noted that the averaging makes sense only for the so-called regular
nodes where the discontinuous variation of forces should not be expected. Then it results in a value
approaching the expected “smooth” solution (Fig. 12.4-6, a). In those cases when a jump of the values of
internal forces is expected in the node (Fig. 12.4-6,b), the averaging of values smoothes such a
discontinuity which can lead to ambiguity.
a) b)
Figure 12.4-6. Illustration of the behavior of the finite element solution:

a — smooth case; b — discontinuous solution
Therefore, in the cases when a concentrated action is
applied in the node, or a constraint is imposed there, or finally if
a discontinuous variation of rigidity occurs in the area of the
node, the output nodal values should be treated with caution.
For example, there should not be any moments on ABEF in a
rectangular plate clamped along the contour ABCDEF and
along a certain internal line BE, which is loaded in the rectangle
BCDE. However, a picture shown in Fig. 12.4-7 occurs on the
BE line due to the averaging of moments.
You can check yourself in the above cases by outputting
the detailed data on the stress-strain state of the elements, i. e.
when setting the parameters of the graphical environment you
should specify the output of the values of force factors in the
nodes of the plate
Figure 12.4-7. Error due to averaging

The above procedure of averaging is used by default. However, the software provides other options as
well. If you right-click on the button , the multi-tab Set the Information Display Filters dialog box
will appear. The following options can be selected in the Output group in the Digitization of
Isolines/Isofields tab (see Fig. 12.4-8):
 Average value;
 Minimum value;
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 Maximum value;
 Residual.
Figure 12.4-8. The Digitization of Isolines/Isofields tab

The Average value option is described above. When selecting the Minimum/Maximum value
options when plotting isofields and isolines the minimum/maximum values of the factor selected from the
values of the factor in the elements adjacent to the node are used as the value of the factor in the node. The
Residual option enables to plot the isofields and isolines, for which the value in the node is equal to the
difference of the maximum and minimum values of the factor in the adjacent elements. This enables to
estimate the error due to averaging.
Units of Measurement of Force Factors

A table with the list of all force factors and their dimensions, as well as the indication of classes of finite
elements where they can occur is given below (the dimensions are given assuming that the basic system of
units is used — tons for measuring forces and meters for measuring linear values).
Force factors and units of measurement
Units of
Identifier Type of elements Notes
measurement
N T Bars axial force
MK Tm Bars moment rotating a section about Х1
M (MZ) Tm Bars bending moment about Z1
Q (QY) T Bars shear force acting on the section of the
bar along the Y1 axis
MY Tm Bars bending moment about Y1
QZ T Bars shear force acting on the section of the
bar along the Z1 axis
RY T/m Bars reactive earth pressure in the Y direction
RZ T/m Bars reactive earth pressure in the Z direction
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Units of
Identifier Type of elements Notes
measurement
NX T/m2 Deep beams, normal stress along the X1 axis, (for
solid and axisymmetric axisymmetric elements Nr)
elements
NY T/m2 Shells, normal stress along the Y1 axis, (for
deep beams1, axisymmetric elements — Nθ)
solid and axisymmetric
elements
NZ T/m2 Deep beams, normal stress along the Z1 axis
shells 1, solid and
axisymmetric elements
TXY T/m2 Shells and
solid elements
shear of the section in the respective
TXZ T/m2 Deep beams, plane,
solid and axisymmetric
(for axisymmetric elements — TrZ)
elements
TYZ T/m2 Solid elements
MX Tm/r.m Shells, plates moment acting on the section,
MY Tm/r.m Shells, plates orthogonal to the respective axis
MXY Tm/r.m Shells, plates torque
QX T/r.m Shells, plates shear forces in the section,
QY T/r. m Shells, plates orthogonal to the respective axis
RZ T/m2 Shells, plates with the reactive earth pressure
specified Winkler coefficient
WG mm Multilayer finite elements
RX T Special
RY T Special reactions
RZ T Special (type 53,54)
RUX Tm Special
RUY Tm Special reaction moments
RUZ Tm Special
12.5. Analysis of the Results of Postprocessing
Figure 12.5-1. The Postprocessors toolbar

The operations of controlling the postprocessing and the analysis of the results of postprocessing can
be invoked from the Postprocessors toolbar (Fig. 12.5-1) . They include:
— analysis of loads from the structural fragment (see Chapter 21);

— reactions in constraints (see Sec.12.6);
— forces in special elements (see Sec. 12.7);
1
The given forces in the given elements are calculated only for the plane strain problems.
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— analysis of principal and equivalent stresses (see Chapter 25);

— energy postprocessor (see Chapter 24);
— progressive collapse (see Chapter 22);
— postprocessor of design combinations (see Chapter 18).
Most of the descriptions are given in the chapters devoted to the respective postprocessors.
12.6. Graphical Display of the Reactions in Constraints
In order to calculate the reactions in constraints you should check the respective checkbox in the
Calculation Parameters dialog box (see Chapter 11). In this case the values of reactions in all nodes of
the design model in which the constraints are specified will be obtained in the process of the calculation.
The control of the graphical display of the results of the calculation of reactions is performed in the
Reactions in constraints section of the Postprocessors toolbar (Fig. 12.6 -1).
Reactions can be displayed by arrows — (similarly to the nodal loads) or as color markers —
. Besides the indicated buttons the toolbar also contains two lists. The first one is used for selecting the
displayed factor, and the second one is the list of loadings and combinations.
Figure 12.6-1. The Reactions in constraints toolbar
You can return to the initial design model by clicking the button .
Figure 12.6-2. The Reactions in Constraints dialog box

The Reactions in constraints button in the Information on the Node dialog box enables to obtain a
table with reactions for all loadings/combinations for the selected node (Fig. 12.6-2).
12.7. Graphical Display of the Forces in Special Finite

Elements
The postprocessor enables to display the forces in special finite elements on the design model.
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Figure 12.7-1. The Forces is special elements toolbar

The toolbar of this mode (Fig. 12.7-1) contains the following operations:
— display the color map of forces for the selected loading or combination of loadings;
— display design model.
In order to obtain the necessary display you have to select the respective loading (or combination of
loadings) and the type of force from the drop-down lists in the toolbar.
You can return to the initial design model by clicking the button .
12.8. Generation of the Groups of Elements

The Groups toolbar (Fig. 12.8-1) enables to specify groups of nodes and elements for their postprocessing.
Figure 12.8-1. Toolbar of the mode of the generation of groups
The toolbar includes the operations of generating standard groups — , which repeat similar
operations of the Groups toolbar of the window of the design model generation (Sec. 6.6), and special
operations — for generating structural groups for postprocessors of the selection/check of
elements of reinforced concrete and steel structures.
The set of operations and the procedure for working with groups of reinforced concrete and steel
elements are described in Chapters 19, 20 respectively.
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1 3 . Documentation of the Initial Data and Analysis Results
13.Documentation of the Initial Data and

Analysis Results
In order to document the initial data and the results of the calculation you can use the generator of tables in
a text format (the results of its work are displayed in the text editor specified in the settings of the software)
or a special subsystem — Documenter, which enables to export the tables into MS Word or MS Excel.
The main differences between the table generator and the Documenter are as follows:
 the table generator enables to obtain one table with the specified type of the initial data or results as a
text file at a time;
 Documenter enables to generate a report document in the form of an MS Word or MS Excel
document with the specified set of initial data and/or results.
The principles of control of both subsystems are quite similar and are described below.
Documenting the results of the selection of reinforcement in the elements of reinforced concrete
structures, and also of checking and selecting sections of elements of steel structures are described
separately in the chapters devoted to these postprocessors.
13.1. Generator of Tables in a Text Format

The general control of the table generation is performed in the Presentation of the Analysis Results
dialog box (Fig. 13.1-1), which is invoked from the Print Tables section of the RESULTS group in the
Project tree. Let’s consider the issues dealing with the setting of the mode of outputting and printing the
results in more detail.
The Output parameters button is used for the specification of the rules of generation and
presentation of the results. It invokes a multi-tab dialog box (Fig. 13.1-2) which provides access to the
 specification of the settings of the table generator;
 specification of the lists of nodes or elements for which the results are output;
 specification of the list of loadings;
 specification of the output units of measurement.
These operations are performed in the respective tabs.
Lists of nodes and elements are specified in the Nodes and Elements tabs (Fig. 13.1-2), respectively,
depending on the type of results specified in the Presentation of the Analysis Results dialog box. Results
for all objects of the model are printed by default (the Selected list is empty). Otherwise, the list of objects
can be input into the List of nodes/elements line. The list consists from the numbers of objects separated by
spaces. If the numbers are consecutive, the intermediate objects are not listed, and the numbers of the first
and the last one are indicated. For example, 1 2 4-9 23 56 72-109. After filling the list click the button
on the right from the text field.
This tab also contains the list of groups of elements/nodes. After selecting one or several groups in the
list and clicking the respective button , you can obtain a report document only for those elements/nodes
which are included in the selected groups. The button enables to “transfer” all groups at once. The
selected lines can be deleted from the Selected list by clicking the button .
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Figure 13.1-1. The Presentation of the Figure 13.1-2. The Elements tab (the Nodes tab is
Analysis Results dialog box similar)
The Loadings tab enables to select the numbers of loadings (Fig. 13.1-3). Results for all loadings are
output by default (the Selected list is empty). If only the results of the specified loadings are output, they are
selected in the Available for selection list.
Moreover, the software also enables to select sections for bar elements for which the forces will be output
(for example, select only the first section); you can also specify which combinations should be included in the
report document for DCF (for example, only the design ones).
The Output Parameters tab (Fig. 13.1-4) enables to specify the number of lines on the page and the width
of tables, the accuracy of output of displacements and forces, select the type of table, orientation of pages, etc.
Tables of two types can be generated in the text format.
Figure 13.1-3. The Loadings tab Figure 13.1-4. The Output Parameters tab
In the tables of the first type (icon in the Type of tables group) the names of force factors or
displacements are written at the beginning of each line, and the numbers of nodes or elements are given in
the headings of columns. In the tables of the second type (icon ) the headings of columns contain the
names of force factors or displacements, and the lines contain the numbers of elements and nodes.
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Example of a table with the output “in lines”

Node displacements
30 31 32
1 - Self-weight
X .003771 .000777 .000398
Y .001397 .000824 .000321
Z 4.50144 5.11411 5.41677
Example of a table with the output “in columns”
Node Loading X Y Z
30 1 .003771 .001397 4.50144
31 1 .000777 .000824 5.11411
32 1 .000398 .000321 5.41677
A respective output mask is used for setting the program to print only certain types of force factors
and displacements (Fig. 13.1-5 and 13.1-6).
Figure 13.1-5. The Forces tab Figure 13.1-6. The Degrees of Freedom tab
It is necessary to perform the following actions to generate the tables with the results of the
calculation:
− activate the Print Tables section in the RESULTS group in the Project tree;
− activate the option with the name of the factor (for example, Displacements or Forces and stresses)
in the Presentation of the Analysis Results dialog box. If the selected information exists, there is
an icon indicating the presence of information next to the name of the option;
− click the Output parameters button and specify the necessary parameters (if the parameters are
assumed by default, you can skip this step);
− click the Generate the document button and wait till an icon indicating that the table is ready
appears next to the name of the factor;
− click the View the results button, and the window/windows of the text editor with the tables of the
results will appear.
Before invoking the function of printing tables it is necessary to perform the customization of the
software by specifying the name of the text editor where the tables of the results will be viewed in the
Select a Program dialog box (the dialog box is invoked with the help of the Settings of the Result Tables
item in the Settings menu).
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It should be noted that the selected font (Font) is a significant factor affecting the quality of the representation
of results in tables. The readability of tables is provided by the Courier (Cyrillic) or Courier New (Cyrillic) fonts,
where all letters and numbers have the same width (so-called normal spacing font).
If the table does not fit the width of the page, you can reduce the font size, or reset the parameters of
the page in the text editor, for example, reduce the margins or change the format from portrait to landscape,
or change the accuracy of the output of values. These specifications can be performed in advance in the
Output Parameters tab (Fig. 13.1-4).
Generator of tables in the text format creates tables which are difficult to export to Excel spreadsheets
or the tables of the Word editor. The software provides a special module — Documenter, which enables to
obtain fully functional tables.
Names of the files in the text format with the results of the considered problem are created from the
names of the files with the data of the problem ХХХ and extension starting with the letter Р (XXX.Рnn).
Files with the information on the calculation progress — Analysis log (ХХХ.Р01) and a file of the
messages about the formal errors in the initial data (ХХХ.Р03), are always generated at the end of the
calculation.
The Appendix contains a table with the list of extensions of files with the results of the calculation
and the results of the table generator.
It is recommended to look through the analysis log (file XXX.Р01) even

after the successful solution of the problem.
If the operation of saving the structure of the output document was used in the process of working
with the Documenter (see Sec. 13.2) (a file with the.SCADDoсMaker extension was generated), you can
use the Load button in the Presentation of the Analysis Results dialog box (Fig. 13.1-1). This will enable
to use the same settings as in the Documenter for each individual type of the output document when
formatting tables.
13.2. Documenter
The initial data and the results of the calculation in the tabular form can be transferred to the MS
Word editor or to the MS Excel spreadsheets. The program for generating tables can be invoked from the
Documentation section of the project tree. As noted above the principles of control of the table generator
and the Documenter are quite similar. Let’s briefly describe the main differences.
The dialog box of the documenter (Fig. 13.2-1) includes a number of lists: Types of initial data,
Types of the results, Information on the Project, List of report sections.
Types of initial data – lists prepared when generating a design model, which contain the information
on the groups of nodes and elements, control (Fig. 13.2-2) and loads (Fig. 13.2-3);
Types of the results — list of results, obtained in the process of solving the problem;
List of report sections — information selected by the user to be included in the report.
In order for any information to be included in the report it is necessary to transfer its name into the
List of report sections. The buttons with one and two arrows are used to do it. The first button
provides the selective transfer by one line from the left list to the right one, and the second button enables
to transfer the whole list.
The same types of initial data and the results of the calculation can repeat in the sections of the report.
This enables to group the information in the report according to certain characteristics, for example, by
their belonging to the same group of elements or nodes.
538
Taking into account the fact that a design model can be modified during the calculation process, when
working with the documenter you can save the once specified structure of the document given as a list of
sections of the report in a file with the .SCADDoсMaker extension and read this structure from the file
after performing another variant of calculation. The Save and Load buttons located in the lower part of the
Results of Analysis dialog box are used to do it. If necessary, the structure of the report saved in a file can
be repeatedly adjusted and supplemented, and also loaded into the table generator in the text format.
Figure 13.2-1. The Results of Analysis dialog box
Figure 13.2-2. The Control tab Figure 13.2-3. The Loadings tab
When outputting the results of the calculation clicking the button invokes the dialog box for
setting the contents of the report (Fig. 13.2-4). The structure of this dialog box is standard and does not
depend on the type of the results. The dialog box includes several tabs. The name of the report section is
input in the first tab, which is included as the name of the section in the List of report sections list of the
documenter window after closing the dialog box. It also contains the following checkboxes:
539
Title page — outputs the title page before each section of

the report;
Output lines with a zero factor — generates tables with a full
set of lines including the lines where all factors have a zero
value (it enables to perform an additional processing of all
results in the Exсel spreadsheets);
Hide duplicate numbers — excludes the repetition of the
number of one node or element in the table (for example, when
outputting the forces in different sections of bars of one
element, the number of the element will be output only once
next to the number of the first section).
Figure 13.2-4. The Values of
Displacements dialog box
Export Tables
Tables can be generated in the .xls format for exporting to Excel spreadsheets (part of the Microsoft
Office System) or in the .rtf format — for subsequent visualization, processing and printing in the text
editor, for example, Write, Word etc. The process of preparing a report finishes with the generation of
tables and their transfer to the specified text editor or spreadsheets. The respective application can be
invoked from the Results of Analysis dialog box (Fig. 13.2-1). The standard Save As dialog box of the
Windows environment appears, where you have to specify the name of the file with the tables of results,
and then the application will be automatically invoked with the created file.
13.3. Reading the Results

First the software determines the stress-strain state of the structure subjected to static and dynamic actions.
These results include the displacements of nodes of the design model, forces (stresses) in its elements, and
also, in the case of dynamic actions — frequencies, periods and modes of natural oscillations, and inertial
forces. All these data can be displayed in the graphical or tabular form. Moreover, they are used in
different postprocessors included in the software (stability analysis, selection of reinforcement, checks
according to different failure theories, determination of design combinations of forces, combinations of
loadings etc.), and a number of program-satellites of SCAD Office (such as ARBAT, Kristall).
Information with the results of the selection and check of reinforcement in the elements of reinforced
concrete structures, and also of the check and selection of sections in the elements of steel structures are
described in the respective sections of this book.
Window of the Processor

This window (Fig. 13.3-1) appears when performing the calculation and includes four areas:
1. Matrix profile of the considered problem with the indicated number of the degrees of freedom1;
2. Analysis log;
3. Design model;
4. Status bar with the information about the progress of another calculation stage and the progress
indicator.
1
When solving a problem by the multifrontal method the state of the matrix profile is not coordinated with the speed
of solving the problem.
540
The design model of the structure is displayed at the beginning of the work of the processor. The
image can be rotated with the help of the mouse. Double left-clicking in the field of the design model
returns the image to its initial position.
3
1
Figure 13.3-1. The SCAD window in the calculation mode

Analysis Log
The analysis log is generated during the calculation process and includes: information on the progress
of the main stages of the structural analysis and the detected errors and inaccuracies; data on the design
model, necessary resources for performing the calculation; total loads (in the directions allowed in the
problem) for each loading, etc.
The log must be viewed either in the process of performing the calculation or after completing it.
Error messages in the log (Fig. 13.3-2), as well as the warnings on the deviation from the normal operation
modes of the software, or the inaccuracies made in the design model require special attention.
The beginning of the line with the error messages is marked with a sign in the red box in the log
which is output in the calculation window, and that with the warning messages is marked with a sign in the
yellow box. If the cursor is located in the field of the log and the right mouse button is pressed, a menu will
appear, two items of which enable to save the selected line in the clipboard — the Copy line operation, if
any line in the log has been selected, or to save all lines of the messages — the Copy all lines operation.
Moreover, if there are errors and warnings, the Errors and Warnings tab (Fig. 13.3-1, item 5) appears
after finishing the calculation. It opens a list of all warnings included in the analysis log. The main
messages can be also viewed in the log of messages of the preprocessor and postprocessor which are
described in Sec. 4.1.
If the syntactic and semantic checks are finished successfully, they are followed by several working
stages, the first one being the optimization of the matrix profile when the direct methods of the stiffness
matrix decomposition are used (Fig. 13.3-3). The successful completion of this stage can significantly
speed up the solution of the problem. Since the software suggests several optimization methods, in order to
obtain the best result you can stop the process of solving the problem and try to select a different method.
Moreover, the program can automatically find the optimal optimization method.
The information on the design model and the resources necessary for solving the problem are included in the log
(Fig. 13.3-3). Pay attention to the ratio of the required and free memory on the disk. If there is not enough free
541
memory on the disk, you should stop the calculation (click the Stop the calculation button ) and try to free
the disk space, and continue the calculation by clicking the Continue the calculation button . If there are
dynamic loadings in the problem and the mode where the number of oscillation modes has to be determined on
the basis of the required percentage of modal masses is selected, the prediction of the volume on the hard disk
can be significantly reduced.
Figure 13.3-2. Error messages
Figure 13.3-3. Messages on the optimization of the

stiffness matrix, information about the design model
and the required disk space
If it is impossible to free the required amount of memory on the disk with the directory with working files
and files of results, it is necessary to perform the following actions:
− click the Close the calculation window button and exit the calculation mode;
− use the Close Project section in the File menu and close the problem;
− redirect the working directory to another disk in the Specify Work Directories section of the
Settings menu;
− open the project and perform the calculation from the beginning.
After the stiffness matrix decomposition a message on the dimensional instability of the system
(Fig. 13.3-4) can appear indicating the numbers of nodes and directions of displacements for which the
constraints are automatically imposed (the displacements are restricted).
Figure 13.3-4. Messages on the dimensional

instability of the system
Figure 13.3-5. Messages when there are dynamic

actions
542
Dimensional instability can be caused for example by the errors in the specification of boundary
conditions of structures (constraints) or by the insufficient value of the accuracy of the matrix
decomposition for a particular problem (minimum allowable number on the diagonal of the matrix of
equations at its decomposition).
The automatically specified constraints have to be carefully analyzed. They often do not meet specific
boundary conditions of the structure, and in these cases it is necessary to specify the boundary conditions
correctly and to solve the problem again.
In those cases when the dimensional instability is caused by the peculiarities of the design model, it
might be necessary to change the value of the accuracy of the matrix decomposition, which is performed in
the Calculation Parameters dialog box (see Chapter 11).
The message on the presence of zero lines in the stiffness matrix is informational and appears if there
are elements of different dimensions in the design model (for example, shells and solid elements). If the
calculation for dynamic actions is provided in the problem, besides the information on the stages of
calculation the log will also contain the data on the number and distribution of active masses (Fig. 13.3-5).
Figure 13.3-6. Table of distribution of total loads Figure 13.3-7. Message on the normal completion
of the calculation
Values of the total nodal load are indicated in the log (Fig. 13.3-6). Depending on the option selected in the
parameters of the control of the calculation (see Chapter 11), the log will include values either taking into
account the loads “taken by constraints”, or not taking them into account. Total moments with respect to the
origin can be calculated.
The user usually knows the approximate total loads on the structure in the linear directions. If the
boundary conditions of the problem are not very difficult, you can determine whether the calculated total
load corresponds to the specified one. If the load in the loading is less than the specified value, it is
necessary to find the missing loads, and if it is greater – you have to find the excessive loads.
At the stage of checking the solution a message may appear indicating the value of the error which
occurred when solving the system of equations for controlling the loading. Moreover, the global number of
the equation, number of the node, and number of the local equation locating the place of the possible
source of the error are indicated as well.
An error can be caused by an “almost dimensionally unstable system” or by a large difference
between stiffnesses of adjacent elements. In any case the possible causes of this message have to be
carefully analyzed.
The user can, on his own responsibility, uncheck the Solution check checkbox in the Calculation
Parameters dialog box (see Chapter 11).
543
Documentation of the Initial Data

SCAD enables to graphically display the design model of the structure and most of its attributes
(loads, constraints, hinges, etc.). In those cases when it is necessary to obtain information about certain
characteristics of the design model in the tabular form, you can use the Documenter or the Generator of
tables in the text format. It is obvious that the full tabular description of the model consisting of thousands
of nodes and elements is unreasonable because of the large amounts of data. However, the description of
the stiffness properties of elements (Fig. 13.3-8) and some other tables can be useful in the process of
working with the model and for archiving the “hard copies” of project materials.
Figure 13.3-8. Example of the display of the table of stiffnesses in the MS Word editor
13.4. Displacements of Nodes

One of the main characteristics of the stress-strain state are
the displacements of nodes of the design model of the
considered structure. They are always calculated in the main
(global) Cartesian coordinate system XYZ (Fig. 13.4-1). The
number of displacements calculated for each node is defined by
the used index of the model type (see Chapter 3).
There are six displacements in a node of spatial structures
Figure 13.4-1. Global coordinate system for which the index of the model type General type system “5”
is specified:
Х — linear displacement along the X axis;
Y — linear displacement along the Y axis;
Z — linear displacement along the Z axis;
UX — rotation angle about the X axis;
UY — rotation angle about the Y axis;
UZ — rotation angle about the Z axis.
For models with index “1” (plane hinged bar system) only the linear displacements X and Z are
calculated.
544
For some indexes of the model type additional degrees of freedom (additional unknowns) are
assigned to the node of the design model. These degrees of freedom are no longer identified with the
components of linear or angular displacements of the node as an infinitesimally small rigid body in a point
coinciding with the center of the node.
For example second mixed derivative (torsion) of the deformed surface of a plate or the components
of deformations of transverse shear and compression in laminated piecewise inhomogeneous shallow shells
can be such an additional unknown. These values are usually auxiliary and are used to improve the
accuracy of the calculation of the main unknowns of the model (linear displacements and rotation angles),
and their calculated values do not have to be analyzed.
Positive Directions of Displacements

Positive directions of linear displacements
coincide with the directions of the respective
axes X, Y, Z (Fig. 13.4-2). Counterclockwise
rotation about the respective axis when viewed
from the end is considered as positive for
angular displacements UX, UY, UZ.
Figure 13.4-2. Positive directions of linear and angular

displacements
Tables of Displacements
Displacements are output in millimeters by default, and the angular values are output in thousandths of a
radian. The specified units of measurement are output in the heading of each table.
Names of loadings
Number Name
1 Permanent
2 Live
3 Snow
4 Wind along Х
5 Wind against Х
6 Wind along Y
7 Wind against Y
Figure 13.4-3. The “Names of loadings” table

The section can consist from:
 the names of loadings with their numbers (Fig. 13.4-3). The numbers of loadings instead of their
names are used in other sections;
 maximum and minimum displacements of the design model (Fig. 13.4-4). A table can be printed
for the performed selection or for the whole design model;
 the actual values of displacements for the list of nodes, loadings specified in the Documenter
(Fig. 13.4-5) and the specified factors.
The heading of the table with the values of displacements contains units of measurement and
parameters of selection: lists of nodes, loadings, and output factors.
If there are dynamic loadings the following information can be output in the Mode number column
(see Sec. 12.1 Selecting Loading):
545
SD – amplitude from the total dynamic load;

LS+SD – amplitude from the static (for example, wind) and total dynamic loads;
RD and RI – at the calculation for harmonic oscillations with the real and complex components of the
action with the indicated number;
T – at the direct integration of the equations of motion with the indicated number of the savepoint.
There are some peculiarities of identification described in the respective sections for the nonlinear
analysis, variation of models, and erection.
Selection: values of displacements
Units of measurement: inch
Parameters of selection:
List of nodes/elements: All
List of loadings/combinations: All
List of factors: All
Selection: values of displacements
Name Maximum values Minimum values
Value Node Loading Value Node Loading
X 0,422 302 6 -0,582 302 7
Y 5,469 302 6 -7,325 302 7
Z 0,082 72 6 -1,904 209 1
UX 0,338 789 1 -0,327 776 1
UY 0,217 783 1 -0,133 1736 1
UZ 24,824 302 6 -33,629 302 7
Figure 13.4-4. The “Selection: values of displacements” table

The average component shows which direction (sign of the respective displacement) should be taken
into account in the analysis of the results of the consideration of pulsation. Moreover, some codes (for
example, SNiP 2.01.07-85* “Loads and Actions”) allow to limit the number of the considered natural
oscillation modes of the structure. Therefore, despite the specified number of modes, less modes can be
taken into account when performing the calculation. Sign of the value of displacement (and force) from all
the considered modes defines the sign of the respective displacement (force) from the static component of
the wind load.
Values of displacements
Units of measurement: mm
List of nodes/elements: 32-46 405 867-877 2425-2427
Values of displacements
Node Loading Value
X Y Z UX UY UZ
32 1 -0,002 0,005 -34,936 0,113 0,034 -0,011
32 2 2,32e-004 5,129e-005 -3,169 0,012 0,004 -0,001
32 3 -1,511e-004 1,791e-004 -0,714 0,003 0,003 5,603e-005
32 4 0,168 0,053 -0,962 -0,001 0,014 0,01
32 5 -0,154 -0,046 0,892 0,001 -0,013 -0,009
32 6 0,021 0,154 0,972 -0,016 2,428e-004 0,008
32 7 -0,021 -0,154 -0,971 0,016 -2,447e-004 -0,008
33 1 -0,001 0,008 -34,748 0,131 -0,011 -0,007
33 2 2,285e-004 3,468e-004 -3,099 0,014 4,557e-004 -0,001
33 3 -7,306e-005 1,96e-004 -0,593 0,003 0,001 6,441e-005
33 4 0,167 0,017 -0,237 -0,001 0,01 0,008
33 5 -0,153 -0,015 0,221 0,001 -0,009 -0,007
33 6 0,02 0,14 0,953 -0,013 0,001 0,006
Figure 13.4-5. Fragment of the “Values of displacements” table
546
Displacements from Combinations of Loadings

Displacements of nodes obtained in the result of the calculation of combinations of static loadings are
determined as an algebraic sum of displacements from each loading included in the combination taking
into account the coefficients specified for them. If the combination includes one or several dynamic
loadings, displacements from all modes for each of them (except for the pulsation component of the wind
flow) are usually taken according to the formula:
KF
  i2 ,
i 1
where KF is the number of calculated natural oscillation modes,
i is the generalized displacement from the i-th natural oscillation mode.
Displacements are calculated according to the following formula for the pulsation component of the
wind flow:
KF
 according to SNiP ─   c  
i1
2
i ;
 according to MGSN ─ δ = δс ± δd,

where KF is the number of calculated natural oscillation modes;
i is the generalized displacement from the i-th natural oscillation mode;
δd is the dynamic component which is determined taking into account the correlation of natural
oscillation modes and which is output as a separate line in the table;
с is the number of the loading of the static component of the wind action.
The plus or minus sign of the radical expression is taken in accordance with the sign of с.
Displacements calculated according to these formulas are taken then with the specified coefficient in
the respective combinations.
The above procedures of calculating displacements are obviously nonlinear,
and the values of displacements which occur for example in the process of seismic
oscillations obtained according to the “root of the sum of squares” rule
correspond to different moments in time. The maximum displacement is actually
evaluated in each node independently from other nodes, and the sign is not taken
into account.
13.5. Tables of Forces and Stresses in Elements

Except for a small group of finite elements the values of forces (stresses) are calculated in the local
coordinate system which is individual for each element (see Chapter 3). A certain user-defined coordinate
system for the output of forces (stresses) different from the direction of axes of the local coordinate system
can be specified for flat and solid finite elements. It enables to use the obtained results more correctly. For
example, it is recommended to specify these directions of the force output when selecting the
reinforcement in floors, where it is necessary to analyze the obtained values of forces and stresses after
reducing the results of the calculation to the uniform axes, although the local axes of the elements can be
arbitrarily directed.
In the general case values of forces for bar FE are calculated for three sections: in the beginning, in
the middle, and in the end of the bar. A greater number of sections for calculating forces can be specified
as well (up to 255).
547
Selection: values of forces

Units of measurement: T, m
List of sections: All
Selection: values of forces
Name Maximum values Minimum values
Value Element Section Loading Mode number Value Element Section Loading Mode number
N 14,406 113 1 6 1 -68,315 202 1 1
Mk 0,01 59187 1 6 1 -0,013 217 1 6 1
My 5,052 59124 3 6 1 -5,811 59123 1 6 1
Qz 6,986 59124 1 6 1 -2,284 101 1 7 1
Mz 1,521 207 3 7 1 -1,668 204 1 7 1
Qy 1,725 59124 1 1 -2,686 99 1 6 1
NX 927,235 30454 1 6 1 -831,55 16225 1 6 1
NY 419,215 25586 1 6 1 -569,617 25586 1 1
XY 474,695 49804 1 6 1 -288,341 61080 1 7 1
MX 10,666 3328 1 1 -8,09 2653 1 1
MY 8,15 6040 1 1 -6,971 4749 1 1
MXY 4,796 54752 1 7 1 -4,5 5229 1 1
QX 863,67 2647 1 6 1 -245,17 2647 1 1
QY 1196,152 2647 1 7 1 -1972,14 2653 1 6 1
Rz 4,964 54864 1 7 1 -28,862 54836 1 1
Figure 13.5-1. The “Selection: values of forces” table

The values of forces and stresses in plate and solid FE are by default calculated for the point which is
the center of mass of the element, although the forces can be calculated in all of its nodes as well.
The section can consist from:
 the names of loadings (Fig. 13.4-3). The numbers of loadings instead of their names are used in
other sections;
 maximum and minimum values of force factors (Fig. 13.5-1). A table can be printed for the
performed selection or for the whole design model;
 the actual values of force factors (all or the specified ones) for the list of elements and loadings
specified in the Documenter (Fig. 13.5-2).
Values of forces
List of nodes/elements: 3-8 74-106 109-446 7327-7330 9105-9115 12696-12706
List of factors: N, Mk, My, Qz, Mz, Qy, NX, NY, XY, MX, MY, MXY
Values of forces
Element Section Loading Value
N Mk My Qz Mz Qy
3 1 1 -137,051 0,208 5,589 -2,702 11,855 5,685
3 1 2 -10,39 0,015 0,492 -0,29 1,243 0,71
3 1 3 -3,126 0,008 -0,062 0,066 0,083 0,031
3 1 4 1,257 -0,201 1,038 -0,718 0,698 0,511
3 1 5 -1,193 0,181 -0,972 0,674 -0,63 -0,464
3 1 6 -3,316 -0,169 -0,498 0,384 0,815 0,64
3 1 7 3,306 0,169 0,498 -0,384 -0,819 -0,642
3 2 1 -136,143 0,208 1,13 -2,702 2,474 5,685
3 2 2 -10,39 0,015 0,014 -0,29 0,071 0,71
3 2 3 -3,126 0,008 0,047 0,066 0,032 0,031
3 2 4 1,257 -0,201 -0,147 -0,718 -0,145 0,511
Figure 13.5-2. Fragment of the “Values of forces” table

548
The units of measurement and the following parameters of selection are indicated before each of the
above tables: lists of nodes, loadings, and the output factors.
If there are dynamic loadings, the Mode number column appears, which besides the information on
the oscillation modes can also contain the following characteristics of lines SD, LS+SD, T, RD and RI,
which indicate the amplitude from the total dynamic load, etc. (see Sec. 12.1 Selecting Loading).
There are some peculiarities of identification described in the respective sections for the nonlinear
analysis, variation of models, and erection.
Values of forces
List of nodes/elements: 9263
List of loadings/combinations: 1
Values of forces
Element Section Loading Value
NX NY XY MX MY MXY QX QY Rz
9263 1 1 -1,202 -1,979 -0,612 -3,552 -3,23 -3,352 -10,384 -11,442 -15,366
9263 2 1 -1,051 -1,223 -0,628 -7,689 -4,097 -2,174 -10,384 -11,442 -15,313
9263 3 1 -1,243 -1,987 -0,313 -2,96 -9,264 -3,039 -10,384 -11,442 -14,92
9263 4 1 -1,092 -1,231 -0,329 -7,763 -9,425 -1,862 -10,384 -11,442 -14,874
9263 5 1 -1,147 -1,605 -0,47 -5,491 -6,504 -2,608 -10,384 -11,442 -15,116
Figure 13.5-3.
If an option of the calculation of force factors in the nodes of multinode finite elements was specified
when creating a design model, then in the tables with the results of the value of force factors the first
numbers of sections correspond to the values in nodes, and the last number of the section corresponds to
the center of mass of the element. The values of the force factors for a four-node finite element are output
in the given example (Fig. 13.5-3) in five “sections”: first four ones — in the nodes, and the fifth one — in
the center.
The values of force factors obtained in the result of the calculation of combinations of static loadings
are calculated as an algebraic sum of the respective factors from each loading included in the combination
taking into account the coefficients specified for them.
The total forces calculated for the main dynamic force and having the identification S are taken for
the combination of dynamic loadings.
The calculated values of force factors from the dynamic actions obtained
according to the “root of the sum of squares” rule or another law are nonlinear and
correspond to different moments in time. The maximum value is actually evaluated
in each element independently from other elements, and the sign is not taken into
account. It can lead to the loss of stability in nodes.
549
13.6. Stresses and Forces
Forces in Bars
Forces in bars are output in the local rectangular coordinate
system.
The forces are determined in the flexible part of the
element (Fig. 13.6-1) and with respect to the principal axes of
inertia in the section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the bar. The first section refers to the beginning of the flexible
part, and the last one — to its end. The orientation of the local
coordinate system of a bar is considered in detail in Sec. 3.3.
Figure 13.6-1.
It is recommended to display the directions of the local coordinate axes on the design model (Fig.
13.6-2) for the convenience of reading the results of the calculation. Then the location of the cross-
sections of the bar, the numbers of which increase with the Х1 coordinate, and also in the direction of the
action of bending moments and shear forces, becomes clear.
Figure 13.6-2.
Forces in Different Types of Bars
Forces which can appear in different types of bar finite elements, as well as the possible degrees of
freedom of their nodes are given in Table 13.6-1.
Table 13.6-1
FE
Name of FE Location Degrees of freedom Calculated forces
type
1 Plane truss bar XOZ plane X, Z N, M (MY), Q (QZ)
2 Plane frame bar XOZ plane X, Z, UY N, M (MY), Q (QZ), RZ
3 Grade beam bar XOY plane Z, UX, UY MK (MX), MY, QZ, RZ
4 Space truss bar Any X, Y, Z N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY
5 Space bar Any X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY,
550
FE
Name of FE Location Degrees of freedom Calculated forces
type
RY, RZ
6 Space bar allowing for shear Any X, Y, Z, UX, UY, UZ N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY,
RY, RZ
7 Grade beam bar on the elastic XOY plane Z, UX, UY MK (MX), MY, QZ, RZ
subgrade
10 Universal bar according to according to the index N, MK, MY, QZ, MZ, QY,
the index of of the model type or RY, RZ
the model type the type of element
Moments and shear forces in bars of types 1 and 4 appear if there are local loads on the elements.
When designating forces in bar elements it is assumed in the tables that the direction of the action of a
factor is designated by a lowercase letter (unlike the multinode elements where the uppercase letters are
used for this purpose).
Table 13.6-2
Designa- Units of
tion of the measurement Positive sign of the force
Name
force (in the basic indicates
factor system of units)
N Longitudinal force T Tension
Torque, rotation about the longitudinal X1 axis of the Counterclockwise action if the
bar section belonging to the end of
MК (or MX) Tm
the bar is viewed from the end of
the X1 axis
Bending moment, rotation about the Y1 axis; causes Tension of the lower (with
tension-compression of the lower and upper fibers respect to the direction of the Z1
MY Tm
along the height of the section (in the direction of axis) fiber of the section
the Z1 axis)
Shear force in the direction of the Z1 axis along the Shear in the direction of the Z1
QZ height of the section and corresponding to moment T axis of the section belonging to
MY the end of the bar
Bending moment, rotation about the Z1 axis; causes Tension of the upper (with
tension-compression of the right and left fibers of respect to the direction of the Y1
MZ Tm
the section along the width of the section (in the axis) fiber of the section
direction of the Y1 axis)
Shear force in the direction of the Y1 axis along the Shear in the direction of the Y1
QY width of the section and corresponding to moment T axis of the section belonging to
MZ the end of the bar
Reactive earth pressure in the Y direction when Action in the direction of the Y1
RY specifying the subsoil parameter С1Y T/m axis (the minus sign indicates
that the soil is compressed)
Reactive earth pressure in the Z direction when Action in the direction of the Z1
RZ specifying the subsoil parameter С1Z T/m axis (the minus sign indicates
that the soil is compressed)
Positive Directions of Forces in Bars
Positive directions of forces in bars are assumed as
follows:
 for shear forces QZ and QY — in the directions of the
551
respective axes Z1 and Y1;

 for moments MX, MY, MZ — counterclockwise if
viewed from the end of the respective axis X1, Y1, Z1;
 a positive longitudinal force always creates tension in
the bar.
Internal forces in any section (Fig. 13.6-3) are balanced
(directed towards each other). In order to output the results it is
necessary to select one of the cross-section planes (one group of the
direction of forces).
A section which is often called belonging to the end of the bar is
selected. A section at the beginning of the bar (Fig. 13.6-3) is a
section which we can see and which is under the action of the
Figure 13.6-3. Positive directions of “dropped” part of the rest of the structure. A section at the end of the
forces in bars bar is not last, but almost last.
If the positive moment MY (girder moment) creates tension
in the lower (with respect to the direction of the Z1 axis) fiber of
the section of the bar and rotates the section counterclockwise
(viewed from the end of the Y1 axis), the forces should be
shown for the plane А (Fig. 13.6-4, 13.6-5) as actions of
internal forces from the dropped part of the bar adjacent to the
beginning of the flexible part.
Figure 13.6-4.
Positive directions of internal forces in a bar section are
shown in the figures, and the rules for reading them are given in
Table 13.6-2. Units of measurement of the calculated forces are
given in the table in the basic system of units.
In Fig. 13.6-4, 13.6-5 sign “+” (plus) indicates the tension,
and sign “–“ (minus) — compression face of the section under
the action of positive moments MY and MZ.
If considerable concentrated local loads are applied to the
bar, the maximal absolute values of shear forces and moments
can be lost when outputting the results (Fig. 13.6-7, а, b), and,
for example, one of the signs of forces can be lost as well
(Fig. 13.6-7, b). It can also happen when the concentrated load
is applied “almost” in the force output point.
In such cases it is advisable to specify an additional node
Figure 13.6-5.
552
in the bar (Fig. 13.6-7, с), i. e. divide the bar into two parts, then
one group of forces will be at the end of one, and the other — at
the end of the other bar (the load here is not local, but nodal).
Figure 13.6-6.
Figure 13.6-7.
Flat Finite Elements
Local Coordinate System of Flat Elements

The origin of the local coordinate system (Sec. 3.4) of the elements of plates is in the node with the
number 1 (node 1); two following nodes (nodes 2 and 3) completely define the direction of the axes X1 and
Y1 for plates and shells, and axes X1 and Z1 — for deep beams.
Directions of the local axes (Fig. 13.6-8) for plates and
shells are as follows:
 the X1 axis of the plate is directed from node 1 to node 2
(the node which is specified second);
 the Y1 axis of the plate lies in the plane of the element, it is
perpendicular to the Х1 axis, and is directed towards the
third node;
Figure 13.6-8. Plates and shells  the Z1 axis is orthogonal to X1 and Y1 and makes a
right-hand system with them.
553
The same coordinate system as for plates and shells should

seemingly be selected for deep beam FE. However, taking into
account that the deep beam elements are usually located in the
XOZ plane (and in the planes parallel to it) of the global
coordinate system, such a system is assumed where the axes X1
Figure 13.6-9. Plates and shells and Z1 lie in the plane of the element, and the Y1 axis is
perpendicular to its plane (Fig. 13.6-10); i. e., if it is compared
to plates and shells, the Z1 and Y1 axes are interchanged.
Forces and stresses can be calculated in the coordinate
system different from the local one for all flat finite elements.
The rules for specifying these systems are described in Sec. 3.4.
Their use is convenient for further analysis of the results of the
calculation.
Figure 13.6-10. Elements for solving
the plane problem of the theory of
elasticity (deep beams)
The finite element of type 22 (triangular deep beam) lying in the plane parallel
to XOZ has a local coordinate system coinciding with the global one.
Group of Forces (Stresses) in Flat Elements

Forces (stresses) in flat finite elements are usually calculated for the center of gravity of an element
(point С in Fig. 13.6-9 and 13.6-10), although forces (stresses) can be calculated in nodes. If a special
coordinate system is not specified, they are calculated in the local coordinate system of the element. The
calculated forces and stresses, as well as the directions of the degrees of freedom of their nodes are given
in Table 13.6-3.
Table 13.6-3
Plane (or the one Displacements of
FE type 1 Short name Forces, stresses
parallel to it) nodes
Plate finite elements
11, 13 Rectangular
12, 14, 15 Triangular XOY Z, UX, UY MX, MY, MXY,
19, 20 Quadrangular QX, QY,
(All elements can be on (RZ)
the elastic subgrade)
Deep beam finite elements
21 Rectangular XOZ X, Z
22 Triangular XOZ X, Z
23, 26 Rectangular arbitrary X, Y, Z NX, NY2, NZ, XZ
24, 25, 28 Triangular arbitrary X, Y, Z
30 Quadrangular XOZ X, Z
27 Quadrangular arbitrary X, Y, Z
1
Two last numbers of the element type are given in the FE type column.
2
Force NY appears in the calculations of plane-strain systems.
554
Shell finite elements

41 Rectangular
42, 45 Triangular arbitrary X, Y, Z, NX, NY, XY,
44, 50 Quadrangular UX, UY, UZ MX, MY, MXY,
(All elements can be on QY, QX, (RZ)
the elastic subgrade)
The calculated forces and stresses are described in more detail in Table 13.6-4, which also provides
the sign conventions for them.
Table 13.6-4
Designation Units of
FE type of the force measurement Description Sign convention
(in the basic
Membrane stresses
21–30 NX  x  T/m2 Normal stress, Positive sign corresponds to tension
41–50 acting along the X1 axis
21–30 Positive sign corresponds to tension
41–50  
NY  y T/m2 Normal stress, (For elements 21–30 it is calculated only
acting along the Y1 axis for plane-strain systems)
21–30 NZ  z  T/m2 Normal stress, Positive sign corresponds to tension
acting along the Z1 axis
41–50  
TXY  xy T/m2 Shear stress Shear of the section of the element in the
directions opposite to the X1 and Y1 axes
21–30 TXZ  xz  T/m2 Shear stress Shear of the section of the element in the
directions opposite to the X1 and Z1 axes
Bending stresses (forces)
Moment acting on the section Positive moment causes tension of the
MX Tm/r.m
orthogonal to the Х1 axis lower (with respect to the Z1 axis) fiber of
Moment acting on the section the section
MY Tm/r.m
orthogonal to the Y1 axis
Torque (acting on the section Counterclockwise rotation of the section
MXY Tm/r.m orthogonal to the Х1 axis). of the element if viewed from the end of
11–20 the Х1 axis
41–50 Shear force in the section Positive shear force acts in the direction of
QX T/r.m
orthogonal to the Х1 axis the Z1 axis in the part of the FE without
Shear force in the section node 1
QY T/r.m
orthogonal to the Y1 axis
Reactive earth pressure at the Positive force acts in the direction of the
RZ T/m2 calculation of plates and shells Z1 axis (the minus sign indicates that the
on the elastic subgrade soil is compressed)
Moments and shear forces are determined per unit length in any system of units (for example, 1
meter) regardless of the specified sizes of the sides of the elements (0.001 m or 10.000 m).
Sign Conventions for Forces (Stresses) in Flat Finite Elements
For each point for the calculation of forces (stresses) the following two sections passing through it are
actually considered:
 perpendicular to the Х1 axis;
555
 perpendicular to the Y1 axis.

It is clear that internal forces (forces, stresses) in any section are balanced (directed in opposite directions).
Figure 13.6-11.
In order to output the results of the calculation it is necessary to select one of the planes of the section.
The plane of the section belonging to the part of the element which includes the last node is selected in the
given examples (Fig. 13.6-11, 13.6-12, 13.6-13). Thus, those directions of the group of forces (stresses) are
selected with which the dropped (with node 1) part of the plate acts on its second part — the one which
includes the last node (node 3 for triangular, or node 4 for quadrangular elements).
Components of forces acting on the selected plane are calculated in the first section (Fig. 13.6-11):
NX — normal stress in the section (T/m2) from tension-compression of shell elements; positive NX
cause tension of the section in the direction parallel to the X1 axis;
MX — bending moment per unit length of the section (Tm/r.m), positive MX causes compression in
the upper (with respect to the direction of the Z1 axis) and tension in the lower fiber of the section in the
direction parallel to the X1 axis;
QX — shear force per unit length of the section (T/r.m), positive direction of QX coincides with the
direction of the Z1 axis.
The following values are calculated in the second section (Fig. 13.6-12):
NY — normal stress in the section (T/m2) from tension-compression of shell elements; positive NY
cause tension of the section in the direction parallel to the Y1 axis;
MY — bending moment per unit length of the section (Tm/r.m), positive MY causes compression in
the upper (with respect to the direction of the Z1 axis) and tension in the lower fiber of the section in the
direction parallel to the Y1 axis;
QY — shear force per unit length of the section (T/r.m), positive direction of QY coincides with the
direction of the Z1 axis.
556
Figure 13.6-12.
Pairs of forces and stresses are also calculated in each of these sections (Fig. 13.6-13):
TYX, equal to TXY, — shear stresses (T/m2), positive direction of shear is opposite to the direction of
the Y1 axis; positive shear stresses tend to stretch a section of that part of the element which includes the
last node (diagonal of the square coming from the node 4 in a square finite element);
MXY, equal to МYX, — torque (Tm/r.m); positive MXY causes compression in the upper (with respect to
the Z1 axis) and tension in the lower fiber of the section in the direction parallel to the Y1 axis, i. e. the moment
twists the section belonging to the end of the element clockwise if the section is viewed in the direction of the
X1 axis, and counterclockwise if it is viewed from the end of the X1 axis.
Figure 13.6-13.
The same sections are used for deep beam finite elements (Fig. 13.6-14), only the stresses NY and
TXY, corresponding to shell elements should be replaced by NZ and TXZ, corresponding to the deep beam.
557
Figure 13.6-14.
Forces and stresses are always calculated for the center of gravity of an element by default, and if
specified, they can also be calculated in its nodes.
The action of forces on flat finite elements can be illustrated as follows (Fig. 13.6-15 and Fig. 13.6-
16.):
Figure 13.6-15. Membrane group of forces
Figure 13.6-16. Bending group of forces

Positive Directions of Stresses in Deep Beam Finite Elements
The following stresses are calculated in the finite elements intended for the analysis of plane-stress
(deep beams) or plane-strain systems (Sec. 3.4):
558
 normal stresses NX, NZ;

 shear stress TXZ;
 normal stress NY for plane-strain systems.
Positive directions of NX and NZ cause tension in the
sections of a deep beam passing through the center of gravity of
the element perpendicular to the X1 and Z1 axes, respectively.
Direction of stresses is assumed for the part of the section
which includes the last of the main (3-rd — for triangular or 4-
th — for quadrangular) nodes, i. e. the action of the dropped
(with node 1) part on the remaining (with nodes 3 or 4) part of
the element is determined.
Figure 13.6-17.
If tension or compression in the element is only parallel to the axes X1 and Z1, TXZ is always equal to
zero, i. e. sections perpendicular to the axes X1 and Z1 in this case coincide with the principal planes.
Figure 13.6-17 shows stresses acting on the faces of an elementary rectangle cut in the vicinity of the
center of gravity of a deep beam finite element, and the rules for reading the stresses are given in
Table 13.6-4.
It should also be noted here that when solving a plane-strain problem not only the stresses NX, NZ, TXZ
acting in the plane of the element are output, but also the value of the stress NY normal to the plane which
acts in the direction orthogonal to the plane of the element, and its positive sign indicates tension.
Positive Directions of Forces in Plate FE
The following forces are calculated for plate finite elements:
 moments MX, MY and MXY;
 shear forces QX and QY;
 reactive earth pressure RZ (only if the elastic subgrade is taken into account).
Positive moments MX, MY, MXY cause tension in the lower
(with respect to the direction of the Z1 axis) fiber of sections
passing through the center of gravity of the FE perpendicular to
the X1 and Y1 axes respectively. Direction of forces MX, MY,
MXY, QX, QY is assumed for the part of the section which
includes the last of the main (3-rd — for triangular or 4-th —
for quadrangular) nodes of the element, i. e. the action of the
dropped (with node 1) part on the remaining part of the element
is determined. Positive direction of shear forces QX and QY
coincides with the direction of the Z1 axis.
Figure 13.6-18.
Figure 13.6-18 shows shear forces and vectors of moments acting on the faces of an elementary
rectangle cut in the vicinity of the center of gravity of a plate element, and the rules for reading the forces
are given in Table 13.6-4.
559
Positive Directions of Stresses and Forces in Shell FE

The following forces are calculated in shell finite
elements:
 normal stresses NX, NY;
 shear stress TXY;
 moments MX, MY and MXY;
 shear forces QX and QY;
 reactive earth pressure RZ (only if the elastic subgrade is
taken into account).
A shell element combines both properties of deep beam
and plate elements, therefore all the above explanations apply to
this section as well.
Figure 13.6-19.
Figure 13.6-19 shows stresses, shear forces and vectors of moments acting on the faces of an
elementary rectangle cut in the vicinity of the center of gravity of a shell element, and the rules for reading
the stresses and forces are given in Table 13.6-4.
Solid Finite Elements

If the coordinate system for the stress output is not specified, forces are calculated in the local coordinate
system for the finite elements of types 31 (parallelepiped), 33 and 35 (triangular prisms), and in the global
coordinate system — for the elements of types 32, 34, 36, 37 and 38 (Sec. 3.5). Elements of type 31, 33
and 35 have a local coordinate system (Fig. 13.6-20), where:
 the X1 axis is directed from node 1 to node 2;
 the Y1 axis lies in the plane formed by the first three
nodes and is directed towards the third node;
 the Z1 axis makes a right-hand system with the X1 and
Y1 axes.
By default stresses are calculated only in the centers of
gravity of finite elements of the spatial problem of the theory of
elasticity. They can also be calculated in the nodes of the
elements with the help of the graphical input.
Figure 13.6-20.
Normal NX, NY, NZ and shear TXY, TXZ, TYZ stresses are calculated.
Figure 13.6-21 shows positive directions of stresses, names of axes, along which they are directed,
and planes in which they act. Table 13.6-5 provides rules for reading the results, and designations of the
pairs of stresses are given in brackets. By default stresses are considered with respect to the local
coordinate system X1Y1Z1 for the elements of types 31, 33 and 35, and with respect to the global
coordinate system XYZ — for the elements of types 32, 34, 36, 37 and 38.
Table 13.6-5
Designation of Units of
the force measurement
(in the basic Description Positive sign of the force
NX T/m2 Normal stress acting along the X1 axis Indicates tension
NY T/m2 Normal stress acting along the Y1 axis Indicates tension
NZ T/m2 Normal stress acting along the Z1 axis Indicates tension
Shear stress acting in the plane parallel to
TXY T/m2
X1OY1
560
Designation of Units of
the force measurement
(in the basic Description Positive sign of the force
TXZ Shear stress acting in the plane parallel to
T/m2
(TZX) X1OZ1
TYZ Shear stress acting in the plane parallel to
T/m2
(TZY) Y1OZ1
Figure 13.6-21.
Multilayer Shell Elements

These finite elements are used for plates of medium thickness and laminated structure (see Sec. 3.7), when
it is necessary to take into account:
 the deformations of transverse shear, compression of layers and curvature (elements of types 71–80);
 the interlayer shear and curvature (elements of types 81–90).
Since it is impossible to describe the nonlinear nature of variation of displacements across the
thickness of the package of layers in the system of the usual six degrees of freedom in the node, their six
equivalents are added (AX, AY, AZ , BX, BY, BZ — for types 71–80 and AX, AY, AZ , CX, CY, CZ — for
types 81–90). Each node has 12 degrees of freedom.
The local coordinate system for multilayer shells is

constructed in the same way as for single-layer ones:
 the X1 axis is directed from node 1 (beginning of the
FE) to node 2;
 the Y1 axis is perpendicular to the X1 axis and is
directed towards node 3 (for a rectangle — into node 3);
 the Z1 axis is perpendicular to the plane of the element
and is directed from node 1 to form a right-hand
Figure 13.6-22.
coordinate system.
Values given in Table 13.6-6 are determined in the result of the calculation for each layer on its upper
and lower boundaries in the center of gravity (and if specified, in the nodal points as well).
561
Table 13.6-6
Designation Units of
of the force measurement Description Positive sign of the force
(in the basic
Stress on the plane of the lower or upper Indicates tension
NX T/m2 surface of the layer acting along the X1
axis
Stress on the plane of the lower or upper Indicates tension
NY T/m2 surface of the layer acting along the Y1
axis
Stress normal to the surface of the layer Indicates tension
NZ T/m2
acting along the Z1 axis
Shear stress acting in the plane parallel
TXY T/m2
to X1OY1
TXZ T/m2
to X1OZ1
TYZ T/m2
to Y1OZ1
Values of horizontal displacements and Positive displacements coincide with
WZ mm deflections in the directions of the axes the directions of the Z axis
of the global coordinate system
Stresses NX, NY, TXY are directed parallel to the planes of the layer and local axes X1 and Y1, they can
be treated as stresses from the membrane and bending groups of forces in this layer. Thus, for example,
stresses NX (Fig. 13.6-23, c) are the total stresses from the bending moment MY (Fig. 13.6-23, a) and the
longitudinal force NX (Fig. 13.6-23, b) in this layer, and TXY are the total stresses from the torque MXY and
the shear force TXY.
a) b) c)
Figure 13.6-23.
Stresses NZ, TXZ, TYZ are directed perpendicular to the planes of the layer and parallel to the Z1 axis;
Nz characterizes the compression of the layers along the vertical; TXZ and TYZ are the measure of intensity
of shear forces QX and QY in this layer.
a) b)
Figure 13.6-24.
562
Positive directions of stresses for the upper plane of the layer are shown in Fig. 13.6-24. Fig. 13.6-24,
a shows positive directions of normal stresses, and Fig. 13.6-24, b shows positive directions of shear
stresses. The direction of NZ is reversed for the lower plane.
Axisymmetric Finite Elements

These elements enable to determine the stress-strain state of the
solids of revolution under the action of the axisymmetric load
(Sec. 3.6).
The cross-section of the solid is divided into elements and
is described in the rOZ coordinate system, where each node has
2 degrees of freedom in the directions of the r and Z axes
(Fig. 13.6-25). Values of displacements of nodes and stresses
Figure 13.6-25. are calculated in the global coordinate system rOZ.
Figure 13.6-26 shows positive directions of stresses, and
Table 13.6-7 provides rules for reading them.
Figure 13.6-26.
Table 13.6-7
Designation Units of Description Positive sign of the force
of the force measurement indicates
(in the basic
Stress acting in the plane of the element and Tension
NX (r) T/m2
directed along the r axis
Stress acting in the plane of the element and Tension
NZ (z) T/m2
directed along the Z axis
Shear stress Shear stress in the plane of the
TXZ (zr) T/m2
section
NY () T/m2 Stress normal to the plane of the element Tension
Special Finite Elements

Special finite elements (Sec. 3.8) include: “null element” (FE of type 154); elements modeling elastic
constraints in nodes and between nodes (types 51 and 55), and two-node and single-node peripheral
elements of elastic subgrade (types 53 and 54).
General Type “Null Element” (Type 154)
Forces in a “null element” (Fig. 13.6-27) are calculated in the local coordinate system constructed
according to the same rules as those for the coordinate system of bar elements.
563
Despite the fact that the local axes of the element are
constructed similarly to those of the bar, a “null element”
should not be confused with a bar. It “adjusts” to the specified
type of the model automatically taking into account the number
of the degrees of freedom, specified stiffness properties, and
calculated forces.
Table 13.6-8 provides a list of calculated forces for
different types of the model which are actually reactions in its
first node.
Figure 13.6-27.
Table 13.6-8
Model Direction of the
Force Positive sign of the force indicates*
type force action*
Units of
Index
measurement
1, 2, 4, 5, Along the X1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the X1 axis
RX T
8, 9, 11
4, 5, 8, 9 RY T Along the Y1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the Y1 axis
1, 2, 4, 5, Along the Z1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the Z1 axis
RZ T
8, 9, 11
About the X1 axis Clockwise rotation if viewed from the end of
5, 8, 9 RUX Tm
the X1 axis
About the Y1 axis Clockwise rotation if viewed from the end of
5, 8, 9 RUY Tm
the Y1 axis
About the Z1 axis Clockwise rotation if viewed from the end of
5, 8, 9 RUZ Tm
the Z1 axis
8, 9, 11 RAX T Along the X1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the X1 axis
8, 9 RAY T Along the Y1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the Y1 axis
8, 9 RAZ T Along the Z1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the Z1 axis
About the X1 axis Clockwise rotation if viewed from the end of
8 RBX Tm
the X1 axis
About the Y1 axis Clockwise rotation if viewed from the end of
8 RBY Tm
the Y1 axis
Clockwise rotation if viewed from the end of
8 RBZ Tm About the Z1 axis
the Z1 axis
9 RCX T Along the X1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the X1 axis
9 RCY T Along the Y1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the Y1 axis
9 RCZ T Along the Z1 axis Coincidence with the direction of the Z1 axis
* For elements modeling the elastic constraints (type 51 — always and type 55 — provided that the
coordinates of nodes coincide), the direction of the action of forces and the positive sign of forces are
determined in the global coordinate system.
564
Elements Modeling Elastic Constraints (Type 51, 55)

Element of type 51 (Fig. 13.6-28) models the constraint of
finite rigidity in the directions of the degrees of freedom of its
single node (in the global coordinate system).
Forces (reactions in springs) corresponding to the degrees
of freedom in the directions of which the constraints of finite
rigidity are imposed (RX, RY, RZ, RUX, RUY, RUZ) are determined
in the result of the calculation. Rules for reading them are given
Figure 13.6-28. in Table 13.6-8. When, for example, the elastic subgrade is
modeled, it will be the earth pressure in the given direction.
Element of type 55 (Fig. 13.6-29) enables to take into
account the compliance of the material between the two nodes.
Reaction components (RX, RY, RZ, RUX, RUY, RUZ) in the
global or local (in the case of its specification) coordinate
systems are determined in the result of the calculation. It is
assumed that these reactions are external actions of the system
Figure 13.6-29. on the first node of the element. Rules for reading them are
given in Table 13.6-8. It should be noted that
 in the global coordinate system the sign of the output forces
changes when the node numbering order is changed;
 in the local coordinate system the sign of the longitudinal
reaction RX does not depend on the ode numbering order
and its positive value can be interpreted as the compression
of the element.
In the case when an element has a zero length (the
coordinates of nodes coincide), the reactions are always output
in the global coordinate system.
565
Elements Modeling Peripheral Elastic Subgrade (Type 53, 54)

Elements of types 53 and 54 (Fig. 13.6-30) are used for
modeling the pressure of the strip and the angular area of soil
beyond the plate and perpendicular to its contour (due to the
shear resistance of soil). Resistance of soil is considered only in
the direction of the Z axis.
Earth pressure RZ in the nodes of the element which are
considered as its sections is determined in the result of the
calculation. Earth pressure is a nodal reaction and shows how
much of the action the soil strip can take beyond the plate.
Rules for reading them are given in Table 13.6-8. The positive
value of RZ indicates the compression of soil.
Figure 13.6-30.
13.7. Reactions in Constraints

SCAD enables to output the values of reactions in nodes with constraints. In order to calculate the
reactions in constraints it is necessary to check the Calculate reactions in constraints checkbox in the
Calculation Parameters dialog box.
The positive values of reactions in constraints are directed oppositely to the positive values of the
respective components of the nodal load (active forces).
Tables with reactions are created in the Documenter and are similar to the tables with the values of
forces.
13.8. Natural Oscillations

The frequency of each oscillation mode taken into account in the dynamic loading is always indicated in
the tables. If necessary the relative values of ordinates in the directions of the degrees of freedom in nodes
(in the global coordinate system) can be also shown, as well as the actions equivalent to statics in the form
of inertial loads (Т), applied in the nodes of the design model.
Eigenvalues, Frequencies, Periods of Oscillations
Figure 13.8-1 provides an example of the output of eigenvalues, frequencies and periods of
oscillations for several dynamic loadings of the considered problem. Each line contains the following
information: number of the loading, serial number of the oscillation mode, eigenvalues calculated for this
mode, frequencies and periods, and the percentage of the accumulated modal masses in the directions. The
total values of modal masses accumulated in the considered loading are given in the line marked with the S
index in the Mode column.
566
Frequencies of natural oscillations

Designations: S - Sum of modal masses
Frequencies of natural oscillations
Loading Mode Eigenvalue Frequency Periods (sec) Modal masses (%)
1/sec Hz Mx My Mz
12 1 0,386 2,591 0,413 2,424 79,733 0 0
12 2 0,125 8,013 1,276 0,784 10,459 0 0
12 3 0,07 14,231 2,266 0,441 3,669 0 0
12 S 93,861 100 0
13 1 0,386 2,591 0,413 2,424 79,733 0 0
13 2 0,125 8,013 1,276 0,784 10,459 0 0
13 3 0,07 14,231 2,266 0,441 3,669 0 0
13 S 93,861 100 0
14 1 0,329 3,037 0,484 2,068 79,729 0 0
14 2 0,106 9,4 1,497 0,668 10,473 0 0
14 3 0,06 16,714 2,661 0,376 3,669 0 0
14 S 93,87 100 0
15 1 0,329 3,037 0,484 2,068 79,729 0 0
15 2 0,106 9,4 1,497 0,668 10,473 0 0
15 3 0,06 16,714 2,661 0,376 3,669 0 0
15 S 93,87 100 0
Figure 13.8-1. Frequencies of natural oscillations

Natural Modes
The ratios between the values of amplitudes in the nodes of the design model for each degree of freedom
in the node are given in the tables for each of the considered natural oscillation modes. The maximal value of
amplitude is specified as 1000, the values of other amplitudes are determined in fractions of 1000. The tables
with natural oscillation modes and their minimax values are similar to the respective tables created when
outputting the displacements.
Distribution of the Weights of Masses
The distribution of the weights of masses (Fig. 13.8-2) indicates, for example, the way the masses of
the structure were distributed in the concentration nodes. The tables of the distribution of the weights of
masses are similar to the tables of displacements.
Distribution of the weights of masses
Node Loading Value
PX PY PZ PUX PUY PUZ
5 12 25,982 0 25,982 0 0 0
5 13 25,982 0 25,982 0 0 0
5 14 19,184 0 19,184 0 0 0
5 15 19,184 0 19,184 0 0 0
Figure 13.8-2. Distribution of the weights of masses

Accelerations
When performing the dynamic calculations the accelerations in the nodes of the design model are
output in the tables (Fig. 13.8-3).
567
Accelerations
2
Units of measurement: mm/sec
List of nodes/elements: 562-600
Accelerations
Node Loading Mode Value
number
ax ay az asum
562 13 RD1 0,007 0,003 -8,344e-005 0,008
562 13 RI1 4,465e-005 2,949e-005 -7,783e-006 5,407e-005
562 13 S1 0,007 0,003 8,38e-005 0,008
563 13 RD1 0,009 0,002 0,002 0,01
563 13 RI1 4,867e-005 2,605e-005 4,719e-006 5,54e-005
563 13 S1 0,009 0,002 0,002 0,01
564 13 RD1 0,009 0,004 0,005 0,011
Figure 13.8-3. Fragment of the “Accelerations” table

Here ax, ay, az — accelerations in the directions of the x, y, z axes of the global coordinate system
respectively,
asum  ax 2  ay 2  az 2 .
13.9. Design Combinations of Forces (DCF)

The DCF postprocessor selects the combinations of individual loadings which can be the most dangerous
for each section of the checked elements of the design model. The selection of each combination is
determined by its strength criterion. Forces (stresses) corresponding to the determined dangerous
combinations are used by the SCAD postprocessors and program-satellites (Kristall, ARBAT) to take into
account the requirements of the respective codes to the elements of steel and reinforced concrete structures.
An example of printing the DCF is shown in Fig. 13.9-1.
The following information is given in the columns of the table:
 UNG — code of the unified group;
 Element number;
 Number of the section, for which the combination is selected;
 CL — number of the column of coefficients the forces (stresses) of each loading were multiplied
by when included in the current loading;
 Criterion — number of the criterion (No.) and its value according to which the given combination was
selected. Numbers of the criteria and formulas for calculating their values are given in Chapter 18;
 Type— type of the structure according to Table P.4.1 of the Design Codes for Nuclear Plants NP-
031-01 (see Chapter 18);
 Value (of the force and stress) — columns with the values of force factors of the current
combination;
 Type (of the combination) — C, CL, N, NL identifiers in this column define the type of
combination given in the line (C — design; CL — design long-term, N — characteristic, NL —
characteristic long-term);
 CS (crane, seismic, special, transport) — characters written in this column designate:
Cr — the combination includes loadings from crane actions;
Se — the combination includes the loading from the seismic action;
Sp — the combination includes a special loading;
Tr — the combination includes loadings from vehicles;
568
space — the combination does not include loadings with crane, seismic and other actions...;
 Formula — expression showing the serial numbers of loadings and combinations of loadings
included in the current combination, and coefficients with which they are taken.
DCF with an automatic selection of coefficients
List of types of combinations: All
Designations:
C - design;
CL - design long-term;
N - characteristic;
NL - characteristic long-term;
Se - seismic;
Cr - crane;
Sp - special;
Tr - transport.

UNG Elem. Sec. CL Crit. Type Value Type CS Formula
N My Qz
-- 67 1 1 1 1 -0,758 -1,234 0,801 C L1 +L2
-- 67 1 1 1 1 -0,758 -1,234 0,801 CL L1 +L2
-- 67 1 1 1 1 -0,454 -1,111 0,721 N 0,909*L1 +0,952*L2
-- 67 1 1 1 1 -0,454 -1,111 0,721 NL 0,909*L1 +0,952*L2
Figure 13.9-1. Fragment of the “Design combinations of forces” table (DCF)

If the unification is specified at the calculation of DCF, the results are printed for the unification
groups at the beginning of the table. The following rules are assumed for the designation of the unified
groups in the UNG column:
 the first number indicates the type of unification;
 the second number indicates the number of the unified group.
The next columns contain the information on the combinations with the indication of the numbers of
elements which were established as the most dangerous for the specified criterion for all elements of the
unification group. Figure 13.9-2 shows a fragment of the table of combinations for elements included in the
unified group 1.
N My Qz
2-5 2 1 1 1 1 -2,154 -4,614 1,73 C L1 +L2
2-5 2 1 1 2 1 -3,782 -8,25 3,156 C C1
2-5 2 1 1 23 1 -2,185 -7,602 2,554 C L1 +L2 +L4
2-5 2 1 1 24 1 -3,75 -5,262 2,333 C L1 +L2 +L3
Figure 13.9-2. Fragment of the table of combinations with a unified group

If EN 1990 is selected for calculating load combinations, the following unfavorable combinations
are calculated: fundamental, accidental, accidental for fire, post-accidental, seismic, characteristic,
frequent, and quasi-permanent. Detailed data are given on the formula for the calculation of fundamental
combinations according to EN 1990. The Type (of combinations) column can contain the following
identifiers:
F - Fundamental combination (formula (6.10))
Fa - Fundamental combination (formula (6.10.a))
Fb - Fundamental combination (formula (6.10.b))
569
A - Accidental combination (formula (6.11a))

Af - Accidental combination for fire (formula (6.11b))
PA - Post-accidental combination (formula (6.11.3))
S - Seismic combination (formula (6.12))
CH - Characteristic combination (formula (6.14))
FR - Frequent combination (formula (6.15))
QP - Quasi-permanent combination (formula (6.16))
13.10. DCF at the Analysis of the Progressive Collapse

The columns of the table with the values of the design combinations at the analysis of the progressive
collapse are the same as those of the DCF table. Figure 13.10-1 shows a fragment of the table of
combinations.
DCF for progressive collapse
NX NY XY MX MY MXY QX QY Rz
-- 1805 1 1 0 1 6,561 17,611 3,559 -0,068 -0,023 0,14 0,474 0,202 0 C L1
-- 1805 1 1 0 1 6,561 17,611 3,559 -0,068 -0,023 0,14 0,474 0,202 0 CL L1
-- 1806 1 1 0 1 1,7 10,996 8,062 -0,142 0,029 0,149 -0,408 -0,475 0 C L1
-- 1806 1 1 0 1 1,7 10,996 8,062 -0,142 0,029 0,149 -0,408 -0,475 0 CL L1
-- 1807 1 1 0 1 1,258 7,624 9,47 -0,238 -0,022 0,109 -0,828 -0,095 0 C L1
-- 1807 1 1 0 1 1,258 7,624 9,47 -0,238 -0,022 0,109 -0,828 -0,095 0 CL L1
Figure 13.10-1. Fragment of the table of design combinations for the analysis of the progressive collapse
13.11. Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints

The columns of the table with the values of the design combinations of reactions in constraints are the
same as those of the DCF table. Figure 13.11-1 shows a fragment of the table of combinations.
Design combinations of reactions in constraints
List of nodes/elements: 1 6 r 10 2
Designations:
C - design;
CL - design long-term;
N - characteristic;
NL - characteristic long-term;
Se - seismic;
Cr - crane;
Sp - special;
Tr - transport.
Design combinations of reactions in constraints
Node CL Crit. Value Type CS Formula
RX RY RZ RUX RUY RUZ
6 1 4 -11,878 -8,811 47,23 27,901 -35,464 1,849 C L1 +0,9*L16 +L18 +0,95*L23 +L24 +0,7*L28
6 1 4 -4,12 -2,838 53 9,22 -12,244 0,624 CL L1 +0,315*L16 +0,35*L18 +0,95*L23 +L24 +0,245*L28
6 1 4 -9,888 -7,317 43,623 23,204 -29,506 1,541 N 0,909*L1 +0,75*L16 +0,833*L18 +0,792*L23 +0,833*L24 +0,583*L28
6 1 4 -3,422 -2,34 48,432 7,637 -10,157 0,521 NL 0,909*L1 +0,262*L16 +0,292*L18 +0,792*L23 +0,833*L24 +0,204*L28
6 1 5 -6,156 -9,741 58,269 31,174 -16,55 2,398 C L1 +0,95*L2 +L18 +0,9*L19 +L22 +0,95*L25 +0,7*L27
6 1 5 1,403 -3,659 62,361 12,123 5,895 1,129 CL L1 +0,95*L2 +0,35*L18 +0,315*L19 +L22 +0,95*L25 +0,245*L27
Figure 13.11-1. Fragment of the “Design combinations of reactions in constraints” table

The following numbering of the criteria is used for the design combinations of reactions in
constraints:
570
No. Criterion No. Criterion No. Criterion No. Criterion

1 max RX 2 min RX 3 max RY 4 min RY
5 max RZ 6 min RZ 7 max RUX 8 min RUX
9 max RUY 10 min RUY 11 max RUZ 12 min RUZ
13 max RX 2  RY 2  RZ 2 14 max RX 2  RY 2
15 max RUX 2  RUY 2  RUZ 2 16 max RUX 2  RUY 2
13.12. Design Combinations of Displacements (DCD)

The columns of the table with the design combinations of displacements are similar to those of the DCF
tables.
DCD with an automatic selection of coefficients
Units of measurement: mm, degree
Designations:
N - characteristic;
NT - characteristic temporary;
DCD with an automatic selection of coefficients
Node Crit. Value Type Formula
X Y Z
1126 4 -0,048 -0,003 -0,113 N 0,909*L1 +0,833*L18 +0,833*L22 +0,75*L28
1126 5 -0,037 -0,002 -0,097 N 0,909*L1 +0,833*L18
1126 8 -0,046 -0,003 -0,112 N 0,909*L1 +0,833*L18 +0,833*L22
1126 1 0,078 0,003 -16,646 NT 0,792*L2 +0,833*L17 +0,75*L19 +0,833*L23 +0,583*L27
1126 2 0,015 0,001 0,027 NT 0,833*L17
1126 3 0,024 0,002 0,038 NT 0,833*L17 +0,75*L19 +0,583*L27
1126 4 -0,042 -0,003 -0,07 NT 0,833*L18 +0,833*L22 +0,75*L28
1126 5 -0,031 -0,002 -0,054 NT 0,833*L18
Figure 13.12-1. Fragment of the “Design combinations of displacements” (DCD) table

The following numbering of the criteria is used for the design combinations of displacements:
No. Criterion No. Criterion No. Criterion No. Criterion
1 max X 2 min X 3 max Y 4 min Y
5 max Z 6 min Z 7 max X 2  Y 2  Z2
8 max X 2  Y 2
571
13.13. Design Combinations of Deflections

The columns of the table with the design combinations of deflections are similar to those of the DCF
tables.
Design combinations of deflections
Units of measurement: mm
List of nodes/elements: 1932 1933
Designations:
N - characteristic;
NT - characteristic temporary;
Design combinations of deflections
Elem. Sec. CL Crit. Value Type Formula
X Y Z
1932 1 1 2 -0,019 0,013 -0,049 N L1 +0,95*L2 +L3 +L5 +L6 +L24
1932 1 1 4 -0,02 0,007 -0,042 N L1 +L2 +L3 +0,95*L24
1932 1 1 6 -0,02 0,013 -0,052 N L1 +L2 +L3 +L5 +L6 +0,95*L23 +0,95*L24
1932 1 1 7 -0,021 0,008 -0,044 N L1 +L2 +L3 +0,95*L23 +0,95*L24
1932 1 1 2 -0,019 0,013 -0,049 NT 0,95*L2 +L3 +L5 +L6 +L24
1932 1 1 4 -0,02 0,007 -0,042 NT L2 +L3 +0,95*L24
Figure 13.13-1. Fragment of the “Design combinations of deflections” table

The same criteria as for DCD apply for the design combinations of deflections (see Sec. 13.12).
13.14. Design Combinations of Punching

The columns of the table with the design combinations of punching are similar to those of the DCF tables.
Design combinations of punching
Units of measurement:
- Forces: T
- Units of length for force factors: m
Designations:
Se - seismic;
Cr - crane;
Sp - special;
Tr - transport.
Design combinations of punching
Node CL Crit. Value Type CS Formula
32 1 1 8,408 -3,159 136,979 9,56 28,912 0,001 C 0,833*L7 +0,909*L10 +C1
32 1 2 7,612 -2,841 123,672 8,558 26,169 0,001 C 0,909*L1 +0,833*L6 +0,909*L10
Figure 13.14-1. Fragment of the “Design combinations of punching” table

The following numbering of the criteria is used for the design combinations of punching:
№ Criterion № Criterion № Criterion № Criterion
1 max RX 2 min RX 3 max RY 4 min RY
5 max RZ 6 min RZ 7 max RUX 8 min RUX
9 max RUY 10 min RUY 11 max RUZ 12 min RUZ
max
13 14 max RX 2  RY 2 15 max RUX 2  RUY 2  RUZ 2 16 max RUX 2  RUY 2
RX  RY 2  RZ 2
2
572
13.15. Loads from the Structural Fragment

Loads from the structural fragment
List of loadings/combinations: 1, 2
Loads from the structural fragment
Node Loading Value
32 1 1,09 -3,246 91,56 10,562 4,853 7,284e-005
32 2 -0,06 -0,096 8,111 0,314 -0,068 8,911e-006
33 1 0,618 -5,216 151,262 16,193 1,611 7,831e-005
33 2 -0,097 -0,306 13,818 0,875 -0,32 8,784e-006
34 1 0,348 -5,395 158,927 16,863 1,418 9,516e-005
Figure 13.15-1. Fragment of the “Loads from the structural fragment” table
The results of the calculation of loads from the structural fragment are output (Fig. 13.15-1) in the
similar way as the displacements of nodes. The following designations are used in the table:
 RX, RY, RZ — linear loads in the node in the respective directions;
 RUX, RUY, RUZ — moments in the node.
In those cases when the loads were calculated for the combinations of loadings, numbers of
combinations are output instead of the numbers of loadings in the tables. The sign convention corresponds
to the sign convention assumed for specifying the nodal loads (see Sec. 8.1).
13.16. Punching Loads

The results of the calculation of punching loads are output (Fig. 13.16-1) in the similar way as the
loads from the structural fragment. The following designations are used in the table:
 RX, RY, RZ — linear loads in the node in the respective directions;
 RUX, RUY, RUZ — moments in the node.
Punching loads
Units of measurement:
- Forces: T
- Units of length for force factors: m
Punching loads
Node Loading Mode Value
number
32 1 4,195 -1,576 68,203 4,752 14,419 3,219e-004
32 2 0,253 -0,075 5,168 0,229 0,909 2,406e-005
32 3 0,14 -0,056 1,546 0,19 0,462 4,613e-006
Figure 13.16-1. Fragment of the “Punching loads” table

In those cases when the loads were calculated for the combinations of loadings, numbers of
combinations are output instead of the numbers of loadings in the tables. The sign convention corresponds
to the sign convention assumed for specifying the nodal loads.
573
13.17. Stability Analysis

Depending on the settings of the postprocessor of the stability analysis , the following tables with the
results of the calculation can be generated for each static loading or combination of loadings:
 stability factors of safety;
 buckling modes;
 unsupported lengths of bar elements.
Stability Factors of Safety
The Stability factors of safety table (example — Table 13.17-1) provides the value of the stability
factor of safety for each loading (or combination of loadings), for which the stability analysis of the system
was performed, and in those cases when this factor could not be calculated, it provides the reason for such
a situation.
Table 13.17-1
Stability factors of safety
Number Name of the loading/combination Value
2 Snow 0.0647
3 Live short-term -1 Factor of safety > 2.0000
9 Live long-term -3 Factor of safety > 2.0000
11 Wind against the ОY axis (pressure) 0.0978
12 Wind along the ОY axis (suction) 0.0877
15 Wind against the ОХ axis (pressure) 0.1254
16 Wind along the ОХ axis (suction) 0.0997
Buckling Modes
The ratios between the values of amplitudes in the nodes of the design model for each loading or
combination are given in the tables with the buckling modes. The maximal value of amplitude is specified as 1,
the values of other amplitudes are determined in fractions of 1.
The tables with buckling modes and their minimax values are similar to the respective tables created when
outputting the displacements.
Buckling modes can be viewed in the graphical postprocessor where they are output in the
Displacements section under the identifier Si or SСi (for combinations), where i is the number of the
loading.
Unsupported Lengths of Bar Elements
The results of the calculation of the unsupported lengths of bar elements for each static loading (or
combination of loadings) are output in the table (see Table 13.17-2). It provides the number of the element,
its type, numbers of its nodes and one (for plane models) or two (for spatial models) values of the
unsupported length LZ and LY, which indicate the unsupported length of the out-of-plane buckling of the
bar in the plane X1OY1 and X1OZ1. For tension bars unsupported length is meaningless; in this case string
*** is used instead of the length value.
Table 13.17-2
Unsupported lengths of elements
Element Element Node No.1 Node No.2 Loading LY LZ
type
1 5 12 14 1 4,025 4,025
2 5 14 15 1 10,051 8,92
3 5 15 16 1 11,01 9,772
4 5 16 17 1 20,215 17,941
5 5 17 18 1 24,739 21,956
574
13.18. Principal and Equivalent Stresses

Tables with the results of the calculation of the principal and equivalent stresses (Fig. 13.18-1 and 13.18-2)
are generated according to the same principle as the tables of forces and stresses (Sec. 13.5). Moreover, the
number of the characteristic point the calculated values refer to (see Chapter 24 Principal and Equivalent
Stresses for the position of the characteristic points for each type of cross-section) are specified for each
bar element after the number of the section. The number of the layer where the calculations were
performed is indicated for the shell and plate elements in the “Point” column (1 — lower; 2 — middle; 3
— upper).
Principal and equivalent stresses for forces
Principal and equivalent stresses for forces
Element Section Point Loading Value
NX XY XZ 1 3 E04 S04
1 1 1 1 -340,736 0 0 0 -340,736 340,736 340,736
1 1 2 1 1917,598 0 0 1917,598 0 1917,598 1917,598
1 1 3 1 -68,44 0 0 0 -68,44 68,44 68,44
1 1 4 1 -2326,775 0 0 0 -2326,775 2326,775 2326,775
1 1 5 1 -1333,756 0 36,62 1,005 -1334,76 1335,263 1335,263
1 1 6 1 924,579 0 163,918 952,779 -28,201 967,188 967,188
1 1 7 1 788,431 -180,889 0 827,951 -39,52 848,402 848,402
1 1 8 1 -1197,607 -53,592 0 2,393 -1200,001 1201,199 1201,199
Figure 13.18-1. Fragment of the “Principal and equivalent stresses for forces” table
Selection of principal and equivalent stresses for forces
Units of measurement: kN, m
Selection of principal and equivalent stresses for forces
Name Maximal values Minimal values
Value Element Section Point Loading Value Element Section Point Loading
NX 74247,315 19 3 1 1 -77032,788 19 3 1 3
XY 9173,815 106 1 2 1 -14575,805 106 1 2 2
XZ 10643,325 106 1 1 5 -13217,817 106 3 1 6
1 74247,315 19 3 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
3 0 1 1 1 2 -77032,788 19 3 1 3
E04 77032,788 19 3 1 3 0,002 141 2 5 3
S04 77032,788 19 3 1 3 0,002 141 2 5 3
Figure 13.18-2. The “Selection of principal and equivalent stresses for forces” table
The following values are output as “force” factors in the table (depending on the type of the element,
initial data and the stress-strain state):1
 principal stresses (T/m2) — 1, 2, 3;
 Euler angles (rad) — ТЕТА, PSI and FI;
 Lode-Nadai coefficient — MU;
 normal stress in the characteristic points of the bar cross-section (T/m2) — NX;
 shear stresses in the characteristic points of the bar cross-section (T/m2) — XY, XZ;
1
Units of measurement are given in the basic system of units
575
 equivalent stresses reduced to the equivalent tension according to one of the four failure theories
(T/m2) — E1, E2, E3, E4;
 equivalent stresses reduced to the equivalent compression according to one of the four failure
theories (T/m2) — S1, S2, S3, S4.
Figure 13.18-1 shows the results of the calculation of the
principal and equivalent stresses for a bar of rectangular cross-
section. Figure 13.18-3 provides an example of the arrangement
of characteristic points in such a section. The numbers of these
points are given in the “Point” column.
The number of the point of the shell finite element
corresponds to the layer where the calculations were performed
— lower (1), middle (2), upper (3).
Figure 13.18-3.
13.19. Results of the Check of the Elements of

Reinforced Concrete and Steel Structures and of the
Selection of Reinforcement and Rolled Steel Sections
The structure of the tables with the results of the selection of reinforcement in bar and plate elements is
described in Chapter 19. This chapter also provides the information on the control of the generation of the
report with the results of the check of the specified reinforcement. Similar information but with the results
of the check of elements of steel structures is given in Chapter 20.
576
14.Erection
14. Erection
The Erection mode enables to model the behavior of a structure (determine its stress-strain state) in the
process of its erection (see Sec. 2.7). The process of erection of a structure, and, respectively, the
calculation is divided into several stages (erection stages). The calculation of each subsequent stage is
performed taking into account the stress-strain state of the structure determined on the basis of the results
of the calculation of the previous stages. At the transition from one stage to the other you can include and
exclude structural elements from the model, take into account different types of static and dynamic loads,
change the elastic modulus of the material, and the boundary conditions. The calculation enables to obtain
design combinations of forces, combinations of loadings, perform the selection of reinforcement in the
elements of reinforced concrete structures, and check and select the rolled steel sections in the elements of
steel structures.
A design model can be prepared in advance as a standard project (file with the .spr extension) or
generated directly in the Erection mode (project file with the .mpr extension). If necessary the geometry
and the characteristics of the elements and nodes of the design model can be adjusted in the Erection mode
similarly to the standard mode of the data preparation.
14.1. Creating a Project

When creating a new project it is necessary to select the Erection radio button in the New Project dialog
box (Fig. 14.1-1).
If the design model was created in advance as a standard
project, it can be selected in the Open dialog box, which
appears after clicking the Load project button. The selected
standard project has to be saved as a project of the Erection
mode. It is performed in the standard Save As … dialog box,
which will be loaded after closing the dialog box by clicking
the OK button.
You should keep in mind that the file of the Erection
mode (with the .mpr extension) must have a name different
from the file name of the standard project (with the .spr
extension). Otherwise, a situation arises when the files with the
results of the calculation of a standard problem and of a
problem modeling the erection process will have the same
name, which means that one problem in the calculation
Figure 14.1-1. The New Project dialog process will replace the results of the other problem.
box
(the Erection radio button is selected)
An export from the .mpr format to the.spr format can be performed at any erection stage. In this case
all elements, boundary conditions, and loads described in the specified erection stage will be taken into
account in the standard model.
When creating a new project for the Erection mode, the first erection stage will be created
automatically with a zero number of the included elements. The name of the first stage will have to be
additionally specified.
577
14.Erection
14.2. Erection Toolbar

The Erection toolbar (Fig. 14.2-1) will be available only when loading a project with the .mpr extension.
Some buttons, for example, for the specification of constraints, hinges, subsoil parameters disappear from
the Assign toolbar.
The toolbar contains the following set of buttons:
— initialization of the new erection stage;
— adjust settings of the erection stage;
— delete the erection stage;
— add elements in the current erection stage;
— delete elements in the current erection stage;
— change the elastic modulus;
— install hinges;
— delete hinges;
— specify/delete/change constraints;
— specify/change subsoil parameters;
— merged displacements;
— generate a list of loadings;
— save information on the current stage as a separate problem;
— confirm and reject the current operation.
Name of the stage List of groups of elements
Figure 14.2-1. Toolbar of the Erection mode

Buttons of the toolbar become available when the respective data for the erection stage are specified.
Pay attention to the icons in the buttons. The down arrow indicates the specification of a new erection stage
or adding elements, and the up button indicates their removal.
The following procedure is recommended for creating an erection stage:
− click the button , the Erection Stage dialog box will appear. Specify the name of the stage, and
if the calculations have to be performed for the deformed model, check the respective checkbox;
578
14.Erection
− click the button and specify the groups of added elements, or select the elements in the model
which are included in the current stage, and click the button ;
− click the button and specify the groups of excluded elements, or select the elements in the
model which are deleted in the current stage, and click the button ;
− if the elastic modulus of some elements changes in the current stage, it is necessary to click the
button , the Elastic Modulus dialog box will appear, where you have to specify the value of
the coefficient to the elastic modulus specified at the description of the stiffness properties of the
elements, select the elements or groups of elements in the model the elastic modulus of which
changes and click the button ;
− if the constraints in nodes change in the current stage, click the button and perform the
operations of installing or deleting the constraints in the selected nodes;
− if the hinges change in the current stage, use the buttons , to perform the operations of
installing or deleting the hinges in the selected nodes;
− click the button and specify the main (accumulated) loading in the Generate Loadings dialog
box, including, if necessary, the groups of loads with the respective coefficients, as well as the
independent loadings acting in the current erection stage.
If necessary the current state of the design model can be saved as a standard problem — (here “a
standard problem” means a file with the .spr extension, not related to the erection mode and having a name
different from the file name with the.mpr extension).
Initialization of the New Erection Stage
Clicking this button invokes the Erection Stage dialog box (Fig. 14.2-2), where you have to:
 specify the name of the stage;
 indicate whether the deformations obtained in the calculation of the previous stage should be taken
into account.
Regardless of whether the Accounting for the deformed model checkbox is checked the nodes of
the elements added in the new erection stage and adjacent to the nodes of the elements installed in the
previous stage receive coordinates in the process of calculation taking into account the deformed model
(allowing for displacements of these nodes obtained at the calculation of the previous erection stage).
All the other nodes are placed in the “design position” corresponding to the initial model. If the
checkbox is not checked, the analysis of the stress-strain state is performed taking into account these
displacements, but without taking into account the changes of the shape of elements. Otherwise, the
calculation accounts for the changes of the shape as well.
When creating each erection stage it is also necessary to select options defining the order of
consideration of the variation of the elastic moduli and subsoil parameters. If the stiffness properties of the
elements of the system (elastic modulus or the subsoil parameter of the elastic subgrade) change at the
transition from one erection stage to the other, it is not difficult to take it into account when specifying the
model of the modification of the structure. There can be two variants of this operation:
579
14.Erection
 the element has acquired a new stiffness property (for example, the stiffness of the compressed
elastic subgrade has increased), but the stress-strain state of the system has not changed (mode
without recalculation of the stress-strain state);
 the element has changed its stiffness property remaining loaded (for example, the elastic modulus
of the element strongly heated by the fire has fallen), i. e. the internal force the element had before
the modification is transferred to the new element, and the redistribution of forces occurs in the
system without any load changes (mode with recalculation of the stress-strain state).
Figure 14.2-2. The Erection Stage dialog box

Obviously, the first variant can hardly be applied when the stiffness property decreases and the
redistribution of forces in the system takes place.
While the recalculation of the SSS is usually not required when the stiffness increases, it is required
when the stiffness decreases. Having “supposedly” divided the elements into two parts: the shell and the
elastic subgrade, selected the reactions of the elastic subgrade from the general reactions, and transferred
them to the new element, we will take into account the redistribution of forces in the system without any
load changes (mode with recalculation of the stress-strain state).
After closing the dialog box a new line (name of the stage) appears in the list of erection stages, and all
the subsequent operations performed in the Erection toolbar will apply to this stage.
Adjusting Settings of the Erection Stage
If it is necessary to adjust the specified settings of the stage (for example, change the name of the first
stage, which is by default specified as “1”), you have to select the respective stage in the drop-down list of
the erection stages in the toolbar and click the Adjust settings of the Erection stage button — . Make
the adjustments in the Erection Stage dialog box (Fig. 14.2-2) that will appear, and close it by clicking the
OK button.
580
14.Erection
Deleting the Erection Stage
In order to delete an erection stage, it is necessary to select it in the drop-down list of the toolbar and
click the Delete the erection stage button. If not the last stage is selected to be deleted, all the stages
following it are deleted as well (if agreed with the user).
Adding Elements in the Current Erection Stage
In order to specify the elements added to the structure in the current erection stage, click this button,
select the respective elements in the model, and click the OK button. The elements can be selected directly
in the model by one of the cursors, or by specifying the names of the groups of elements in the drop-down
list in the Erection toolbar. The added elements are displayed in the color indicating that the element is
included in one of the erection stages. Thus, the model will be displayed in two colors: one color will be
used for the elements already included in the current erection stage, and other one — for those which are
not yet included.
The filters button enables to display the elements included in the model in the current erection
stage (see Sec. 10.2).
Deleting Elements in the Current Erection Stage
In order to exclude elements from the current stage, click this button, select the respective elements in
the model, and click the OK button in the toolbar. The elements are displayed in a color different from the
color of the added elements. If necessary these elements can be added in the model in other stages.
Changing the Elastic Moduli for the Current Erection Stage
In order to change the elastic modulus of the elements in the calculation of the current erection stage
invoke this operation, specify the value of the coefficient in the Elastic Modulus dialog box (Fig. 14.2-3),
and close it by clicking the OK button. Select the elements in the model the modulus of which changes in
the current stage, and click the OK button. If the groups of elements have different values of the elastic
modulus, it is necessary to repeat the above actions for each group.
The specified coefficients will be used in the calculation of the current erection stage for changing the
elastic moduli of the elements specified when generating the initial design model. If the Apply to all
subsequent stages checkbox is checked, the specified coefficients will be used in all the subsequent stages
as well. In order to view the values of the coefficients of variation of the elastic modulus in the erection
stages check the respective checkbox in the Erection Stages tab (Fig. 14.2-4) of the Set the Information
Display Filters dialog box (see Sec. 10.2).
581
14.Erection
Figure 14.2-3. The Elastic Modulus

dialog box
Figure 14.2-4. The Erection Stages tab (Set the Information

Display Filters)
Creating a List of Loadings
There are two types of loadings in the Erection mode — the accumulated (main) loading and
independent loadings.
There can be only one accumulated loading, it acts on each erection stage and it is considered in DCF
as a permanent load. The loads of the accumulated loading include the loads from the self-weight, and they
can also include the loads from the materials stored during the erection process, etc.
Independent loadings which include the live load, wind, seismic load and other dynamic actions etc.
can act both on the resulting structure and on the different erection stages. They act as independent
loadings in DCF and can have any type. You should keep in mind that the main loading will be
automatically added to each independent loading, i. e., if the main loading is the self-weight, the respective
snow load will be equal to “snow + self-weight”.
The preparation of the data on loadings involves the following:
 all the main loadings acting in one stage are combined into one loading in advance (the presence of
such a loading is obligatory), and if necessary, into a number of groups of loads. For example, if
the elements of a structure are made from different materials with different safety factors for load
(reinforced concrete, steel, etc.), the self-weight of steel structures can be given as a loading, and
the self-weight of other structures can be given as groups of loads with the respective coefficients;
 independent loads acting on each erection stage are combined into loadings. Groups of loads for
independent loadings are not provided;
 if there are loads of a certain type acting on the whole (resulting) model, for example, self-weight,
they can be specified as one loading. Only the loads from this loading which are applied to the
elements and nodes existing on this stage will be automatically considered on each erection stage.
The Generate Loadings dialog box (Fig. 14.2-5) appears after the initialization of the erection stage
and clicking the button . It includes three lists. The left one contains the full list of all loadings and
582
14.Erection
groups of loads created at the moment of initialization of the current stage. The accumulated loading (there
must be such a loading) is transferred from the left list to the right upper list given in the form of a table, as
well as the groups of loads with the respective coefficients. Independent loadings acting on the current
erection stage are transferred to the lower list.
List of loadings
Main loading
Group of loads with a

coefficient on the current
erection stage
Groups of loads
List of independent
loadings on the current
erection stage
Figure 14.2-5. The Generate Loadings dialog box

In order to transfer a loading (group of loads) into the right tables select it in the left table and click
the respective Add button. If the operation was performed incorrectly, the loading or group selected in the
right list can be deleted by clicking the respective button.
Groups of loads are specified with coefficients the values of which are given in the respective column
of the table. Both accumulated and independent loadings always have a coefficient equal to 1.
The last erection stage is considered as operational, i.e. loadings which usually act on the finished
structure are included as independent ones on this stage. They include live loads, snow, wind, dynamic
loads typical for buildings and structures of this type, etc.
Specifying and Modifying Constraints
After selecting the respective erection stage the constraints can be specified and modified (or deleted)
in the same way as in the mode of the generation of the design model. Constraints can be installed even in
the nodes which are not adjacent to the existing elements because this operation is performed for the
current erection stage and all the subsequent ones.
Specifying Hinges
Hinges can be installed in the same way as in the mode of the generation of the design model for the
Deleting Hinges
Hinges can be deleted in the same way as in the mode of the generation of the design model for the
583
14.Erection
Specifying and Changing the Subsoil Parameters
Subsoil parameters can be specified and changed in the same way as in the mode of the generation of
the design model for the current erection stage and all the subsequent ones.
Specifying Merged Displacements
Merged displacements can be specified and changed in the same way as in the mode of the generation
of the design model for the current erection stage and all the subsequent ones.
Save Information on the Current Stage as a Separate Problem
In this case the current state of the project is saved as a separate file with the .spr extension. This
operation is performed in the standard Save As… dialog box.
Creating and Modifying the Main Model

When working in the Erection mode the user can either create a design model “from scratch”, or modify
the existing one. Working with the Control, Model, Assign, Nodes and Elements, Loadings and Groups
toolbars is almost the same as working with a standard model. The following rules for working with the
model in the Erection mode should be taken into account:
 new elements added to the design model will not be activated on the current erection stage and all the
subsequent ones. This operation should be performed according to the rules described above (see Sec.
Adding Elements in the Current Erection Stage);
 buttons for specifying the constraints, hinges, merged displacements, and subsoil parameters can be
used only in the Erection toolbar (they are not available in the Assign toolbar), they enable to
perform the operations of specification only for the current erection stage;
 the button in the filters toolbar — Show elements included/not included in the given erection
stage, enables to indicate elements included in the model on the current erection stage;
 in order to view the values of the coefficients of variation of the elastic modulus on the erection stages
check the respective checkbox in the Erection Stages tab (Fig. 14.2-4) of the Set the Information
Display Filters dialog box (see Sec. 10.2).
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14.Erection
14.3. Analysis
The Erection section appears in the ANALYSIS group of functions of the project tree in the Erection
mode (Fig. 14.3-1). A standard Calculation Parameters dialog box becomes available after activating this
section, where you can specify the calculation parameters according to the rules described above (see
Chapter 11).
Section for invoking the

calculation in the Erection mode
Figure 14.3-1. Project tree in the Erection mode
14.4. Analysis of Results

Analysis of the results of the calculation in the Erection mode is performed in the graphical postprocessor
according to the same rules as for a standard model (see Chapter 12). In addition to the parameters
described above a number of the erection stage is indicated for each loading in the list of loadings (Fig.
14.4-1, a).
After selecting a line with the name of the respective erection stage from the list of loadings in the
toolbars of the postprocessor only the elements which are present in the model in the current stage will
remain in the work area (Fig. 14.4-1, b).
You should keep in mind that the values of factors for independent loadings will be displayed taking
into account the fact that their value is obtained according to the formula “independent + main”.
The following designations for the identification of the output information are used in addition to
those described in the Selecting Loading section (Sec. 12.1):
LB + LS – amplitude from the main and static load (static wind) of the dynamic loading;
LB + LS + SD – amplitude from the main, static, and dynamic components of the dynamic loading;
LB + S1, LN + S2, ... – amplitude from the main, and dynamic envelope from the real and imaginary
components of the dynamic loading;
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14.Erection
LB + Т1, LN + Т2, ... – amplitude from the main and dynamic component at the given moment in
time.
a) b)
Figure 14.4-1. The Displacements tab, the Analysis of results mode

a) list of loadings, b) isofields of displacements on one of the erection stages
14.5. Design Combinations of Forces

Design combinations of forces for the Erection mode are generated with the help of the DCF
postprocessor. It is necessary to take into account the following when specifying the relationship between
loadings in this postprocessor (see Chapter 18):
 loadings acting on different erection stages are automatically considered as mutually exclusive, but it
is not displayed in the table of mutual exclusions of the respective dialog box;
 the logic of the interaction of all loadings acting on one erection stage is specified by the user. The
accumulated (main) loading is always considered as permanent;
 when generating DCF for all other loadings (except for the main one) only the part these loadings
were replaced by in the result of adding with the main loading is taken into account.
14.6. Calculation of Elements of Steel and Reinforced

Concrete Structures
The calculation of elements of steel and reinforced concrete structures (check and selection) should
obviously be performed for the last erection stage. All unfavourable combinations of forces which
appeared on the previous stages will be taken into account. Therefore, in order to enter the Steel or
Reinforced Concrete postprocessors you have to (for example) select a loading which corresponds to the
last stage in the Displacements or Forces tabs.
The calculation of elements of steel and reinforced concrete structures can be also performed based on
the results of the calculation for individual erection stages. In this case it is necessary to perform the
following actions:
− specify all the loadings which belong to the erection stages following the considered one as
inactive in the Design Combinations of Forces dialog box;
586
14.Erection
− perform the generation of DCF;

− adjust the value of the design strength of concrete with the help of the hardening factor in the initial
data of the Reinforcement dialog box in such a way so that this value corresponds to the
considered erection stage;
− perform the selection or check of the reinforcement in particular elements of the model;
− perform the selection or check of the elements of steel structures.
587
15.Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion
15. Direct Integration of the Equations

of Motion
15.1. Problem Formulation
One of the peculiarities of this problem formulation is the fact that displacements, velocities, and
accelerations of the nodes of the finite element model are determined in the absolute reference system
connected with the conventionally immobile earth. The seismic action is specified as the forced
displacements of supports, therefore not the accelerograms but seismograms (relationship between
displacements and time) obtained from accelerograms by the double time integration are used as the input
information. This approach enables to solve the problems with asynchronous oscillations of supports in a
natural way. It is recommended to use the Accelerogram Editor to obtain vibrograms from the specified
accelerograms.
A traditional problem formulation in the reference system connected with the rigid mobile base, and a
problem formulation in the absolute reference system used in SCAD are shown in Fig. 15.1-1, 15.1-2
respectively.
Figure 15.1-1. Solution of the problem in the relative reference system connected with the rigid mobile
platform exhibiting translational motion (classical formulation)
u  u e  u r ;

u  u e  u r ;
Mu  Ku   Mu t   pt 
 r r e
588
Figure 15.1-2. Solution of the problem with respect to the conventionally immobile absolute reference
system (SCAD)
Equations of motion of the finite element (FEM) model in the absolute immobile reference system are
given as follows:
 M11 0   u   K 11 K 12   u   C11 C12   u   0 

                    , (15.1.1)
 0 M   u   K 21 K   u   C21 C   u   p(t ) 
ˆ
M ˆ
K ˆ
C
where K ˆ,M ˆ are stiffness, mass, and dissipation matrices respectively covering the degrees of freedom
ˆ ,C
which have to be determined (vector of nodal values of the unknowns u ), as well as the known
displacements in nodes – forced displacements u (t ) , p(t ) – given forces.
According to the Rayleigh hypothesis,
Cˆ  M ˆ   K ˆ, (15.1.2)
where α, β are the coefficients of proportionality, term   M̂ stands for the damping of lower modes, and
term   K̂ – for the damping of upper ones. If there are local dampers, a non-Rayleigh dissipation matrix
Ĉ appears. If at the same time there is no damping in the material, you should specify α = β = 0.
Otherwise, both damping caused by local dampers and the damping in the material will be taken into
account. Such a representation enables to divide a system of equations at the decomposition of the load for
the natural oscillation modes of the undamped system [1].
If we substitute (15.1.2) into (15.1.1), we obtain:
 M11 0   u   u   K K 12   u   u (t )   0 
           11            , (15.1.3)
 0 M   u   u   K 21 K   u   u    p( t ) 
whence it follows
589
Mu    u   K u    u   K 21 u    u   p(t ) . (15.1.4)
Here K, M are traditional stiffness and mass matrices covering only the degrees of freedom which
have to be determined.
Ms Ms
Designate u   s  k s  f s t  t0s , u   s  k s  f s t  t0s  , where k s – vectors of the spatial
s 1 s 1
configuration specifying the mode of the forced displacements, fs(t) – function defining the load variation
with time, s  1, 2, , M s – reference loadings or simply references – numbers of static loadings at the
Np
calculation for forced displacements. Similarly pt    p  k p  f p t  t0p  . Here p  1, 2, , Np –

p 1
reference loadings or simply references – numbers of static loadings at the calculation for force actions,
k p – vectors of the spatial load configuration. Values  s , t0s ,  p , t0p refer to the scale factors and the
delay time respectively.
We will call each term of the above sums as the s-th or p-th component of the dynamic loading
respectively.
Designate b s   K 21  k s , s  1, 2, , M s . Then
 
Ms Np
Mu    u   K u    u    b s  s  f s t  t0s     f s t  t0s    k p   p  f p t  t0p  . (15.1.5)

s 1 p 1
If we supplement the above differential equation with the initial conditions, we obtain

  
Np
   
Ms
M u    u   K u    u    b s   s  f s t  t0    f s t  t0   k p   p  f p t  t0
s s p
 s 1 p 1
x0  x 0 . (15.1.6)
x0  x
 0

Coefficients  and  can be calculated according to the following formulas
2i j i j   ji  2 j j   ii 

 ,   , (15.1.7)
 
2
j i
2
 2j  i2
where i ,  j , – two natural cyclic frequencies [rad/sec] for the oscillation modes i and j , and  i ,  j 
modal damping given as a percentage of the critical damping. It is assumed that  j  i  0 and
 j  i  0 .
If we take i = 1, j = 2, then
590
212 12   21  2 22  11 

 ,   . (15.1.8)
2  1
2 2
22  12
2  1
In the case when 2  1 or the first two frequencies are very close (  0.0001 ), it is
1
assumed that   211 , and   0 .
Initial conditions are defined by the initial displacements of the system (vector x 0 ) and initial
velocities (vector x 0 ). It is assumed in the current implementation that x 0  x 0  0 .
Method of the solution. Unconditionally stable Newmark method in the “predictor-corrector” form is
used for solving the problem [2]. The whole time interval tstart , tend  is divided into a finite number of
steps N step  Tdur t  1, Tdur  tend  t start . The integration step t remains constant within a single
problem formulation. If it is necessary to integrate the equations of motion with a different step, you have
to divide the whole time interval into subintervals t0 , t1 , t1 , t2 , , tk 1 , tk  , each of which is
integrated with a step constant within an interval tk (Fig. 15.1-3). The first problem formulation –
beginning of the calculation – is performed for the first subinterval t0 , t1  , and the other problem
formulations – continuation of the calculation – for the subintervals t1 , t2 , , tk 1 , tk  respectively.
The results (displacements, velocities, accelerations) are recorded at some moments in time which
coincide with the integration points (Fig. 15.1-4).
Figure 15.1-3. Division into subintervals
591
Figure 15.1-4. Integration and results recording points

In order to achieve the acceptable accuracy of the solution the integration step is usually much less
than the step for recording the results. Results can be recorded either with a variable step, or with a
constant one.
The implementation is based on the sparse matrix technology which enables to speed up the
calculations significantly and to reduce the time of the analysis.
15.2. Specifying the Initial Information
Specifying the Characteristics of the Dynamic Loading

The initial data for the calculation are specified in the multi-tab Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog
box (Fig. 15.2-2), which is invoked by clicking the button in the Loadings toolbar of the
preprocessor. Check the Direct integration checkbox in the Type of action group and the Direct
Integration of the Equations of Motion tab will become available (Fig. 15.2-3).
In order to perform the calculation it is necessary to specify the following data:
 integration step;
 process duration;
 data on the modal damping, which can be specified by indicating the parameters of damping (in
fractions of the critical value) for the first two natural modes. Alternatively, the coefficients  and
 can be specified explicitly by the user (if the User specified radio button is selected). Clicking
the button invokes the dialog box (Fig. 15.2-1), which enables to specify two natural
frequencies and the respective parameters of modal damping. Clicking the OK button invokes the
calculation of the coefficients  and  according to the formulas (7) and automatically records
these values in the respective text fields;
592
Figure 15.2-1. Determination of the parameters of modal damping

 list of the result output time.
The following information is specified in the lines of the table:
 delay time – time interval which enables to move the given load in time with respect to the moment
of the beginning of the integration process;
 scaling factor, by which the load is multiplied at any given time;
 number and name of the reference static loading;
 the full path and the name of the text file defining the time function  p t  .
Figure 15.2-2. The General Data tab of the Figure 15.2-3. The Direct Integration of the
Parameters of Dynamic Actions dialog box Equations of Motion tab
If when specifying the result output time the process time is not yet exhausted, the step of the output
of the following results is determined as the difference between the last two specified values. For example,
suppose that the process duration is 1 second, and the values 0 0.02 0.03 are specified in the “Result
Output Time” dialog box. Results of the calculation will be saved at 0, 0.02 sec 0.03 sec 0.04 sec 0.05
593
sec ... 1 sec. The first three values are explicitly specified by the user, and each subsequent one is
determined as the preceding value plus the increment, where the increment is calculated as 0.03 – 0.02 =
0.01 sec. This implies that at least two values should be specified in the "Result Output Time" dialog box.
In order to specify a dynamic loading you have to specify the reference static loads first in the same
way as for the standard static loads. You can specify not only the nodal forces, but also the concentrated
forces and distributed loads applied to the finite elements between the nodes, and the forced displacements
of the supports as well, which enables to perform the calculation of structures for the seismic actions.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify the dynamic loads:
 click the Add button, and a new line will appear in the table with the description of loads;
 select a static loading in the drop-down list of the No. of the static loading column on the basis of
which the time-varying load will be generated;
 specify the scaling factor 1 in the Factor column;
 specify the delay time t10 in the Lag column;
 click the button to select a text file which defines the function 1  t  (the file has extension
.thi by default);
 if it is necessary to specify the second component, click the Add button, a new line will appear in
the table, and repeat the above actions.
In order to perform the control of the graph of the time function click the button , and the Time
Function dialog box (Fig. 15.2-4) will appear. Buttons in the lines of the table enable to select and
replace the respective text file with the time function.
Figure 15.2-4. Graph of the time function

The content of each text file with a time function is copied and stored “inside” the file of the model.
Therefore, in order to transfer the data to another computer you just have to copy the spr-file. A situation
may arise when the path specified earlier no longer corresponds to the current location of the file. In this
case the line of the table looks as follows:
Two question marks and the red color of the file name indicate the absence of the file on the disk, and
the button enables to save the time function in the file on the external disk (the standard Save dialog
box for selecting the storage location is used).
594
In order to delete a certain component of the dynamic load from the list, it is necessary to select the
respective line of the list with a cursor and click the Delete button. Information on the dynamic loading
will be saved in the model after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
Example of the text file defining the time function  p t  :

File contents Explanations
0 0.1 # File type – 0
Time step – 0.1
Control character – #
1  p 0  1
2  p 0.1  2
-1  p 0.2  1
0.5  p 0.3  0.5
1  p 0.4   1
0  p t   0 t 0.5, t  0.6, t  0.7,....., t  Tdur
2.5
2
1.5
1
fi(t)
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
t
Figure 15.2-5.
Fig. 15.2-5 shows the relationship  p t  given in the table for the values t  0.7 . If the integration
step does not coincide with the time for which the time function is specified, the linear interpolation is
performed. It should be taken into account when specifying the loads rapidly oscillating in time.
Specifying Nodal Actions
Loads acting on the design model are specified as nodal forces and moments. It is necessary to
perform the following actions to specify them:
 specify (select from the list in the Loadings toolbar) a dynamic loading created earlier with the
type of action Direct integration …;
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 invoke the Parameters of dynamic loads operation, the Nodal Load with Time dialog box will
appear (Fig. 15.2-6);
 specify the name of the file with the .txt extension which describes the graph of the load variation
with time for a particular group of nodes in the Graph of the load variation with time text field or
select it from the list (the File button); it should be noted that different loads in a node can refer to
different graphs;
 specify the values of scaling factors for the nodal forces and moments of the above group of nodes,
and if necessary the delay time of the action compared to that specified in the graph;
 close the dialog by clicking the OK button;
 select the nodes included in the described group in the model, and click the OK button in the
toolbar;
 repeat the above actions for other groups of nodes;
 save the loading after completing the above actions.
Figure 15.2-6. The Nodal Load with Time dialog box
15.3. Calculation
A log (Fig. 15.3-1) is generated in the calculation process,
which in particular contains the following information
concerning the direct integration of the equations of
motion:
Direct integration of the equations of motion -
Newmark method;
Number of integration steps: … ;
Number of points for results recording: …;
Integration step dt: …;
Modal damping parameter: ksi1 = …;
Modal damping parameter: ksi2 = …;
Damping parameter alpha - multiplier for matrix M:
…;
Damping parameter beta - multiplier for matrix K:
….
Figure 15.3-1. Analysis log at the direct
integration
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15.4. Results of the Calculation
Results of the Calculation at a Fixed Time
Figure 15.4-1.
The results of the calculation are available in the graphical and tabular postprocessors (Fig. 15.4-1).
The number of the static loading and the time for the dynamic loading are selected in the drop-down list of
loadings in the respective toolbar (Fig. 15.4-1). Results of the calculation can be displayed for the selected
moment in time, for example, as the modes of displacements (Fig. 15.4-2), force diagram (Fig. 15.4-3) or
isofields of stresses (Fig. 15.4-4).
Figure 15.4-2. Figure 15.4-3.
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Figure 15.4-4. Figure 15.4-5.
Graphs of Displacements, Velocities and Accelerations of Nodes

When analyzing the deformed state of the structure at the selected moment in time you can obtain the
graphs of displacements, velocities and accelerations in each node for the whole period of the analysis. The
Variation with time operation enables to do it which is invoked by clicking the respective button in the
Information on the Node dialog box (Fig. 15.4-5).
The Graphs of nodal displacements with time dialog box (Fig. 15.4-6) appears after invoking the
operation, where you can select the type of the analyzed information (displacements, velocities,
accelerations) in the list, and also the set of graphs (directions X, Y, Z and the total one), their style and
color, background color.
Figure 15.4-6.
If necessary the graphs and the respective tables can be saved as an MS Word report document (the
Report button) or exported into xls-file for the further processing in MS Excel (the Table button).
Graphs of Forces (Stresses) in Elements

Graphs of forces/stresses in the element for the entire period of the analysis are plotted similarly to the
graphs of displacements. The Variation with time operation is invoked from the Information on the
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Element dialog box (Fig. 15.4-7). The [Element No. …] Time History dialog box (Fig. 15.4-8) appears
after invoking the operation.
Figure 15.4-8.
Figure 15.4-7.
The graphs of the variation of force factors with time can be plotted for the given section of bar
elements, and for the given node or the center of element for plate and solid elements. You have to make
sure that all the simultaneously displayed forces/stresses have identical dimensions.
1. R. Clough, J. Penzien, Dynamics of Structures. Moscow, Stroyizdat, 1979.
2. T.J.R. Hughes, T. Belytschko, A precis of development in computational methods for transient analysis. Journal
of Applied Mechanics, v. 50, 1983, pp. 1033 – 1041.
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16.Variation of Models
16. Variation of Models

16.1. Accounting for the Uncertainty of the Parameters of
the Design Model
Parameters of the design model used by the researcher are almost always inaccurate values. In fact these
parameters are often random values, and when we take a certain value, we deal with a realization of such a
random situation.
Loads are one of the most unstable elements of the design model. Even the considered self-weight of
the structures according to the current regulations can vary by about 1015%, and it is one of the most
stable loads. Other loads change in a much wider range of both the value and direction of action, and the
location on the structure. This feature of the loading has initiated the development of various methods of
searching for the so-called “unfavorable loading”, i.e. finding such a combination of different components
of external actions, at which the extremum of a certain internal force, stress in the cross-section,
displacement in the node, etc. takes place. Starting from the classical works on the justification of the
methods of finding the most unfavorable position of a group of moving loads on the influence line, and
ending with the works based on the application of the modern methods of solving the multi-criteria
optimization problems, this problem has drawn close attention of specialists. The more surprising is the
fact that the problem of accounting for the variability of other parameters of the design model turned out to
be not so popular, although its practical value is extremely high.
16.2. Differences between Models

SCAD has a special mode which enables to process the results of the calculation of several close variants
of the design model. The proximity of the variants is interpreted in the sense that they are topologically
similar, contain the same number of nodes and elements, and allow only certain differences between the
compared design models:
 the possibility of using different types of elements including the elements of the “hidden” type which
model the absence of elements without changing their total number;
 the possibility of changing the stiffness properties of finite elements including the use of zero values
of some rigidities and different subsoil parameters;
 differences in the system of imposed constraints and/or boundary conditions of elements (hinges,
rigid inserts).
16.3. Generate a Package of Models

In order to perform the calculation for several models, it is necessary to create a new project, selecting the
Variation of models radio button in the New Project dialog box (Fig. 16.3-1). After closing this dialog
box the Save As… dialog box appears where you have to specify the name of the project file (with the .vpr
extension). This name should not repeat any of the names of the files of the problems included in the
package of models. For example, if the files of the problems had names P1, P2, P3, then Р123 or any other
name different from the above ones can be used as the name of the package of models, so that the names of
the work files and the print files were different (see Appendix).
You should keep in mind that the file of the variational project and the files of the problems included
in this project should be in the same directory.
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Only the list of files of the problems included in the

package is used as the initial data of the considered mode. The
list is specified in the Generate a Package of Models dialog
box (Fig. 16.3-2), which can be invoked from the respective
section of the Project tree (Fig. 16.3-3). In order to include the
problem in the package select the name of the project file in the
left list and transfer it to the right one by clicking the Add
button. The status of the project (whether the calculation is
performed) is reflected in the respective column of the right list.
If the models differ in the number of "hidden" elements,
the problems should be included in the project in such an order,
so that the “maximum model” is first, i.e. a model in which all
elements are present explicitly. A package of models is merged
into one design model after the initialization of the calculation
Figure 16.3-1. The New Project dialog in the project tree.
box When creating a package of models, the software performs
the checks of the regulated similarity of a series of problems. If
the result of this check is positive, the results of the calculations
of all the variants of the design model are merged into one array
(as if one model is analyzed for all variants of the loading,
which appeared in all the calculations performed earlier).
The calculation can be performed only when all the
problems included in the variation of models are already
Figure 16.3-2. The Generate a Package calculated. You should also make sure that none of the models
of Models dialog box of the package is open in the current or other copy of SCAD.
Open all models of the package
Generate a package of models
Calculate the package of models
Figure 16.3-3. Project tree in the Variations of Models mode
You can perform the generation of the design combinations of forces (DCF), create combinations of
loadings, select reinforcement in the elements of reinforced concrete structures, check or select sections of
steel structures for the problem thus obtained.
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If the reactions in constraints are calculated in all the problems included in the package of models, the
reactions in constraints of the variation will be determined automatically during the calculation.
If you want to modify all the problems of the package of models or invoke their calculation, you can
use the Open all models of the package operation — (Fig. 16.3-3), and all the design models will be
loaded into the preprocessor in the result.
16.4. Design Combinations of Forces

The initial data for the generation of DCF (see Chapter 18) are specified according to the same rules as for
a standard project. The list of loadings will include a set of loadings of each local problem in the order they
appear in the variational package. Mutual exclusions between the sets of loadings belonging to different
problems of the package are set automatically by default. However, the software enables to refuse the
automatic mutual exclusion with the help of the respective checkbox. It should be done very carefully,
because (in the general case) the superposition principle, which is the basis for the calculation of DCF, is
not applicable.
If the local problems included in the package contain the initial data for the generation of DCF, the
relationship between loadings set for each problem (combinations, mutual exclusions, related loadings) are
saved in the initial data of DCF of the variational package. The user can modify these data.
16.5. Results of the Calculation and Their Analysis

In addition to the parameters described in Chapter 8 the number of the problem in the package and the
number of the loading in this problem are specified in the lines of the Select loading drop-down list (Fig.
16.5-1) in the mode of the graphical analysis of the calculation results (deformations, force diagrams, etc.).
The additional information for dynamic loadings is given only for the first oscillation mode.
The check of the load-bearing capacity of elements of reinforced concrete and steel structures, and the
selection of reinforcement and rolled steel sections is performed for the design combinations of forces
obtained for the whole package of models.
Since the models can have different sizes of sections including the thicknesses of plate elements, it is
necessary to specify the model on the basis of which the designing will be performed. The model is
selected from the Specify the model for designing list in the General Data toolbar (Fig. 16.5-2), which
appears simultaneously with the project tree when loading the package of problems (file with the .VPR
extension). If the model is not specified, the necessary information will be selected from the first model in
the list of the package of problems by default.
Figure 16.5-1. The Select loading drop-down list for the variation of models
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In order to enter the Steel or Reinforced Concrete postprocessors you have to (for
example) select a loading which corresponds to the model selected for designing in the
Displacements or Forces tabs
Data necessary for performing the operations dealing with designing can be specified in different
models. In order to transfer them into a file of the variational project, you should specify the type of data
and the project included in the package of problems they are taken from. The Import data from the
project to the file of variations operation — , which is invoked from the General Data toolbar (Fig.
16.5-2) is used for this purpose. After invoking this operation the respective dialog box (Fig. 16.5-3)
appears, where you can transfer the following data:
 general settings;
 information on the groups of elements of reinforced concrete structures;
 information on the groups of elements of steel structures;
 information on the groups of unification of elements of steel structures;
 information for checking the specified sections of elements of steel structures;
 information for checking the specified reinforcement.
The main rule of the transfer is that each type of data is taken entirely from one model. It means that
structural groups and unification groups can be described either in one or in several models, but a certain
set of groups, for example, elements of steel structures, can be taken from one of the models for the
variational package.
Load all models
Specify the model for designing
Import data from the project to the file of variations
Figure 16.5-2. The General Data toolbar in the Variation of models mode
Figure 16.5-3. The Import Data from the Project to the File of Variations dialog box
16.6. Using the Variation of Models
Stiffness Properties
Stiffness properties of the elements of a design model can be quite uncertain. This may be due to the
natural spread of values, for example, of such a parameter as the elastic modulus of concrete, the nominal
value of which is traditionally selected according to the recommendations of the design codes and the
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variability of implementations, including the possible changes within the object and variations with time, is
traditionally not considered. Despite a fairly narrow corridor of the modulus variability, in many cases,
there are serious reasons to consider the variability of this parameter.
Consideration of damages accumulated in the structure during the operation belongs to such cases.
These damages should be taken into account in the calculations dealing with the structural assessment of
the existing structures, and taken according to the values detected in the examinations. However, not all
elements of the existing structure are available for the examination. Therefore, the stiffness properties of
such elements are judged by the state of other available parts of the structure. The uncertainty range can be
quite large in this case.
The considered cases include many underground structures, elements hidden inside concrete casings,
and other structures, for which the so-called “hidden works acceptance certificates” are prepared during the
construction.
Compliance of the Subsoil

The elastic parameters of the natural subsoil are characterized by the large variability and, consequently,
uncertainty of values. The incompleteness of the available geotechnical data, and the approximate design
model of the subgrade (Winkler, Pasternak, half-space, etc) play their role as well. Apparently, in the best
cases these parameters may have a spread of values of about 30%, and in some situations substantially
larger deviations may take place.
Thus, the USA design codes for nuclear plants recommend to introduce an artificial variation of the
shear modulus of soil G, assuming that it can change from G*(1 + Gv) to G*/(1 + Gv), where G* is its most
probable estimate, and Gv is its coefficient of variation taken not less than 0,5.
The calculation for several models also enables to correctly take into account different soil behavior
when loading the structure with permanent (long-term) and short-term, including the dynamic, loads. In
this case a model where the values of the deformation modulus are used as the initial data for the
calculation of the subsoil parameters should be used for the long-term loads, and a model where the elastic
modulus is used should be used for the short-term and dynamic actions.
Nodal Connections
Idealized conditions of the connections between the elements in nodes (rigid, hinged) are usually assumed
when selecting a design model, although these connections have certain elastic properties. However, it is
very difficult to assess their compliance, since experience shows that this assessment can be practically
carried out only in the experiment. There are almost no reliable computational methods for obtaining such
assessments. Therefore, engineers have to set the values of compliance of the nodal connections quite
arbitrarily, focusing on the results of the experimental studies of "similar" structures.
There is a certain possibility of making particular designs of connections hinged or rigid, and it is
often used in designing, when the designer has means for the actual implementation of the solution
assumed in the design model. However, this option is not available when an existing structure is checked
and the design can not be adapted to the design model. Here the real model often remains unclear, and the
check of the structure has to be performed under this uncertainty.
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17.Combinations of Loadings
17. Combinations of Loadings

The Combinations of loadings mode enables to obtain the indicators of the stress-strain state of the system
which is under the action of several loadings simultaneously. Any loading can be included in the combination
with a certain factor. This enables, for example, to answer the following question: what are the values of
displacements from the action of the “self-weight” loading taken with a factor of 0,9 and the "snow" loading
taken with a factor of 0,7. If these loadings were given by their design values, it is not difficult to see that we
will obtain displacements from characteristic loads.
If a combination includes a dynamic loading, the value of the total dynamic load obtained with the
help of a nonlinear procedure for displacements or forces of all the considered modes of natural
oscillations is used in the calculation of forces and displacements of this combination. For example, the
following nonlinear procedure is used for the seismic loading: the squares of the results are summed for
each mode, and then the square root is taken of this sum. Dynamic loadings are alternating, therefore it is
necessary to select the sign of the result. SCAD selects the sign in accordance with the sign of the mode
with the maximum obtained absolute value of force/reaction/... . The respective static wind loading is
considered for the wind loading (the sign of the result is taken in accordance with the sign of the static
wind loading). Individual oscillation modes are not included in the combination, since the result of the
dynamic analysis is obtained with the help of a nonlinear procedure.
Unlike the Design combinations of forces mode where it was not known in advance which
combination of loadings would be unfavorable (design) for the stress in a certain section, and the search for
such a combination was performed automatically according to the rules of SNiP, you have to specify the
considered combination explicitly in the Combinations of loadings mode.
Figure 17-1. The Combinations of Loadings dialog box

Combinations of loadings can be calculated together with the whole problem, or separately, after the main
calculation. In the first case the initial data are prepared after completing the generation of the design model and
specifying loadings. In the second case the combinations can be specified after completing the analysis of
loadings.
The mode of preparing the initial data for the calculation of the combinations of loadings is invoked from
the Project tree in the Special Initial Data section. This mode becomes available only after specifying the
loadings. Data are prepared in the Combinations of Loadings dialog box (Fig. 17-1).
The data are specified in the following order:
− in the Coefficients column specify the values of coefficients with which the loadings are included
in the current combination;
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17.Combinations of Loadings
− click the Add combination button, and the formula of the current combination will be displayed in
the information window;
− click the New combination button and specify the number of the following combination, the
coefficients will have zero values, and the software will be ready for the input of new data.
When creating the combination the software enables to take into account the corresponding safety
factors for load and/or fraction of duration for each loading included in it. The coefficients with which the
loadings are included in a combination are divided by the safety factor for load and/or multiplied by the
coefficient of the fraction of duration when the respective checkboxes in the Combinations of Loadings
dialog box are checked. It enables to automate the process of creating the combinations which correspond
to the characteristic, long-term, or characteristic long-term combinations. These checkboxes described
above should not be used if the combination includes other combinations (the latter will be ignored). If EN
1990 is selected for calculating load combinations, these options are not available.
It should be noted that combinations created earlier can be included in the combination together with
the loadings. The current combination (its number is specified in the Number of the combination field)
can be deleted by clicking the Delete combination button, and all the specified combinations will be
deleted after clicking the Delete data button.
When the number of loadings changes, the data for the calculation of
combinations of loadings should be clarified, since some combinations can be
deleted.
There are restrictions on the specification of combinations in the Erection mode: "independent"
loadings of one erection stage can be included in a combination. The main loading will be added
automatically to the whole combination, including additions to the main loading (given as groups of loads)
with the specified coefficients.
The calculated values of displacements and forces from a combination which

includes dynamic loadings are nonlinear and correspond to different moments in
time. The sign may not be considered at the summation. The loss of equilibrium in
the nodes can occur.
Moreover, the combinations can be created on the basis of the design combinations of forces
generated in the DCF postprocessor with the help of the Create combinations of loadings for DCF
operation (button — ). To do this, click the Load from file button and the standard Open dialog box
of the Windows environment will appear. The loaded file with the information on the combinations has the
.rsu2comb extension.
In the Variation of models and Erection modes the combinations of loadings can be specified for a
single model (stage), or using loadings belonging to different design models (erection stages). It should be
noted that combining loadings from different problems is usually unacceptable because it violates the
superposition principle. Nevertheless, the authors left this possibility (of course, the responsibility rests
with the user) in order to enable to create a combination of "the difference between similar loadings" type
and to assess the differences of the stress-strain states of various models (stages).
When specifying DCF the software enables to use not only loadings but also their combinations. If
such a possibility is not necessary, it is recommended to check the Do not take into account
combinations in DCF checkbox when specifying the combinations of loadings.
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18.Design Combinations
18. Design Combinations

18.1. Fundamental Principles
To determine the design combinations means to find those combinations of individual loadings which may
be critical (the most dangerous) for each checked element, each section of the element and each node.
SCAD enables to create the following design combinations:
 design combinations of forces (DCF);
 design combinations of forces of progressive collapse;
 design combinations of deflections (DCD);
 design combinations of displacements;
 design combinations of reactions in constraints (DCR);
 design combinations of punching.
The basis for the selection of unfavorable design combinations is the superposition principle, which
means that the calculations are performed as for a linearly behaving system. However, the results of the
selection of unfavorable design combinations of forces are used, for example, to check the strength of
reinforced concrete structures where the behavior of a section with cracks and yielding of reinforcement is
clearly non-linear. There is an apparent contradiction, which can be resolved using recommendations of
Sec.5.1.2 of SNiP 52-01-2003: "... it is recommended to take into account the effect of physical non-
linearity by adjusting the results of linear analysis based on the data from experimental studies, nonlinear
modeling, results of the analysis of similar structures, and expert assessments".
Unfavorable combinations of forces that create maximum elastic stresses in characteristic points or
characteristic areas of finite elements are selected using the superposition principle. An individual
approach for specifying the DCF selection criteria is used for different types of finite elements (bar, plate,
etc.). Maximum displacements of nodes are selected in a similar way.
Linearity also implies that a whole loading will be included in DCF, or it will not be considered (if it
creates an unloading effect), and thus, we can have only 2n combinations (where n is the number of
loadings) you have to choose from. It is not difficult to see that for real values of parameter n, the number
of possible combinations becomes so large that solving the problem by direct enumeration of variants is
impossible, therefore a special algorithm is used to solve this extreme problem.
The software determines the combinations of both design and characteristic SSS. Long-term values
(as well as the characteristic and characteristic long-term ones) of the respective forces, stresses and
displacements are calculated for the obtained unfavorable (according to a certain criterion) combinations of
design values. The software also performs the search of unfavorable combinations of the characteristic
values and calculates the design, design long-term, and characteristic long-term values of the respective
forces, stresses, displacements etc. for them. Combinations which include loadings corresponding to the
seismic analysis according to SP 14.13330.2014 at the Maximum design earthquake design situation are an
exception. The characteristic and characteristic long-term values are not calculated in this case.
It should be noted that a criterion used when searching for an unfavorable combination is specified for
each combination when printing tables and in the information on the element/node. A situation can arise
when, for example, a criterion of maximum normal stresses (used in the analysis of design forces) is
specified, but the set of the respective characteristic forces does not result in a maximum characteristic
stress.
Design codes regulate the limitations of the characteristic values of displacements, therefore only the
characteristic and characteristic long-term combinations of displacements are calculated for each node.
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Punching analysis of flat reinforced concrete elements (plates) is required by the design codes for
concrete and reinforced concrete structures. SCAD enables to calculate the unfavorable (in terms of
punching) combinations of loadings. The calculations are performed in the nodes of horizontal plate
elements the vertical bars are connected to.
Loadings acting on the considered structure may belong to one of the following types depending on
the duration of loads (according to the SNiP classification):
 permanent;
 long-term;
 short-term;
 special.
In order to simplify the algorithm for selecting combinations, the list of types is expanded. Crane
loads (although in the codes they belong to short-term ones) and inactive loads, i.e. not involved in the
selection of unfavorable combinations are added to this list. For example, a static component of the wind
load can be made “inactive” in the case of specifying a dynamic loading "Wind action", where it will be
included automatically. Moreover, the list of short-term loads includes the Special load taken into account
at the seismic action. Its use enables to take into account the requirements of the industry standards on
accounting for the additional load acting simultaneously with the seismic one.
In order to take a correct safety factor for load for each type of loading, the lists of load types
corresponding to the codes are provided, for example the data from Table 1 of SNiP 2.01.07-85* are used
for permanent loads (the weight of structures and soils), the data from Tables 2 and 3 are used for long-
term loads, etc. Other codes also have similar tables of safety factors for load. In those cases when the
safety factor for load can not be determined unambiguously, it has to be specified by the user.
Besides the safety factor for load the loading is characterized by the fraction of duration and the
simultaneity of loads included in it. This means that it is correct to combine loads within one loading which
have identical first two characteristics, and which always act simultaneously.
Combinations of loadings can be involved in the selection of design combinations of loads along with
loadings. Each created combination can be considered in the list of loadings. The type of the loading and
the type of the load for the combination are obviously specified by the user.
It is specified in the codes that depending on the type of loads included in the combinations the
respective reduction factors appear.
The “inactive” type is assigned to all loadings and combinations in the initial state of tables with the
initial data.
The analysis is based on the codes selected by the user. You can select another
code with the help of the Setting the Design Codes item of the Settings menu.
Design combinations can be calculated together with the whole problem, or separately, after the
calculation for static and dynamic actions. In the first case the initial data are prepared after completing the
generation of the design model and only after specifying all loadings, and in the second case the data can be
specified after completing the analysis of loadings. The design combinations of displacements can be calculated
only after completing the main calculation.
The design combinations of loads are determined separately for each element (in
fact — for each section of the element) and the determined set of combinations may be
different for different elements. Thus, for the whole system we obtain combinations of
loadings which physically do not act simultaneously, therefore it is impossible to plot a
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“diagram of DCF” or “isofields of DCF”. If in addition to this more than one DCF
corresponds to each element, this "impossibility" is even more aggravated. It should be
noted that if you want to see the result of simultaneous action of several loadings, you
should use the Combinations of loadings mode.
Logical Relationship between Loadings

When determining the design combinations the logical relationship between loadings reflecting their
physical meaning and requirements regulated by different codes are taken into account. There are four
types of logical relationship:
 mutually exclusive, which cannot be simultaneously included in one combination (for example,
wind on the left and wind on the right, seismic action along different coordinate axes, etc.);
 related, when loadings cannot be included in a design combination without the loading they were
generated from. Forces from braking of a crane trolley can not be included in a combination if this
combination does not include the forces from the pressure of the crane wheels, though the load
from the crane can act without the combination with the brake load. Similarly, the forces from the
seismic load can not be included in a combination without the loadings (e.g., temporary) which are
a part of the mass of the structure which determined the dynamic characteristics of the seismic
motion, though temporary loads can be included in a combination without seismic loads;
 simultaneous, for example, wind pressure and uplift specified in different loadings. It is necessary
to distinguish between the cases when the loads must act simultaneously, or can act separately.
Moreover, you can specify the sign variation in the description of the characteristics of loadings (with
the same absolute value of the vector). Almost all dynamic loads are like this.
The logical relationship obviously cannot be contradictory:
 permanent and temporary loads can not be combined;
 related loading can not have two mutually exclusive generating loadings etc.
18.2. Criteria of DCF
Bars
Extreme values of normal and shear stresses in the control points of the section are used here as a criterion
for the determination of DCF (Fig. 18.2-1).
The following formula is used for normal stresses:
N M y z k M z yk
k    , (18.2.1)
F Iy Iz
where k is a point of the bar section (k = 18). This formula
B
can be transformed in the following way when y   and
2
H
z :
2
My Mz
k F  N   , (18.2.2)
l z ,i l y ,i
Figure 18.2-1. Bounding rectangle of an where ly,i and lz,i are core sizes in the bar section (i = 1, 2).
arbitrary section
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This approach enables to determine extreme normal stresses in a section of any shape.
An approximate formula is used for shear stresses:
Qy M kp Qz M kp
y F   z F   . (18.2.3)
2 2(l y1  l y1 ) 2 2(l z1  l z 2 )
The numbering of the criteria and their corresponding stresses calculated by the formulas (18.2.1,
18.2.3) is given in Table 18.2-1. Extreme positive and negative values of the longitudinal force (criteria
No.17 and 18) and shear forces (criteria No. 2734) used when selecting reinforcement in the elements of
reinforced concrete structures and when checking the load-bearing capacity of elements of steel structures
are calculated as well.
Table 18.2-1
Criterion 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Value 1+ 1 2+ 2 3+ 3 4+ 4 7+ 7
Criterion 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Value 8+ 8 5+ 5 6+ 6 N+ N 7+ 7
Criterion 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Value 8+ 8 5+ 5 6+ 6 Qy+ Q y Qy+ Q y
Criterion 31 32 33 34
Value Qz+ Qz Qz+ Qz
The following criterion is used to find the unfavorable value of the eccentricity
My n M z m
F  N  sin  sin , (18.2.4)
l z ,i 8 l y ,i 8
where n, m=0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
This criterion is important for reinforced concrete structures.
Criteria calculated by the formula (18.2.4) have three-digit numbers according to the Table 18.2-2.
Table 18.2-2
Number of the 1nm 2nm 3nm 4nm 5nm 6nm 7nm 8nm
criterion
Value σ++ -σ++ σ+– -σ+– σ–+ -σ–+ σ–– -σ––
Thus, for example, the criterion with the number 532 means the maximum value
My 3 M z 2
N sin  sin .
l z ,i 8 l y ,i 8
Membranes (Plane Stress State)

In the general case the principal stresses in the same point of the structure at different loadings have
different orientations, therefore their use as a criterion for selecting DCF is impossible. Therefore, the DCF
are determined here by the values of normal and shear stresses in the differently oriented areas (the
orientation is defined by the angle  in the center of gravity of the finite element). The calculation is
performed according to the formulas:
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( )  N x cos 2   N z sin 2   Txz sin 2 ; (18.2.5)

1
()   N z  N x  sin 2  Txz cos 2 . (18.2.6)
2
The designations are given in Fig. 18.2-2. Normal stresses are

calculated with a fixed step of the angle.
Figure 18.2-2.
Plates
The approach used here is similar to that described above for membranes. The bending moments and
torque in the plate enable to determine the normal and shear stresses on the upper and lower surfaces of the
plate. These stresses have equal absolute values therefore by analogy with the formulas (18.2.5) and
(18.2.6) we can write the expressions for moments creating extreme stresses
M ()  M x cos2   M y sin 2   M xy sin 2 ; (18.2.7)
M k ( ) 
1
2
 
M y  M x sin 2  M xy cos 2 . (18.2.8)
Extreme values of shear forces are calculated as well.
Shells
The stresses on the upper and lower surfaces of the shell are calculated taking into account the membrane
stresses and bending forces according to the following relationships:
6M x
 xL / U  N x  ;
h2
6M (18.2.9)
 yL / U  N y  2 y ;
h
6 M
 L / U  Txy  2 xy ;
h
where h is the thickness of the shell; U and L are indices which indicate belonging to the upper or
lower surfaces.
The values of the criteria for shell elements are calculated based on the determined stresses according
to the formulas (18.2.5-18.2.6). Extreme values of shear forces are determined as well.
Special Elements
Positive and negative extreme values of forces in elements are taken here as the criteria of determination of
DCF .
Numbering of the Criteria of DCF

Numbers of criteria given in Tables 18.2-1 and 18.2-2 are used for bars.
For membranes, plates and shells the calculations are performed according to the formulas 18.2.3-18.2.9
with a step specified in the initial data, which can take values of 3, 5, 7.5, 9, 15, 22.5, and 45. The range of the
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variation of angle  is from 0 to 180 for normal stresses and from 0 to 90 for shear stresses. The default step
is 15. The numbers of the criteria and their corresponding angles are given in Table. 18.2-3, where nnn is the
angle, and the indices "L" and "U" correspond to the lower and upper surfaces of the shell.
Table 18.2-3
Number of the 0 1nnn 2nnn 3nnn 4nnn 5nnn 6nnn 7nnn 8001 8002 8003 8004
criterion
membranes σ -σ τ -τ
plates M -M Mк -Mк Qx -Qx Qy -Qy
shells σн -σн τн -τн σв -σв τв -τв Qx -Qx Qy -Qy
Thus, for example, the criterion number 6075 means that τ is calculated on the upper surface of the shell
for the angle of 75.
18.3. Criteria of DCD

The extreme values of displacements of the node along the axes X, Y, Z are taken as the criteria for
determining the design combinations of displacements. The criteria which enable to find the extreme total
displacement and the extreme horizontal displacement are added to them.
18.4. Criteria of Design Combinations of Deflections

Unfavorable combinations of deflections are determined in each design section of the bar on the basis of
the following criteria:
max X and min X;
max Y and min Y;
max Z and min Z;
max X 2  Y 2  Z2 and max X 2  Y 2 ,
where:
X, Y, Z — values of deflections in the section in the global coordinate system.
18.5. Criteria of Design Combinations of Reactions in

Constraints
There are the following criteria for determining the design combinations of reactions in constraints:
max RX and min RX;
max RY and min RY;
max RZ and min RZ;
max RUX and min RUX;
max RUY and min RUY;
max RUZ and min RUZ;
max R X 2  R Y 2  R Z 2 and max R X 2  R Y 2 ;
max R UX 2  R UY 2  R UZ 2 and max R UX 2  R UY 2 ,
where:
RX, RY, RZ — reactions along the axes X, Y, Z of the global coordinate system;
RUX, RUY, RUZ — reactions about the axes X, Y, Z of the global coordinate system.
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18.6. Criteria of Design Combinations of Punching

When calculating the design combinations of punching the software determines all nodes which belong to
the horizontal plates and vertical (and only vertical) bars. The loads in each such node on the horizontal
plate are calculated for each loading and combination of loadings. Then the unfavorable combinations of
design loads are determined. The rules of combining given in the selected design codes are used. There are
the following criteria for determining the design combinations:
max RX and min RX;
max RY and min RY;
max RZ and min RZ;
max RUX and min RUX;
max RUY and min RUY;
max RUZ and min RUZ;
max RX 2  RY 2  RZ 2 and max RX 2  RY 2 ;
max RUX 2  RUY 2  RUZ 2 and max RUX 2  RUY 2 ,
where:
RX, RY, RZ — loads along the axes X, Y, Z of the global coordinate system;
RUX, RUY, RUZ — loads about the axes X, Y, Z of the global coordinate system.
18.7. Data Preparation

The operation of preparing data is invoked from the Project tree in the Special Initial Data section, the
Design Combinations of Forces subsection. The data are the same for all the above types of design
combinations.
The Design Combinations of Forces and Displacements dialog box (Fig. 18.7-1) includes the
following controls:
 an icon indicating the code which is used to perform the calculation of combinations (place the
mouse over this icon and a pop-up window will appear with the name of the code);
 a table with characteristics of loadings;
 the Parameters group of buttons which enable to invoke dialog boxes for specifying the
characteristics of the groups of elements;
 the Relations between loadings group of buttons which enable to invoke dialog boxes with the
description of the relations between loadings;
 the Activate/Deactivate loading button for blocking the loadings (temporary exclusion from the
list of loadings), for example, it is recommended to use this option for thermal loadings in those
cases when the arrangement of expansion joints corresponds to the requirements of the codes, or to
exclude the trial loadings from the design combinations;
 a drop-down list for specifying the step (angle) of the analysis of areas in plates;
 control buttons of the dialog box.
When the data is input into the table with the characteristics of loadings for the first time, the number
of lines in the table will correspond to the number of loadings in the problem plus the number of
combinations of loadings. If when specifying the combinations of loadings the Do not take into account
combinations in DCF checkbox is checked (see Chapter 17), only the lines of the loadings will be left.
The table includes the following columns:
Active loading — checkboxes of this column enable to exclude certain loadings from the analysis
when generating design combinations of forces and displacements. All checkboxes are checked by default,
i.e., all loadings are involved in the analysis.
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Active loading in DCD — these checkboxes work in the same way as those from the previous
column, but they exclude loadings from the analysis only at the generation of design combinations of
displacements;
Name — this column is used to specify the name of the loading or the formula of the combination;
Type of loading — a list of types of loadings provided by the codes: permanent, long-term, short-
term, crane, special or inactive. If a loading is inactive, it is not involved in the generation of design
combinations;
Type of load — a type of load in selected from the list in this column in accordance with the type
selected in the previous column. Thus, for example, the following list appears for short-term loads (when
the calculations are performed according to SNiP 2.01.07-85*):
Loads from the equipment in the nonstationary mode
Weight of people and repair materials in the service areas
Full loads on floors of residential, public and industrial buildings
Full loads from the mobile handling equipment
Full snow loads in the III snow region
Full snow loads in the IV snow region
Full snow loads in the V and VI snow regions
Full snow loads in other snow regions
Full thermal climatic actions
Wind loads
Ice loads
Repeated
Loads from railway mobile equipment
Loads from highway mobile equipment
Other
Figure 18.7-1. The Design Combinations of Forces and Displacements dialog box
After selecting the respective type of load for the given loading, the values of the safety factor and the
fraction of duration, which can be corrected, will appear in the Safety factor and Fraction of duration
columns. If the values of these coefficients are not defined by the codes, they have to be specified. If EN
1990 is selected for calculating load combinations, these coefficients are not specified.
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The Alternating column — the property of load (usually dynamic) is specified by checking the
checkbox in the respective column of the table.
The group of columns united under the common name Involved in group operations includes the
following columns Combinations, Mutual exclusions and Related loadings.
The Combinations column — checkboxes of this column are used to specify loadings and
combinations which in the process of generation of combinations can serve as:
a) related;
b) independent, but acting as one load at the simultaneous action (Sec. 1.13 of SNiP 2.01.07-85*).
The checked checkbox in the line of the loading means only that the loading is involved in the
operation of combining. Specific “partners” are specified in the table of the Simultaneous Loadings
dialog box (Fig. 18.7-2). Checkboxes of this dialog box work in the following way: loadings belonging to
type a) are indicated by the first click (“tick”), and those belonging to type b) — by the second click
(“cross”).
The Mutual exclusions column — checkboxes of this column are used to specify loadings which can
not be included in one combination. Similarly to the previous column the checked checkboxes of this
column indicate only the fact that a loading is involved in the operations of mutual exclusion, and the
groups of such loadings are specified in the dialog box shown in Fig. 18.7-3. The All checkbox enables to
check all checkboxes in the table by one click.
Figure 18.7-2. The Simultaneous Loadings Figure 18.7-3. The Mutually Exclusive
dialog box Loadings dialog box
In accordance with the requirements of SNiP special loadings (seismic actions belong
to them as well) are mutually exclusive. This rule is implemented in the software
automatically. However since seismic actions can be specified as three components in
the orthogonal directions you can describe them as simultaneous for the same type of
seismic dynamic action and thus implement the requirements of SNiP (see, for
example, Sec. 5.4 of SP 14.13330.2014) on the simultaneous consideration of the
vertical and horizontal seismic loads. The summation of these loadings is performed
according to the rules of the respective codes.
The Related loadings column — this column is used to describe related loadings, i.e. when some
loadings (let’s call them of type “s”) can not be included in a combination without other loadings (of type
“m”), indicated as related. For example, loadings including loads from the seismic action can not be
included in a combination without loadings the loads of which were used to specify masses (dead weight,
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stationary equipment, etc.). Loadings of type “m” can be included in combinations independently. The
column is divided into two columns highlighted, respectively, in yellow and in green. Checkboxes of the
“yellow” column are used to indicate the loadings of type “s”, and those of the “green” are used for
loadings of type “m”. Similarly to the previous columns of this group checked checkboxes indicate that the
loadings are involved in the operations with related loadings. A loading can not be simultaneously selected
both in yellow and in green columns, i.e. it must have a certain status. (Fig. 18.7-4).
a) b)
Figure 18.7-4. The Design Combinations of Forces and Displacements dialog box (a) and its
corresponding dialog box Related Loadings (b)
Relations between loadings are specified in the Related Loadings dialog box. Loadings of type “s”
are specified in lines (they are highlighted in yellow), and loadings of type “m” are specified in columns
(they are highlighted in green). If in some operations a loading must belong to type “s”, and in others — to
type “m”, it has to be duplicated (making the main loading and the duplicate mutually exclusive).
The Safety factor for load column — the value of this factor (γf) is automatically set in the
respective column depending on the type of loading and the type of load and, if necessary, it can be
changed by the user. In those cases when this value is not clearly defined by the codes, a question mark
appears in the column, which must be replaced by a specific number. This factor is used for the transition
from design to characteristic values of loads in the calculation of elements of reinforced concrete structures
for the serviceability limit state. It is obvious that a factor with the same value should have been used in the
loading when specifying design loads. Moreover, one loading should not contain loads with different
values of the factor, for example, the weight of elements of reinforced concrete structures (γf = 1,1) can not
be included in the loading with the weigh of the leveling courses of floors (γf = 1,3).
When the Design Combinations of Forces and Displacements dialog box is opened for the first
time, this column will contain values of the factors specified when creating loadings. When the user
changes the value of the factor in this dialog box, it will be automatically changed in the Save Loading
dialog box as well.
The Fraction of duration column — it is used to specify a factor for sustained load for temporary
and short-term loads. The value of the factor is set automatically depending on the type of loading and the
type of load and can be changed by the user. When the dialog box is opened for the first time, this column
will contain a value of the factor specified when creating the loading. When the user changes the value of
the factor, the factor in the loading will be changed as well.
616
Additional safety factors for load — the column with the value of the factor for sustained load is
followed by 14 columns where you have to specify additional factors. The values of the safety factors for
load are multiplied by these factors. In this case depending on the number of nonzero additional factors the
respective number of independent combinations of forces will be generated. Only the first column of the
factors is filled with the value of one by default, since the coefficients of the combination are generated
automatically in accordance with the codes. Using the mechanism of groups of DCF (see below), these
coefficients can be used, for example, to find DCF separately for steel and reinforced concrete elements
with different values of γf.
In those cases when the design combinations of forces have to be calculated not for all elements of the
model, click the List of elements button and the List of Elements dialog box will appear (Fig. 18.7-5).
Figure 18.7-5. The List of Elements dialog box

Elements can be created with the help of groups of elements. Groups specified for the selection of
reinforcement and other groups of elements are available. If the list is entered without using the groups or
adjusted after creating the groups, it is prepared according to the following rules:
 numbers of elements are separated by spaces;
 in the case of consecutively numbered elements the first and the last elements of the series are
written with a hyphen (for example: 1-23 34 45 76 87-125).
Peculiarities of Specifying Combinations for EN 1990

If EN 1990 is selected for calculating load combinations, the classification of loadings (type of loading and
type of load) corresponding to the given design code is used. Moreover, in this case groups of DCF are not
implemented and the following coefficients have to be specified for each loading Sup, Inf, Q, ψ0, ψ1, ψ2
instead of the coefficients K1,K2,...
The Design Combinations of Forces and Displacements dialog box contains a button clicking
which will add the EN 1990 Settings tab (Fig. 18.7-6). This tab enables to select the combination factors in
compliance with EN 1990 and with National Annexes to Eurocode, which can be selected from the
respective drop-down list.
If the values of the coefficients or the calculation parameters are specified by the user, then you
have to select the Other item ( ) in the drop-down list. Thus you can use the application for
custom, nonstandard situations, and also when any modifications are made in NAD.
617
Figure 18.7-6. The EN 1990 Settings tab
Peculiarities of Specifying Combinations for Variations of

Models, Erection, and Nonlinear Problems
When calculating variations of models mutual exclusions between loadings which correspond to different
models of the package are set automatically. This remark also applies to the loadings of various erection
stages. If it is specified that the mutual exclusions in the variations of models will be set automatically,
then when generating the data on mutual exclusions of loadings for such problems the “matrix” of loadings
will have a “block” structure in the respective dialog box (Fig. 18.7-6.).
If you want to refuse the automatic mutual exclusion in the calculation of variations of models, it
should be done very carefully, because (in the general case) the superposition principle, which is the basis
for the calculation of design combinations, is not applicable.
The calculation of combinations of forces is also provided for nonlinear problems. It is necessary so
that the results of the nonlinear analysis could be used to select/check steel and/or reinforced concrete
structures. The reason is that when calculating according to the codes it is necessary to know, in particular,
the characteristic and design values of forces, the long-term part, … The function for preparing the
respective data is invoked from the Project tree in the Special Initial Data section, the Design
Combinations of Forces at the Modeling of Nonlinear Loads subsection. The dialog box is similar to
that described above for the case of standard combinations. The difference is that all loadings are mutually
exclusive and you can not specify combinations of loadings and related loadings.
a) b)
Figure 18.7-6. The Design Combinations of Forces and Displacements dialog box (a) in the Variation of
models mode and its corresponding dialog box Mutually Exclusive Loadings (b)
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Allowing for the Pulsation Component of the Wind Load

If the user has decided to consider the static and full (statics and dynamics) wind loadings separately, the
possibility of their co-occurrence in the DCF will be excluded automatically. If it is necessary to consider
only the full dynamic loading, the static loading should be made inactive.
Crane Loads
Taking into account the peculiarities of the specification of crane loads, they are considered as a separate
type of loadings and they have their "own" list of load types, which includes:
 reduced vertical loads from overhead travelling and underslung cranes;
 full vertical loads from overhead travelling and underslung cranes;
 braking along a crane runway;
 braking “on the left”, “load is on the left”;
 braking “on the left”, “load is on the right”;
 braking “on the right”, “load is on the right”;
 braking “on the right”, “load is on the left”;
 crane load at the seismic action.
Additional information required for the generation of design combinations taking into account the
crane loads is specified in the Crane Loads dialog box (Fig. 18.7-7), where the respective crane number is
specified for each line together with its operation mode.
The maximum number of cranes and brake loadings simultaneously taken into account which can be
included in a combination are specified in the dialog box.
Having information on the types of the crane load and knowing the number of the crane a load
belongs to, the software can take into account the following logical peculiarities of interaction:
 all vertical loads belonging to the same crane are mutually exclusive (they refer to the different
positions of the crane bridge and the crane trolley);
 limitations on the number of cranes simultaneously taken into account and on the coefficient of
their combinations are performed in accordance with the specified code (for example, according to
Sec.4.14 of SNiP 2.01.07-85* or Sec.9.16 of SP 20.13330.2011);
 horizontal crane load can not appear without the vertical pressure;
 brake loads of different types are mutually exclusive;
 Crane load at the seismic action is a special loading that conforms to the rules of the codes
“Construction in seismic regions”, it can not act together with the brake forces. All other crane
loads are mutually exclusive with seismic loads;
 when calculating the number of simultaneously acting temporary loads all components of a crane
load of the same crane are considered as one temporary load (see, for example, Sec. 1.13 of SNiP
2.01.07-85* or Sec. 6.6 of SP 20.13330.2011).
619
Figure 18.7-7. The Crane Loads dialog box

Any number of loadings of one type can be specified for one crane. When specifying the information
on brake loads it is necessary to check the references to the virtual numbers of cranes to ensure that
position of the load is specified correctly.
For crane loads all mutual exclusions and related loadings for a single crane
are set automatically, and it is not necessary to specify them. In order to specify the
interactions of a crane with other loadings of the problem (e.g., cranes) you just
have to indicate a relationship with any loading that describes its action.
Specifying the crane number is also important because it enables to distinguish between two
fundamentally important cases:
a) different cranes actually work on the structure (different cranes);
b) there are different positions of the location of the crane or its crane trolley (virtually different
cranes).
In the first case, different cranes can operate simultaneously, although there may be restrictions on
their relative position, which are defined by the specified terms of mutual exclusion; in the second case, all
variants of loads from virtually different cranes are mutually exclusive, which should be explicitly
specified. Under the conditions of mutual exclusion you just have to specify any pair of load types, and all
other load types will automatically be mutually exclusive.
Unification
When determining the design combinations of loads the software provides the possibility of unification
within the specified lists (of groups) of elements. This means that it is suggested to neglect the differences
between the extreme values of stress in various elements and in various sections of these elements, and you
should find the worst value for all unified elements and their sections. The following three types of
unification are implemented:
 sections are unified in a group of elements in such a way so that all elements of the group have the
same section;
 the unification for the respective sections is performed in the group of elements, i.e. elements of the
group will have identical first, second, third, and so on sections;
 symmetrical sections are unified in the group of elements, i.e. all elements of the group will have
identical first and last sections, second and next to last sections and so on.
It is obvious that only the first type of unification (if another type is selected, the software will use the
first type of unification for plates) can be used for plate and shell elements, and also for elements included
in a single physical bar (structural member). Only the elements with the same cross-sectional shape and
620
orientation of the local axes can be included in one group.

Despite the fact that the check of sections of bar elements included in one unification group is not
performed during the generation of DCF, it is recommended to create groups in such a way so that all
elements of one group have the same cross-sectional shape.
Data for the unification of DCF are specified in the Unification dialog box (Fig. 18.7-8). The
following procedure is recommended for specifying the new data:
− click the New list (of elements) button;
− select the type of unification from the respective list;
− select the number of the group of unification in the Groups of unification list;
− specify the list of elements or load the groups created earlier;
− click the Save button.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to modify the list created earlier:
− select the number of the modified group in the Groups of unification list;
− change the characteristics of the list;
− save the changes by clicking the Save button.
In order to delete the list created earlier, it is necessary to select it and click the Delete button.
Figure 18.7-8. The Unification dialog box

Unification is performed only during the calculation of DCF and the data on the groups of unification
is neglected during the calculation of other types of design combinations.
Groups for DCF

In practice, it might be sometimes necessary to apply different combination factors for different elements
of the model which will be used for a single loading in a combination. Such elements are combined into
groups Fig. 18.7-9 (not to be confused with the groups of elements created during the generation of the
design model and the analysis of results, which are specified in the Groups of DCF dialog box ).
The procedure for working in this dialog box is basically the same as that described above for the
Unification dialog box — click the New list button, specify the numbers of elements and the numbers of
columns the DCF coefficients are selected from, and click the Save button.
The numbers of columns from which the DCF coefficients should be taken for the current group of
elements are indicated in the table in the upper part of the dialog box. It should be noted that these coefficients
are specified in the columns of the table in the Design Combinations of Forces dialog box (see Fig. 18.7-1).
621
When working with groups (Fig. 18.7-9) they

have an additional characteristic: “The rule for
selecting design forces”, where a type of building
structures is specified according to Table P.4.1 of
“Design codes for earthquake-resistant nuclear
plants (NР-031-01)”, which establish special rules
for combining seismic loads acting in different
directions. If you specify three seismic loadings in
the directions X, Y and Z as simultaneous, the
postprocessor will automatically go through all the
combinations given in the code.
Figure 18.7-9. The Groups of DCF dialog box
Thus, for example, the following combinations will be automatically generated for the structural
members of buildings (structures) of the seismic category I:
± (Nx ± 0.4 Ny ± 0.4 Nz),
± (Ny ± 0.4 Nx ± 0.4 Nz),
± (Nz ± 0.4 Nx ± 0.4 Ny),
± N 2
x  N 2y  N 2z  ,
where Nx, Ny and Nz are criteria for seismic loadings for the respective directions.
If EN 1990 is selected for calculating load combinations, groups of DCF are not implemented.
The DCF tree button invokes the dialog box (see Fig. 18.7-10), where the logical relationship
between loadings is given graphically (in the form of a tree), and which enables to perform an additional
visual control of the specified data.
Figure 18.7-10. The DCF Tree dialog box

All the information entered in the mode of specifying the design combinations of forces can be deleted by
clicking the Delete DCF button (it corresponds to the rejection of the DCF calculation).
18.8. Design Combinations of Displacements

SCAD enables to calculate design combinations of displacements (DCD). Calculation of DCD is
performed automatically during the general analysis.
622
Design codes regulate the limitations of the characteristic values of displacements, therefore only the
characteristic and characteristic long-term combinations of displacements are calculated for each node.
18.9. Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints

If the Calculate reactions in constraints option was selected during the calculation, the design
combinations of reactions in constraints will be generated as well during the selection of the design
combinations of forces.
18.10. Design Combinations of Deflections

The design combinations of deflections are calculated for bar elements simultaneously with DCF. Like
DCF combinations of deflections will be generated for each section of the element.
18.11. Design Combinations for the Progressive Collapse

A combination specified by the user is used as an unfavorable combination of loadings in the analysis for
the progressive collapse. In fact the “selection” of design combinations in this case comes down to the
calculation of design and design long-term combinations of forces for the above combination.
18.12. Analysis of Results (DCF and DCD Postprocessor)

DCF and DCD postprocessor enables to perform the analysis of results of the calculation of DCF and
DCD. The control of this postprocessor is performed with the help of a special toolbar (Fig. 18.12-1).
Type of combination
Selection of force or
stress Criterion
Type of DCD Direction of
displacements
Selection of the type of reactions in constraints

Direction of displacements
Figure 18.12-1. The DCF and DCD toolbar

The toolbar includes the following operations:
— create combinations of loadings for DCF;
— show elements the DCF of which include the specified loadings;
— show combinations which include the specified loading;
— show elements the DCF of which include the specified combinations;
— color indication of design combinations of displacements;
— color indication of design combinations of forces;
— color indication of design combinations of forces (progressive collapse);
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— design combinations of reactions in constraints (color scale);

— design combinations of reactions in constraints;
— envelopes of the diagram of design combinations of forces;
— envelopes of the diagram of design combinations of forces (progressive collapse);
— change the display axis of diagrams N and Mk;
Create Combinations of Loadings for DCF
This operation enables to obtain all combinations of loadings created during the calculation of DCF.
Clicking the button invokes the dialog box (Fig. 18.12-2) where you can narrow down your choices of
analyzed combinations (for example, select only the design ones). If there are selected elements in the
model, you can check the respective checkbox and the software will analyze only the selected elements.
You can also click the Elements button and specify the list of elements you are interested in or select the
elements from the respective groups (Fig. 18.12-3).
A text file with the formulas of combinations will be output after clicking the OK button (Fig. 18.12-
4). The presence or absence of the numbers of elements in this file depends on whether the Print the
numbers of elements checkbox is checked.
Figure 18.12-2. The Print Figure 18.12-3. The List of Elements dialog box
Formulas dialog box
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1. L1+L2+L7 : 198-230 357 358

2. L1+L2+L3+0.89999*L4-L7 : 198-230
3. L1+L2+L6 : 198 203-205 210 211 214 215 218 227-230 357 358
4. L1+L2+L3+L4-0.89999*L7 : 198-205 207-210 212-217 219-223 225 226 229 230 357
358
5. L1+L2+L7+0.89999*L8-0.89999*L10 : 198 202-205 212-215 223 230
6. L1+L2+L3+0.89999*L4-L7+0.69999*L9-0.69999*L11 : 198 203-205 212-215 226
7. L1+L2+L7+0.89999*L16 : 198 200 201 203 207 208 210-213 216 224-226 228 358
8. L1+L2+L3+0.89999*L4-L7+0.69999*L8+0.69999*L12 : 198 20
Figure 18.12-4. Text file with the formulas of combinations
Using the arrow located next to the button you can drop down the menu and select two other
possible courses of action: create a report file in the RTF-format, which is compatible with word
processors such as MS Word, or create a binary file (with the rsu2comb extension), which can be
subsequently imported when specifying the initial data for combinations of loadings (see Chapter 17).
Show Elements the DCF of which Include the Specified Loadings
This operation invokes the dialog box (Fig.

18.12-5), which lists all loadings (except for those
which have inactive status in the initial data of
DCF). After indicating the respective loadings and
clicking the OK button, all elements the DCF of
which have selected loadings become selected (and
are highlighted in red). It is obvious that if you
select lines with the loadings of “permanent” and
“long-term” type, all elements will be selected in
the model.
Figure 18.12-5. Selection of loadings
Show Combinations which Include the Specified Loading
This operation invokes the dialog box (Fig. 18.12-6), which lists all loadings (except for those which
have inactive status in the initial data of DCF). After selecting the necessary loading we can obtain a set of
formulas of the combinations which include it (this loading) in the list on the right. You can select only the
combinations you are interested in (all, only the design ones, ...) from the drop-down list in the upper part
of the dialog box.
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Figure 18.12-6. The Combinations that Include the Given Loading dialog box
Show Elements the DCF of which Include the Specified Combinations
This operation invokes the dialog box (Fig.

18.12-7), which lists all combinations of loadings
(except for those which have inactive status in the
initial data of DCF). After indicating the respective
combinations and clicking the OK button, all
elements the DCF of which have selected
combinations become selected (and are highlighted
in red).
Figure 18.12-7. Selection of combinations
Color Indication of Design Combinations of Forces
You can obtain the color indication of the values of DCF during the graphical analysis of the results
in the postprocessor. In order to do this it is necessary to perform the following actions:
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− select the necessary type in the Select type of force/stress

list in the toolbar;
− select the type of the analyzed combination (design,
characteristic, ...) in the Type of combination list;
− select the criterion (Min/Max) in the respective list.
After specifying the above parameters the color scales will be
generated (Fig. 18.12-8) by selecting minimum and maximum
values of the force factor from all combinations for each element
(in the case of bars it will be done for all sections).
Figure 18.12-8. Color scale of DCF
Color Indication of Design Combinations of Displacements
Similarly to DCF you can obtain the color indication for the design combinations of displacements.
In order to do this you have to select the necessary
criterion (for example, the maximum total displacement) in the
Type of design combinations of displacements list in the
toolbar and invoke the operation.
Checkboxes in the nodes of the design model and the color
scale are used for the color indication of DCD (Fig. 18.12-9 ).
Figure 18.12-9. Color scale of DCD
Color Indication of Design Combinations of Forces (Progressive

Collapse)
Displaying the results of the calculation of DCF during the analysis for the progressive collapse
enables to obtain a color indication of the design combinations according to the same rules as for the
standard combinations (see above).
Envelopes of the Diagram of Design Combinations of Forces
This operation enables to plot the envelopes of the diagrams based on the design combinations of
forces. The value of the specified force factor is selected from the combinations of the given type for each
section of bar elements based on the criterion of minimum or maximum.
In order to perform this operation select the criterion, force factor and the type of combination from
the respective lists in the toolbar and invoke the operation by clicking the button .
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Envelopes of the Diagram of Design Combinations of Forces

(Progressive Collapse)
This operation is similar to the previous one and it is available during the analysis of DCF for the
calculations for the progressive collapse.
Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints
Color indication of design combinations of reactions in constraints can be obtained if, first of all, the
Reactions in constraints checkbox was checked when performing the calculation of the problem,
secondly, the initial data for generating design combinations of forces were prepared and, thirdly, the
design combinations of reactions in constraints were calculated.
Reactions are displayed as color markers in the nodes with constraints in the analyzed direction of
reactions. It is necessary to perform the following actions to display the reactions:
− select the necessary type in the Select type of force/stress list in the toolbar;
− select the type of the analyzed combination (design, characteristic, ...) in the Type of combination
list;
− select the criterion (Min/Max) in the respective list.
Design combinations of reactions in constraints can be also displayed by arrows — (similarly to
the nodal loads).
Information on the Element/Node

You can obtain a tabular presentation of DCF and DCF (progressive collapse) for elements, as well as
design combinations of displacements in a node and design combinations of reactions in constraints for
each finite element or node using the tools of Information on the element and Information on the
node operations.
The dialog box with the DCF of the element (Fig.
18.12-10) enables to sort the data according to a certain
feature, display only the indicated types of
combinations (design, characteristic, ...), output the
information in the report document or in the
spreadsheets. You can select either all sections, or any
one section (depending on the specified number of
sections for calculating forces) for bar elements in the
Number of the section list. The Export button enables
to save the values of design combinations of forces in
order to transfer them to the Resistance of sections
Figure 18.12-10. The Design Combinations in mode of Kristall, ARBAT or Decor in a file with
the Element dialog box extension .rsu2.
If the Importance factor checkbox is checked in the Design Combinations in the Element dialog
box, you can specify the numerical value of this coefficient. In the case when the selected finite element
belongs to a structural member or to a group of structural members, the default value for the importance
628
factor will be taken from the data on the respective structural member. In the case when the considered
finite element does not belong to any structural member, the default value of the importance factor will be
taken as 1.
Depending on the selected safety codes the importance factor will be applied either to design, or to
design and characteristic values of forces/stresses.
After clicking the buttons or the data on DCF will be exported to the Word
document (file type *.doc) or to the Excel table (file type *.xls) respectively taking into account the
specified (determined) values of the importance factor. This may be needed in the case when the data are
generated for example for the “Specification of elements” table of the drawings of the MS stage.
Clicking the button exports the data on DCF into the file of type *.rsu2 without taking
into account the importance factor, since in those programs where the import of *.rsu2 files is provided this
coefficient is specified separately.
Figure 18.12-11. The Design Figure 18.12-12. The Design Combinations of Reactions in
Combinations of Displacements in the Constraints dialog box
Node dialog box
Design combinations of displacements (Fig. 18.12-11) and reactions in constraints (Fig. 18.12-12) in
the selected node can be also obtained in a tabular form using the DCD and DCR buttons respectively in
the Information on the Node dialog box (Fig. 18.12-15).
Tables with the results can be generated with the help of the Generator of tables in the text format
or Documenter (see Chapter 13).
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19 .Reinforcement of Sections of Reinforced Concrete Elements
19. Reinforcement of Sections of

Reinforced Concrete Elements
This mode enables to select reinforcement and check the specified reinforcement in the elements of
reinforced concrete structures for the ultimate and serviceability limit states in accordance with the
requirements of SNiP 2.03.01-84* “Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Structures ”, SNiP 52-01-2003 (SP
52-101-2003) or SP 63.13330.2012.
The analysis is performed for reinforced concrete structures made from heavy-weight, fine-grained
and lightweight concrete with the reinforcement steel or the reinforcing wire.
The library of procedures of selecting the reinforcement contains the following modules:
 Bar 2D — for the reinforcement of flat bar reinforced concrete elements of rectangular section, T-
section, I-section, or ring section for the ultimate and serviceability limit states;
 Bar 3D — for the reinforcement of spatial bar reinforced concrete elements of rectangular section,
T-section, I-section, or ring section for the ultimate (according to SNiP 2.03.01-84*) and for the
ultimate and serviceability limit states (according to SP 52-101-2003 or SP 63.13330.2012);
 Plate — for the reinforcement of plate elements for the ultimate and serviceability limit states;
 Shell — for the reinforcement of shell elements for the ultimate and serviceability limit states;
 Deep beam — for the reinforcement of deep beam elements for the ultimate and serviceability
limit states.
The following initial data has to be specified for the work of the postprocessor:
 geometry of the reinforced section ;
 design combinations of forces (DCF);
 information on the class of concrete, class of reinforcement, distance to the center of gravity of
reinforcement etc.
The check and selection of reinforcement in bar elements is performed in accordance with the method
given in the selected code. Since the procedure for checking the reinforcement in the elements of shells,
plates, etc., is not given in the codes (except for SP 63.13330.2012), the method proposed by N.I.
Karpenko [3] is used in SCAD. Recommendations of SP 63.13330.2012 are also based on this method.
The main guidelines of this method are given in Sec. 19.16. It should be noted that they correspond to the
general guidelines for calculating planar structures given in Sec. 1.38 of SNiP [6].
Moreover, unlike SP 52-101-03 (more specifically, the Guide to this SP) the condition of formation of
oblique cracks is not considered in SP 63.13330.2012. However, the software performs this check if there
is a requirement of the absence of cracks. The analysis is implemented in accordance with the
recommendations of Sec. 4.28 of the Guide to SP 52-101-03.
Definition of the Main Concepts

Area of the rebar (a1, a2, a3, a4, awx, awy) – area of one rebar of the respective type calculated as the
geometric area of a circle with the diameter di by the formula (cm2):
 di2
ai  ; i  1, 2,3, 4;
4
 d x2( y )
awx ( y )  .
4
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19.Reinforcement of Sections of Reinforced Concrete Elements
Reinforcement of Two-dimensional Elements

The concept of the intensity of reinforcement is introduced for plates, shells and deep beams.
Intensity of longitudinal reinforcement (IS1, IS2, IS3, IS4) is the value which characterizes the area
of reinforcement of a certain type (S1, S2, S3, S4) per unit length of the reinforcement area in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of layout of rebars. The intensity is numerically equal to the cross-sectional
area of one rebar divided by the spacing of the given type of reinforcement (cm2/m):
ai s  s x (i  3,4),
ISi  , 
s
s  s y (i  1,2).
Intensity (per running meter)1 of transverse reinforcement (IWx, IWy) is the area of transverse
reinforcement per unit length of the transverse reinforcement area2 in the direction of the respective axis,
and it is numerically equal to the area of one rebar divided by the spacing of the given type of
reinforcement (cm2/m).
In the result of the reinforcement selection operation implemented in SCAD the values of the
intensity of reinforcement (cm2/m) which ensure the satisfaction of requirements are obtained for each type
of reinforcement:
IWx ( y )  aw / sx( y ) ,
where s is the spacing of transverse reinforcement, aw is the area of one rebar of transverse reinforcement.
Intensity of transverse reinforcement (IW) is the area of transverse reinforcement per unit area,
and it is numerically equal to the area of one rebar divided by the products of spacings of the transverse
reinforcement in X and Y direction (cm2/m2).
IW  aw / sx sy .
Area of transverse reinforcement (AWx, AWy) is the product of the intensity of reinforcement by the
spacing of reinforcement in the orthogonal direction (cm2):
AWx(y)=IWx(y)sy(x).
Reinforcement of Bar Elements

Area of longitudinal reinforcement (АS1, АS2, АS3, АS3) is the total area of rebars placed along the
longitudinal axis of the bar near the certain sides of the element section (cm2).
Mi
ASi   ak ; i = 1, 2, 3, 4,
k 1
where Mi is the number of rebars of the i-th type.
Area of transverse reinforcement (AWz, AWy) is the total area (cm2) of rebars in the section of the
element placed parallel to the certain sides of the section (for stirrups — number of intersections of stirrups
with the plane passing through the longitudinal axis of the bar).
1
The check and selection of transverse reinforcement in plate elements in SCAD are based on the recommendations
of SNiP for the calculation of transverse reinforcement for a bending element with a rectangular cross-section (the
program considers a 1 m wide strip with a height equal to the thickness of the plate). Therefore, we use the concept of
linear intensity. When choosing a design on the basis of the results of the selection the spacing of transverse reinfor-
cement should not exceed 1 m in order to provide the correspondence with the approach used for the calculation
(especially since a much more strict restriction is given in the design requirements of SNiP). The dimension of type
cm2/mm is used for values IWx, IWy everywhere in the program, although it is more accurate to write
cm 2
.
mm  running meter
2
The area of transverse reinforcement for Qx extends along the Y1 axis, and for Qy — along the X1 axis.
631
Mz( y)
AWz ( y )  W
k 1
z( y )k .
Intensity of transverse reinforcement (Wz, Wy) is the area of transverse reinforcement per unit
length of the transverse reinforcement area in the direction parallel to the respective side and numerically
equal to the total area of transverse reinforcement AWz( y ) , lying in the section of the bar parallel to the
respective side divided by the spacing of the given type of reinforcement (cm2/m).
W z ( y )  AW z ( y ) / s z ( y ) .
Initial data are specified in the dialog box of the postprocessor. In the result of the work of the
postprocessor the areas of “distributed” reinforcement are obtained, as well as the number, cross-sectional
area and diameters of rebars. The results can be given in the form of tables and drawings, displayed on the
screen or printed.
19.1. Limitations
The following limitations should be taken into account when using the postprocessor:
 the analysis of members made of cellular, porous, or self-stressing concrete is not implemented;
 the analysis of prestressed reinforced concrete members is not performed;
 the analysis of elements for the limit state for deformations is not performed;
 the set of sections is limited to a rectangle, T-section, I-section, round and ring section;
 the limitation of the diameter of reinforcement for the concrete of low grades is not controlled (the
maximum diameter of reinforcement is specified by the user);
 the limit width of flanges of T- and I-sections is not controlled (the design width of flanges is specified
by the user in accordance with codes, for example, Sec. 3.16 of SNiP 2.03.01-84*);
 the coefficient s5 is not taken into account for the high-strength reinforcement of the following classes
A-IV, A-V, A-VI, B-II, BP- II, K7, K-19 at the stresses greater than the yield stress (Table 24 of SNiP
2.03.01-84*);
 the analysis for the serviceability limit state does not include the analysis of crack closing;
 the fatigue analysis is not performed;
 SNiP method of strength analysis of oblique sections is focused on the work with a diagram of
shear forces, using which it is possible to obtain a "shear force in an oblique section with the length
of the projection C on the longitudinal axis of the element determined from all external forces,
located on one side of the considered oblique section". It can be easily done in the case of one
loading. However, if there are many variants of a loading, we have their envelope which is not a
resultant of all external forces. No recommendations are given in the codes for this case. Therefore,
the values of shear forces in the design sections are used to increase the reliability;
 the procedure for the calculation of circular and ring cross-sections for the action of a transverse
force is not provided in the codes. The formal analysis of the SNiP formulas makes it evident that
two values b and h0 are required. The h0 value is clearly defined in the codes, but it is not clear
what is the width of the section. The calculation in SCAD is performed in the following way.
When the value b×h0 is required in the calculation for the action of a transverse force, a value equal
to the area of a section with an outer radius R-a is used, where R is the outer radius of the
considered cross-section, and a is the distance to the center of gravity of the reinforcement.
632
19.2. Selection of Design Codes
This operation enables to change the design codes for

reinforced concrete structures and safety codes. You should
select the necessary codes from the drop-down lists in the
dialog box (Fig. 19.2-1) and click the OK button. When
changing the codes you should remember that the codes
according to which the design combinations of forces were
selected and the design codes should correspond to each other.
Figure 19.2-1. The Setting the Design

Codes dialog box
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19.3. General Information about the Reinforcement Modules
Bar 2D (Uniaxial Stress State)

It enables to check and select reinforcement in sections of bar
reinforced concrete elements for ultimate and serviceability
limit states (strength and crack resistance). The module
calculates bars of rectangular section, T-section, I-section, or
ring section for bending and eccentric compression (tension)
with torsion. The following force factors can act in a section:
 longitudinal force — N;
 torque — Mk;
 shear force — Qz;
 bending moment — My.
The areas of symmetric and asymmetric longitudinal
a b
reinforcement, area and spacing of transverse reinforcement and
their corresponding set of rebars are obtained in the result of the
work of the module.
The arrangement and identification of asymmetric and
symmetric longitudinal reinforcement for different types of
sections are given in Fig. 19.3-1, a–d and Fig. 19.3-1, e–h
respectively. It is obvious that symmetric reinforcement can be
selected only for sections symmetric with respect to the Y1 axis.
The arrangement of transverse reinforcement for sections of
different types is given in more detail in Section 19.13.
c d
g h
e f
Figure 19.3-1. Types of sections with asymmetric (a–d) and symmetric (e–h) arrangement of
longitudinal reinforcement for elements under bending
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Bar 3D (Biaxial Stress State)

It enables to check and select reinforcement in sections of bar
reinforced concrete elements for ultimate limit states (strength)
using the recommendations of SNiP 2.03.01-84* and for
ultimate and serviceability limit states according to SP 52-101-
2003 or SP 63.13330.2012.
The module calculates bars of rectangular section, T-
section, I-section, or ring section for biaxial bending and
biaxial eccentric compression (tension) with torsion. Spatial
behavior of a bar is considered. The following force factors can
act in a section:
a b  longitudinal force — N;
 torque — Mk;
 shear forces — Qz, Qy;
 bending moments — My, Mz.
The area of longitudinal reinforcement, area and spacing
of transverse reinforcement and their corresponding set of
rebars are obtained in the result of the work of the module.
The arrangement and identification of asymmetric and
symmetric longitudinal reinforcement for different types of
sections are given in Fig. 19.3-2, a–d and Fig. 19.3-2, e–h
respectively. Symmetric reinforcement can be selected only for
c d sections symmetric with respect to the Y1 axis.
e f g h
Figure 19.3-2. Types of sections with asymmetric (a–d) and symmetric (e–h) arrangement of
longitudinal reinforcement for elements under compression and bending
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Plate. Shell
It enables to check and select reinforcement of reinforced
concrete plates and shells for ultimate and serviceability limit
states (strength and crack resistance).
Plate
The selection is performed taking into account the
following force factors calculated in the center of an element:
 torque — Mxy;
 shear forces — Qx, Qy;
 bending moments — Mx, My.
Shell
The selection is performed taking into account the
following force factors calculated in the center of an element:
 normal stresses — Nx, Ny (only in shells);
 shear stresses — Txy (only in shells);
 torque — Mxy;
 shear forces — Qx, Qy;
 bending moments — Mx, My.
The areas of the upper and lower longitudinal reinfor-
cement, areas and spacing of transverse reinforcement are cal-
culated in the result of the work of the module. The arran-
gement and identification of the upper and lower longitudinal
Figure 19.3-3. Reinforcement of elements reinforcement, and transverse reinforcement for sections of an
of a reinforced concrete shell element of a reinforced concrete shell are given in Fig. 19.3-3.
It should be noted that the distance to the center of gravity of reinforcement can be defined by two or
four numbers. In the first case, the value a1 corresponds to the distance to the center of gravity of the lower
reinforcing mesh, and a2 corresponds to the distance to the center of gravity of the upper reinforcing mesh.
In the second case, a1 and a2 are specified for the reinforcement placed respectively below and above along
the X1 axis, and a3 and a4 are specified for the reinforcement along the Y1 axis.
Deep Beam
It enables to check and select reinforcement of reinforced
concrete deep beams (plane stress state) for ultimate and
serviceability limit states (strength and crack resistance). The
module calculates an element of a reinforced concrete deep
beam for the action of the following force factors calculated in
the center of an element:
 normal stresses — Nx, Nz;
 shear stresses — Txz.
The areas of reinforcement working in sections orthogonal
to the local axes of the local coordinate system X1 and Z1 are
calculated in the result of the work of the module. The
Figure 19.3-4. Reinforcement of elements arrangement and identification of the selected reinforcement for
of a deep beam sections of an element of a reinforced concrete deep beam are
given in Fig. 19.3-4.
636
Before performing the selection of reinforcement in the elements of a

plate, shell or deep beam, it is necessary to make sure that the forces in the
reinforced elements have been obtained in the right directions. Otherwise,
you should use the operation of changing the direction of the output of forces
(see Chapter “Specifying Characteristics of Nodes and Elements”) to specify the
necessary directions and repeat the calculation of forces and DCF (in the
Continued analysis mode).
19.4. Work with the Postprocessor

The control of the operations of the input of initial data, analysis of the load-bearing capacity and selection
of reinforcement in the elements of reinforced concrete structures is performed from the Reinforced
concrete toolbar. The following toolbars contain the controls of these operations:
— Input data;
— Selection of reinforcement;
— Check of reinforced concrete;
— Punching.
The design combinations of forces (DCF) must be specified, otherwise the functions of the analysis of
reinforced concrete structures will not be available. You should also make sure that the codes specified at
the generation of DCF correspond to the codes used in the analysis of elements of reinforced concrete
structures.
19.5. Structural Members and Groups of Structural Members

The analysis of the load-bearing capacity of bar elements of reinforced concrete structures is performed for
groups of structural members (in such a group each finite element is considered as an individual
structural member) and for structural members, each of which consists of one or several finite elements.
A finite element can be included only in one group of structural members. Moreover, all finite elements
included in a group will have the same effective length factors.
When generating groups of structural members you should keep in mind that all bar elements
included in a group must have the same type of section (sizes of a section can be different), and the same
type of finite elements. Moreover, it is correct when the elements included in one group have the same
length, although the program does not check this parameter.
Structural member models a physically homogeneous element of a structure, for example, a column
of a frame, a beam, or a rib of a ribbed floor slab.
In cases when the rules for working will apply both to structural members and groups of structural
members, the general concept of a “structural group” is introduced.
The geometric length of a structural member is equal to the sum of the lengths of the flexible
part of its constituent finite elements.
A continuous chain of bar finite elements with the following properties is considered as a structural
member:
637
 elements included in the chain lie on one straight line;

 all elements of the chain have the same type of rigidity;
 all finite elements of the chain have the same type;
 all elements of the chain have the same orientation of the principal axes of the cross-section;
 elements of a chain the “Slab rib” checkbox is not checked for must not have rigid inserts and hinges
(hinges and rigid inserts are allowed only in the first and the last node of the chain, and the rigid inserts
must be located only in the direction of the local X1 axis);
 elements of a chain can not be included in other structural groups (even for the analysis of the load-
bearing capacity of elements of steel structures) unless these structural groups are specified as
“additional”.
Plate elements included in a group of structural members must have the same finite element type in
terms of their stress-strain state (shell, plate, deep beam). It is recommended to specify the same orientation
of the local axes Z1 and the same rules for the orientation of the force output axes. The software does not
check these factors and the user is responsible for their correct specification.
19.6. Input the Initial Data

The toolbar of the Input data mode includes the buttons for invoking the following operations:
— create groups of reinforcement of plates;

— create groups of reinforcement of bars;
— create structural members of the reinforcement of bars;
— input data and save the active group;
—rejection (reset the current state);
— display the design model;
— select active group;
— show active group;
— control the groups of reinforced concrete structural members;
— information on the groups of reinforcement;
— specify the classes of concrete and reinforcement;
— select the design codes.
The toolbar also contains a drop-down list for selecting a structural group.
Structural groups can be created beforehand in the Groups toolbar (the Elements of reinforced
concrete structures operation — ). In this case, unless you want to correct them, you can skip the data
input mode, and proceed to the selection of reinforcement at once. Otherwise, the structural groups are
created and corrected in the Input data section of the Reinforced Concrete toolbar.
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Creating New Structural Groups

The following procedure is recommended for preparing the new structural groups:
 select elements included in the structural group in the model;
 select the Input data operation — in the Reinforced Concrete section of the toolbar and the
toolbar for the preparation of the initial data for the analysis of elements of reinforced concrete
structures will appear;
 click one of the buttons corresponding to the type of the created group:
 — Create groups of reinforcement of plates;
 — Create groups of reinforcement of bars;
 — Create structural members of the reinforcement of bars;
 click the button — Confirmation;
 the Reinforcement of Plates or Reinforcement of Bars dialog box (depending on the type of
elements of the group) will appear, where you have to specify the name of the group, enter or select
from the lists the necessary data, including: the value of the importance factor, class of
reinforcement, service factors and maximum diameters of longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement, concrete class etc.;
 check the Slab rib checkbox, if the bar structural member is considered as a rib of a ribbed slab
and has rigid inserts in the nodes of its elements;
 click the Add button and close the dialog box by clicking the Exit button.
The Reinforcement of Bars and Reinforcement of Plates Dialog

Boxes
The Reinforcement of Bars (Fig. 19.6-1) and Reinforcement of Plates (Fig. 19.6-2) multi-tab dialog
boxes are used for specifying the data for the groups of reinforcement.
The characteristics specified in the General tab include:
 Importance factor — the value is selected from the drop-down list or is specified by the user;
 Member type — a shell, deep beam, or slab can be selected for plate elements, and a member
under bending or a member under compression and bending (tension and bending) can be selected
for bar elements; regardless of the value and sign of the longitudinal force it is taken as zero for a
member under bending, even if this force appeared in the static or dynamic analysis. Similarly, all
stresses Nx, Ny, Txy for the members of slab type are taken as zero, and Mx, My, Mxy, Qx, Qy — for
the members of deep beam type;
 Effective length factors or effective lengths of elements (for bar elements under compression and
bending);
 Stress state — uniaxial or biaxial bending; in the case of the uniaxial stress state forces Mz and Qy
are taken as zero, except for the ring section, where the analysis is performed for the moment
M  M y2  M z2 and the shear force Q  Qy2  Qz2 ;
 Characteristics of reinforcement, which include Class of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement,
Service factors, and the maximum Diameter of longitudinal reinforcement allowable at the
selection. When the reinforcement is selected taking into account the crack resistance, diameters of
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement which will be taken into account when determining the
crack opening width are specified in the Diameter column;
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 Random eccentricity (for bar elements under compression and bending) — if zero values are
specified, the value of eccentricity is taken automatically according to the recommendations of
codes;
 Distances to the center of gravity of reinforcement;
 Maximum percentage of reinforcement, if it is exceeded, it will be impossible to select
reinforcement;
 Analysis on crack resistance — after checking this checkbox the Crack Resistance tab appears,
where you can specify the category of crack resistance, and the allowable short-term and long-term
crack opening width (diameter of reinforcement considered when determining the distance between
cracks is taken from the table in the General tab);
 Coefficients allowing for seismic action for normal and oblique sections (if zero values are
specified, the values are taken by default according to the respective seismic codes);
 The Statically indeterminate system checkbox enables to specify whether the system is statically
indeterminate.
Figure 19.6-1. The General tab of the Figure 19.6-2. The General tab of the
Reinforcement of Bars dialog box Reinforcement of Plates dialog box
Selection with Limitation

When selecting the reinforcement in plates you can take into account the following limitations on the
minimum reinforcement:
Take into account the code requirements for minimum percentage of reinforcement —when the
respective checkbox is checked the percentage of reinforcement of the plate is determined as for a bar
of rectangular cross-section (cut from the plate), one of the sides of which (width) is equal to 1m, and
the second one (height) is equal to the thickness of the plate. The area of the reinforcement per
running meter provided in the result of this selection is not less than the area necessary to meet the
requirements of the codes for the minimum percentage of reinforcement.
Take into account the specified reinforcement — if the reinforcement is specified for a particular
finite element included in a structural group and the respective checkbox is checked, the area of
reinforcement per running meter obtained in the result of the selection will be not less than the area of
the specified reinforcement per running meter.
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Take into account the minimum reinforcement — if the respective checkbox is checked, a table
appears where you can specify the arrangement of reinforcement (diameters and spacing) for a
structural group. In the result the area of the selected reinforcement per running meter will be not less
than the area of reinforcement per running meter specified for a structural group.
Accounting for the Maximum Allowable Displacements

The maximum allowable vertical displacements are taken into account in accordance with the code
selected for the analysis. For example, if SP 20.13330.2011 is used, the checks are performed in
accordance with Section F.2.1 of Annex F, and when you are working with DSTU BB1.2-3: 2006
(Deflections and displacements) — according to item 5.1 of Section 5.
The check is performed on the basis of the parameters selected in the respective table in the
Reinforcement of Bars dialog box. You can specify both relative and absolute values of the allowable
displacements. In the first case, the following variants of the accounting for displacement are considered
(the variants can be selected from the drop-down list of the respective column of the table):
− Unlimited — displacements are not taken into account in the check;
− Automatically — relative (with respect to the length of the structural member) displacements are
calculated by the software depending on the length of the member; the range of lengths and
corresponding limit displacements are determined by the code;
− the limit value is selected in the list.
The absolute values of displacements are specified by the user or are not taken into account if the
“Unlimited” variant is selected.
If both relative and absolute limitations of displacements are simultaneously specified, the value
resulting in a greater coefficient is considered when calculating the utilization factor of restrictions.
It should be noted that the automatic check by the relative value makes sense only in those cases
where a structural member has no constraints in the span between the end nodes.
Taking into account the fact that there are situations when the designer is interested in displacements
caused only by the variable actions (for example, the check of the instability of the structure, or the case
when the displacements from the self-weight are counteracted by the camber), the software enables to
perform the checks for all loads, or, separately for only the temporary ones. The type of calculation is
selected by checking the checkboxes in the respective lines and activating the design combinations of
deflections. In any case the checks are performed taking into account the design combinations of
displacements obtained on the basis of the characteristic values of loads.
Maximum allowable displacements and deflections are taken into account only
in the check mode and are not used when selecting the sections.
Importance Factors
Three importance factors are used in the analysis:
− for the ultimate limit state n;
− for the serviceability limit state;
− for the critical state (is used in the analysis for the progressive collapse).
The rules for specifying the importance factors depend on the selected code regulating the safety. If
GOST R 54257-2010 or GOST 27751-2014 is selected as a safety code, the value of the importance factor
is taken as one for the serviceability limit state and for the critical state.
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If DBN B.1.2-14-2009 is selected, the factors for the serviceability limit state and for the critical state
are specified by the user for each structural member or group of structural members. If it is not specified in
the initial data that the analysis for crack resistance will be performed or the analysis for limit deflections
and displacements is not required, then the factor for the serviceability limit state is not specified.
Additional Information on the Initial Data

When preparing the initial data some values do not have to be specified — they are taken by default
according to the recommendations of the codes. In particular, the default values are provided for the
following parameters:
 service factors for longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. These factors can be used to
correct the values of design resistances Rs, Rsc, Rsw, which are taken as 1 by default;
 coefficients allowing for seismic action. When performing the analysis for seismic action, two
coefficients are introduced in the Reinforcement of Plates/Bars dialog box: one is used in the
strength analysis of normal sections, and the other one is used in the strength analysis of oblique
sections of reinforced concrete elements. These coefficients are taken into account for those DCF
which include a seismic loading, and their values are specified by default as 1.2 and 0.9
respectively. If the given structure has not been calculated for the seismic action, the values of
coefficients in these positions are not taken into account;
 random eccentricity in the X1OZ1 and X1OY1 planes is specified only for bars. If the value of
random eccentricity is specified as zero, the value calculated according to Sec. 1.21 of SNiP
2.03.01-84* (Sec. 4.2.6 of SP 52-101-2003, Sec. 7.1.7, 8.1.7 of SP 63.13330.2012) will be used in
the analysis. If the specified random eccentricity is not equal to zero, the greater of the two values:
calculated according to the codes and the specified value, will be used (according to Sec. 3.50 of
Guide to SNiP 2.03.01-84* and Sec. 3.6 of Guide to SP 52-101-2003 and Sec. 7.1.7, 8.1.7 of SP
63.13330.2012).
If a structural member (e.g., a column) consists of a number of finite elements
and has a longitudinal force constant along the length, each finite element has to be
assigned an effective length corresponding to the effective length of the structural
member. In other cases values obtained in the stability analysis mode should be used
when specifying the effective lengths.
If the effective lengths are specified as equal to zero, the value of the
longitudinal force is neglected, and the bar will be reinforced as that under bending
(even if it is specified as that under compression and bending in the group of
reinforcement).
Coefficients specified in the initial data and their consideration in the characteristics of concrete and
reinforcement are given in Table 19.6-1.
Table 19.6-1
Characteristics according to SNiP
Coefficient
Eb Rb Rbt Rs, Rsc Rsw
Hardening factor +
b2 = 1.1* v v
b2** v v
Resulting coefficient b with no b2 + +
For longitudinal reinforcement +
For transverse reinforcement +
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Coefficients allowing for normal sections v w

seismic action oblique sections v w
Designations to Table 19.6-1:
* — coefficient b2 from item 2b Table 15 of SNiP 2.03.01-84*;
** — coefficient b2 from item 2a of Table 15 of SNiP 2.03.01-84* (it is taken from the initial
data);
+ — coefficient is always taken into account;
v — one coefficient from the respective column is always taken into account;
w — it is taken into account when there are seismic loadings.
When the calculations are performed according to SP 52-101-2003 and SP 63.13330.2012, the user
has to specify several service factors for concrete. Their usage is similar to that described in the Table
19.6-1 given above. The only peculiarity is that according to these codes only the value Rb is multiplied by
coefficients  b 2 (allowance for the failure behavior) and  b 3 (allowance for the vertical position during
concreting).
The following information is specified in the Concrete tab (Fig. 19.6-3): concrete type, concrete
class, service factors for concrete, conditions of hardening and hardening factor.
Figure 19.6-3. The Concrete tab

The class of heavy-weight and fine-grained concrete is selected from the Concrete class list. If
lightweight concrete is selected, it is necessary to select the grade by average density first, and then the
concrete class and aggregate.
If the analysis is performed according to SP 52-101-2003, only the heavy-weight concrete is
available, because the rules for designing from other types of concrete are not provided in this document.
Service factors for concrete are specified in the table in this tab.
Service factor for concrete b (b1 in the case of analysis according to SP 52-101-2003 and
SP 63.13330.2012) allows for the sustained loads. The value of this factor is specified as equal to 1 or 0,9
(item 2 a of Table 15 of SNiP 2.03.01-84* and Sec. 5.1.10 a of SP 52-101-2003 and Sec. 6.1.12 of
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SP 63.13330.2012) and is taken as one by default. In those cases when according to the conditions of the
analysis it is necessary to take another value of this factor, it can be specified directly in the list.
If a combination of loadings includes short-term loads, it is assumed that b =

1,1 in the calculation (regardless of the specified value) according to the
recommendations of item 2 b of Table 15 of SNiP 2.03.01-84* (and similar sections
of SP).
If the value of the initial elastic modulus of concrete is different from the table value, the hardening
factor is specified, which is used to correct this value (it is assigned only in case of the natural conditions
of hardening of concrete).
In those cases when the analysis on crack resistance is required, information on the category of crack
resistance, allowable crack opening width etc. has to be specified. All these data are specified in the Crack
Resistance tab (Fig. 19.6-4).
a) b)
Figure 19.6-4. Data on crack resistance

If the 1-st category of crack resistance is selected (no cracks), no additional information has to be
specified in this tab.
If the analysis is performed according to SNiP 2.03.01-84* and the 3-rd category of crack resistance
is selected (Fig. 19.6-4, a), it is necessary to select the conditions of operation of the structure, mode of
concrete humidity, and humidity of environmental air in the respective lists, and then specify the allowable
short-term and long-term crack opening width (the values recommended by SNiP 2.03.01-84* based on the
conditions of operation of the structure and parameters of humidity are taken by default).
If the analysis is performed according to SP 52-101-2003 or SP 63.13330.2012 and the Limited
crack opening width item is selected in the drop-down list (Fig. 19.6-4, b), it is necessary to specify the
requirements to crack opening width (based on preservation of reinforcement or based on limitation of the
structural permeability). The values of maximum allowable long-term and short-term crack opening width
recommended by Sec. 7.2.3 of SP 52-101-2003 or Sec. 8.2.6 of SP 63.13330.2012 will be automatically
specified. The user can correct these values if necessary.
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It should be noted that there is an inaccuracy in SP 52-101-2003 concerning the use of the safety
factor for load in the calculation for the serviceability limit states. Sec. 7.1.3 of this document states that
“When the calculation is performed for the serviceability limit states, the loads are taken with a safety
factor for load f = 1,0.”. Such concepts as the analysis on crack formation and the analysis of their opening
and closing are not clearly distinguished. As a result all types of calculations are performed taking into
account the characteristic loads. SNiP 2.03.01-84 * and SP 63.13330.2012 do not have this inaccuracy, and
when the analysis on crack formation is performed, design values of loads are used, i.e. f > 1,0.
Design values of loads are used in SCAD++ for SP 52-101-2003 in the analysis on crack
formation, if "no cracks" option was selected.
When the analysis is performed according to SP 52-101-03, Sec. 3.52 of the Guide specifies how to
take into account the effect of a longitudinal force in the calculations for transverse forces. It should be
noted that the longitudinal reinforcement is not taken into account in Sec. 3.52 in the formula for the value
Nb=1,3RbA. There is a letter from the authors of SP which describes an alternative method for calculating
the value Nb taking into account the longitudinal reinforcement (Nb=RbA+RsAs,tot). There is a special
checkbox prompting the application to use this formula to determine Nb. Since there are two methods for
calculating Nb (according to SP and according to the letter), the program calculates Nb in two different
ways and uses the highest value.
The name of a structural member or group must be specified in the Structural group text field.
List of groups includes a list of structural groups created earlier.
The lower part of the dialog box (Fig. 19.6-5) contains a list of finite elements with numbers of
elements included in a structural member or group. This list can be edited directly in the window. If there
are selected elements in the model, you can perform the following actions with the help of a set of
operations which can be opened by clicking the button on the right from the list:
− Create list of elements from selected elements, i. e. actually replace the list of elements created
earlier by the list of elements selected in the model;
− Create list of elements from group’s data and selected elements, i. e. add the elements selected
in the model to the list of elements created earlier;
− Create list of elements from group’s data excluding selected elements, i. e. exclude the
elements selected in the model from the list of the group created earlier.
Invoking the operations of

editing the list of a
structural group
Figure 19.6-5. Editing the list of elements included in a structural group

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The respective button is used to edit the existing list of the group, clicking which invokes a dialog
box with a list of elements.
If after performing a series of operations with the list of elements (before clicking the Apply button),
it is necessary to return to its initial state, you should use the first operation in the considered list — Create
list of elements from group’s data, and the initial list of the group will be restored.
In order to delete a structural member or a group of structural members it is necessary to select a
name from the list in the Input data toolbar and click the button . Click the Delete button in the dialog
box that will appear.
If you have to delete several objects, it is necessary to perform the above operations for a single
object, and then consecutively select the objects you want to delete from the list of structural members (or
groups) and click the Delete button without closing the dialog box.
The Copy button invokes a dialog box with a list of groups. After selecting a group from the list and
clicking the OK button, you can copy the data from the group created earlier. If this button is pressed when
the General tab is active, all the data on all tabs are copied (the lists of finite elements and the name of the
group are obviously not copied). If this button is clicked when the Concrete or Crack Resistance tab is
active, only the data in the active tab is copied.
Correcting the Initial Data of the Structural Groups

It is necessary to perform the following actions to change the parameters of a group of structural members
created earlier:
 select the Input data operation — in the Reinforced Concrete toolbar and the respective
toolbar will appear;
 select the name of the structural group you want to correct in the Groups of reinforcement list
(the respective button is pressed in the toolbar);
 the Reinforcement of Plates or Reinforcement of Bars dialog box will appear (depending on the
type of elements of the group), where you have to make necessary changes to the parameters of the
group and/or list of elements and click the Apply button;
 close the dialog box by clicking the Exit button.
If it is necessary to change the parameters of other groups, the adjustments can be performed without
closing the dialog box. You just have to select the name of the group you want to correct in the list of
groups and perform the above actions.
Dividing a Group of Reinforcement into Two Groups or More

If based on the results of the selection of reinforcement a group of structural members has to be divided
into two groups or more, it is necessary to perform the following actions:
 select the Input data operation — in the Reinforced Concrete toolbar and the respective
toolbar will appear;
 select the name of the group in the Groups of reinforcement list (the respective button is pressed
in the toolbar);
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 the Reinforcement of Plates or Reinforcement of Bars dialog box will appear (depending on the
type of elements of the group), where you have to specify the name of the new group in the
Structural group field and click the Add button;
 correct the list of elements of the new group removing the numbers of elements which “stay” in the
initial group;
 correct the parameters of the new group;
 select the name of the initial group in the list of groups and correct the list of elements removing
the elements that were transferred to the new group;
 correct the parameters of the initial group if necessary;
 click the Apply button;
 close the dialog box by clicking the Exit button.
You can repeat the above actions to create new groups by dividing the initial group.
19.7. Main and Additional Groups

If a finite element simultaneously belongs to several structural members (or groups of structural members),
it causes many problems and questions. For example, if you perform a selection of reinforcement, the
results of which group should be considered as the result of selection? Which results should be used when
transforming the selected reinforcement into the specified reinforcement? Which data should be used to
calculate the value of Kmax after performing the check when displaying the utilization factor of restrictions
for the whole model and not for an individual structural member?
Indication of additional
structural group
Figure 19.7-1. The Reinforcement of Plates dialog box (additional group)

You can create additional structural groups (Fig. 19.7-1). This enables to work with a set of structural
groups with matching finite elements. There are the following limitations when using the main and
additional groups:
 a finite element can not belong simultaneously to two main groups;
 additional groups are not used when determining Kmax for the whole model;
 additional groups are not used when transforming the results of the selection of reinforcement into
the specified reinforcement;
 if a finite element simultaneously belongs to the main and additional group (groups), after clicking
the buttons Reinforced concrete. Factors, Reinforcement, ... in the information on the element, a
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menu appears with the list of groups and you have to select a group the results of which you want
to be displayed;
 additional groups are not used in the analysis for the progressive collapse.
Additional groups are distinguished by the green background of icons in the lists of structural groups
in toolbars and dialog boxes. Unique names should be given when creating the main and additional groups.
The Control the groups of reinforced concrete structural members operation considered below is used
to change the status of the group.
19.8. Selection of Elements of Groups
If a group of structural members or a structural member is selected in the list of structural groups in
the Input data toolbar, clicking this button will select all finite elements of the group. Red color is
assumed for the selected nodes and elements by default. You can change it in the Color Palette Settings
section of the Settings menu (the Model tab, the Select nodes and elements item).
19.9. Active Group Visualization Mode
In those cases when you do not need to perform any operations with the selected structural group, and
you only want to highlight it in the model, an operation of visualization of a structural group is used. A
group selected in the list of structural groups in the Input data toolbar will be “highlighted” in purple in
the model.
19.10. Control of the Groups of Reinforced Concrete Structural

Members
The operation is used to control the attributes of structural groups and enables to perform the
following actions:
 rename a group;
 sort groups by a specified criterion;
 delete a group;
 combine identical groups;
 change the status of structural groups (transform a group into an additional or main one);
 change the place of the selected group in the list of groups (buttons Up, Down).
This operation invokes the Control the Structural Groups of Reinforced Concrete Elements
dialog box (see Fig. 19.10-1), with a list of structural groups. Columns of the table of structural groups
include:
 current number of the structural group;
 No. — number of the group in the order of creation;
 Type — icon of the type of the structural group ( — bar structural member, — group of bar
structural members; — group of plate structural members). If a group is additional, the
respective icon has a green background;
 Number of elements in the group;
 Additional — this checkbox indicates additional structural groups.
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Figure 19.10-1. The Control the Structural Groups of Reinforced Concrete Elements dialog box
click. The line will become available for editing.
The characteristic of the group with respect to which the sorting is performed is selected from the
Sort by list. The following types of sorting are provided:
 by the number (in the order of creation of groups — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and vice
verse — when the Max/Min button is pressed);
 by the type of group (when the Min/Max button is pressed structural members will be first in the list
and they will be followed by the structural members, and vice verse — when the Max/Min button is
pressed);
 by the name of the group (in alphabetical order — when the Min/Max button is pressed, and vice
 by the number of elements in the group (in the ascending order of the number of elements in the list of
structural groups — when the Min/Max button is pressed, and vice verse — when the Max/Min
button is pressed);
 by the checked “Additional” checkbox.
In order to delete structural groups select them in the table, place the cursor over the current number
of the group and left click. Then click the Delete button. If the groups you want to delete go in the
successive order in the list, place the cursor over the first group in the list to select them, click and hold the
left mouse button, and drag the pointer across the numbers of the groups you want to delete.
To change the position of one or several structural groups in the list it is necessary to select these
groups and move them in the list by clicking the Up and Down buttons.
If when specifying the data the user has created several groups with the same names, clicking the
Make the names unique button enables to rename them automatically (by adding the suffix № XXX to
the name) and obtain unique names.
In order to combine groups of structural members it is necessary to select these groups in the list
while pressing the Ctrl key in the keyboard and then click the Combine button. The operation will be
available only if all parameters of the combined groups of structural members are matching. The dialog
box will appear after invoking the operation, where you can specify the name of the combined group.
Buttons in the upper part of the dialog box enable to filter groups which should be displayed (for
example, to display only the additional groups of plate structural members).
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All specifications made in the dialog box will be saved and performed after closing the dialog box by
clicking the OK button. The position of the structural groups in the list of the toolbar will correspond to
their position in the list of the dialog box.
Specify the Classes of Concrete and Reinforcement
This operation is used in those cases when several structural groups have the same class of concrete
and class of reinforcement, i.e. you can specify these parameters simultaneously for several or even all
structural groups. Moreover, this operation is useful when changing the design codes. Invoking the Specify
the Classes of Concrete and Reinforcement operation opens the respective dialog box (Fig. 19.10-2)
with a table listing all structural groups with classes of concrete and reinforcement specified for them.
Figure 19.10-2. The Specify the Classes of Concrete and Reinforcement dialog box
It is necessary to perform the following actions to specify these parameters for the groups:
− specify the class of concrete, and classes of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement by selecting
them from the respective lists;
− check the checkboxes on the left from the name of a structural group for those groups the selected
class of concrete is specified for;
− click the Apply button related to the class of concrete;
− perform similar actions for the class of longitudinal reinforcement, and then for the transverse
reinforcement by checking the checkboxes of the necessary structural groups and clicking the
respective Apply buttons;
− after specifying the parameters for the necessary groups, close the dialog box by clicking the OK
button.
Similar specifications for each structural group separately can be also performed in the dialog boxes
for creating groups, and also in the Reinforcement of Plates and Reinforcement of Bars dialog boxes
when creating or editing structural groups directly during the selection of reinforcement. It makes sense to
use this operation in the case of specifying parameters for a large number of groups simultaneously.
Moreover, a type of group is specified in the Type column and for bar groups you can replace the
Structural member by Group of structural members and vice versa.
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Information on the Groups of Reinforcement

This operation enables to obtain the dialog box (Fig. 19.10-3) with the information in all groups of
reinforcement. The Report button invokes the generation of the report.
Figure 19.10-3. The Information of the Groups of Reinforcement dialog box

example, to display only the additional groups of plate structural members).
Checkboxes in the Print line enable to select only the groups information on which must be given in
the report document.
19.11. Setting the List of Reinforcement Spacing

Data on the reinforcement (selected or specified) in plate elements can be given as intensity (areas per
running meter) or as Diameter/Spacing. The spacing of reinforcement is specified by the user. List of such
spacings can be specified (or changed) with the help of a special dialog box (Fig. 19.11-1), which can be
invoked from the window of the project tree using the Set Reinforcement Spacing item of the Settings
menu.
This dialog box contains a table of spacings (in mm) which can be changed by correcting values,
adding spacings (the Add button), deleting spacings which (in the user’s opinion) should not be used (the
Delete button). The values in the table can be sorted in the ascending order (the Sort button). If the sorting
is not performed by the user, it will be done automatically when closing the dialog box. Moreover, the
Standard button enables to load a set of standard values of spacings into the table.
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Figure 19.11-1. The Specify the Spacing of Reinforcement dialog box
19.12. Selection of Reinforcement

Selection of reinforcement and display of the results of the selection are performed in the Selection of
reinforcement section of the Reinforced Concrete toolbar. In order to perform the selection it is
necessary to create structural members and/or their groups. Moreover, design combinations of forces
(DCF) have to be calculated for all finite elements included in these structural members and groups.
When selecting the reinforcement the software does not check the structural
limitations on the arrangement of reinforcement, assuming that the user can
perform this check in an informal way. Moreover, after obtaining the results of
the selection and making sure that the design requirements can not be met, the
user may decide to correct the sizes of the formwork.
The toolbar of the Selection of reinforcement mode includes buttons for invoking the following
operations:
Spacing of the discrete
reinforcement List of results Type of result
Selection of reinforcement List of structural groups Diameter of

reinforcement
— select reinforcement;
— generate report;
— reinforcement diagrams of bars;
— reinforcement diagrams of bars (color display);
— change the display axis of diagrams;
— switch the output form of the reinforcement results;
— isofields of the reinforcement of plates;
— isofields and isolines of the reinforcement of plates;
— color map of the reinforcement results;
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— additional reinforcement with meshes;
— additional reinforcement with bars;
— select the design codes;
— specify reinforcement based on the results of the reinforcement selection;
— export the reinforcement results to ALLPLAN.
The Select reinforcement button — in the respective section of the toolbar is used to invoke the
analysis. This button has an arrow which besides the complete selection for all structural groups enables to
perform the selection only for those groups that have been modified, to perform the calculation for user'
selected groups only (in this case dialog box will appear and user must select groups for calculation), to
invoke the operations of the data control (without performing the calculation) and view messages that were
output during the previous calculation or control. Regardless of whether changes have been made in all
structural groups or only in some of them, the control of the initial data is performed for all groups and
diagnostic messages will be generated for all groups, and not just for those which were recalculated.
The course of the selection is displayed in the Performing the Calculation window. Messages which
appear in the selection process are output after completing the calculation in the information window and
in the log. A report can be generated in the result of the selection (the button ).
It should be noted that when selecting the reinforcement in plate elements the
area of the selected reinforcement is increased by 5% which enables to allow for the
possible increase in the force factors at the edges of the element (values of forces in
the center of the finite element are used when selecting reinforcement).
The selection of reinforcement in bar elements is performed on the basis of the
design combinations of forces in several sections of the bar (the number of the
sections is specified by the user). The selected reinforcement area is increased by 5%
to allow for the possible increase of the force factors in the intermediate sections.
Moreover, such an increase provides a “protection” from the fact that the forces in
SCAD are determined without the consideration of the possible crack formation and
the consequent weakening of the section.
Output the Results of the Selection

The results of the selection for bar elements are displayed as diagrams, and color scales can be used as
well. These are areas of symmetric and asymmetric reinforcement for the upper, lower and side
reinforcement — S1, S2, S3, S4 (for ring and round sections — only asymmetric reinforcement S1).
Moreover, the percentage of reinforcement and the crack opening width are displayed as well. Presentation
of the results of selection in the form of a set of bars is provided only in the information on the element.
When displaying the diagrams of reinforcement a bar is divided into n segments, where n is the
number of sections in the bar. The lengths of the first and last (along the length of the bar L) segments are
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L L
equal to , and the lengths of all other (intermediate) segments are equal to . The value of
2(n  1) (n  1)
the factor in each segment of the diagram is taken as the maximum value for all sections of the bar in this
segment.
The output of intensity (area per running meter) of reinforcement in the form of isolines, isofields, or
color maps is provided for all types of reinforcement of plate elements. The results of the selection of
longitudinal reinforcement can be given as a set of bars in the directions coinciding with the directions of
the force output. This operation can be invoked by clicking the button — Switch the output form of
the reinforcement results, and the spacing of reinforcement is selected from the respective list in the
toolbar.
The percentage of reinforcement of plates is determined according to the following rules — a bar of
rectangular section is considered with the sizes bH, where b = 1m, and Н is equal to the thickness of the
plate. The percentage of reinforcement in the direction X and Y is determined by the formulas:
 x  ( S1  S 2 ) /( H x  b)  100,
 y  ( S 3  S 4 ) /( H y  b)  100,
S1  s1  b / step1 ,
S 2  s 2  b / step 2 ,
S 3  s3  b / step3 ,
S 4  s 4  b / step 4 ,
where
s1, s2, s3, s4 — cross-sectional area of one bar of the respective reinforcement,
step1, step2, step3, step4 — spacing of reinforcement.
Values Hx and Hy are determined as follows:
 H x  H  a1 ,

a2  0, H x  max( H x , H  a2 ),
 H y  H  a3 ,

a4  0, H y  max( H y , H  a4 ),
where a1, a2, a3, a4 — distance to the center of gravity of the reinforcement.
The value H/2 is used for Hx and Hy for deep beams.
The software enables to output the results of selection of longitudinal reinforcement in the form of
additional reinforcement with meshes or individual bars. When meshes are used (button ), it is
necessary to specify the spacing of bars in a mesh, which is selected from the Select the spacing of
reinforcement list. If bars are used in the additional reinforcement (button ), the diameter of bars is
selected from the Diameter of bars of the additional reinforcement list.
When outputting the results of the reinforcement, one of the several options can be selected in a
separate list.
There are four options for plate elements
1. Calculated reinforcement
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2. SNiP
3. Calculated reinforcement (according to the assortment)
4. SNiP (according to the assortment)
The second option differs from the first one in that it takes into account the standard requirements to
the minimum percentage of reinforcement (the selection of reinforcement for bar elements is always
performed taking into account the minimum percentage of reinforcement, but it is not clearly stated
whether it should be done for plate elements).
Variants 3, 4 are similar to 1, 2, but the required intensity of reinforcement is calculated taking into
account the fact that rebar diameters and reinforcement spacing can take only discrete sets of values.
Variants 1-2 and 3-4 are identical for bar elements.
Transformation of the Results of the Reinforcement Selection
When performing a check of plate elements of reinforced concrete structures (for example, in the case
of analysis for progressive collapse) the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement is defined by the
diameter of rebars and their spacing. This information can be prepared by the user or generated
automatically by transforming the data obtained by the program of the reinforcement selection. The
number of ranges of distribution of reinforcement (diameter – spacing) specified by the user for each type
of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement is taken into account.
The transformation is performed with the help of the Specify reinforcement based on the results of
the reinforcement selection operation, which can be invoked by clicking the button — in the
Selection of reinforcement section. This operation invokes the Specify Reinforcement Based on the
Results of the Reinforcement Selection dialog box (see Fig. 19.12-1) containing a table with the names
of structural groups, maximum value of the area of each type of reinforcement, and the number of ranges
the area of reinforcement of the given type has to be divided into at the transition from theoretical
(selected) reinforcement to the discrete reinforcement.
Figure 19.12-1. The Specify Reinforcement Based on the Results of the Reinforcement Selection
dialog box
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The transformation can be performed for all structural groups or only for those selected from the list.
Moreover, the standard requirements to the minimum percentage of reinforcement can be taken into
account in the process of transformation. These settings are performed by checking the respective
checkboxes.
The number of ranges is specified separately for each type of reinforcement and each structural group.
The specification can be performed simultaneously for all groups (the Number of ranges for all groups
should be taken as... checkbox is checked).
The area of longitudinal reinforcement Si of the considered group of reinforcement for each range is
equal to
Si = (Simax – Simin)/ni,
where
i – type of reinforcement (i = 1, 2, 3, 4);
Simax and Simin – maximal and minimal area of reinforcement of the i-th type, respectively;
ni – number of ranges specified for the reinforcement of the i-th type of the considered group.
The area of transverse reinforcement (Wx, Wy) of the considered group of reinforcement for each
range is determined in a similar way.
Since equal ranges do not always provide rational reinforcement (e.g., several ranges can have the
same discrete reinforcement), the software enables to change the number of ranges of reinforcement of i-th
type within one group and the area of ranges. This can be done in the dialog box (see Fig. 19.12-2), which
is invoked by clicking the button on the right from the name of the considered group.
The following information is given in this dialog box on each type of reinforcement of the considered
structural group:
 number of ranges;
 minimal area of theoretical (selected) reinforcement;
 maximal value of the selected reinforcement for each range;
 discrete (diameter/spacing) reinforcement for each range;
 actual area of discrete reinforcement for each range.
In those cases when discrete reinforcement (diameter/spacing) could not be selected for the maximum
value of the reinforcement area of one or several ranges, the combination diameter/spacing with the
maximal area and the actual (corresponding to this combination) reinforcement area are output in the
respective columns of the table. The search of the diameter/spacing combination is performed on the basis
of lists of allowable reinforcement spacing and diameters of reinforcement of the given class according to
the criterion of minimum area. Maximum allowable diameter specified in the parameters of the considered
structural group is taken into account.
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Figure 19.12-2. The Specify Reinforcement Based on the Results of the Reinforcement Selection (Data
on the Group) dialog box
If the user changes the data given in the table of the dialog box (for example, the limits of ranges), the
changes are saved and the recalculation is performed after clicking the Recalculate button.
The value of the area the discrete reinforcement could not be selected for is highlighted in red in the
table.
When transforming the reinforcement of a bar, it divided into n segments, where n is the number of
sections in the bar. The lengths of the first and last (along the length of the bar L) segments are equal to
L L
, and the lengths of all other (intermediate) segments are equal to . If the number of
2(n  1) (n  1)
sections n > 5, the program does not perform the transformation (this is a limitation of the implementation).
The division into ranges is not performed for bar elements and segments (in the general case) with different
reinforcement are created for each finite element.
The display of the color map of the specified reinforcement of plates is performed with the help of the
respective operation in the Check of reinforced concrete section — .
Graphical Representation of Results of the Selection of

Reinforcement in Bar Elements
The results of the selection of reinforcement in bar elements are graphically displayed as diagrams of
areas of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Diagrams can be “wire” (when they are not color filled)
and they can be invoked by clicking the Display the reinforcement diagrams of bars button — , and
color scales can be used as well — the Color display of the reinforcement diagrams button — .
Diagrams are output for one structural group of reinforcement, which is selected from the list in the
Selection of reinforcement section of the toolbar.
Figure 19.12-3 shows a drop-down list with the types of information which can be graphically
visualized after performing the selection of reinforcement in bar elements.
The main rules for plotting the reinforcement diagrams are as follows:
 a bar is divided into n segments, where n is equal to the number of sections in which the forces
were calculated (the rule for dividing a bar into segments is described above);
 if a bar has rigid inserts, they are displayed automatically in the mode of analysis of results of the
reinforcement selection;
 diagrams are plotted for a bar segment only if the reinforcement is selected in this segment (here
“selected” means that the area of reinforcement Si  0);
 if the reinforcement (at least in one direction) could not be selected, the respective segment of the
bar is highlighted in red;
 the position of reinforcement in the section which enables to meet the standard requirements to the
load-bearing capacity can be viewed for each bar separately in the Information on the element
mode (the Reinforcement button);
 the value of the area of reinforcement is displayed on the diagram after clicking the Digitization of
isofields/isolines button in the Visualization of Results toolbar. It is recommended to perform the
digitization on the “wire” diagrams.
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Figure 19.12-3. List of results of the selection of reinforcement in bars

Reinforcement diagrams are output in the x10z1 plane of the local coordinate system of the bar by
default. If the angle of orientation of structural axes has been changed for a bar, the degeneration of the
display of the diagrams on the screen can take place. In this case you can use the Change the display axis
of diagrams operation (diagrams will be output in the x10y1 plane).
Graphical Representation of Results of the Selection of

Reinforcement in Plate Elements
As noted above, the output of intensity (area per running meter) of reinforcement in the form of
isofields or color maps (mosaics) is provided by default for plate elements. You can also output the area of
transverse reinforcement for the specified spacing, which is selected from the drop-down list of the toolbar.
The following operations using color scales are provided:
— Display isofields of the reinforcement of plates. Isofields belonging to the adjacent intervals of
the considered factor are not divided by isolines. A standard color scale with the possibility of specifying
the number and limits of the intervals is used (limits of the intervals can be changed in the Settings dialog
box which is invoked by clicking the Color scale settings button — ). Moreover, the dialog box with a
color scale includes a table with the characteristics of concrete and reinforcement of the considered group.
— Display isolines and isofields of the reinforcement of plates. The display is performed
according to the same rules as in the previous case, but the isofields belonging to the adjacent intervals of
the considered factor are divided by isolines, the color of which is specified in the Color Palette Settings
section of the Settings menu.
— Display the color map of the reinforcement results. This type of display differs in that each
finite element is fully displayed in the color corresponding to the color of the interval the value of the
considered factor on the color scale belongs to. The color scale and its control principles are similar to
those considered above.
Figure 19.12-4 shows a drop-down list with the types of information which can be graphically
visualized after performing the selection of reinforcement in plate elements.
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Figure 19.12-4. List of results of the selection of reinforcement in plates

In addition to the intensity of reinforcement the above operations and color scales are used for the
visualization of the results of the selection of longitudinal reinforcement given as sets of rebars with the
specified spacing in the directions coinciding with the directions of the force output. This operation is
invoked with the button — Switch the output form of the reinforcement results, and the
reinforcement spacing is selected from the respective list in the toolbar. In this case at the digitization the
data will be output in the format of type d12/100 (i.e. it is recommended to use the reinforcement with a
diameter of 12 mm and a spacing of 100 mm).
The results of the selection of longitudinal reinforcement can be given in the form of additional
reinforcement with meshes or bars . In this case the left column of the table of the color scale
contains the following data:
 the first line of the table contains the diameter and spacing of the background reinforcement;
 the subsequent lines contain the diameter and spacing of the additional reinforcement marked with
"+" for each interval; these values of additional reinforcement for each interval should be
considered as a supplement to the background reinforcement;
 if the additional reinforcement could not be selected for the specified diameter or spacing of
reinforcement, the current and subsequent lines of the table will contain the values of intensity of
the additional reinforcement.
The right column of each interval contains a value of intensity of reinforcement corresponding to the
larger limit of the current interval (this value was taken into account in the determination of the discrete
reinforcement).
Depending on the type of additional reinforcement (with meshes or with bars), the spacing or the
diameter of reinforcement is saved. The selected value is output in the dialog box of the color scale above
the table.
The setting of the scale of additional reinforcement is performed by clicking the button of the
dialog box of the scale. The Settings dialog box will appear (Fig. 19.12-5).
The Structural reinforcement button invokes the dialog box (Fig. 19.12-6), where you can specify
the intensity of structural (background) reinforcement in the text field or select the necessary combination
Diameter/spacing from the drop-down list (the corresponding intensity will be automatically transferred
into the text field).
Drop-down lists for selecting a value of supplements to the background reinforcement are also
provided for each interval.
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Specification of the structural

reinforcement
Specification of additional
reinforcement
Figure 19.12-5. The Settings dialog box for the additional reinforcement
Intensity of additional
reinforcement
Figure 19.12-6. The Structural Reinforcement dialog box
Export of the Results of Selection of Reinforcement in a Plate to

the Design Subsystem of ALLPLAN
This operation enables to transfer the data on the results of selection of reinforcement in the elements
of foundation slabs or floor slabs to the design subsystem of ALLPLAN. A file with the extension .asf is
generated in the result of the export. This file contains information on the geometry of the reinforced
segment, and also on the areas of the upper and lower reinforcement (according to the assortment). It also
contains the characteristics of the elements included in the active group of reinforcement (if the group has
selected elements, the export of information will be performed only for them). Clicking the arrow will
open a menu where you can select type of areas - calculated or calculated (according to the assortment).
Generating a Report
The operation of printing tables with the results of the selection of reinforcement invokes the dialog
box (Fig. 19.12-7). The tables are generated in the .rtf format and are automatically loaded into a text
editor associated with this format.
Groups of radio buttons and checkboxes in this dialog box enable to control the generation of tables
by specifying the following options:
 For all groups and structural members — output the results for all groups;
 Only for specified groups and structural members — results will be output only for groups
selected in the list of groups;
 For specified elements — results will be output only for finite elements the numbers of which are
listed in the text field;
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Figure 19.12-7. The Generate Report on the Reinforcement Selection dialog box
 Print instructions — output the information on the rules for reading the results after the tables;
 Output the area of reinforcement added at the analysis on crack resistance;
 Take into account standard requirements to the minimum percentage of reinforcement — if
this checkbox is checked, the area per running meter of reinforcement in plates will be (when
necessary) increased to satisfy the standard requirement to the minimum percentage of
reinforcement;
 Only the reinforcement areas — print tables only with the values of the total reinforcement area;
 Rebar diameters — print tables with the data on diameters, spacing and number of rebars;
 All results — print tables with the values of the reinforcement areas, and data on the diameters,
spacing and number of rebars;
 Spacing of longitudinal reinforcement of plates — if the report on the results of the
reinforcement selection has to include not only the information on the areas per running meter of
the longitudinal reinforcement of plates, but also the presentation of this information in the
Diameter/spacing format, it is necessary to select the spacing of longitudinal reinforcement the
diameters of longitudinal rebars will be output for;
 Output the area of transverse reinforcement of plates — if this checkbox is not checked, the
data on the selected transverse reinforcement in plates will be output as the intensity (cm2/m);
otherwise it will be necessary to select a spacing from the Spacing of transverse reinforcement of
plates (out-of-plane) drop-down list, and the report will contain the required area (cm2) of the
transverse reinforcement at the selected spacing;
 Output the area of transverse reinforcement of bars — if this checkbox is not checked, the data
on the selected transverse reinforcement in bars will be output as the intensity (cm2/m); otherwise it
will be necessary to select a spacing from the Spacing of transverse reinforcement of bars list,
and the report will contain the required area (cm2) of the transverse reinforcement at the selected
spacing.
19.13. Reading the Results of the Reinforcement

Selection
Bar Elements
Information for each section of the element is output in several lines in the table with the results of the
calculation (Table 19.13-1).
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Results of the selection of reinforcement in bar elements Table 19.13-1

No. of Section Type Longitudinal reinforcement Crack opening Transverse
2
the area in cm width (mm) reinforcement
2
elemen diameters () in mm area in cm
t spacing (S) in mm
Asymmetric Symmetric Spacing 50 mm
S1 S2 S3 S4 % S1 S3 % short- long- AWz AWy
term term
b = 40 cm
h = 60 cm
a1 = 5 cm
a2 = 5 cm
11 1  2,56 22,22 0,21 0,21 1,145 21,61 0,41 2,002 0,298 0,293 0,23 0,1
C 6,36 5,74
 214 332 332
2  2,56 12,54 0,21 0,21 0,705 10,66 0,41 1,006 0,1 0,1
C 2,9 1,01
 214 325 228
3  2,56 5,09 0,21 0,21 0,366 5,09 0,41 0,5 0,1 0,1
 214 316 316
For groups of reinforcement of bar elements the information for each element (or a unified group of
elements) is output in several lines in the table with the results of the calculation. Each line of the Type
column contains the following symbols indicating the type of data in this line:
 — area of reinforcement;
T — area of reinforcement required to resist the torque (included in );
С — area of reinforcement added to provide crack resistance (included in );
 — presentation of the selected area of reinforcement in the discrete form.
In lines the icons of which include symbol , the results are given as ND, where N is the number of
bars, D is diameter of one bar. If the assortment of the rebar diameters is exhausted, the respective cells of
the table will contain NA, where N is the number of bars, A is the cross-sectional area of one bar.
If there was no analysis on crack resistance, or the reinforcement selected according to the strength
requirements provides the crack resistance of the section, the lines indicated by the icon C are not output.
If a section has such a shape that it can be reinforced both symmetrically and asymmetrically, the
report contains information on two variants of the calculation.
The maximum spacing of the clamps is also given for the transverse reinforcement.
In the calculation results the area of the transverse reinforcement resisting the torque is output as a
value calculated for two bars in the section of the element. Thus, the area of one bar can be determined as
AW/2.
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Plate Elements
For groups of reinforcement of plate elements the information for each element (or a unified group of
elements) is output in several lines in the table with the results of the calculation. Each line of the Type
column contains the following symbols indicating the type of data in this line:
 — reinforcement area per one running meter;
С — reinforcement area per one running meter added to provide crack resistance (included in );
/S — presentation of the selected reinforcement as a set of diameters and spacing of reinforcement.
If the analysis on crack resistance is not performed, or the reinforcement selected for the ultimate limit state
provides the required crack resistance, the lines with the C type are not output.
Cross-sectional area of reinforcement for each plate finite element (or a unified group of finite
elements) is determined for sections with the width of 1 m at the specified thickness of the element in
accordance with the design combinations of forces.
In lines with type /S the results are given as D/S, where D is the diameter of one bar, S is the
spacing of bars in millimetres. If the assortment of the rebar diameters is exhausted for the given spacing,
the respective cells of the table will contain the value of the area of reinforcement.
The intensity per running meter of the selected transverse reinforcement is output at the out-of-plane
spacing of 100 mm.
Table 19.13-2
Results of the selection of reinforcement in plate elements
No. of the Type Longitudinal reinforcement Crack opening Transverse
2
element intensity in cm /m width (mm) reinforcement
2
diameters () in mm area in cm
spacing (S) in mm diameters () in mm
Along X Along Y Out-of-plane spacing
100 mm
S1 S2 % S3 S4 % short- long-term AWx AWy
term
9250  12,04 12,72 0,583 3,4 21,55 0,554 0,298 0,298 1,01
/S 12,04 12,72 0,599 7/100 21,55 0,586 10/75
C 0,36
19.14. Check of the Specified Reinforcement

The check of the load-bearing capacity of structural members and/or groups of structural members is
performed by clicking the Calculation button — . This button has an arrow which besides the full
calculation for all structural groups enables to perform the check only for those groups that have been
modified, to perform the calculation for user' selected groups only (in this case dialog box will appear and
user must select groups for calculation), to invoke the operations of the data control (without performing
the calculation) and view messages that were output during the previous calculation or control. Regardless
of whether changes have been made in all structural groups or only in some of them, the control of the
initial data is performed for all groups and diagnostic messages will be generated for all groups, and not
just for those which were recalculated. The check is performed for all sections of finite elements included
in a structural member or a group of structural members on the basis of the specified reinforcement. The
specified reinforcement can be obtained by transforming the reinforcement selected with the help of the
program (see the description of the operation above), or defined by the user. In the latter case the
Specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements and Specify the reinforcement layout of bars
operations are used. In order to perform them the elements must belong to structural groups, since all the
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other data used when performing a check (class of concrete and reinforcement, distance to the center of
gravity of reinforcement etc.) are taken from the description of structural groups the elements belong to.
Figure 19.14-1. The toolbar for the calculation of the load-bearing capacity of reinforced concrete
elements and the analysis of results
The toolbar (Fig. 19.14-1) includes the buttons for invoking the following operations:
— specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements;

— specify the reinforcement layout of bars;
— input data and save the active group;
— reset the selected group;
— invoke the calculation (check);
— display results of the check on the model (3-color scale);
— display results of the check on the model (full color scale);

— extreme values of factors;
— show active group (here pink color is used both in the image of the icon and in the model unlike
the group selection button where the red color is used);
— display diagrams of the specified reinforcement of bars;
— color display of diagrams of the specified reinforcement;
— display the color map of the specified reinforcement of plates;
— weight of the specified reinforcement;

The maximum value of each factor defining the load-bearing capacity of the element is obtained in
the result of the check.
Specifying the Reinforcement Layout of Plate Elements
This operation invokes the Reinforcement of Plates dialog box (Fig. 19.14-2) where you can specify
the reinforcement layout of plate elements. The diameter of reinforcement is selected from the drop-down
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list, the spacing of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement is specified in the respective line. If there is
no reinforcement, check the checkbox in the respective line.
Figure 19.14-2. The Reinforcement of Plates dialog box

If the reinforcement of some elements has been specified earlier, or obtained by an automatic
transformation of the results of the selection, the table with the variants of reinforcement will contain all
the used layouts. In this case, the specification can be performed by selecting a reinforcement layout in the
table (the data in the selected line are transferred to the respective fields of the table in the upper part of the
dialog box). Working with these data is similar to, for example, working with the characteristics of rigidity,
i.e. if you close the dialog box by clicking the OK button without changing the contents of the table, the
selected elements in the model will be assigned the reinforcement layout used earlier. If the table has been
modified and the Replace and exit or Replace and continue buttons have been used, the changes will
affect only the given layouts and their corresponding elements. Finally, if you close the dialog box by
clicking the OK button after modifying a previously used reinforcement layout, the modified
reinforcement layout will be assigned to the selected elements.
In order to assign the specified reinforcement to the elements of the model, close the dialog box by
clicking the OK button, select the elements in the model and click the OK button — in the toolbar.
The Areas button in the Reinforcement of Plates dialog box enables to obtain information on the
areas of reinforcement per running meter which correspond to the specified diameters and spacing
(Fig. 19.14 -3).
Figure 19.14-3. The Areas of Reinforcement dialog box
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The Specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements operation provides two type of actions —
the specification of the layout and its editing. The action can be selected in the menu which is dropped
down by clicking the arrow on the right from the Specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements
button.
Figure 19.14-4. Editing of the reinforcement layout

The specified values of the diameter and/or spacing can be changed for the selected elements only for
the specified types of reinforcement. Other parameters of the reinforcement remain unchanged.
− drop down the menu of the Specify the reinforcement layout of plate elements operation by
clicking the arrow and select the Edit the reinforcement layout … item;
− the Reinforcement of Plates dialog box will appear (Fig. 19.14-2) where you can specify the
types of reinforcement which have to be edited by checking the respective checkboxes;
− specify the necessary data in the respective columns of the table of reinforcement and click the
OK button;
− select the elements in the model for which the reinforcement layout is modified, and click the
Confirmation button in the toolbar.
The specified reinforcement will be replaced in the selected elements.
Specifying the Reinforcement Layout of Bar Elements
This operation invokes the dialog box (Fig. 19.14-5), where you can specify the reinforcement of
segments of bar elements. The number of segments is selected in the respective drop-down list and can be
not equal to the number of sections DCF were generated for. In any case the check of reinforcement for
each element will be performed taking into account all DCF obtained for it.
The lengths of segments are specified as a percentage of the length of the element. The reinforcement
layout of each segment is defined by the diameter of reinforcement and the number of rebars of this
diameter for the lower, upper and side reinforcement.
The presence of a certain type of reinforcement in the element is specified by checking the respective
checkboxes and it is assumed to be the same for all segments. In those cases when a certain type of
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reinforcement is absent, for example, the second row of the upper reinforcement in the central segment of
the element, the number of rebars of this type is taken as zero.
If the reinforcement of some elements has been specified earlier, or obtained by an automatic
transformation of the results of the selection, the table with the variants of reinforcement will contain all
the used layouts. In this case, the specification can be performed by selecting a reinforcement layout in the
table (the data in the selected line are transferred to the respective fields of the table in the upper part of the
dialog box). Working with these data is similar to, for example, working with the characteristics of rigidity,
i.e. if you close the dialog box by clicking the OK button without changing the contents of the table, the
selected elements in the model will be assigned the reinforcement layout used earlier. If the table has been
modified and the Replace and exit or Replace and continue buttons have been used, the changes will
affect only the given layouts and their corresponding elements. Finally, if you close the dialog box by
clicking the OK button after modifying a previously used reinforcement layout, the modified
reinforcement layout will be assigned to the selected elements.
Record in the column of the table, for example, S1 — 1: 2d20 2:3d22 3:2d14 means that for this bar
the lower reinforcement S1 is specified for segment 1 as 2 rebars with the diameter of 20 mm, for segment
2 — as 3 rebars with the diameter of 22 mm and for segment 3 — as 2 rebars with the diameter of 14 mm.
Figure 19.14-5. The Segments dialog box

In order to assign the specified reinforcement to the elements of the model, close the dialog box by
clicking the OK button, select the elements in the model and click the OK button — in the toolbar.
Clicking the Areas button enables to obtain the information on the areas of reinforcement of
different type, which is specified for each of the segments of the bar. The Areas of
Reinforcement dialog box (Fig. 19.14-6) will appear which contains the data on the areas of
reinforcement, as well as the reinforcement layout for each segment of the bar. Since the variant
of reinforcement selected in the table of the Segments dialog box can belong to the bars with
different sections, the distribution of the rebars in the sections of the element is given for a section
with conventional sizes and shape selected from the set of section shapes in the lower part of the
dialog box. Similar information but taking into account the real section of the element is available
from the information on the element.
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Figure 19.14-6. The Areas of Reinforcement dialog box
Graphical Representation of the Specified Reinforcement in Bar

Elements
The specified reinforcement in bar elements is graphically displayed as diagrams of areas of

longitudinal and transverse reinforcement. Diagrams can be “wire” (when they are not color filled) and
they can be invoked by clicking the Display diagrams of the specified reinforcement of bars button —
, and color scales can be used as well — the Color display of diagrams of the specified
reinforcement button — . Diagrams are output for the active structural group selected from the list in
the toolbar, and the type of reinforcement selected by the user. The display is similar to the display of
diagrams according to the results of the reinforcement selection described above.
Display of the Color Map of the Specified Reinforcement in Plate

Elements
A color map of the display of the specified reinforcement of plates is output in a similar way as a map
with the results of the reinforcement selection.
Display Results of the Check
The results of the check of the load-bearing capacity are given as the utilization factors of restrictions
and can be displayed on the model simultaneously for all structural groups.
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There are two types of the display of the results of the check — as a 3-color and a full color scale. In
the first case the Display results of the check on the model (3-color scale) operation — is used for
the display. When it is performed, the elements included in structural groups are displayed in three colors:
 green — the load-bearing capacity is provided;
 red — the load-bearing capacity is insufficient;
 yellow — the value of the factor of restrictions is close to the critical value (the factor is close to
1,0).
The critical range is specified by setting the color scale in the Settings dialog box which is invoked
by clicking the respective button — .
For example, if you specify the value 0,03 in the dialog box (Fig. 19.14-6), all elements with the value
of the factor less than 0.97 will be displayed in green, if the factor is greater than 1,03 — in red, and if the
factor is in the range [0,97;1,03] — yellow will be used.

If a display mode in the form of a full color scale is used (the Display results of the check on the
model (full color scale) button — ), an ordinary color scale with a custom number of colors will
appear.
If not a single group of structural members is selected in the drop-down list, the visualization of the
critical factor Kmax is performed. If a particular group is selected, the list of factors will contain the full list
of performed checks and you will be able to display on the model the results of the check for each factor
defining the load-bearing capacity of the considered structures (for example, strength or crack opening
width). The values of the selected factor can be output on the model using the filters button Digitization of
isofields/isolines — .
Extreme Factor Values
This operation enables to generate a table (Fig. 19.14-7) for the selected group of structural members
or structural members which includes the following information:
 list of factors;
 minimum and maximum value of each factor;
 numbers of finite elements where these minimum and maximum values took place.
669
Figure 19.14-7. The Extreme Factor Values dialog box

The groups or structural members can be selected from the list in the upper part of the dialog box. The
Report and Table buttons enable to obtain report documents for the selected group in the respective
formats.
Generating a Report
A report can be generated on the basis of the results of the check. It is generated in the RTF format
and is automatically loaded into an application associated with this format (for example, MS Word or
WordPad). The dialog box (Fig. 19.14-8) appears before generating the report, where you have to select
structural members and/or groups of structural members, information on which has to be included in the
report.
The dialog box provides the following options of the output control:
 For all groups and structural members — the report will include all structural groups from the
list;
 Only for specified groups and structural members — the report will contain only the
information on the groups selected in the list;
 For specified elements — in this case you have to specify the numbers of finite elements for
which the report will be generated in the text field.
670
Figure 19.14-8. The Generate Report dialog box

Moreover, the For the elements of groups with the maximum and minimum values of Kmax and
For the elements of groups with the maximum values of each checked factor checkboxes enable to
obtain a report only for the elements with the maximum values of the factors.
Information on the Element – Analysis of Reinforced Concrete

Structures
The Specified reinforcement, Reinforcement, Reinforced concrete. Check and Reinforced concrete.
Select operations, which can be invoked from the Information on the Element dialog box (button in
the filters toolbar), provide additional possibilities for the analysis of the load-bearing capacity of the
elements of reinforced concrete structures. These operations are implemented according to the same rules
as the respective operations of ARBAT [9];
Specified reinforcement — reinforcement of the considered element is specified in the dialog box
according to the rules described in the current chapter in sections Specifying the Reinforcement Layout
of Plate Elements and Specifying the Reinforcement Layout of Bar Elements. When performing the
check these data will be taken into account in the analysis of the load-bearing capacity of this element;
Reinforcement — the results of the selection of reinforcement in the considered element for plates
(Fig. 19.14-9) and bars (Fig. 19.14-10) are given in the Selection of Reinforcement dialog boxes;
Reinforced concrete. Check — the operation similar to the Strength of Sections operation of
ARBAT is performed. The initial data for performing the check include the information on the finite
element (geometric parameters etc.), and the parameters of a structural group the considered element
belongs to. Forces and stresses in the respective tab correspond to DCF of this element (if the combination
includes a special (non-seismic) loading, then the characteristic and characteristic long-term forces/stresses
will automatically be assumed equal to zero, since the serviceability limit state analysis does not have to be
performed in this case). If a bar element is a part of a structural member, the length of the structural
member will be used. If a bar element is selected with the specified reinforcement different in different
segments, clicking the button will drop down a menu where you have to select the necessary segment. You
can change different parameters, for example, the service factor, class of concrete and reinforcement, etc.,
during the check, which enables to analyze their effect on the load-bearing capacity of the element;
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Figure 19.14-9. The Selection of Reinforcement Figure 19.14-10. The Reinforcement of the Bar
dialog box for plate elements dialog box for bar elements
Reinforced concrete. Select — selection of reinforcement in the considered element by invoking the
programs of the reinforcement selection. Here, like in the case of the check, changes of different
parameters are allowed;
Reinforced concrete. Factors — a diagram of factors including all values of the utilization factor of
restrictions obtained in the result of the check is plotted for the considered element.
Specified Reinforcement Filter
The respective filter in the Display Filters toolbar is used for the color display of the specified
reinforcement in the form of discrete reinforcement. Information in the color scale is presented in the
following way:
− longitudinal reinforcement of bars — Sk = nd or n1d1 + n2d2 — in the case of the reinforcement
arranged in two rows (only for the reinforcement S1 and S2),
where: Sk – type of reinforcement in the section (k = 1, 2, 3, 4),
n — number of rebars of the given type for the reinforcement arranged in one row,
n1 and n2 — number of rebars of the given type in the first (nearest to the concrete cover) and
the second rows of reinforcement respectively,
d — diameter of rebars for the reinforcement arranged in one row,
d1 and d2 — diameter of rebars for the reinforcement arranged in two rows;
− transverse reinforcement of bars — Swz/y = nd/s,
where: Swz/y – transverse reinforcement along the respective axis,
n – number of rebars,
d – diameter of rebars,
s – spacing of stirrups.
For example, the record S1 = 3d16, S2 = 3d32, S3 = 2d12, S4 = 2d12, Swz = 2d12/125, Swy =
2d12/200 for a rectangular section means that in the considered section:
lower reinforcement — 3 bars with the diameter of 16 mm,
upper reinforcement — 3 bars with the diameter of 32 mm,
side reinforcement — 2 bars with the diameter of 12 mm along each side,
672
transverse reinforcement (stirrups) along the Z1 axis — two bars with the diameter of 12 mm
with the spacing of stirrups of 125 mm,
transverse reinforcement (stirrups) along the Y1 axis — two bars with the diameter of 12 mm
with the spacing of stirrups of 200 mm.
− longitudinal reinforcement of plates — Sk = nd,
where: Sk – type of reinforcement in the section (k = 1, 2, 3, 4),
n – number of rebars of the given type,
− transverse reinforcement of plates — Wx(y) = d/s,
where: Wx(y) – transverse reinforcement along the respective axis,
s – spacing in the respective direction.
For example, the record S1 = d16/100, S2 = d32/150, S3 = d12/100, S4 = d12/200, Wx = d12/100,
Wy = d12/150 means that:
lower reinforcement along the X axis of the direction of the force output — bars with the
diameter of 16 mm with the spacing of 100 mm,
upper reinforcement along the X axis of the direction of the force output — bars with the
lower reinforcement along the Y axis of the direction of the force output — bars with the
upper reinforcement along the Y axis of the direction of the force output — bars with the
transverse reinforcement along the X axis of the direction of the force output — bars with the
transverse reinforcement along the Y axis of the direction of the force output — bars with the
diameter of 12 mm with the spacing of 150 mm.
Switching the color scale for the display of the specified reinforcement of bars or plates is performed
with the help of the respective buttons.
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19.15. Weight of the Specified Reinforcement
Figure 19.15-1. The Reinforcement and Concrete Consumption dialog box

This operation enables to obtain information on the consumption of concrete and the specified
reinforcement (longitudinal and transverse) for each structural group (Fig. 19.15-1). Moreover, it also provides
data on the reinforcement consumption per unit volume and per unit area (for groups of plate elements), total
length of the flexible parts of bar finite elements and the number of elements in the groups. The Report button
invokes the generation of a report document.
19.16. Basic Principles of the Selection of Reinforcement in the

Finite Elements of a Slab and Shell
Selection of the Type of Reinforcement

Following [3], first of all consider the conditions of the possible formation of cracks in the slab, which the
need for reinforcement. The analysis is performed on an example of studying the behavior of some small in
plan characteristic elements with cracks extracted from the structure. Since there are no fundamental
differences between the performance of a small element of the slab and that of the shell (the curvature of
the shell has no effect within the small area), we will consider flat plates taking both bending and
membrane groups of forces, i.e. the combined action of all three moments (bending and torque) and three
forces (normal and shear) on the elements is considered.
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a) b)
c) d)
e) f)
g)
Figure 19.16-1. Slabs a, b, c, d, e, f, g
with cracks:
t — crack on the lower surface;
t' — crack on the upper surface;
с —compressed area;
E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7 — elements of the slab
with cracks of the respective type
The considered elements are assumed to be such that we can neglect the effect of shear forces on their
deformability and strength both before and after the appearance of cracks. Due to this hypothesis the
considered slabs belong to the category of thin slabs. If it has been somehow established that it is possible
to neglect the action of shear forces, the obtained conclusions can be applied to plates of medium thickness
as well.
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The character of deformation of reinforced concrete spatial structures in areas with cracks depends on
the arrangement of cracks, i.e. orientation of cracks with respect to the directions of reinforcement, mutual
intersection of cracks, formation of cracks on one or both surfaces of the element, whether the cracks are
through or non-through. Through cracks occur in a membrane stress state (in elements in the plane stress-
strain state such as deep beams) or under the additional action of small moments. It is assumed that cracks
are normal to the middle surface of elements.
The variety of cracks in elements can be reduced to seven arrangements (Fig. 19.16-1):
1. Nonintersecting cracks are located on one of the surfaces: lower (Fig. 19.16-1, a) or upper (Fig.
19.16-1, b); the elements have a tension area with cracks and a compressed area without cracks
(elements E1 and E2).
2. The element is laced with nonintersecting through cracks (Fig. 19.16-1, c).
3. There are cracks in different directions both on the lower and on the upper surfaces of the element
(Fig. 19.16-1, d). They often meet in the corner areas of slabs with large torques. The upper and
lower areas have concrete strips between the cracks taking the compression forces (they are a kind
of “compressed areas” laced with cracks).
4. One of the surfaces of the element — lower or upper (Fig. 19.16-1, e) has intersecting cracks in
two directions.
5. The element is laced with intersecting through cracks (Fig. 19.16-1, f).
6. One of the surfaces has nonintersecting cracks, and the other one has intersecting cracks
(Fig. 19.16-1, g).
All arrangements can be divided in two large groups: group N — nonintersecting cracks (see Fig.
19.16-1) (arrangements a, b, c), and group I — intersecting cracks (arrangements d, e, f, g).
Conditions of crack formation for elements subjected to the combined action of moments and normal
forces can be formulated as a generalization of the theory of core moments of the crack formation of bar
systems. The suggestion comes down to applying the theory of core moments of Gvozdev A.A. and Dmitriev
S.A. [1] to more complex concrete structures of slabs and shells.
Two surfaces in the element at the distance of ±rя from the middle surface are called the upper and
lower surfaces of core points respectively. The value rя = h/6 is determined as for a strip of slab by the
formula of the strength of materials.
Let’s introduce two new tensors of core moments: оne with component Мсх, Мсу and Мсху, where
Мсх = Мх + Nх rс; Мсу = My + Ny rс; Мсхy = Мхy + Nxy rс , (19.16.1)
and the other with components
М'сх = - Мх + Nх rс; М'су = - My + Ny rс; М'схy = - Мхy + Nxy rс . (19.16.2)
From the very definition of core sizes which are calculated based on the condition of zero stresses on
the edge of a cross-section [3], it follows that the appearance of the positive core moment means that there
is tension on the respective edge. If we assume that tension has to be taken by reinforcement, the decision
on whether the reinforcement is necessary is made based on the analysis of the following inequalities:
for the lower area of the element:
Мс.max  0; Мc.min  0, (19.16.3)
for the upper area of the element:
М'c.max  0; М'c.min  0. (19.16.4)
If the first condition is violated (19.16.3), a crack is formed according to the arrangement a (Fig.
19.16-1) on the area subjected to the main core moment Мc.max. The angle  between this area (crack) and
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the Х axis at the moment of violation of the first inequality (19.16.3) can be determined using the
following expression
tg = (Мc.max – Мcу)/ Мcхy. (19.16.5)
When the first inequality is violated (19.16.4), the cracks are formed according to the arrangement b
(Fig. 19.16-1). The angle between the upper crack and the Х axis can be determined using the following
expression
tg = (М'c.max - М'cу)/ М'cхy. (19.16.6)
Simultaneous violation of the first condition (19.16.3) or the first condition (19.16.4) and of the
additional inequality Ncl  0,75Rph indicates that cracks are formed according to the arrangement c (Fig.
19.16-1). Additional inequality is established on the basis of the assumption that the through cracks are
formed at the moment when the cross section has an unambiguous trapezoidal diagram of tensile normal
stresses equal on one of the extreme and middle surface to Rр, and on the other extreme surface — to zero.
Simultaneous violation of the first inequality (19.16.3) and of the first inequality (19.16.4) indicates
that cracks are formed according to the arrangement d (Fig. 19.16-1).
Violation of two inequalities (19.16.3) indicates that cracks are formed in the lower area according to
the arrangement e (Fig. 19.16-1), and violation of two inequalities (19.16.4) indicates that cracks are
formed in the upper area according to the arrangement e.
It is assumed that simultaneous violation of conditions (19.16.3) and of inequalities Ncl  0,75Rph and
Nc2  0,75Rph or (19.16.4) and inequalities N'cl  0,75Rph and N'c2  0,75Rph leads to the formation of
cracks according to the arrangement f (Fig. 19.16-1).
Here Ncl, Nc2, N'cl, N'c2 are the values of normal stresses on the respective areas subjected to the core
moments.
Simultaneous violation of the condition (19.16.3) and of only one of the inequalities Ncl  0,75Rph
and Nc2  0,75Rph or of the conditions (19.16.4) and of only one of the inequalities N'cl  0,75Rph and N'c2
 0,75Rph indicates that cracks are formed according to the arrangement g (Fig. 19.16-1).
Strength Check
It is known that the angle of principal planes may not coincide with the direction of crack propagation [3].
Therefore, when checking the reinforcement SCAD also performs the search of areas where the conditions
of strength may be violated the most. Suppose, for example, this area is located at an angle  to the X axis
of reinforcement and it is assumed that the reinforcement is parallel to the X and Y axes of the Cartesian
coordinate system. We will consider only the case when there is a non-through crack in the concrete and
only the lower reinforcement is required (Fig. 19.16-2).
Figure 19.16-2. To the strength analysis
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If we extract an elementary triangular prism (Fig. 19.16-3) and assume that the reinforcement
transferring the forces in a crack takes only the longitudinal forces (neglect the dowel action), then when
writing the equilibrium conditions with respect to axes 1 and 2 passing through the center of the
compressed area of concrete parallel to axes X and Y, we will obtain:
RaFa,xZsin = (Mx + NxZb) sin + (Myx + NyxZb)cos;
(19.16.7)
RaFa,yZcos = (My + NyZb) cos + (Mxy + NxyZb)sin,
where Z is an arm of the tensile reinforcement with respect to the center of gravity of the compressed area
of concrete, Fa,x and Fa,y are reinforcement areas per running meter in the Х and Y direction respectively.
Since the prism has a unit length of the oblique plane and all internal forces are given by their values per
unit length, the equations of equilibrium will include the lengths of planes 1sin and 1cos the total
force is taken from.
Figure 19.16-3. To the determination of stresses in Figure 19.16-4. To the determination of stresses in
reinforcement and concrete in the area of an reinforcement and concrete in the area of an oblique
oblique crack: crack:
arrangement of forces in the area of the crack arrangement of moments and longitudinal forces applied
to the sides of the elementary triangular prism
It is not difficult to adjust these equations for the case of compressed reinforcement. Then for example
for the X axis we will obtain the following formula
Mx1 + 'A'sx1Z' - Mbx1  0, (19.16.8)
where Mx1 is the projection of moments of all forces on the plane perpendicular to the X axis;
Mx1= (Mx + NxZb) + (Myx + NyxZb)tg , (19.16.9)
'A'sx1Z' is the moment of forces in reinforcement located in the compressed area of concrete and
working in compression together with concrete with respect to the axis of the tensile reinforcement; Mbx1 is
the moment of forces in the compressed area of concrete with respect to the axis of the tensile
reinforcement. Naturally, if there is compressed reinforcement, the value of the compressed area of
concrete is clarified (this is done in an iterative cycle) and the value of Z is adjusted accordingly.
The condition of strength for the Y axis is determined in a similar way (by a simple replacement of
values with the subscript х with the corresponding values with the subscript у).
For other cases of crack formation and reinforcement arrangements all considerations are performed
similarly to those given above. They are described in detail in [3] and are used in SCAD when checking
the elements of reinforced concrete structures and selecting reinforcement.
678
The aforementioned selection of the location of areas where the conditions of strength can be violated
the most is implemented by the direct enumeration of angles  with a step of 7.5. The performed
comparative calculations have shown that the use of a smaller step of scanning does not lead to noticeable
changes in the results, but significantly slows down the computation.
Analysis for Lateral Forces

When plates are calculated for the action of lateral forces, SCAD performs two separate calculations
– for the action of Qx and for the action of Qy. In each case a strip of unit width is “cut out” from the plate
in the respective direction. Then this strip is calculated for the action of the lateral force as a flexural
element according to the recommendations of the codes for bar elements.
If we analyze the method of calculating plates for the action of shear forces, it can be seen that the
a
strength is determined by a single value of the intensity W  w (aw is the cross-sectional area of one
sx s y
transverse rebar), i.e. the amount of transverse reinforcement per unit area.
The values of the diameter of reinforcement and the spacing do not matter. It is only important that
the value of W is greater than a certain value that ensures that the inequality of the following type is
Q
satisfied  1.
0.5  Rbt  h0  W  Rsw  h0
When determining the required transverse assortment reinforcement, the software selects the diameter
(based on the set of diameters of the given class of reinforcement and the limitations on the maximum
diameter) and two spacings (from the lists of allowable spacing), so that the value of W is greater than the
design value and gives the minimum intensity (minimizes the steel consumption). The intensities per
running meter in the directions Wx,Wy can be either less than the design values, or considerably greater.
Determination of the Crack Opening Width

Crack opening calculation is performed in the same way as the strength analysis for one of the variants of
their formation.
Two assumptions are used:
 the change in the stress state in the area between adjacent cracks can be neglected;
 adjacent cracks can be considered as parallel.
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Figure 19.16-5. Fragment of the surface of a plate with a crack.

Diagrams of the variation of tensile stresses in reinforcement
from the values Tax and Tay near the crack to the values 0ax and 0ay at the place of formation of a
new crack
In accordance with the guidelines of V.I.Murashev [4], which are used as the basis for the current
SNiP, it is assumed that the adjacent crack is formed at such a distance lcr, that the stress in reinforcement
due to the adhesion forces of concrete decrease from the value Ta to 0a, and the forces in concrete
increase from zero near the crack to the values causing the formation of a new crack. The following values
are predetermined:
Lcrc,x= (bh2/3,5)(dx/4) l / (AsxZ)cos ;
(19.16.10)
Lcrc,y= (bh2/3,5)(dy/4) l / (AsyZ)cos  ,
where dx and dy are rebar diameters;
 is the coefficient accounting for the profile of reinforcement (SNiP 2.03.01-84*);
l is the coefficient accounting for the duration of the load action for different types of concrete
(SNiP 2.03.01-84*).
The average distance between cracks Lcrc is determined as the maximal of the two values (19.16.10),
since this value defines the area of the plate where the adhesion between concrete and reinforcement is
fully restored in two directions.
A value for the lower or upper reinforcement (depending on the situation) in the respective direction
is used as the area of reinforcement per unit length Asx and Asy.
Stresses in reinforcement are determined by the formula:
sx = Mx / (AsxZ); sy = My / (AsyZ), (19.16.11)
where Mi is the projection of moments of all forces acting on the section with respect to the axis of the
respective tensile reinforcement (i = x, y);
Z is an arm of the tensile reinforcement with respect to the center of gravity of the compressed area of
concrete;
Asx and Asу is the area of tensile reinforcement per unit length.
680
The crack opening width is determined by the formula:

acrc= (sx + sy)Lcrc , (19.16.12)
where sх= (sх* s) / Es and sу= (sу* s) / Es. Here s is the coefficient accounting for the behavior
of concrete in tension within the area with cracks and determined according to the recommendations of
Sec. 4.29 SNiP.
Thus the crack opening width is determined by the average distance between them, and the stresses in
reinforcement are determined without using the semi-empirical relationship given in SNiP for bar
elements.
General Algorithm
In the general case it is necessary to determine the values for six types of reinforcement (Fig. 19.16-6).
A set of unfavorable combinations of loadings is predetermined. This set includes internal forces
creating extreme values of normal stresses on the inner and outer surfaces, and also extreme values of
shear stresses in the direction of the plate thickness. The values relating to the midpoints of finite elements
are used.
Figure 19.16-6. Reinforcement layout in sections of a finite element of a slab and shell
The strength of the plate is checked by the enumeration of variants of combinations for each finite
element (core moments, angles , the possible arrangement of cracks etc. are determined) and if the
conditions of strength are not satisfied, the value of the intensity of reinforcement is increased. This is done
until the conditions of strength are satisfied or it turns out that it is impossible to provide the conditions of
strength without exceeding the specified maximum percentage of reinforcement, and the respective
message is generated in this case.
Then the crack opening width is checked for the selected reinforcement (if necessary). If the crack
opening width exceeds the allowable value, the area of reinforcement is increased until the crack opening
width becomes satisfactory. When selecting the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement from the action
of each subsequent combination the reinforcement selected from the action of previous combinations is
taken into account.
19.17. Implementation of SNiP 52-101-2003 and SP

63.13330.2012
The selection and check of reinforcement in the elements of reinforced concrete structures in accordance
with the recommendations of SNiP 52-01-2003 (SP 52-101-2003) and SP 63.13330.2012 are implemented
in SCAD. It should be noted that SP 52-101-2003 does not provide any recommendations on the analysis
of behavior of reinforced concrete structures under dynamic actions. SCAD does not prohibit the
calculation of this type, but the responsibility for the use of the results of the calculation in this case should
be taken by the user.
The recommendations of SNiP and SP relating to the nonlinear deformation model of the behavior of
reinforced concrete are used in the process of analysis of the normal cross-sections. A bilinear diagram of
681
the state of concrete recommended by SNiP is used in the strength analysis for a nonlinear deformation
model, and a trilinear diagram of the state of concrete recommended by SNiP is used in the analysis on
crack formation.
Besides the recommendations of SNiP and SP materials given in Guide to SP 52-101-2003 (Sec. 3.29-
3.35, 3.50, 3.52, 3.71, 4.28) are used in the analysis of transverse reinforcement.
The following main checks of sections are performed in the process of the reinforcement selection:
SP 52-101-2003 SP 63.13330.2012
Deformation of concrete in the normal section Sec. 6.2.25 Sec. 8.1.24
Deformation of reinforcement in the normal section Sec. 6.2.25 Sec. 8.1.24
Deformation of concrete in tension in the normal section Sec. 6.2.30 Sec. 8.1.29
Strength in an oblique concrete strip under Qz Sec. 6.2.33 Sec. 8.1.32, 8.1.34
Strength in an oblique concrete strip under Qy Sec. 6.2.33 Sec. 8.1.32, 8.1.34
Strength of the oblique section under Qz Sec. 6.2.34 Sec. 8.1.33, 8.1.34
Strength of the oblique section under Qy Sec. 6.2.34 Sec. 8.1.33, 8.1.34
Strength of the oblique section under the moment Мz Sec. 6.2.35 Sec. 8.1.35
Strength of the oblique section under the moment Му Sec. 6.2.35 Sec. 8.1.35
Torsion strength of concrete Sec. 6.2.37 Sec. 8.1.37
Torsion strength of the reinforcement Sec. 6.2.38 Sec. 8.1.38
Short-term crack opening width Sec. 7.2.3 Sec. 8.2.6
Long-term crack opening width Sec. 7.2.3 Sec. 8.2.6
It should be noted that if SP 63.13330.2012 is selected, the torsional analysis performed by the
program is based on the classical formulas by Mersch and Rausch [10]. This is due to the fact that when
the deformation model recommended by SP is used in the analysis of compressed elements subjected to
torsion, Sec. 8.1.40 has a reference to Sec. 8.1.9, which, firstly, deals with a force model (although the
analysis for a deformation model enables to define such a concept as the ultimate bending moment) and,
secondly, deals with the analysis of flexural elements with only a rectangular cross-section. There are
similar inconsistencies in SP 52-101-2003 as well.
When the calculations are performed according to SP 52-101-2003 or SP 63.13330.2012 the software
calculates the following factors:
 Strength for the ultimate longitudinal force;
 Ultimate moment strength.
The first one is the ratio N for the elements in tension and N for the elements in
Rs As ,tot Rs As ,tot  R b A
compression. Although there is no requirement for checking this factor in the codes (except for Sec. 6.2.19
of SP 52-101-2003 and Sec. 8.1.18 of SP 63.13330.2012), we can not perform other calculations without
first checking that this value in less than one, for example, calculate the coefficient n in Sec. 8.1.34 of SP
63.13330.2012. The Ultimate moment strength factor was introduced for similar reasons. N, My, Mz have to
be multiplied by this number to obtain the maximum allowable values of the deformations of concrete or
reinforcement.
19.18. Factors in Stress-Strain Models

When comparing the results of the calculation for the limit forces and the nonlinear deformation
model, the factors (utilization factors of restriction) can differ by many times. In order to explain the reason
for this discrepancy, let’s consider the strength analysis of the normal cross-section of a bar under central
tension.
When performing the calculation for limit forces, the following restriction must be satisfied (see
Sec. 8.1.18 of SP 63.13330.2012)
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NRsAs,tot,
where N is a longitudinal tensile force from external loads;
Rs is the design tensile strength of the reinforcement;
Аs,tot is a cross-sectional area of all longitudinal reinforcement.
In this case, the respective factor is equal to

kforce=N/RsAs,tot,
i.e. kforce depends linearly on N.
When using a nonlinear deformation model, the following restriction must be satisfied (see
Sec. 8.1.24 of SP 63.13330.2012)
kdef=εs,max/εs,ult1,
where εs,max is a relative deformation of a rebar under the greatest tension in the normal section of the
element from the action of the external load;
εs,ult is the limit value of the relative reinforcement elongation.
So, knowing the value of N (or the stress in the reinforcement s=N/As,tot), it is necessary to determine
the relative deformation of the reinforcement ε on the basis of the state diagram and compare it with the
maximum allowable one (εs,ult). SP 63.13330.2012 recommends to use the following type of diagram
If N/As,tot < Rs, then no problems arise, but even when N/As,tot = Rs, the diagram recommended by SP
does not allow to determine ε unambiguously (ε can take any value greater than εs0) and obtain a factor
allowing to make a conclusion about how much it is necessary to increase the load-bearing capacity of the
section (or to reduce the value of the longitudinal force) in order to meet the requirements of the codes.
Therefore, a modified diagram is used in the calculations in SCAD and Arbat, in which the upper section
is not horizontal but slightly inclined:
Let’s redraw this diagram as follows
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Suppose that the longitudinal force exceeds the maximum allowable value given in Sec. 8.1.18 by
10%, i.e. kforce = 1,1.
If we use a nonlinear deformation model, we will get the following picture,
i.e., the relative deformation has increased significantly (much more than 10%) and we get the factor
kdef >> 1,1.
A similar situation can arise when comparing other factors.
19.19. Examples of Using the Results of the Reinforcement

Selection in Designing
Let’s consider how the obtained results can be used when making design decisions using the examples of
the transverse reinforcement selected by the program.
Example №1:
The calculated intensity of transverse reinforcement per meter in a shell finite element:
IWx = 4,5 cm2/m;
IWy = 6,5 cm2/m.
Problem:
Determine the spacing of transverse reinforcement sх and sу to provide this intensity.
Solution:
Let’s take rebars with the diameter of 10 mm for transverse reinforcement (bar cross-sectional area
aw = 78,54 mm2 = 0,7854 cm2). The spacing of reinforcement along the Y1 axis will be:
a 0,7854
sy  w   0,121m  120mm;
IW y 6,5
The spacing of reinforcement along the X1 axis will be:
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aw 0,7854
sx    0,175m  175mm.
IW x 4,5
Let’s reduce the spacing of transverse reinforcement to the “standard” one, — multiple of 50 mm (for
example, 50, 100, 150, …). In order to provide the necessary intensity, let’s take the spacing of transverse
reinforcement as (rounded down) sy = 100 mm, sx = 150 mm.
Example №2:
The calculated intensity of transverse reinforcement per meter in a shell finite element:
IWx = 4,5 cm2/m;
IWy = 6,5 cm2/m.
Problem:
Determine the diameter of transverse reinforcement to provide this intensity when:
sx = sy = 150 mm = 0,15 m.
Solution:
Cross-sectional area of transverse rebars (located along the Y1 axis with the spacing sy) providing the
intensity IWy:
aw  IWy  sy  6 ,5  0,15  0 ,975 cm2.
The closest assortment reinforcement —  12 mm, (aw = 113,1 mm2 = 1,131 cm2).
Cross-sectional area of transverse rebars (located along the X1 axis with the spacing sx) providing the
intensity IWx:
aw  IWx  sx  4,5  0,15  0,675 cm2.
The closest assortment reinforcement —  10 mm (aw = 78,54 mm2 = 0,7854 cm2).
Since a bar of transverse reinforcement works simultaneously in both directions, in order to provide
the necessary intensity of reinforcement at the given spacing sx = sy = 0,15 m, let’s take the diameter of
12 mm.
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19.20. Punching Analysis

The punching analysis of plate elements is performed for the local concentrated forces (normal to the plane
of the element) and bending moments in two planes according to the method given in SNiP 2.03.01-84*,
SP 52-101-2003 and SP 63.13330.2012.
It is assumed that punching occurs on the lateral surface of the pyramid.
The software uses the same general approaches for the classification of the design case of punching,
classification of the column type (middle, edge and corner – see the figure) for SNiP, and for SP (although,
for example, SNiP considers only the case of a middle column with a rectangular cross-section).
The punching analysis takes into account the position of the column with respect to the edge of the
slab. There are the following types of columns: middle, edge and corner (see the figure). When performing
the analysis the length of the design punching contour is determined in different ways depending on the
position of the column.
A – middle column;
B – edge column;
C – corner column;
1 – load application area (load area); 2 – closed design contour;

3 – open design contour;
The analysis is performed both for the concrete slab cross-section, and for the cross-section of a slab
with transverse reinforcement. The software considers only the uniform arrangement of the transverse
reinforcement around the load application area.
The strength check of the concrete section is always performed, and when necessary, the minimum
required intensity of transverse reinforcement is determined (diameter and spacing in two directions).
In addition to the actual check of the strength of elements for the action of the local load at punching
the check of the number of structural requirements of the codes is also performed during the calculation (in
some cases they are obligatory).
The load application area at punching is considered only as a rectangle in the codes. In order to
calculate other shapes of the column cross-section a minimum circumscribed rectangle with the sides
parallel to the principal axes of inertia of the column section is constructed around them.
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Reduction of different column sections to the design rectangle

A contour of the design cross-section is constructed around each column. In the case of the middle
column this contour is always closed and it is located around the load transfer area (contour of the load
area) at the distance specified in the codes. In the case of the corner and edge columns two punching
contours are considered – closed and open ones (L-shaped for a corner column and U-shaped for an edge
column). Moreover, according to the recommendations of SP 52-101-2003 and SP 63.13330.2012 the
strength check is performed for the contour beyond which the transverse reinforcement is not considered.
In order to perform the punching analysis it is necessary to first calculate the design combinations of
punching forces. It should be noted that the calculation of the given design combinations in the process of
the general calculation is not performed automatically, and the user has to invoke this calculation in the
project tree.
Checks at the punching analysis
Check SNiP 2.03.01-84* SP 52-101-03 SP 63.13330.2012
Strength without taking the Sec.3.42 Sec. 6.2.49 Sec.8.1.49
reinforcement into account
Strength taking the reinforcement into Sec.3.42 Sec. 6.2.50 Sec. 8.1.50
account
Peculiarities of the implementation

SNiP 2.03.01-84* considers only the case of the middle column. In the case of a corner or edge
column the method given in SP 63.13330.2012 is used to determine the length of the lower base of the
pyramid.
If the plate elements located near the punching node have different thicknesses, the minimum
thickness is assumed.
The codes do not provide any clear rules for the classification of the column type (middle, edge and
corner). When the calculation is performed in the program, it is assumed that the distances to the
unsupported edges of the slab (for the corner and edge columns) are taken into account in the case when
the distance from the boundary of the load application area to the unsupported edge does not exceed 3
effective heights (h0) of the longitudinal reinforcement of the slab along one of the axes X, Y (the
unsupported edge of the slab), or simultaneously along both axes X, Y (unsupported angle of the slab).
Since a particular arrangement of the transverse reinforcement around a column is unknown, the
following restriction is introduced: the boundary of the contour for the check calculation is assumed
without the consideration of the reinforcement at a distance of 0,5h0 from the boundary of the area within
which the transverse reinforcement is taken into account in the calculation.
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Data Preparation, Calculation and Analysis of Results
The operations of the preparation of the initial data, calculation and the analysis of the results at the
punching analysis can be performed with the help of the toolbar which is invoked from the Reinforced
Concrete toolbar (Fig. 19.20-1).
Figure 19.20-1. Toolbar of the punching analysis

This toolbar includes the buttons for invoking the following operations:
— punching analysis;
— report on punching;
— specify punching nodes;
— select punching nodes;
— show punching nodes;
— show punching contours;
— display the results on the model (3-color scale);
— display the results on the model (full color scale);
— show results of the punching analysis;
Specify Punching Nodes
This operation is used to create a list of punching nodes and to edit it by replacing the list, adding and
removing the nodes from the list. After invoking this operation the Create Punching Nodes dialog box
appears (Fig. 19.20-2), where you can select a method for specifying nodes, and the operations with the list
(in the case of an existing list).
There are two modes for specifying the punching nodes — automatic and “manual”. The automatic
generation of the list implies that any node which belongs simultaneously to the horizontal plate elements
and to the vertical bar located below or above the plate is specified as a punching node. Moreover, this
node must not belong to other horizontal or inclined bars.
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The following procedure is used for the “manual” specification of the list of nodes or its adjustment:
− invoke the Specify punching nodes operation, the Create Punching Nodes dialog box will
appear where you have to select the Use the selected nodes radio button in the Input method
group;
− select the Replace the list radio button in the Operations with nodes list group. In this case if the
list is not yet generated, a new list will be created from the selected nodes; otherwise the selected
nodes will replace those specified in the list. If the Add to the list radio button is selected, the
selected nodes will be added to the existing list;
− close the dialog box by clicking the OK button and select the nodes in the design model for which
you want to perform the punching analysis;
− click the Confirmation button in the toolbar and the list will be generated.
The Clear data button enables to delete the generated list.
Figure 19.20-2. The Create Punching Nodes dialog box

Moreover, the minimum cross-sectional area of the columns which should be taken into account when
performing the punching analysis can be specified in the considered dialog box. The nodes of the columns
with a smaller cross-sectional area will not be included in the list of punching nodes.
Select Punching Nodes
This operation is used to select the nodes included in the list of punching nodes (if you want to
perform certain actions with these nodes).
Show Punching Nodes
This operation enables to highlight the punching nodes in the design model. This method of selection
does not imply that operations will be performed with thus selected objects.
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Calculation
The punching analysis can be performed only if all the horizontal plate elements adjacent to a certain
node or lying in the vicinity of this node inside or on the boundary of the punching contour belong to one
main group of the reinforcement of plates.
If there is no information on the specified transverse reinforcement for the plate finite elements
included in the area of the analysis of the punching node, the calculation is performed without taking the
reinforcement into account.
Show Punching Contours
This operation enables to display the punching contours on the design model obtained in the result of
the calculation (upper ones — for the slab under the column and lower ones — for the slab above the co-
lumn), and the load areas. The contours are displayed in magenta, and the areas — in blue (Fig. 19.20-3).
When the calculations are performed according to SP and a corner or an edge column is considered, a
contour (closed or open) corresponding to a greater utilization factor of restrictions will be displayed.
Figure 19.20-3. Design model and punching contours
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Display Results
The results of the check for punching are given as the utilization factors of restrictions.
There are two types of the display of the results of the check — as a 3-color and a full color scale. In
the first case the Display the results on the model (3-color scale) — is used for the display. When it
is performed, the punching nodes are displayed in three colors:
 green — the load-bearing capacity is provided;
 red — the load-bearing capacity is insufficient;
 yellow — the value of the factor of restrictions is close to the critical value (the factor is close to
1,0).
The critical range is specified by setting the color scale in the Settings dialog box which is invoked
by clicking the respective button — .
For example, if you specify the value 0,03 in the dialog box (Fig. 19.20-4), all elements with the value
of the factor less than 0.97 will be displayed in green, if the factor is greater than 1,03 — in red, and if the
factor is in the range [0,97;1,03] — yellow will be used.

If a display mode in the form of a full color scale is used (the Display the results on the model (full
color scale) button — ), an ordinary color scale with a custom number of colors will appear.
The list of factors contains the list of performed checks, and you can display on the model the results
of the check for each factor defining the load-bearing capacity of the considered structures (for example,
strength without taking the reinforcement into account). The values of the selected factor can be output on
the model using the filters button Digitization of isofields/isolines — .
Table of Results
This operation enables to obtain the results of the punching analysis in the tabular form (Fig. 19.20-5).
The lengths of contours of the lower and upper base of the punching pyramid, factor for strength without
taking the reinforcement into account K1 and/or factor for strength taking the reinforcement into account K2
are output for each punching node. Factor K2 is calculated only when all horizontal plates adjacent to the
punching node have the same specified transverse reinforcement; moreover, the diameter and spacing (in
the X, Y direction) of the optimal (in terms of the consumption of transverse reinforcement) transverse
reinforcement of plates are output in the Selected reinforcement columns.
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Figure 19.20-5. The Result of the Punching Analysis dialog box

It should be noted that it is impossible to select reinforcement in some cases. For example, if the
calculations are performed according to SNiP 2.03.01-84* and the factor for strength without taking the
reinforcement into account is greater than 2,0, the installation of transverse reinforcement can not provide
the punching strength (see limitation Fb+0,8Fsw  2Fb in Sec. 3.42).
Generating a Report
punching nodes, information on which has to be included in the report.
 For all nodes — the report will include all punching nodes;
 For selected nodes — in this case you have to specify the numbers of nodes for which the report
will be generated in the text field.

Moreover, the For nodes with maximum and minimum values of Kmax and For nodes with
maximum values of each checked factor checkboxes enable to obtain a report only for the nodes with the
maximum values of the factors.
1. A.A. Gvozdev, S.A. Dmitriev, To the calculation of prestressed, ordinary reinforced concrete and concrete
sections on the formation of cracks // Concrete and reinforced concrete, 1957, No. 5.
2. A.S. Zalesov, T.A. Mukhamediev, E.A. Chistyakov, Analysis on crack resistance of reinforced concrete
structures according to the new standards and regulations // Concrete and reinforced concrete, 2002, No. 5.
3. N.I. Karpenko, The theory of deformation of reinforced concrete with cracks. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1976.
4. V.I. Murashev, Crack resistance, rigidity and strength of reinforced concrete. — M.: Mashstroyizdat, 1950.
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5. Guide on designing of concrete and reinforced concrete structures made of heavy-weight and lightweight
concrete (no prestressing) (to SNiP 2.03.01–84*) / Central Res. Inst. of Industrial Buildings and Res. Inst. for
Reinforced Concrete of USSR State Comm. for Constr. and Archit.— M.: Stroyizdat, 1986.
6. SNiP 2.03.01-84*. Concrete and reinforced concrete structures. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1985.
7. SNiP II-7-81*. Construction in seismic regions. — M.: Stroyizdat, 1982.
8. A.P. Filin, Applied solid mechanics Volume II. — M.: Nauka, 1978.
9. V.S. Karpilovsky, E.Z. Kriksunov, A.A. Malyarenko, M.A. Mikitarenko, A.V. Perelmuter, M.A. Perelmuter,
V.G. Fedorovsky, V.V. Yurchenko, “SCAD Office. Implementation of SNiP in Computer-Aided Design
Applications” — M.: SCAD SOFT, 2014 — 480p.
10. V.I. Murashev, E.B. Sigalov, V.N. Baikov, Ferroconcrete constructions. Moscow, “Gosstroyizdat”, 1962. 660 p.
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2 0 . Check of the Load-bearing Capacity of Steel Sections
20. Check of the Load-bearing Capacity

of Steel Sections
This mode enables to check the load-bearing capacity of bar elements of steel structures in accordance
with the requirements of EN 1993, SNiP II-23-81*, SP 53-102-2004, SP 16.13330.2011,
СП 16.13330.2017 or DBN B.2.6-163:2010 and DBN B.2.6-198:2014.
In the current version of the software the cross-sections of bars can be made from rolled profiles, from
I-sections and hollow sections specified as parametric sections, and also from custom configuration
sections created with the help of Section Builder, Consul or TONUS. This mode can be also used for the
selection of sections of bars in those cases when their cross-sections are taken from rolled profiles or from
welded sections given as an assortment (for example, according to the enterprise specifications).
The control of the operations of the input of initial data, analysis of the load-bearing capacity and
selection of sections in the elements of steel structures is performed from the Steel toolbar. The following
toolbars contain the controls of these operations:
— input data;
— results for steel.
The design combinations of forces (DCF) must be specified, otherwise this mode will not be
available. You should also make sure that the codes specified at the generation of DCF correspond to the
codes used in the analysis of elements of steel structures.
Input the Initial Data
List of structural members

and groups of structural members List of unification groups
Figure 20-1. The Input data toolbar for the calculation of the load-bearing capacity of steel sections
The Input data toolbar (Fig. 20-1) includes the buttons for invoking the following operations:
— set parameters; — display design model;

— specify structural members; — control the groups of steel structural
members;
— specify groups of structural members;
— control the unification groups;
— select active group;
— show active group (here purple color is used
— confirm the selection of structural both in the image of the icon and in the model
members; unlike the group selection button where the
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red color is used);

— cancel the current mode;
— specify steel;
— specify unification groups;
— information on the groups of steel structural
members;
— show modified sections;
— restore initial sections;
The check of the load-bearing capacity of steel sections is performed for structural members or
groups of structural members.
Structural member models a physically homogeneous element of a structure, for example, a column
of a frame, an undercrane (overcrane) part of the column, a plate girder, a truss chord etc.
The geometric length of a structural member is equal to the sum of the lengths of its constituent
finite elements.
A continuous chain of bar finite elements with the following properties is considered as a structural
member:
 elements included in the chain lie on one straight line without gaps (the accuracy is defined by the
parameter of matching nodes);
 all elements of the chain have the same type of rigidity;
 all finite elements of the chain have the same type;
 all elements of the chain have the same orientation of the principal axes of the cross-section;
 elements of the chain do not have rigid inserts and hinges (hinges are allowed only in the first and the last
node of the chain);
 elements of the chain can be included only in one structural member.
In some cases a structural member can consist of only one bar finite element.
When it is necessary to consider a number of individual bar finite elements (for example, verticals or
diagonals of a truss), they can be combined into groups of structural members, and the check of the load-
bearing capacity is performed for the entire structural group. All elements included in a group must have
the same section type. Moreover, the same effective length factors (or effective lengths) are used for all
elements of a structural group.
Since there are special requirements listed above to the structural members and groups, and their
control is performed in the process of specification and calculation, in this case the usual groups of
elements are not used.
Design combinations of forces (DCF) must be calculated for all elements

included in the structural members and groups of structural members.
Structural members and groups of structural members (hereinafter — structural groups) can be
created beforehand in the preprocessor or in the postprocessor in the Groups toolbar (the Elements of
steel structures operation — ). If when switching to the check of sections the data of the structural
groups created earlier do not have to be corrected, you can skip the data input mode, and proceed to the
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analysis of sections at once. Otherwise, the structural groups are created and/or corrected in the Input data
section of the Steel toolbar.
20.1. Setting the Parameters
The initial setting of the parameters is performed in the Settings dialog box (Fig. 20.1-1). The data
specified in the dialog box are automatically assigned to all newly created structural members and groups
of structural members. In those cases when a structural member or a group has values of parameters
different from those specified in the dialog box, these parameters are specified in the Structural Member
or Group of Structural Members dialog boxes.
The following values are taken by default: service factor — 1.0, limit slenderness of members in
compression— 180, limit slenderness of members in tension — 300. The specified service factor must be
in the range 0.7…1.2.
Figure. 20.1-1. The Settings dialog box
Steel
Steel is selected from the respective list. If for some reason it is necessary to specify a nonstandard value of
the design strength, select the Other (steel) line in the list of steels and specify the value of Ry in the text
field. In this case the design strength will not depend on the type and thickness of the rolled profile.
Service Factors
Clicking the button invokes the dialog box (see Fig. 20.1-2), where you can select a standard (specified
by the codes) value of the service factor and transfer this value into the text field by clicking the Apply
button.
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Figure 20.1-2. The Service Factor dialog box

If EN 1993 is selected for designing steel structures, this control is not available.
Limit Slenderness
Clicking the button invokes the dialog box (see Fig. 20.1-3), where you can select a standard
(specified by the codes) value of the limit slenderness and transfer this value into the text field by clicking
the Apply button.
Figure 20.1-3. The Limit Slenderness dialog box

If EN 1993 is selected for designing steel structures, this control is not available.
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Creating New Structural Groups

The following procedure is recommended for preparing the new structural groups:
− select elements included in the structural group in the model;
− select the Input data operation — in the Steel section of the toolbar and the toolbar for the
preparation of the initial data for the analysis of elements of steel structures will appear;
− click one of the buttons corresponding to the type of the created group:
− — Specify structural members;
− — Specify groups of structural members.
− click the button — Confirmation in the toolbar;
− the Structural Member (Fig. 20.1-1) or Groups of Structural Members for Checking Sections
dialog box will appear, where you have to specify the parameters of the group.
20.2. Specifying New Structural Members
The following characteristics of the member are specified in the Structural Member dialog box:
name of the member (must be specified), type of the structural member, effective length factors, length
between restraints out of the bending plane, importance factor, and steel, service factors and limit
slenderness (the last three parameters correspond to those specified in the Settings dialog box by default).
If these parameters have been changed, the structural member will have the characteristics different from
those specified for the whole model.
Figure 20.2-1. The Structural Member dialog box
Effective Length Factors

Geometric length of a structural member is multiplied by the effective length factors, which are used to
determine the effective lengths of a structural member (physically homogeneous bar) in the planes of the
principal axes of inertia of the cross-section. They should be specified based on the length between
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restraints out of the bending plane of the element in a real structure and the type of this restraint (rigid or
elastic support, constraining angular or linear displacements).
You can also specify the effective lengths (in two bending planes) instead of the effective length
factors. Select the respective radio button to do it.

The maximum allowable vertical displacements are taken into account in accordance with the code
selected for the analysis. For example, if SP 20.13330.2011 is used, the checks are performed in
accordance with Section F.2.1 of Annex F, and when you are working with DSTU BB1.2-3: 2006
(Deflections and displacements) — according to item 5.1 of Section 5.
The check is performed on the basis of the parameters selected in the respective table in the
Structural Member dialog box. You can specify both relative and absolute values of the allowable
displacements. In the first case, the following variants of the accounting for displacement are considered
(the variants can be selected from the drop-down list of the respective column of the table):
− Unlimited — displacements are not taken into account in the check;
− Automatically — relative (with respect to the length of the structural member) displacements are
calculated by the software depending on the length of the member; the range of lengths and
corresponding limit displacements are determined by the code;
− the limit value is selected in the list.
The absolute values of displacements are specified by the user or are not taken into account if the
“Unlimited” variant is selected.
If both relative and absolute limitations of displacements are simultaneously specified, the value
resulting in a greater coefficient is considered when calculating the utilization factor of restrictions.
It should be noted that the automatic check by the relative value makes sense only in those cases
when a structural member has no constraints in the span between the end nodes.
Taking into account the fact that there are situations when the designer is interested in displacements
caused only by the variable actions (for example, the check of the instability of the structure, or the case
when the displacements from the self-weight are counteracted by the camber), the software enables to
perform the checks for all loads, or, separately for only the temporary ones. The type of calculation is
selected by checking the checkboxes in the respective lines and activating the design combinations of
deflections. In any case the checks are performed taking into account the design combinations of
displacements obtained on the basis of the characteristic values of loads.
Maximum allowable displacements and deflections are taken into account only
in the check mode and are not used when selecting the sections.
Importance Factors
Three importance factors are used in the analysis:
− for the ultimate limit state n;
− for the serviceability limit state;
− for the critical state (is used in the analysis for the progressive collapse).
The rules for specifying the importance factors depend on the selected code regulating the safety. If
GOST R 54257-2010 or GOST 27751-2014 is selected as a safety code, the value of the importance factor
is taken as one for the serviceability limit state and for the critical state.
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If DBN B.1.2-14-2009 is selected, the factors for the serviceability limit state and for the critical state
are specified by the user for each structural member or group of structural members. If the analysis for
limit deflections and displacements is not required, then the factor for the serviceability limit state is not
specified.
Replacing a Section of a Structural Member

The Replace section button is used to replace a section of elements included in a structural member.
In the latter case the check of the load-bearing capacity will be performed for a section different from
that specified in the stiffness properties (an automatic recalculation of the modified model is not
performed!). Moreover, you should also remember about the unification, since this member could be
included in one of the unified groups.
Type of the Structural Member

The following types can be assigned to structural members:
 general type element (or column);
 beam (element subjected to uniaxial bending with respect to the Y axis);
 truss chord member;
 truss lattice member;
 support diagonal;
 support vertical.
A set of sections the check is performed for depends on the type of a structural member and is given
in Table 20.2.1.
Table 20.2.1.
Member type Set of sections
General type element (or column)
Beam
Truss member
The selected type affects the set of data which have to be specified for the member. For example, the
information on limit slenderness is not required for truss members (these data are specified in SNiP); the
information on the effective lengths is not required for beams etc. The type defines not only a set of checks
according to SNiP, but also the forces which will be taken into account when performing the check of
sections. For example, a longitudinal force will be ignored for beams, even if it appeared during the
calculation.
The length between restraints out of the bending plane has to be specified for general type elements and
beams (this value will be used in the analysis of stability of in-plane bending). If this value is set to zero,
the geometric length of the element will be used. If EN 1993 is selected for designing steel structures, this
control is not available.
Two possible strength checks of the general type elements taking a longitudinal force and a bending
moment are recommended by the design codes for steel structures:
 allowing for the possible elastic-plastic behavior;
 when the inelasticity is forbidden.
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The possibility of the elastic-plastic behavior is limited by a number of conditions, for example, such
as the absence of direct action of dynamic loads. The Inelasticity is forbidden checkbox is provided for
the case when there is direct action of the dynamic loads, and also for those cases when the user for some
reason does not want to go beyond the elastic behavior. If EN 1993 is selected for designing steel
structures, this control is not available, and the respective option can be selected in the settings in the
EN 1993 Settings tab (see Sec. 31.6).
Since different groups of elements can have different degree of responsibility, the importance factors
are specified when creating a structural member and can be different for different structural members.
After specifying all the data on the structural member including its name, click the Add button.
Corrosion analysis
Check calculations can be performed taking the corrosion into account. In order to do it you have to check
the respective checkbox and specify the thickness of the corrosion layer. When performing the calculations
it is assumed that the thickness of the corrosion layer is the same over the whole perimeter of the section.
The corrosion is obviously not taken into account when selecting the sections. If EN 1993 is selected for
designing steel structures, this control is not available.
Copying the Parameters of Structural Members

If all or most of the parameters of a new structural member are the same as those of a member created
earlier, you can copy the properties of the existing member and assign them to the new one. It is necessary
to perform the following actions to copy the parameters:
− invoke the operation of creating a structural member;
− select finite elements in the model which make up a new structural member;
− click the Confirmation button in the toolbar;
− click the Copy button in the Structural Member dialog box and select a member the parameters
of which you want to copy in the list that will appear;
− correct, if necessary, the parameters of the new member including its name;
− click the Add (new member) button;
− close the dialog box by clicking the Apply button.
The Copy operation will be available if the model has structural members created earlier.
Control of Structural Members

Before including a new structural member into the list of structural members that have to be checked, the
control of the correctness of the specification is performed. If in the result of the control it turns out that the
selected elements do not meet the above requirements to finite elements which make up a structural
member the Result of the Performed Operation dialog box appears (Fig. 20.2-2).
The options indicating the mistakes made when specifying a structural member will be available in
the list of possible errors given in this dialog box. After closing this dialog box all messages will appear in
the log with the numbers of elements of the model where these mistakes were made. Using the selection
buttons in the log you can perform the visualization of the elements in the model and their selection.
701
Figure 20.2-2. The Result of the Performed Operation dialog box
20.3. Specifying Groups of Structural Members
In those cases when a structural member has only one bar, you can combine these bars into groups
and perform a check, and when necessary a unification of groups. Operations of specifying groups of
structural members and their characteristics are similar to those described above for structural members.
The characteristics of groups are specified in the Groups of Structural Members for Checking Sections
dialog box (Fig. 20.3-1) similar to the dialog box for creating a structural member.
You should keep in mind that the section replacement is performed for all structural members of the group.
Thus, after performing this operation all structural members of the group will have the same section.
When the errors made when creating a group of structural members are detected, a dialog with a list of errors
(Fig. 20.3-2) appears after clicking the Add button. The rules for working with this dialog box are the same as the
rules for working with a dialog box with errors for structural members.
Figure 20.3-1. The Groups of Structural Figure 20.3-2. The Result of the Performed
Members for Checking Sections dialog box Operation dialog box
702

Accounting for the maximum allowable vertical displacements for groups of structural members is
performed according to the same rules as for structural members (Section 20.2). The difference is that the
maximum value of displacements is selected for each finite element included in the group by analyzing the
values of displacements of nodes and deflections.
20.4. Correcting the Parameters of Structural Members and Groups

of Structural Members
Any of the initially specified parameters of structural members or groups of structural members (including
the set of their constituent finite elements) can be changed during the check or selection.
If the changes deal with the composition and parameters of a structural member or a group, after
making these changes click the Apply button on the right from the list of structural members and their
groups. The Replace section button mentioned above is used to replace a section.
The changes in the composition of structural members and their groups are made in a similar way as
the specification. The following procedure is used:
 select the name of the member or group you want to correct in the list of the Input data toolbar;
 click the Select active group button— , and the finite elements included in the structural
member or group will be selected or highlighted in red;
 select finite elements with the cursor you want to exclude from the structural group (these elements
will be deselected);
 click the Confirmation button — in the toolbar, and the respective dialog box will appear
(Structural Member or Groups of Structural Members…);
 click the Apply button in this dialog box.
Finite elements can be also added to the created structural member in a similar way.
The respective button is used to edit the existing list of the group, clicking which invokes a
dialog box with a list of elements.
The lower part of the dialog box (Fig. 20.4-1) contains a list of finite elements with numbers of
elements included in a structural member or group. This list can be edited directly in the dialog box. If
there are selected elements in the model, you can perform the following actions with the help of a set of
operations which can be opened by clicking the button on the right from the list:
 Create list of elements from selected elements, i. e. actually replace the list of elements created
earlier by the list of elements selected in the model;
 Create list of elements from group’s data and selected elements, i. e. add the elements selected
in the model to the list of elements created earlier;
 Create list of elements from group’s data excluding selected elements, i. e. exclude the
elements selected in the model from the list of the group created earlier.
703
Invoking the operations of

editing the list of a
structural group
Figure 20.4-1. Editing the list of elements included in a structural group

If after performing a series of operations with the list of elements (before clicking the Apply button),
it is necessary to return to its initial state, you should use the first operation in the considered list —
Create list of elements from group’s data, and the initial list of the group will be restored.
In order to delete a structural member or a group of structural members it is necessary to select a
name from the list in the Input data toolbar and click the button . Click the Delete button in the dialog
box that will appear.
If you have to delete several objects, it is necessary to perform the above operations for a single
object, and then consecutively select the objects you want to delete from the list of structural members (or
groups) and click the Delete button without closing the dialog box.
Copying the Parameters of Groups of Structural Members

If all or most of the parameters of a new group of structural members are the same as those of a group
created earlier, you can copy the properties of the existing group and assign them to the new one. It is
necessary to perform the following actions to copy the parameters:
− invoke the operation of creating a group of structural members;
− select finite elements in the model which make up a new group;
− click the Confirmation button in the toolbar;
− click the Copy button in the Groups of Structural Members… dialog box and select a group the
parameters of which you want to copy in the list that will appear;
− correct, if necessary, the parameters of the new group including its name;
− click the Add (new group) button;
− close the dialog box by clicking the Apply button.
The Copy operation will be available if the model has groups of structural members created earlier.
20.5. Main and Additional Groups

If a finite element simultaneously belongs to several structural members (or groups of structural members),
it causes many problems and questions. For example, if you perform a selection of sections, the results of
which group should be considered as the result of selection? Which results should be used when assigning
the rigidities according to the results of the selection? Which data should be used to calculate the value of
704
Kmax after performing the check when displaying the utilization factor of restrictions for the whole model
and not for an individual structural member?
At the same time, in some cases it is convenient to be able to create several structural members (or
groups) which have the same set of finite elements, but different parameters (for example, steel grade or
service factors). This enables to perform the comparison of results using a multi-tab mode, and make a
reasoned decision.
You can create additional structural groups (Fig. 20.5-1). This enables to work with a set of structural
groups with matching finite elements. There are the following limitations when using the main and
additional groups:
 a finite element can not belong simultaneously to two main groups;
 additional groups are not used when determining Kmax for the whole model;
 additional groups are not used when assigning the rigidities according to the results of the
selection;
 if a finite element simultaneously belongs to the main and additional group/groups, after clicking
the buttons Steel. Factors, Resistance of sections, ... in the information on the element, a menu
appears with the list of groups and you have to select a group the results of which you want to be
displayed;
 additional groups are not used in the analysis for the progressive collapse.
Additional groups are distinguished by the green background of icons in the lists of structural groups
in toolbars and dialog boxes. Unique names should be given when creating the main and additional groups.
Indication of additional
structural group
Figure. 20.5-1. The Groups of Structural Members for Checking Sections dialog box (additional group)
20.6. Specifying Unification Groups
Unification groups for selecting sections can be created in the process of specifying structural
members and their groups, or after creating them. Generation of the unification groups is performed in the
Unification Groups for the Selection of Sections dialog box (Fig. 20.6-1). You can create a new
705
unification group in this dialog box, and also include structural members and groups of structural members
into a group created earlier.
The same cross-section will be selected for all elements included in a unification group in the process
of the selection of sections.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to create a new unification group:
 specify the name of the group in the respective field;
 click the New group button and the name of the new group will appear in Unification groups list;
 select the names of structural members or groups included in a created unification group in the
Structural members and groups of structural members list, and click the button ;
 repeat the above actions to create a new group;
 after finishing the work, close the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
If all objects of the left list are included in one unification group, click the button . In order to
exclude elements from the unification group select their names in the right list and click the button or
exclude all objects from the group using the button .
In order to correct a unification group created earlier, it is necessary to select its name in the list of
groups of the Unification groups dialog box, and then add new structural groups to it or/and delete the
existing ones using the buttons and .
The following rules should be observed when creating unification groups:
 only the objects (structural members and/or their groups), all bars of which have the same type of
rigidity can be included in a unification group;
 an object can be included only into one unification group.
List of structural groups included in the

Unification group
Figure 20.6-1. The Unification Groups for the Selection of Sections dialog box
20.7. Selection of Elements of Groups
If a group of structural members or a structural member is selected in the list of structural groups in
the Input data toolbar, clicking this button will select all finite elements of the group. Red color is
706
assumed for the selected nodes and elements by default. You can change it in the Color Palette Settings
section of the Settings menu (the Model tab, the Select nodes and elements item).
20.8. Active Group Visualization Mode
In those cases when you do not need to perform any operations with the selected structural group, and
you only want to highlight it in the model, an operation of visualization of a structural group is used. A
group selected in the list of structural groups in the Input data toolbar will be “highlighted” in purple in
the model.
20.9. Control of the Groups of Steel Structural Members

and Groups of Unifications
The operation is used to control the attributes of structural groups and enables to perform the
following actions:
 rename a group;
 sort groups by a specified criterion;
 delete a group;
 change the place of the selected group in the list of groups.
Figure 20.9-1. The Control the Structural Groups of Steel Elements dialog box
This operation invokes the Control the Structural Groups of Steel Elements dialog box (Fig. 20.9-
1), with a list of structural groups. Columns of the table of structural groups include:
 current number of the structural group;
 No. — number of the group in the order of creation;
 Type — icon of the type of the structural group ( — structural member, — group of
structural members). If a group is additional, the respective icon has a green background;
 Number of elements in the group.
707
click. The line will become available for editing.
The characteristic of the group with respect to which the sorting is performed is selected from the
Sort by list. The following types of sorting are provided:
 by the number (in the order of creation of groups — when the Min/Max button is pressed; and vice
 by the type of group (when the Min/Max button is pressed structural members will be first in the list
and they will be followed by the structural members, and vice verse — when the Max/Min button is
pressed);
 by the name of the group (in alphabetical order — when the Min/Max button is pressed, and vice
 by the number of elements in the group (in the ascending order of the number of elements in the list of
structural groups — when the Min/Max button is pressed, and vice verse — when the Max/Min
button is pressed).
To change the position of one or several structural groups in the list it is necessary to select these
groups and move them in the list by clicking the Up and Down buttons.
In order to delete structural groups select them in the table, place the cursor over the current number
of the group and left click. Then click the Delete button. If the groups you want to delete go in the
successive order in the list, place the cursor over the first group in the list to select them, click and hold the
left mouse button, and drag the pointer across the numbers of the groups you want to delete.
If when specifying the data the user has created several groups with the same names, clicking the
Make the names unique button enables to rename them automatically (by adding the suffix № XXX to
the name) and obtain unique names.
In order to combine groups of structural members it is necessary to select these groups in the list
while pressing the Ctrl key in the keyboard and then click the Combine button. The operation will be
available only if all parameters of the combined groups of structural members are matching. The dialog
box will appear after invoking the operation, where you can specify the name of the combined group.
example, to display only the additional steel structural members).
All specifications made in the dialog box will be saved and performed after closing the dialog box by
clicking the OK button. The position of the structural groups in the list of the toolbar will correspond to
their position in the list of the dialog box.
Similarly, the operation allows you to change the names, delete and change the order of
unification groups.
20.10. Changing Steels in the Groups of Structural

Members
This operation enables to change steels (for example, when changing the design codes) in several
structural members or groups of structural members. It is performed in the Specify Steel dialog box
(Fig. 20.10-1), which appears after invoking it.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to change the steel:
 select the necessary steel from the list or use the operation of selection — to specify steel in
accordance with the used design codes;
708
 indicate the groups in which the selected steel will be used with the help of the checkboxes in the
list of structural groups;
 click the Apply button, and the name of the selected steel will appear in the Steel column of the
selected groups;
 repeat the above operations to assign steels for other structural groups.
Moreover, the type of the group is specified in the Type column and you can replace Steel structural
member by Group of steel structural members and vice verse.
Figure 20.10-1. The Specify Steel dialog box

If the specification is performed for all or most structural groups, you can use the Check/uncheck
checkboxes checkbox to check all checkboxes. All the specifications made in the dialog box will be saved and
performed after closing the dialog box by clicking the OK button.
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20.11. Information on the Groups of Steel Structural

Members
Figure 20.11-1. The Information on the Groups of Steel Structural Members dialog box
This operation enables to obtain the dialog box (Fig. 20.11-1) with the information in all groups of
structural members. The Report button invokes the generation of the report.
example, to display only the additional steel structural members).
Checkboxes in the Print line enable to select only the groups information on which must be given in
the report document.
20.12. Visualization of the Modified Sections
Figure 20.12-1. The Modified Sections dialog box

This operation enables to highlight structural groups in the design model the sections of which were
replaced when these groups were created or corrected (i.e. sections of finite elements included in such
710
structural members or groups are different from those specified in the stiffness properties). In this case a
color scale is output similar to the scale of the color display of rigidities (Fig. 20.12-1).
20.13. Restore Initial Sections
Figure 20.13-1. The Restore Initial Sections dialog box

This operation enables to restore the initial sections (specified in the stiffness properties) in the
elements of structural groups the sections of which were replaced when these groups were created or
corrected.
This operation invokes the Restore Initial Sections dialog box (Fig. 20.13 -1), where you have to
indicate structural groups you want to change, select the action (restore initial rigidities or replace the
rigidities of elements) and click the OK button. The Select checkbox enables to select or deselect all
groups. If the Replace the rigidities of elements operation is selected, they will be actually replaced after
closing the postprocessor.
20.14. Changing the Design Codes
This operation enables to change the design codes for steel structures and safety codes. You should
select the necessary codes from the drop-down lists in the dialog box (Fig. 20.14-1) and click the OK
button. When changing the codes you should remember that the codes according to which the design
combinations of forces were selected and the design codes should correspond to each other.
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Figure 20.14-1. The Setting the Design Codes dialog box
20.15. Check and Selection of Sections
List of structural members

and groups of structural members List of factors
List of unification groups
Figure 20.15-1. The toolbar for calculating the load-bearing capacity of steel sections and the analysis of
results
The toolbar for the check and analysis of results (Fig. 20.15-1) includes buttons for invoking the
— calculation (check of the sections);
— display results of the check on the model (3-color scale);
— display results of the check on the model (full color scale);
— display information on sections;
— selective visualization of results;
— composition of the group of structural members;
— selection of sections;
— cancel the selected group;
712
— create elements of the technical specification for steel;

— information on steel consumption;
The check of the load-bearing capacity of structural members and/or groups of structural members is
performed by clicking the Calculation button — . This button has an arrow which besides the full
selection or check for all structural groups enables to perform the calculation only for those groups that
have been modified, to perform the calculation for user' selected groups only (in this case dialog box will
appear and user must select groups for calculation; when a group included in the unification group is
selected during the section selection, all groups included in the corresponding unification group will be
automatically selected), to invoke the operations of the data control (without performing the calculation)
and view messages that were output during the previous calculation or control. Regardless of whether
changes have been made in all structural groups or only in some of them, the control of the initial data is
performed for all groups and diagnostic messages will be generated for all groups, and not just for those
which were recalculated.
The check is performed for all sections of finite elements included in a structural member or a group
of structural members. The maximum value of each factor defining the load-bearing capacity of the
element is obtained in the result of the check.
The software implements the whole set of checks for strength and stability in compliance with the
recommendations of different codes. Since the limitations have the same meaning but refer to different
sections of codes of different years, as an example, they will be given as references to sections of SNiP II-
23-81*:
 bars in tension are not checked for strength by the formula (6) as members which can be used even
after the yield point is reached;
 the permission to perform the check of members allowing for the plasticity by the formula (49)
provided that the local stability is ensured given in the last paragraph of Sec. 5.25 is not used ;
 when calculating the b coefficient, it is assumed that the load is uniformly distributed and applied
to the compression chord which is not restrained in its span against buckling.
The approach to the determination of the coefficient b is based on the following considerations:
 SNiP does not provide all possible combinations of restraints of the compression chord and the
distribution of load over the span, therefore any solution will not be complete;
 there are almost no real structures which have only one loading (loadings can include distributed
loads as well). It should be taken into account that the performed calculation is conditional since
the design combinations of forces are used and the envelope of the moment diagram can not be
clearly identified as that resulting from a certain load applied to a certain chord.
The approach implements the concept of SNiP, where it is, for example, allowed to find the
unsupported lengths for one (“the most compressed”) loading and to use these lengths in checks for other
loadings determining in particular the buckling coefficients  based on these lengths (see Sec.6.11* of
SNiP II-23-81*). Coefficient b is used for the same purposes as the buckling coefficient .
The set of checks according to SNiP II-23-81* depends on the type of the member cross-section and
the set of loads it is subjected to. The following tables provide lists of checks for different types of
structural members.
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Checks of columns and general type elements

SNiP II-23- DBN B.2.6- DBN B.2.6-
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Strength under action Sec. 5.12 Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
of bending moment
My
Strength under action Sec. 5.12 Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
of bending moment
Mz
Strength under action Sec. 5.12, 5.18 Sec. 9.2.1, 10.1.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
of lateral force Qy
Strength under action Sec. 5.12, 5.18 Sec. 9.2.1, 10.1.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
of lateral force Qz
Strength under Sec. 5.24, 5.25 Sec. 10.1.1 Sec. 9.1.1 Sec. 1.6.1.1 Sec. 10.1.1
combined action of
longitudinal force and
bending moments
combined action of
bending moments,
allowing for plasticity
combined action of
bending moments, no
plasticity
Stability under Sec. 5.3 Sec. 8.1.3 Sec. 7.1.3 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 9.2.1
compression in XoY
(XoU) plane
Stability under Sec. 5.3 Sec. 8.1.3 Sec. 7.1.3 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 8.1.3
compression in XoZ
(XoV) plane
Stability in the Sec. 5.27 Sec. 10.2.9, 10.2.10 Sec. 9.2.9, 9.2.10 Sec. 1.6.2.9, Sec. 8.1.3
moment My plane 1.6.2.10
under eccentric
compression
Stability in the Sec. 5.27 Sec. 10.2.9, 10.2.10 Sec. 9.2.9, 9.2.10 Sec. 1.6.2.9, Sec. 10.2.9,
moment Mz plane 1.6.2.10 10.2.10
under eccentric
compression
Stability under Sec. 5.34 Sec. 10.2.9 SEC. 9.2.9 Sec. 1.6.2.9 Sec. 10.2.9,
compression and 10.2.10
bending in two planes
Stability out of the Sec. 5.30-5.32 Sec. 10.2.4, 10.2.5, Sec. 9.2.4, 9.2.5, Sec. 1.6.2.4, Sec. 10.2.9
moment My plane 10.2.8 9.2.8 1.6.2.5, 1.6.2.8
under eccentric
compression
Stability out of the Sec. 5.30-5.32 Sec. 10.2.4, 10.2.5, Sec. 9.2.4, 9.2.5, Sec. 1.6.2.4, Sec. 10.2.4,
moment Mz plane 10.2.8 9.2.8 1.6.2.5, 1.6.2.8 10.2.5, 10.2.8
under eccentric
compression (sections
of the following types
, , are
not checked)
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Strength under axial Sec. 5.1 Sec. 8.1.1 SEC. 7.1.1 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 10.2.4,
tension/compression 10.2.5, 10.2.8
Stability in Sec. 5.3 Sec. 8.1.3 SEC. 7.1.3 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 8.1.3
compression of angle
with respect to
principal axes
Excessive Sec. 5.28 Sec. 10.1.3 Sec. 9.1.3 Sec. 1.6.1.3 Sec. 8.1.3
deformations of the
tension fiber
Strength for reduced Sec. 5.14* Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 10.1.3
stresses at the
simultaneous action of
the bending moment
and the lateral force
Stability of in-plane Sec. 5.15 Sec. 9.4.1 Sec. 8.4.1 Sec. 1.5.4.1 Sec. 9.4.1
bending (sections of
the following types
, , ,
are not checked)

General stability of a Sec. 5.3-5.6 Sec. 8.1.3-8.1.5 Sec. 7.1.3-7.1.5 Sec. 1.4.1.3, Sec. 8.1.3, 8.1.5
bar under axial 1.4.1.5
compression in XoY
plane
General stability of a Sec. 5.3-5.6 Sec. 8.1.3-8.1.5 Sec. 7.1.3-7.1.5 Sec. 1.4.1.3, Sec. 8.1.3, 8.1.5
bar under axial 1.4.1.5
compression in XoZ
plane
Stability out of the Sec. 5.30-5.32 Sec. 10.2.4,10.2.5,10.2.8 Sec. 9.2.4,9.2.5,9.2.8 Sec. 1.6.2.4, Sec. 10.2.4,
moment Mz plane 1.6.2.5, 1.6.2.8 10.2.5, 10.2.8
Strength of chord Sec. 5.12 Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
under bending
moment My
under bending
moment Mz
Strength of chord Sec. 5.12, 5.18 Sec. 9.2.1, 9.2.3 Sec. 8.2.1, 8.2.3 Sec. 1.5.2.1, Sec. 9.2.1, 9.2.3
under lateral force Qy 1.5.2.3
Strength of chord Sec. 5.12, 5.18 Sec. 9.2.1, 9.2.3 Sec. 8.2.1, 8.2.3 Sec. 1.5.2.1, Sec. 9.2.1, 9.2.3
under lateral force Qz 1.5.2.3
Strength of chord Sec. 5.24, 5.25 Sec. 10.1.1 Sec. 9.1.1 Sec. 1.6.1.1 Sec. 10.1.1
under combined
action of longitudinal
force and bending
moments
under combined
force and bending
moments, allowing
for plasticity
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under combined
force and bending
moments, no
plasticity
Stability of chord Sec. 5.3 Sec. 8.1.3 Sec. 7.1.3 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 8.1.3
under compression in
XoY plane
under compression in
XoZ plane
Stability of chord in Sec. 5.27 Sec. 10.2.9 Sec. 9.2.9 Sec. 1.6.2.9 Sec. 10.2.9
the moment My plane
under eccentric
compression
Stability of chord in Sec. 5.27 Sec. 10.2.9 Sec. 9.2.9 Sec. 1.6.2.9 Sec. 10.2.9
the moment Mz plane
under eccentric
compression
Bending of chord in Sec. 5.24,5.25 Sec. 10.1.1 Sec. 9.1.1 Sec. 1.6.1.1 Sec. 10.1.1
two principal planes
Stability of chord out Sec. 5.30-5.32 Sec. 10.2.4, 10.2.5, Sec. 9.2.4, 9.2.5, Sec. 1.6.2.4, Sec. 10.2.4,
of the moment My 10.2.8 9.2.8 1.6.2.5, 1.6.2.8 10.2.5, 10.2.8
plane under eccentric
compression
Stability of chord out Sec. 5.30-5.32 Sec. 10.2.4, 10.2.5, Sec. 9.2.4, 9.2.5, Sec. 1.6.2.4, Sec. 10.2.4,
of the moment Mz 10.2.8 9.2.8 1.6.2.5, 1.6.2.8 10.2.5, 10.2.8
plane under eccentric
compression
under tension
under compression
Excessive Sec. 5.28 Sec. 10.1.3 Sec. 9.1.3 Sec. 1.6.1.3 Sec. 10.1.3
deformations of the
tension chord fiber
Stability of in-plane Sec. 5.15 Sec. 9.4.1 Sec. 8.4.1 Sec. 1.5.4.1 Sec. 9.4.1
bending of the chord
Limit slenderness in Sec. 6.15, 6.16 Sec. 11.4.1 Sec. 10.4.1 Sec. 1.9.4.1 Sec. 13.4.1
XoY plane
Limit slenderness in Sec. 6.15, 6.16 Sec. 11.4.1 Sec. 10.4.1 Sec. 1.9.4.1 Sec. 13.4.1
XoZ plane
Checks of beams
SP 53-102- DBN B.2.6- DBN B.2.6-
Check SNiP II-23-81* SP 16.13330
2004 163:2010 163:2010
Strength under lateral force Sec. 5.12 Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
Strength under bending moment Sec. 5.12 Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
Stability of in-plane bending
Sec. 5.15 Sec. 9.4.1 Sec. 8.4.1 Sec. 1.5.4.1 Sec. 9.4.1
under moment
Sec. 9.5.1, Sec. 1.5.5.1, Sec. 9.5.1,
Local stability of web Sec. 7.3, 7.4, 7.6 Sec. 8.5.1, 8.5.3
9.5.3 1.5.5.3 9.5.3
Local stability of chord overhang Sec. 7.24 Sec. 9.5.15 Sec. 8.5.19 Sec. 1.5.5.15 Sec. 9.5.15
716
SP 53-102- DBN B.2.6- DBN B.2.6-

Check SNiP II-23-81* SP 16.13330
2004 163:2010 163:2010
Critical ratio between height and
Sec. 7.10 Sec. 9.5.9 Sec. 8.5.9 Sec. 1.5.5.9 Sec. 9.5.9
width of web
Strength for reduced stresses at
the simultaneous action of the
Sec. 5.14* Sec. 9.2.1 Sec. 8.2.1 Sec. 1.5.2.1 Sec. 9.2.1
bending moment and the lateral
force
Checks of truss members

DBN B.2.6- DBN B.2.6-
Check SNiP II-23-81* SP 53-102-2004 SP 16.13330
163:2010 198:2014
Strength Sec. 5.1 Sec. 8.1.1 Sec. 7.1.1 Sec. 1.4.1.1 Sec. 8.1.1
Stability in the truss Sec. 5.3 Sec. 8.1.3 Sec. 7.1.3 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 8.1.3
plane
Stability out of the truss Sec. 5.3 Sec. 8.1.3 Sec. 7.1.3 Sec. 1.4.1.3 Sec. 8.1.3
plane
Slenderness Sec. 6.1-6.4,6.16 Sec. 11.1.1- Sec. 10.1.1- Sec. 1.9.1.1- Sec. 13.1.1-
11.1.4, 11.4.1 10.1.4, 10.4.1 1.9.1.4, 1.9.4.1 13.1.4, 13.4.1
The parameters of the lattice are not specified in the software for the lattice bars. Therefore the lattice
members are not checked in the calculation, and it is assumed that the lattice spacing for a hollow section
from angles is equal to min(B, H), and for sections from double channels and double I-sections it is equal
to the value В.
When checking steel lattice bars subjected to the action of an axial force with bending in SCAD
complex (see the respective section of SNiP II-23-81*, Sec. 5.24* — 5.36), it is assumed that the chords of
a lattice bar are always connected by battens (see the “Resistance of Sections” mode of Kristall). All other
data on battens are not specified, therefore SCAD does not perform any strength checks of the lattice (if it
is necessary to check the strength of the lattice, you should use Kristall and select the respective type of
lattice).
The solution is always conservative when checking the chords according to Sec. 5.24* and 5.25* of
SNiP II-23-81*, since a bending moment appears in the chords from the action of a conditional lateral
force in battens. This moment acts on the chord in the plane parallel to the planes of the chords.
If EN 1993 is selected for designing steel structures, the following checks are performed
Factor EN 1993-1-1 EN 1993-1-5
Strength under action of longitudinal tensile force N 6.2.3 (6.5), (6.6)
Strength under action of longitudinal compressive force N 6.2.4 (6.9)…(6.11) 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
Table 4.1, 4.2
Strength under action of bending moment My 6.2.5 (6.12)…(6.15) 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
Table 4.1, 4.2
Strength under action of bending moment Mz 6.2.5 (6.12)…(6.15) 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
Table 4.1, 4.2
Strength under action of lateral force Vz 6.2.6 (6.17)…(6.20)
Strength under action of lateral force Vy 6.2.6 (6.17)…(6.20)
Strength under combined action of bending moment Mz and lateral 6.2.5 (6.12)…(6.15), 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
force Vy 6.2.8 (6.29), (6.30) Table 4.1, 4.2
Strength under combined action of bending moment My and lateral 6.2.5 (6.12)…(6.15), 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
force Vz 6.2.8 (6.29), (6.30) Table 4.1, 4.2
Strength under combined action of bending moment My and 6.2.5 (6.12)…(6.15), 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
longitudinal force N 6.2.9 (6.36)…(6.44) Table 4.1, 4.2
Strength under combined action of bending moments My, Mz, 6.2.5 (6.12)…(6.15), 4.4 (4.1)...(4.4),
longitudinal force N and lateral forces Vz and Vy 6.2.9 (6.36)…(6.44), Table 4.1, 4.2
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Factor EN 1993-1-1 EN 1993-1-5

6.2.10 (6.45)
Stability at flexural buckling about the y-y axis under action of 6.3.1 (6.46)…(6.51)
longitudinal compressive force N
Stability at flexural buckling about the z-z axis under action of 6.3.1 (6.46)…(6.51)
longitudinal compressive force N
Stability at torsional-flexural buckling under action of longitudinal 6.3.1 (6.46)…(6.49),
compressive force N 6.3.1 (6.52), (6.53)
Stability of in-plane bending under action of bending moment My 6.3.2 (6.54)...(6.56)
Stability of in-plane bending under action of bending moment Mz 6.3.2 (6.54)...(6.56)
Stability under combined action of longitudinal force and bending 6.3.3 (6.61), (6.62)
moments
Stability under combined action of longitudinal force and bending 6.3.3 (6.61), (6.62)
moments taking into account in-plane bending
Stability of the web under action of lateral force Vz 5.2 (5.1), (5.2),
5.3 (5.3)...(5.6),
5.4 (5.8), (5.9), 5.5 (5.10)
Stability of the web under action of lateral force Vy 5.2 (5.1), (5.2),
5.3 (5.3)...(5.6),
5.4 (5.8), (5.9), 5.5 (5.10)
On Formulas (49) and (50) from SNiP II-23-81*

Formula (49) is totally acceptable in application to rectangular cross-sections with a characteristic
angular point А (Fig. 20.15-2), where conditional stresses Mx/(cxWxn,minRyc) and My/(cyWyn,minRyc) are
summed.
It is impossible to sum the stresses in sections without such an angular point (Fig. 20.15-3).
Formula (50) of SNiP II-23-81* is better in this sense. It allows to choose between coordinates x and y of
various cross-section points. This problem exists in SP and DBN as well.
Figure 20.15-2. Cross-sections with an angular point Figure 20.15-3. Cross-sections without
angular points
The said difference between the considered cases was noticed by L.B. Katznelson (Central Res. Inst.
for Build. Structures). Authors of the application are very grateful to him for initiating a discussion of this
and many other details of the design code implementation.
20.16. On Seismic Actions

If a seismic action is included in a design combination, SCAD automatically takes into account the
requirement of the selected code and introduces an additional service factor. Thus, coefficient mtr is
introduced in the strength and stability calculation taking into account the seismic load for SP
14.13330.2014 “Construction in Seismic Regions” according to Sec. 5.15. A similar coefficient is taken
into account for other codes, for example, DBN B.1.1-12:2014 (Ukraine), KMK 2.01.03-96 (Republic of
Uzbekistan) etc.
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In the special table you can specify the coefficients allowing for seismic action at the strength and
stability analysis. If zero values are specified, the values are taken in accordance with the respective
seismic codes by default. Having specified, for example, these two coefficients equal to 0.9, you can take
into account the standard requirements for the calculation of steel structures operating in unheated rooms
or in the open air at the design temperature below minus 40°C.
20.17. Analysis of Custom Sections

SNiP II-23-81* and other codes regulate the checks only for a limited set of cross-section shapes.
However, the practice of structural design often requires using the section shapes not defined by the codes.
SCAD enables to specify stiffness properties of bars using the data obtained with the help of a set of
programs for generating sections (Section Builder, Consul, Tonus). In this case the problem of selecting
the design strength of steel Ry, the value of which depends on the thickness of the section, appears when
checking the sections.
In the program the value of Ry for random sections with an explicitly specified steel grade is taken as
the minimum design strength of steel of this grade. Based on the calculation considerations the most
unfavorable values of the coefficient accounting for the effect of the section shape , coefficients  and 
etc are taken in the calculation. The check of stability of in-plane bending is not performed at all assuming
that the possibility of such buckling mode is excluded by using the respective restraints.
20.18. Display Results
The results of the check of the load-bearing capacity can be displayed on the model for all structural
members, groups of structural members or unification groups, and also for each structural member or
group of members separately.

When the display operation which is invoked by clicking the Display results of the check on the model
(3-color scale) button — is used, structural members are displayed in the model in three colors —
green, if the load-bearing capacity is sufficient, red — otherwise, or yellow, if the load-bearing capacity is
close to the critical value (the factor is close to 1,0). The critical range is specified by setting the color scale
(button in the window of the scale). For example, if you specify the value 0,03 in the dialog box
(Fig. 20.18-1), all elements with the value of the factor less than 0.97 will be displayed in green, if the
factor is greater than 1,03 — in red, and if the factor is in the range [0,97;1,03] — yellow will be used.
If a display mode which is invoked by clicking the Display results of the check on the model (full
color scale) button — is used, an ordinary color scale with a custom number of colors will appear.
If not a single group of structural members is selected in the drop-down list, the visualization of the
critical factor Kmax is performed. If a particular group is selected, the list of factors will contain the full list
of performed checks and you will be able to display on the model the results of the check for each factor
defining the load-bearing capacity of the considered structures (for example, strength or stability). The
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values of the selected factor can be output on the model using the filters button Digitization of
isofields/isolines — .
In order to visualize the results for each structural member or unified group you have to select the
name of the object in the respective list and click the Selective visualization of results button . The
Factors Diagram dialog box will appear (Fig. 20.18-2), where a utilization factor is output for each factor
checked. Factors the load-bearing capacity utilization factors of which exceed one will be marked in red in
the diagram.
Figure 20.18-2. The Factors Diagram dialog box Figure 20.18-3. The Elements of the Structural
Group dialog box
The Elements of the Structural Group dialog box, shown in Fig. 20.18-3, which is invoked by
clicking the Composition of the group of structural members button — , is used for the analysis of
the load-bearing capacity of each element of the structural group.
In order to invoke the dialog box it is necessary to select the name of the considered group in the list
of the toolbar and click the respective button. The dialog box contains a table with the numbers of elements
included in the selected group, values of the utilization factors for a factor given in the first line of the
table, and also the Factors buttons which enable to obtain the load-bearing capacity utilization factors for
an individual element.
Buttons located under the table enable to perform the following actions:
 sort elements (ascending or descending ) of the selected factor;
 — delete elements selected in the table from the group;
 — create a new set from the selected elements — a new group of elements is created which
includes selected elements (these elements are deleted from the current group).
The Steel. Factors and Resistance of sections operations, which can be invoked from the
Information on the Element dialog box (button in the filters toolbar) provide additional possibilities
for the analysis of the load-bearing capacity of elements of steel structures included in the structural
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groups. These operations are implemented according to the same rules as the respective operations of
Kristall1.
Steel. Factors — enables to obtain a factors diagram for the selected element (Fig. 20.18-2), based on
the results of the check of sections.
Figure 20.18-4. The Resistance of Sections Figure 20.18-5. The Truss Member dialog box
dialog box
Resistance of sections — enables to perform an expanded analysis of the load-bearing capacity of
sections. The initial data for performing the check include the information on the finite element (length,
section), and also the parameters of a structural group which includes the considered element. If a bar
element is a part of the structural member, the length of the structural member will be used. Forces in the
respective tab correspond to the DCF of this element. You can change different parameters, for example,
the service factors, steel etc. during the check, which enables to analyze their effect on the load-bearing
capacity of the element. If a structural group which includes the element is defined as a truss member,
clicking the Resistance of sections button (Fig. 20.18-4) will invoke the dialog box with the parameters of
the calculation of the truss members (Fig. 20.18-5).
20.19. Generating a Report
structural members and/or groups of structural members, information on which has to be included in the
report.
 For all groups and structural members — the report will include all structural groups from the
list;
1
V.S. Karpilovsky, E.Z. Kriksunov, A.A. Malyarenko, M.A. Mikitarenko, A.V. Perelmuter,
M.A. Perelmuter, V.G. Fedorovsky, V.V.Yurchenko “SCAD Office. Implementation of SNiP in
Computer-Aided Design Applications” — M.: SCAD SOFT, 2014 — 480p.
721
 Only for specified groups and structural members — the report will contain only the
information on the groups selected in the list;
 For specified elements — in this case you have to specify the numbers of finite elements for
which the report will be generated in the text field.

Moreover, the For the elements of groups with the maximum and minimum values of Kmax and
For the elements of groups with the maximum values of each checked factor checkboxes enable to
obtain a report only for the elements with the maximum values of the factors.
20.20. Extreme values of factors
This operation enables to generate a table (Fig. 20.20-1) for the selected group of structural members
or structural members which includes the following information:
 list of factors;
 minimum and maximum value of each factor;
 numbers of finite elements where these minimum and maximum values took place.
Figure 20.20-1. The Extreme Factor Values dialog box
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The groups or structural members can be selected from the list in the upper part of the dialog box. The
Report and Table buttons enable to obtain report documents for the selected group in the respective
formats.
20.21. Create Elements of the Technical Specification

for Steel
This operation enables to combine structural members and/or groups of structural members into
special groups of elements of the structures which will be used later for the generation of the technical
specification for steel (see Sec. 20.22).
This operation invokes the dialog box (Fig. 20.21-1) similar to that used when creating the unification
groups.
Figure 20.21-1. The Create Elements of the Technical Specification for Steel dialog box
20.22. Steel Consumption
This operation enables to estimate the total consumption of steel for the design model. The dialog box
invoked by this operation (see Fig. 20.22-1) is multi-tab.
The first tab For Groups of the Steel Consumption dialog box enables to obtain information in the
tabular form on the consumption of steel for each structural member and each group of structural members (the
Total weight column), total length of the flexible parts of finite elements (the Total length column), and on the
number of finite elements in the given group of structural members or in the given structural member
(Fig. 20.22-1). Cross-sectional areas specified in the stiffness properties are used in the calculation of the weight
of steel.
723
Figure 20.22-1. The Steel Consumption dialog box

The second tab For Groups (Extended) enables to obtain extended information in the tabular form on
the material (the Steel column) and on the type of rigidity (the Number of the rigidity type and Name of the
rigidity type columns) for each structural member and each group of structural members with the description
of the type of section (the Type of section column). If a rolled section is specified, the Assortment column
contains the name of the respective assortment, and the Profile column contains the profile number in this
assortment. In the case of welded sections a table line is generated for each section element (flange or web)
indicating the profile and dimensions of the structural steel. The length and mass are indicated for each item of
the table (Fig. 20.22-2).
Figure 20.22-2. The For Groups (Extended) tab of the Steel Consumption dialog box
724
Figure 20.22-3. The Specification for Steel tab of the Steel Consumption dialog box
The third tab Specification for Steel is a table similar in form and content to the technical specification for
steel according to GOST (Fig. 20.22-3), which is generated in accordance with the elements of the technical
specification for steel created earlier (see Fig. 20.21-1) if the latter have been specified.
The Report and Table buttons invoke the generation of report documents in the respective formats.
20.23. Selection of Sections
The selection of sections of elements is performed in those cases when their cross-sections are from
steel profiles. Structural members, groups of structural members, and unified groups can be involved in the
selection. If the elements are combined into a unified group, all of them will have the same sections in the
result of the selection.
The selection is performed using the assortment selected at the initial specification of the sections of
elements, and only for the specified type of profile. This means that if an I-beam of type K has been
selected as a profile, a similar profile will be selected in the result (or a message will appear that it is
impossible to select a section from such profiles).
The results of the selection are displayed in the table of the Results of the Selection of Sections
dialog box (Fig. 20.23-1). The name of the group or the structural member is output in the column of the
table. The sections of elements the rigidities of which were used in the analysis of the structure, the initial
section which was used in the selection, and the section obtained in the result of the selection (if it was
performed) are output for the structural members. The following three columns provide information on the
percent change of the main stiffness properties (EF, EIy, EIz) after the selection and the number of element
in the model where this maximum took place. If the assortment was exhausted in the result of the selection,
and the required load-bearing capacity was not reached, the following message will be displayed in red
Selection has failed, and there will be no information on the selection in the table.
The name of the group is given in the table for the groups of structural members, and all the
information regarding the results of the selection is output in the Results of the Selection of Sections
dialog box [group name] (Fig. 20.23-2), which is invoked after double left-clicking on the line with the
725
name of the group. The table in this dialog box contains the data on the results of the selection for each
member of the group.
Figure 20.23-1. The Results of the Selection of Sections dialog box

If the selection could not be performed at least for one element of this group, the respective message
will be displayed in red.
Figure 20.23-2. The Results of the Selection of Sections dialog box

Only the name of the unification group is given in the table for unification groups, and all the
information regarding the results of the selection is output in the dialog box which is invoked after left-
clicking on the line with the name of the unification group.
A report can be generated in the result of the selection (the Report button ). A report is generated
in the .rtf format and is automatically loaded into an application associated with this format (Fig. 20.23-3).
726
Figure 20.23-3. Report on the results of the selection of sections

If in the result of performing the operation of selection the sections of elements have changed, one of
the following options can be selected in the Results of the Selection of Sections dialog box:
 save the results of the selection by creating a new task where the selected sections are used as the
rigidities of elements;
 apply the selected sections as the rigidities of elements in the given problem. You should keep in
mind that after performing this operation and finishing the work in the postprocessor a question
will be asked concerning its confirmation, since this operation involves the recalculation of the
problem;
 apply the selected sections as the initial sections for the check and further analysis;
 reject using the results of the selection (the Cancel button). The results of the selection will be saved
and can be used later in the information on the results of the selection.
The above operations will be performed only for the elements with checked checkboxes in the first
column of the table.
If the Inherit the rigidity names checkbox is checked in the Results of the Selection of
Sections dialog box (Fig. 20.23-1), then after performing the selection and applying the selected sections
the latter will have the same names of the types of rigidity as the initial sections.
The number of the types of rigidity can change considerably in the result of the selection. It is
recommended to use the operation of deleting duplicate rigidities in the Assign section of the preprocessor
before performing the calculation.
20.24. Information on the Results of the Selection
Information on the results of the selection given in the dialog boxes in Fig. 20.24-2, 20.24-3, is
available only in the Selection mode. If for some reason after exiting from this mode you need to consider
727
or use the results of the selection again, you should use the Display information on sections button—
.
Information on the Work of the Postprocessor

If the operations of changing the rigidities of elements on the basis of the results of the selection (or on the
basis of changing the sections in the groups of structural members) were performed in the Steel
postprocessor, the Results of the Selection of Sections dialog box described above (Fig. 20.24-2) will
appear when you exit to the project tree to confirm these operations.
728
21.Calculation of Loads from the Structural Fragment
21.Calculation of Loads from the

Structural Fragment
SCAD enables to output the values of the reactions in nodes with constraints. However, the detailing is
required in many cases for large structural models when the behavior of individual loaded fragments each
of which requires different detailing is studied. A typical example is a structure with strong stress
concentrators for the calculation of which a refined finite element mesh should be used in the area of the
concentrator. In such cases you should perform the general calculation of the system using a coarser finite
element meshing, and then separately consider the fragment with the stress concentrator.
A similar situation arises in those cases when a coarse mesh is suitable for some purposes (for
example, for the determination of the loads on the foundations), and a more detailed approach should be
used for other purposes (for example, a detailed study of the stress-strain state of a standard floor slab and
the selection of reinforcement in this part of the structure).
The use of the fragmentation implies that the action of the dropped part of the system is modeled by
loads transferred by it to the selected fragment, i.e. if we separate a part of the structure, its action on the
remaining part is reduced to some loads. In order to improve the accuracy of the solution it is
recommended to create a fragment "with a reserve" of 2-3 rows of finite elements from the considered
border (Fig. 21-1).
Figure 21-1. Selection of the fragment:

on the left — initial system; on the right — fragment with a mesh refinement area on the distance from the
selection border
The mode of the calculation of loads from the structural fragment enables to determine the loads in the
given nodes from the separated part of the model, for example, from the superstructure on the foundations. The
loads can be saved as a model. It means that a system will be created consisting only of nodes and without any
elements, and the loads on these nodes will be known. Then a detailed design model can be created on these
nodes (and on the other additionally included ones) and its calculation can be performed. The analysis of the
results of the calculation of loads from the structural fragment is described in Sec. 21.3.
Groups of nodes where the loads have to be determined and groups of elements adjacent to these
nodes serve as the initial data for the calculation.
729
When calculating the loads on the foundations the rotation angle of the part of the foundation about
the Z axis is also specified if the axes of inertia of columns do not coincide with the axes of the foundation
under these columns. The loads can be calculated for each loading or for the combinations of loadings.
At the analysis of forces (reactions) acting on the fragment of the design model when
there are some dynamic loadings (for example, at the calculation for a seismic action) a
situation may arise when the obtained results do not satisfy the conditions of equilibrium
and their values are much greater than the expected ones. The thing is that the result of the
calculation for this dynamic loading is obtained with the help of a nonlinear procedure for
displacements or forces of all the considered modes of natural oscillations. The squares of
the results are summed for each mode, and then the square root is taken of this sum.
Forces in individual sections and displacements of individual points which occur in the
process of seismic oscillations and are obtained according to the “root of the sum of
squares” rule correspond to different moments in time and, therefore, violate the
conditions of equilibrium.
21.1. Input Initial Data

Data for the calculation can be prepared during the generation of the design model or in the process of the
graphical analysis of the results by specifying the groups of nodes and elements in the Groups toolbar.
Additional information is specified in the Special Initial Data section of the Project tree with the help of
the Loads from the structural fragment operation.
There are two methods for specifying the initial data. The first method involves the specification of
elements from which the loads have to be obtained (cut elements) and the explicit specification of nodes in
which the loads will be obtained. In the second case the whole isolated fragment is selected. The loads
from it on the rest of the structure including the reactions in constraints will be obtained in all nodes lying
on the boundary of the selected fragment. Nodes lying on the boundary of the fragment include the nodes
adjacent to the part of the model not included in the fragment as well as the nodes with constraints.
When the first method is used the following procedure for the data preparation is recommended:
− invoke the function of the specification of the groups of elements in the Groups section — ;
− select the elements in the model (for example, all or only the elements adjacent to the nodes in
which the loads will be obtained);
− save the group of elements having specified its name — ;
− invoke the function of the specification of the groups of nodes — ;
− select the nodes in model in which you have to obtain the loads;
− save the group of nodes having specified its name — ;
− repeat the two previous operations for each group of nodes belonging to other parts of the model.
It should be noted that there can be several groups of nodes. This is due to the fact that the parts of the
foundation can have different rotation angles.
The procedure for the second method repeats the first three operations described above. However,
when saving the group of elements the Create a group of connected nodes operation is invoked and the
group of nodes lying on the boundary of the selected fragment is automatically generated.
The calculation of loads can be performed in the general cycle of solving the problem, or
independently in the postprocessing mode. In the first case the initial data for the calculation must be
730
prepared before performing the main calculation. In the second case they can be also prepared after
completing the main calculation.
21.2. Description of Fragments

In order to perform the calculation of loads from the structural fragment, you have to specify the additional
information which defines the calculation mode (for loadings and/or for combinations of loadings),
includes the list of elements coming into the nodes in which the loads are calculated, and the lists of nodes.
Additional information is specified in the Special Initial Data section of the Project tree in the
Loads from the Structural Fragment dialog box (Fig. 21.2-1), where the following procedure is
recommended:
− select the calculation mode — for loadings and/or for
combinations of loadings;
− select a group which is specified for the calculation of
loads from the structural fragment in the list of groups of
elements;
− click the button , and the numbers of elements of
the selected group will be input into the List of elements
field (the list can be edited directly in this field);
− click the New segment button (here we deal, for example,
with a part of the foundation in the nodes of which the
loads are calculated);
− select the name of the group belonging to this segment in
the Groups of nodes list;
− click the button , and the list of nodes of the
selected group will be input into the List of nodes field;
Figure 21.2-1. The Loads from the
Structural Fragment dialog box
− specify the rotation angle of the part of the foundation to which the nodes of the first group belong
about the Z axis of the global coordinate system (0 by default).
Different segments can not have the same node numbers.
If it is necessary to calculate several parts of the foundation with different angles of orientation with
respect to the Z axis of the global coordinate system, click the New segment button and repeat all the
above actions with the groups of nodes for the new part having specified its angle of orientation, etc.
Finish the input of data by clicking the OK button in the dialog box.
The set of nodes of each segment can be edited in the List of nodes field. Moreover, you can delete
the incorrectly specified segments. In order to do it select the number of the segment you want to delete in
the Number of the segment drop-down list and click the Delete segment button. If it is necessary to
exclude the data for the calculation of loads from the structural fragment from the model, click the Delete
data button.
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21.3. Graphical Analysis of the Results of the Calculation of

Loads from the Structural Fragment
The mode enables to display on the design model the nodal loads obtained in the result of the
calculation of loads from the structural fragment , and to save the nodes with the loads applied to them as a
separate model.
Figure 21.3-1. The toolbar of the Analysis of loads from the structural fragment mode
The toolbar of this mode (Figure. 21.3-1) includes the following operations:
— display loads from the structural fragment for the selected loading;
— display the color map of loads from the structural fragment;
— save the nodes with the calculated loads as a separate model;
— show cut elements.
The toolbar also contains two lists — for selecting the type
of load and for selecting the number of loading or the
combination of loadings.
Since the work in this mode does not differ from the
modes of the analysis of the results described above, let’s focus
only on the operation of saving nodes with the calculated loads
as a separate model. This operation enables to save the model
which includes only the nodes of the initial model where the
loads from the fragment are obtained under a new name. All
loadings and their combinations for which the loads were
calculated will be automatically generated in the new model.
You can attach the obtained model to another one created
Figure 21.3-2. Loads from the fragment earlier (the assembly mode), or generate a model on the basis of
in the nodes of the subgrade its nodes.
The filters button enables to output the values of loads. The loads can be output for all nodes or
only for the nodes included in a certain segment (in this case you have to select the respective segment in
the drop-down list of the toolbar, and if you want to output the data for all segments select the All nodes
item in this list).
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The button in the toolbar enables to highlight

the elements listed in the initial data as “dropped”.
Clicking the Loads from the fragment button in the
Information on the Node dialog box enables to obtain
the table with the values of loads from the structural
fragment for the selected node for the current loading (or
combination of loadings) (Fig. 21.3-3).
Figure 21.3-3. Loads from the structural
fragment for the selected node
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22.Progressive Collapse Analysis
22. Progressive Collapse Analysis

The "progressive collapse " concept refers to a situation when the failure or damage of any small part of
the structure leads to a complete or nearly complete destruction of the whole structure. Emergencies can be
caused by the human activities or by the natural phenomena. The first case includes gas explosions,
terrorist attacks, fires, defects in design, construction, and maintenance of buildings, their unqualified
reconstruction (with superstructures, extensions, replanning of premises), resulting in weakening or
overloading the bearing elements and subgrade etc. Emergencies can be caused by such natural phenomena
as earthquakes, hurricanes, landslides, non-uniform deformation of the subgrade.
Since it is impossible to completely eliminate the risk of emergencies or emergency impacts, it is
necessary to provide a certain degree of safety of people in buildings and of their property by reducing the
possibility of the progressive collapse at the local failures of load-bearing structures.
In order to prevent the progressive collapse the general strengthening, local strengthening, and
interconnection between elements can be provided. Most US codes prefer the general strengthening when
the failure of one of the elements of the building does not lead to the destruction of the whole structure.
The local strengthening, i.e. strengthening of the most sensitive places, is very difficult to standardize for
including in the design codes, since it is necessary to understand the nature of the possible actions on the
building, including the terrorist attacks. Structural interconnections between the elements or the continuity
of the structure are other methods of the general or local strengthening.
The main provisions of the current regulations for the prevention of progressive collapse can be given
as follows:
1. The load-bearing system of residential buildings must be resistant to the progressive (chain)
collapse in the case of the local failure of individual structures at the emergency impacts (gas explosion,
fire, etc.).
2. Local failures of individual load-bearing structures are allowed, but these primary failures must not
lead to the collapse of the adjacent structures which receive the load previously taken by the elements
damaged in the result of the emergency action.
3. The structural system of the building must provide its strength and stability, at least for the time
necessary to evacuate people. The displacements of structures and the opening of cracks in them are not
limited.
4. The resistance to the progressive collapse is checked by the calculation for the special combination
of loads and actions which includes permanent and temporary long-term loads, and also the effect of
hypothetical local failures of the load-bearing structures. Safety factors for loads should be equal to 1.
5. The design characteristics of the materials are enhanced with the help of special safety factors.
Moreover, the values of the design strength are multiplied by the service factors which take into account
the low probability of the emergency impacts and the growth of concrete strength after the erection of the
building, and also the post-yield behavior of the reinforcement.
The mode is implemented in SCAD in accordance with the current regulations and is designed to
model the behavior of buildings and structures in the case of emergency impacts which caused the local
failures of individual vertical load-bearing elements. The authors also took into account the apparent
arbitrariness of the initial assumptions:
 there is no reliable information on the location and cause of the process and its history;
 real failure parameters can be very different from the strength conditions given in the codes, since
it is known that the design values of the strength parameters may differ significantly from those
observed in nature.
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Structures cannot be completely free from the risk of collapse because of the uncertainties of the
requirements to the system, dispersion of mechanical properties of building materials, difficulties of
adequate modeling of the behavior of the system even when the modern software are used. Moreover, it is
impossible to design and build an absolutely safe structure without taking into account the cost of the
prevention of emergencies.
Thus, we can obtain a qualitative assessment of the stability characteristics of the structure with
respect to the progressive collapse in the result of the numerical modeling, and compare several possible
collapse scenarios in order to detect weak areas in the structure.
The progressive collapse analysis is based on the following provisions:
− a model obtained in the result of the structural analysis and the subsequent selection of the
reinforcement in the elements of reinforced concrete structures and sections in the elements of steel
structures is used as the initial model of the building for the progressive collapse analysis;
− elements of the design model which model the suddenly removed structural members are combined
into groups; the number of structural members which failed simultaneously (collapsed) is not
limited;
− the calculation is performed for the combination of loadings which includes the characteristic
values of permanent loads and temporary loads (sustained) with coefficient 1;
− dynamic amplification factors are introduced to take into account the suddenness of the removal of
the structural members and the effect of falling of the collapsed structures;
− the check of the elements of reinforced concrete and steel structures included in the design model
after the sudden removal of members is performed taking into account only the ultimate limit state;
− design strength and strain characteristics of the materials are assumed equal to their characteristic
values;
− since large displacements usually occur in the result of the progressive collapse analysis, it is
recommended to perform the calculation in the geometrically nonlinear formulation.
22.1 Data Preparation

The progressive collapse analysis is performed in two stages. The first stage includes the following actions:
− static and dynamic (if necessary) calculations in order to determine the stress-strain state of the
structure under normal conditions of operation;
− selection of the design combinations of forces (DCF);
− selection of reinforcement in the elements of reinforced concrete structures taking into account the
ultimate and serviceability (crack resistance) limit states;
− check and selection of rolled sections of the elements of steel structures.
The Progressive Collapse Dialog Box

In order to perform the second stage it is necessary to specify the additional data in the Progressive
Collapse dialog box (Fig. 22.1-1). The dialog box appears after invoking the respective operation in the
Special Initial Data section of the project tree.
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The additional data include:

 list of finite elements included in the suddenly
removed structural member;
 control combination of loadings;
 group of loads defining the weight of the collapsed
structures (if the respective checkbox is checked);
 overload factor (dynamic amplification factor) — Kf
for adjusting the reaction of the system at the sudden
removal of a structural member (Kf = 2 by default);
 overload factor — Kg for adjusting the reaction of the
system to the sudden collapse of the failed structures
(Kg = 1 by default).
If a nonlinear calculation is performed, it is necessary to
specify the method of the calculation and the corresponding
parameters (number of steps, number of iterations).
Figure 22.1-1. The Progressive

Collapse dialog box
Numbers of the suddenly removed elements are specified in the List of elements field. If such
elements have been combined in one or several groups, they can be loaded by selecting the respective
groups in the Groups of deleted elements list and transferring them into to the List of elements field by
clicking the button .
The list of groups includes all the generated groups of elements. The suddenly removed elements can
be included in any group. In this case the adjustment of the list of elements is performed after they are
loaded into the List of elements field.
The Progressive Collapse dialog box will be available only if the initial data includes groups of
elements (assuming that among these groups of elements there are groups containing the lists of suddenly
removed elements), and combinations of loadings (assuming that among these combinations there is such a
combination which includes the necessary set of permanent and long-term loads for the action of which the
damaged structure is checked). If the coefficients of the combination of loadings are generated in such a
way so that the result corresponds to the action of characteristic loads, it is necessary to check the
Characteristic combination checkbox to obtain the correct solution. Otherwise the transition to the
characteristic values will be performed automatically (by dividing by the respective safety factor for load).
If the group of loads characterizing the weight of structures which collapsed in the result of the
sudden removal of elements is prepared in advance, it will be taken into account if the Take the weight of
the collapsed structures from the group checkbox is checked.
The progressive collapse analysis can be invoked from the respective section of the ANALYSIS
group of the project tree. If the Perform the analysis accounting for geometric nonlinearity checkbox is
checked in the Progressive Collapse dialog box, the specified type of analysis will be automatically
performed.
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Peculiarities of Using the Results of the Reinforcement Selection

As mentioned above the progressive collapse analysis of the elements of reinforced concrete structures is
performed by checking them for the ultimate limit state (strength). Thus, the reinforcement must be
specified for the structural members before this check.
The reinforcement layout (arrangement of the reinforcement in different segments of the bar) for each
structural group of bar elements can be either completely specified by the user or completely taken in
accordance with the results of the automatic selection. The Specify reinforcement based on the results of
the reinforcement selection operation in the Selection of reinforcement section of the Reinforced
Concrete toolbar is used to transform the results of the automatic selection. The reinforcement layout can
be specified by the user with the help of the respective operation in the Check of reinforced concrete
section of the Reinforced Concrete toolbar or the Assign toolbar of the preprocessor.
The work with plate elements is organized in a similar way. However, unlike bars in this case you can
specify the rules for transforming the selected reinforcement into the specified one (redistribution of the
reinforcement in the group) when performing the Specify reinforcement based on the results of the
reinforcement selection operation.
Only the specified reinforcement is considered in the mode of the progressive collapse analysis.
Data on the reinforcement of each finite element used in the progressive collapse analysis are
available in the Specified reinforcement section of the Information on the Element dialog box.
22.2 Calculation
The following procedure for the calculation is used in the software:

 the reactions from the control combination of loads are determined in the nodes of the failed
elements adjacent to the rest of the model;
 the obtained values of the reactions are added in the design combination with the coefficient Kf;
 a group of loads from the weight of the collapsed structures is added in the control combination
with the coefficient Kg (if such a group has been specified);
 a new design model with inactive failed elements is generated;
 the obtained model is calculated for the control combination;
 design combinations of forces are generated;
 the check of the load-bearing capacity of the elements of steel and reinforced concrete structures is
performed.
A special importance factor a is used when checking the steel and reinforced concrete elements. If
GOST 27751, GOST R 54257-2010, or GOST 27751-2014 is selected as the safety code, then a=1,0. If
DBN B.1.2-14-2009 is selected, the importance factor is specified by the user for each structural member
or group of structural members.
22.3 Analysis of Results

The results of the progressive collapse analysis are displayed in the graphical form in a three-color
color scale. The Progressive collapse section of the Postprocessors toolbar contains the controls of
the display.
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Indication of the results of Structural groups of

Calculation the calculation in the form elements of steel
of the color markers structures
Indication of the results of Structural groups of Name of the checked

the calculation in the form elements of r/c factors
of the color fields structures
Figure 22.3-1. The Progressive collapse section of the toolbar
The operation enables to select the elements in the model which are listed as deleted in the initial
data. These elements will be “highlighted” in the design model in purple.
In the three-color scale the elements are divided by color into working elements (Kmax < 1) with the
maximum utilization factor of restrictions Kmax less than one (green color is used for them by default), and
the failed ones (Kmax  1) — red color is used for them. The third color (yellow by default) is used to
indicate elements in the uncertainty interval, i.e. elements which in the opinion of the engineer can be
failed or working with equal probability. The value of the interval of uncertainty (in % from Kmax) is
specified by the user with the help of the Color scale settings operation in the scale dialog box. The results
can be output in the form of color fields or color markers (buttons and respectively). The button
allows you to get extreme values of factors (similar to how it is done in the analysis of elements of
steel and reinforced concrete structures).
If the color indication of the results of the calculation (values of the utilization factor of restrictions
Kmax) is performed without indicating a specific structural group, then a color corresponding to the value of
the maximal factor is selected for each finite element without indicating a factor which defined this value.
In those cases when a certain group is selected from the list of structural groups, a color scale can be
obtained for it not only for the values of Kmax, but also for the utilization factors of restrictions of any of the
available factors. Factors can be selected from the respective list in the toolbar (Fig. 22.3-1).
It should be noted that the detected failed elements are elements which failed on the very first step of
the progressive collapse process. If you include them in the list of finite elements included in the suddenly
removed structural member and determine where the load is transferred from these elements after they fail,
you can obtain the failure pattern on the second step etc. However, more often it will be necessary to
strengthen the elements (maybe not all) included in the members which failed on the first step, and repeat
the calculation for the strengthened structure. The strengthened elements should be combined into the
respective groups of reinforcement or groups of steel elements.
After performing the calculation for a certain finite element you can use the Information on the
Element dialog box which is invoked by clicking the filters button . The DCF (of the progressive
collapse) and Progressive collapse buttons in this dialog box enable to obtain the data on the design
combinations of forces which were used in the calculation (Fig. 22.3-2) and factors calculated when
checking the element (Fig. 22.3-3). Moreover, similar to the analysis of elements of steel and reinforced
concrete structures, operation Resistance sections (progressive collapse) is implemented.
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Figure 22.3-2. The Design Combinations (of the Figure 22.3-3. The Factors Diagram dialog box
Progressive Collapse) in the Element dialog box
1. Recommendations on the protection of residential frame buildings during emergencies/ Moskomarkhitektura. – M.:
GUP NIAC, 2002.– 24 p.
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23.Stability Analysis
23. Stability Analysis

The following values are determined in this postprocessor for each selected loading (or combination of
loadings):
 stability factors of safety;
 buckling modes;
 unsupported lengths of bar elements.
23.1. Problem Formulation

The stability problem is solved in the classical formulation for the elastic system (see Sec. 2.5) and
assuming that all the external loads applied to the system (hence the internal ones as well) increase in
proportion to the same parameter . The value of the parameter , at which the stiffness matrix of the
system K() stops being positive is called critical, and the corresponding value  is called the stability
factor of safety (SFS). Stiffness matrix K() = K0  K1() consists from an “ordinary” stiffness matrix K0
and a matrix of “pushing” reactions K1(), which are defined by compressive forces in bars, compressive
stresses in shell finite elements etc. (see Sec. 2.5.7). It should be noted that if the stiffness matrix is positive
definite, it means that the elastic potential is positive regardless of the values of nodal displacements and
rotations (it means that it is necessary to expend energy for deforming the system and, consequently, it
resists the deformation).
If the system loses stability, its stiffness matrix becomes degenerate (with a zero determinant), and if
the system is in the supercritical state (the accumulated potential energy of “pushing” reactions is released
at its forced deformation), its stiffness matrix becomes indefinite.
Thus, the problem of evaluating the stability of equilibrium comes down to checking the positive
definiteness of the stiffness matrix at the trial value of the factor .
It should be noted that only the critical states at which the so-called buckling mode occurs, when not
all nodal displacements and rotations are equal to zero can be found by performing the checks of the
stiffness matrix. It is also checked that a hidden buckling mode, which takes place within one finite
element and does not cause nodal displacements and rotations, does not occur at the trial value . Since the
respective critical values cr are known for all types of finite elements (they are calculated by simple
formulas), it means, that it is also necessary to check the inequality  > cr for all finite elements.
If necessary, the specified number of factors  and their respective buckling modes can be calculated.
It is especially important, for example, if there are multiple modes.
It should be noted, that the whole system loses stability, i.e. all its elements. In order to illustrate this
fundamental principle, let’s imagine a compressed bar the design model of which is made up from a chain
of finite elements of the “space bar” type. If this bar is compressed by the force Р, it may lose stability at
its certain value k times greater than the specified one (i.e. k — stability factor of safety). The question
arises which of the finite elements the longitudinal force in which is equal to kN = kР at the moment of
buckling has lost stability? Naturally, all the elements that make up the bar. This conclusion applies to any
design model. Although buckling characterizes the entire system, it does not mean that all its elements are
equally responsible for the occurrence of the critical state. Their specific role can be estimated by
analyzing the energy pattern of the phenomenon (see Chapter 24).
Classical theory of the stability of equilibrium considered in most courses of structural mechanics and
usually used in the structural analysis assumes that all internal forces increase in proportion to one
parameter, and the ratio between them remains constant. However, even for linear systems the stability
factor of safety obtained by the classical method might not have a clear physical meaning. Indeed, imagine
740
a structure with elements highly compressed by the constant load G0 from the self-weight, and in addition
loaded by the temporary load P0 (Fig. 23.1-1).
Figure 23.1-1. Disproportionate growth of loads

Factor of safety k' = 1,25 for the total load corresponds to the clearly unrealistic growth of the self-
weight by 25%. If we consider the growth of the self-weight, for example, by 10% (i.e. take kg = 1,1), the
temporary load has to increase much more to achieve the critical state. Naturally, under such reasoning, a
graphical illustration of which is given in Fig. 23.1-1, a rather modest factor of safety of 1,25 appears in a
completely different light (kp > 1,25). The result will obviously greatly depend on the type of the stability
boundary, and if it has another configuration, all the factors of safety can turn out to be such that the value
kpP0 will be much lower. It is important to note the insufficient accuracy of the analysis of the system with
the usual interpretation of the stability factor of safety.
Therefore, the variant when two loadings act on the system only one of which changes is
implemented (see Sec. 2.5).
23.2. Search of the Stability Factor of Safety

The search of the stability factors of safety is performed in the range [0,], where  — the specified
number corresponding to the SFS value, which is considered to be not important for the assessment of the
quality of the system, and with the specified accuracy . The problem of determining the minimal value of
, and then the next larger one, at which the degeneration of the matrix K() takes place is solved.
Matrix K() is made up of the stability matrices of individual finite elements. If the system has no
elements that can buckle (for example, all bars are in tension in the bar system), a message is generated
that the system is “absolutely stable”.
Then the stability of the system is checked at  =  (i. e. positive definiteness of matrix K()). If this
condition is satisfied, a message that the SFS is greater than the specified maximum value is generated.
If the condition of the positive definiteness of K() is not satisfied (this is evidenced by the negative
values on the main diagonal of the stiffness matrix transformed in the process of solving the system of
equations), the analysis of the positive definiteness of the matrix K(/2),... is performed, i. e. a standard
bisection method is used. This process continues until such an interval (1, 2) is determined so that 2  1
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  ( — the accuracy of the determination of the SFS specified by the user) and the matrix K(1) is
positive definite, while the matrix K(2) does not have this property. The value 1 is considered to be the
SFS.
When generating a stability matrix for each finite element (that can buckle) on this step the value of
cr which leads to the loss of stability of the element is calculated. If min cr < , the search interval is
reduced, and the number of the element for which the minimum value of cr is achieved is output in the
log.
23.3. Buckling Modes

Assuming that the stability factors of safety determined on the first stage are accurate, the problem of the
determination of the eigenvector at the known i-th eigenvalue of the problem is solved (see Sec. 2.5.7)
[K0  Ki(i)] u = 0. (23.3.1)
It should be noted that the right-hand sides of the system are equal to zero, i.e. the values of nodal
displacements and rotations u caused only by the internal compressive stresses and forces are determined.
As you know, the transverse loads have no effect on the values of critical forces and buckling modes. Since
the system of equations (23.3.1) is solved at the zero right-hand side, the buckling mode is determined only
up to the factor.
Knowing the buckling mode, you can use the energy postprocessor (see Sec. 24) and determine the
role of individual parts of the system in the process of buckling. Use the Elements with nonpositive
energy button to do it. It must be emphasized that the moment of buckling is considered, i. e. the result of
the analysis does not depend on the value of the stability factor of safety. Thus, if you increase the intensity
(but not the type) of loading by increasing all loads, for example, N times, the factor of safety will decrease
N times, while the buckling mode and the energy pattern will remain the same.
23.4. Unsupported Lengths

If the system has bar elements, it is possible to determine their unsupported lengths, i.e. lengths of the same
but hinged bars the critical force Ncr of which coincides with the longitudinal force in the bar of the system
at the moment of buckling. Since for the simply supported bar of the length l according to the Euler’s
formula
Ncr = 2EJ / l2,
the unsupported length factor (ratio of the unsupported length to the length of the bar) will be equal to
 = [(2EJ/(Ncr l2)]1/2, (23.4.1)
where EJ — rigidities of bars in the principal planes of inertia (for a spatial problem — two for each bar).
We can illustrate it with an example of a variable cross-section bar (Fig. 23.4-1), compressed by
forces F = 5T and F = 10T. The calculation of this system gives the value k = 24,38.
The unsupported length of the first element L1 = 25,45 m, and of the second one — L2 = 12,72 m.
Thus, the unsupported length factor of the first element μ1 = 25,45/12 = 2,12, and of the second one —
μ2 = 12,72/2 = 6,36. Calculation according to SNiP II-23-81*1 (see Annex 6, Table 67) gives values
n = (200012)/(240002) = 0,5;  = (10 + 5)/5 = 3; 1 = (2/12)[24000/(20003)]1/2 = 0,333.
If we interpolate the values from the table 67, we will obtain μ2 = 2,136 and μ1 = 2,136/0.333 = 6,236.
1
Hereinafter in this chapter we refer to SNiP II-23-81*, but it equally applies to SP 16.13330.2011 and DBN B.2.6-
163:2010 as well.
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Figure 23.4-1.
It can be seen from the formula (23.4.1) that if the system has heavily and lightly loaded bars with the
same section and the same boundary conditions (for example, columns of a multi-storey building, where
the compression on the upper floors is less than on the lower ones), the lightly loaded bars have
significantly greater unsupported lengths. This fact has long been well known and was a subject of lively
discussions many times. It was found in these debates that the strength and stability checks of such “too
long” bars are performed quite correctly, but the check of the limit slenderness should not be performed
with such lengths. Unfortunately, this conclusion is not given in the codes.
It should be noted that when a real bar is divided into finite elements, the unsupported length of each
of these finite elements is output in the result of the calculation. Thus, in the above example, if we divide
the first element, for example, into four equal parts, the unsupported length of each of them will be equal to
25,45 m in the result of the calculation, and the checks of any of these parts would be performed under the
same conditions.
23.5. Unsupported Lengths and Effective Length Factors

It should be noted that the use of the unsupported lengths calculated in SCAD does not allow to
automatically specify the effective lengths (or the effective length factors) in the subsystems of the
calculation of steel and/or reinforced concrete structures (see Chapters 19 and 20):
1. The unsupported length of the bar element depends on the loading. Design combinations of forces are
used in the calculations of the elements of steel and reinforced concrete structures. These
combinations are basically combinations of several loadings and this combination can be different in
different sections of the same element. Naturally, a problem arises — which unsupported length (from
which loading or which combination of loadings) should be used.
2. A concept of a structural member — a sequence of finite elements, is used in the SCAD subsystem of
the calculation of elements of steel structures. Unsupported lengths of each finite element (not the
structural member) are calculated in the stability analysis.
3. It is necessary to know the effective length in order to determine the slenderness according to SNiP II-
23-81*. If the element is in tension, the concept of the unsupported length loses its meaning (and it is
not calculated). And the effective length factor is necessary to check the slenderness limitations.
4. As far as we know the concept of the unsupported length introduced in SNiP is not the classic
definition from structural mechanics. The developers of SNiP assumed that the structure is rigid in
one plane, and believed that the effective length characterizes the stability of the bar under this
condition. The effective lengths are determined in two planes in SCAD assuming that the rigidities in
both planes are finite.
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23.6. Design Codes and Stability Analysis of Bars

The moment of buckling is determined in SCAD for a strictly rectilinear, perfectly elastic bar. It might
turn out that a certain bar is overstressed and has already lost its stability at, for example, 80% of the
current load.
Formulas given in the codes allow for the elastoplastic behavior of a bar with initial imperfections
(this is the way the buckling coefficient curve () given in them is plotted). It might turn out that the
same bar is also overstressed and has lost its bearing capacity at, for example, 76% of the current load. In
this case 76% is not very different from 80%. But in other cases the difference can be very large. An
exemplary plot shown in Fig. 23.6-1 can be used to explain this phenomenon. Plots of this type can be
found in textbooks and guides on steel structures (see, for example, [1, p. 324, Fig. 6.13] or [2, p. 209-
210]).
It can be seen from the plots given in the figure, that if the slenderness is small the values of  differ
significantly. This difference can be seen by comparing the results obtained with the help of Kristall,
which implements the lower curve of Fig. 23.6-1 (in accordance with the recommendations of the codes),
and SCAD where the classical Euler solution is implemented, which is given by formula (23.4.1) when
there are hinges at the ends of the bar.
As an example, let’s consider a design model made up from four bar finite elements of ring section.
The critical load of such a compressed column turns out to be 44% greater than it should be, for example,
from formula 7 of SNiP II-23-81*, since the buckling coefficient  is given in SNiP allowing for the
additional margin due to the possible imperfections of the compressed bar. To verify this, consider, for
example, a bar with the conventional slenderness  > 4,5, for which formula 10 is given in SNiP II-23-
81*:  = 332/[2(51 )]. Let’s compare this result with the Euler solution: cr = 2Ry /2. Determine
the factor of safety equal to cr /(Ry). It varies from 1,38 at  = 4,5 to 1,10 at  = 14.
It should also be noted that if the slenderness is small,
one more difference comes into play — the formulas given in
the codes take into account the plastic stage of the material at
buckling, while the software provides the solution of the
stability problem of an elastic system.
SCAD does not take plasticity into account for the
following reasons:
 firstly, it is not known what to do for the elements from the
materials different from those given in the code;
 secondly, it is not known whether the user is interested
in, for example, SNiP II-23-81* “Steel Structures” or
SNiP 2.05.03-84 “Bridges and Pipes”. Curves () in the
last document are different even for steel structures,
because the assumptions on the value of the initial
Figure 23.6-1. Relationship () imperfections are different.
If we remember that there are reinforced concrete, timber, plastic and other kinds of structures,
accounting for all the details dealing with their check according to the codes distracts from the general
design software.
23.7. Input Data

The data for the check of the overall stability of the system is input in the dialog box (Fig. 23.7-1), which
can be invoked from the Special Initial Data section of the Project tree. It is necessary to perform the
following operations to input the data:
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− specify the necessary check modes — calculation of the stability factor of safety, buckling modes and
unsupported lengths of bar elements, with the help of the respective checkboxes;
− specify the respective values in the Upper search limit and Accuracy of calculations fields (they are
equal to 2 and 0,01 by default, and they can be adjusted when specifying the calculation parameters
(see Chapter 11);
− enable the options which determine the type of data for which
the stability check is performed: for loadings or for
combinations of loadings, for all loadings (combinations) or
only for the selected ones; in the last case the necessary data
are selected in the list of loadings (combinations);
− if necessary you can select the Stability check for the
combined action of loadings radio button, the Stable
loading (combination) list will become available where you
can select the necessary data.
Figure 23.7-1. The General Stability

Check of the System dialog box
Accuracy of calculations — defines the criterion of the end of the iterative process of searching the
stability factor of safety. If the values of this parameter are very small, the calculation time can increase
significantly. If the buckling moment is determined inaccurately, the condition that the elastic potential is
equal to zero can be performed with an unacceptable error. Therefore, in order to analyze the buckling
modes in the energy processor, it is necessary to increase the accuracy of the calculations.
Upper search limit — is used to limit the search interval of the stability factor of safety. If its value
is greater that the upper limit, the system is considered to be stable and the analysis log (see Chapter 13)
will contain the following message:
Stability factor of safety of the system is greater than the upper search
limit. Its value is not determined.
In this case formula (23.4.1) can not be used, the unsupported lengths will not be calculated, and the
following message will be generated:
Unsupported lengths cannot be calculated for loadings NNN because the
stability factor of safety of the system is not calculated for them.
The Number of buckling modes parameter enables to obtain several buckling modes and to study the
behavior of the structure in more detail, and in some cases to use it when making design decisions (see Sec.
9.2 of [3]).
In order to obtain the values of the unsupported lengths, and the buckling modes which can not be
determined if the value of cr is not calculated, it is necessary to specify a larger value of the upper search
limit and repeat the calculation.
Check the respective checkboxes in the Stability tab of the Calculation Parameters dialog box (see
Chapter 11) if you want to allow for tangential displacements in the geometric stiffness matrix of shells
and for possible buckling at the bending of bars.
The Delete data button enables to delete the prepared data and cancel the stability analysis.
23.8. Peculiarities of the Analysis for the Dynamic Loadings

The stability check for the combinations of loadings which include the dynamic ones should be
performed with caution due to the following facts:
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 the results of the dynamic loading are alternating;

 in those cases when the results of the dynamic analysis are generated as a root of the sum of
squares (RSS) of the modal contributions, the conditions of equilibrium and the geometric
consistency of the nodal displacements are violated (see, for example, Sec. 13.4).
Let’s consider them separately.
Since it is not known in advance which sign of the result of the dynamic analysis is more dangerous
according to the stability analysis, both possibilities should be considered. For example, if the combination
(L1)*1+(L2)*0.9+(L3)*0.7+(L4)*0.8, where the loading (L3) is a dynamic one, is considered in the
stability analysis, it is also necessary to perform the check for the combination (L1)*1+(L2)*0.9+(L3)*(-
0.7)+(L4)*0.8. If there are several dynamic loadings, it is necessary to try all the options of the signs for
their results.
Actually the inconsistency of forces related to the use of the RSS (obviously, if not just one natural
oscillation mode is taken into account) does not cause any problems. You just have to check the stability
factor of safety at the proportional growth of all the internal forces ignoring the fact that these forces
disturb the equilibrium conditions.
However the inconsistency of nodal displacements leads to the distortions of the rigid bodies (in fact,
they deform, which contradicts their physical nature). The difficulty lies in the fact that instead of being
defined by the internal forces or stresses the matrix К1() for these elements is calculated on the basis of
the values of the nodal displacements, which define the variation of the spatial orientation of an infinitely
rigid finite element (see 9.5.1 in [3]). The inconsistency of the nodal displacements can lead to a fatal error
in the calculation К1().
Therefore the software enables to reduce the matrix К1() when checking the stability for combinations
containing a dynamic loading with more than one natural oscillation mode taken into account. A respective
warning appears in the analysis log.
23.9. Analysis of Results

Buckling modes can be analyzed at the graphical analysis of the results in the Displacements section (see
Fig. 12.1-5), where they are identified by the letter S in the list of loadings. All results can be obtained with
the help of the Table generator in the text format or Documenter (see Sec. 13.17).
1. V.V. Gorev, B.Yu. Uvarov, V.V. Filippov and others, Steel structures. In 3 v. — V. 1. Elements of steel
structures. — M.: High school, 1997.— 527 p.
2. V.V. Kuznetsov, Steel structures. In 3 v. — V. 1. General. (Designer’s handbook) — M.: ASV, 1998.— 576 p.
3. A.V. Perelmuter, V.I. Slivker, Design models of structures and possibilities of their analysis. — M, DMK-
Press, 2007. — 600 p.
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24.Energy Postprocessor
24. Energy Postprocessor

The energy postprocessor can be considered as a tool for obtaining the display of the peculiarities of the
stress-strain state of the system in the form of the strain energy distribution pattern.
If the energy pattern is generated taking into account the effect of the geometric stiffness matrix, it
becomes possible to classify the individual parts of the system (up to its individual elements) into the
following classes: the class of restraining and the class of pushing elements (or parts) of the system.
Restraining elements help to preserve the stability of equilibrium of the system, while pushing elements
contribute to its buckling.
The check of the role of individual subsystems is performed during the calculation of the value of
energy accumulated in different parts of the system at its deformation according to the buckling mode. This
energy is equal to zero for the whole system, and its parts where the energy is non-positive are classified as
pushing, while the parts of the system with positive strain energy can be classified as restraining ones.
On the basis of the numerical values of the energy, pushing elements of the system can be ranked
according to their degree of responsibility for the critical state of the system, since the contribution of each
element of the system in its total energy balance can serve as a convenient quantitative measure of its
responsibility for the stability of equilibrium .
Figure 24-1. The Energy postprocessor section of the Postprocessors toolbar

The mode of the analysis of the results of the energy postprocessor is invoked by clicking the button
in the Postprocessors toolbar.
The toolbar of this mode contains the following buttons:
— display the distribution of energy as color fields;

— display the distribution of energy as color markers;
— display the distribution of specific energy as color fields;
— display the distribution of specific energy as color markers;
— display elements with positive, zero and negative values of energy;
—display the design model.
The results of the energy processor are displayed as color fields or markers. The distribution of the
energy in the system can be obtained as reduced to the volume of the finite element or to the unit volume
(specific energy).
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24.Energy Postprocessor
In the case when the color scale of the distribution

of the positive and negative energy is generated for the
selected buckling mode on the fragment of the design
model and the Fragment scale checkbox is checked, a
message on the sign of the total energy of the given
fragment is generated.
It enables to make a conclusion on whether the
Figure 24-2. The Energy Distribution color subsystem (selected fragment) is restraining, pushing or
scale neutral1.
Energy indicators of the system make sense not only at the stability analysis, but for the static
loadings and their combinations as well. In this case the distribution of the specific energy characterizes the
energy “loading” of the elements of the design model, and the distribution of the energy reduced to the
whole volume of the FE can indirectly serve as an indicator of the quality of the finite element mesh.
1
See Perelmuter A.V., Slivker V.I. Design models of structures and possibilities of their analysis. — M., SCAD
SOFT, ASV, DMK-Press, 2011. — 709 p.
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25.Principal and Equivalent Stresses
25. Principal and Equivalent Stresses

Let’s outline the fundamental principles of the stress theory
usually considered in the course of the theory of elasticity or the
strength of materials.
If you select an elementary volume in the form of an
infinitesimally small parallelepiped from the body in the
vicinity of a certain point (Fig. 25-1), the environmental action
on it can be replaced by the stresses the components of which
act on the faces of the parallelepiped.
According to the law of pairing of shear stresses
Figure 25-1. Stress components  xy   yx ,  yz   zy ,  zx   xz . (25.1)
In the general case there are only six independent stress
components in a point which form a symmetric stress tensor
 σ x τ xy τ xz 
 
T   τ xy σ y τ yz  . (25.2)
 τ xz τ yz σ z 
 
Normal stress  and shear stress  (Fig. 25-2) with the
resultant S act on an arbitrarily oriented plane passing through
the same point the normal to which  has direction cosines l, m,
n with the axes x, y, z. The projections of this resultant on the
coordinate axes Sx, Sy, Sz are related to the stress components
Figure 25-2. Stresses on an arbitrary
by the equilibrium conditions (Cauchy’s formula):
plane
S νx   x l   xy m  xz n
S νy   xy l   y m   yz n . (25.3)
S νz   xz l   yz m  z n
There are such three mutually perpendicular planes on which there are no shear stresses. Principal
stresses 1, 2 and 3 (1  2  3) act on these so-called principal planes. It is also known that the
principal stresses have extreme properties, i.e. the resulting stress on any plane S  1 and S    3 .
The direction cosines lk , mk and nk of the normals to the principal planes k are determined by solving
the system of equations:
( x   k )lk   xy mk   xz nk  0;

 xy lk  ( y   k )mk   yz nk  0; (25.4)

 xz lk   yz mk  ( z   k )nk  0;
a nonzero solution of which exists when its determinant is equal to zero.
And lk2  mk2  nk2  1 .
It follows from (25.4) that the principal stresses k (k=1, 2, 3) are the roots of the cubic equation
 x    xy  xz 
 
det   xy y    yz   0 . (25.5)
  xz  yz  z   

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Expanded form of the equation (25.5):

3  I1 (T ) 2  I 2 (T )  I 3 (T )  0 , (25.6)
Its coefficients are invariants (i.e. they do not depend on the selected coordinate system). The first invariant
I1 (T )   x   y  z is equal to three times the average stress (hydrostatic pressure)  0 .
The direction of the principal planes can be defined not only by the nine direction cosines but also by
the three Euler angles (precession angle , nutation angle  and the pure rotation angle ). Any plane
parallel to the coordinate plane (XOY, XOZ or YOZ) can be set to any position with their help.
The Lode-Nadai coefficient is used to characterize the stress-strain state (SSS).
 2  3
0  2 1
1  3
It takes values 0 = 1 at pure compression, 0 = 0 at pure shear, 0= 1 at pure tension.

When outputting the results of the calculation the stress tensor (25.2) in the general case has the
following form
 x  xy  xz 
 
T    xy y  yz  . (25.7)
  xz  yz  z 

25.1. Principal Stresses for Different Types of Finite

Elements
Each type of element has certain peculiarities of the stress-strain state (SSS), which in turn defines the
peculiarities of the position of the principal planes.
Depending on the considered type of element principal stresses and angles which characterize the
position of the principal planes are calculated in each point where the forces (stresses) are determined. The
results of the calculation can be obtained only in the center of gravity of the element (center of gravity of
the cross-section of the body of revolution for axisymmetric elements) or in the center of gravity and in
nodes.
Spatial Problem of the Theory of Elasticity

Solid elements are used for solving the spatial problem of the theory of elasticity, and axisymmetric
elements as a special case. The following values are calculated for them:
 principal stresses 1, 2 and 3;
 Euler angles —,  and ;
 Lode-Nadai coefficient 0;
 angle of the principal stress 1 to the X1 axis.
Deep Beam Elements

The stress tensor in the case of the plane SSS (deep beam) has the following form
  x 0  xz 
T   0 0 0  , (25.1.1)
  xz 0  z 
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where x, z ,xz — stress components in the midplane of the element in the local coordinates X1OZ1. In this
case only two principal stresses can be calculated by the formula
2
x  z    z 
1,3    x    xz .
2
(25.1.2)
2  2 
The position of the principal planes is characterized by the angle of the principal stress 1 to the X1 axis
  x
  arctg 1 . (25.1.3)
 xz
If xz = 0, it is considered that  = 0, and in this case the directions of the principal planes coincide
with the axes of the coordinate system of the output of stresses in the element.
Plates and Shells

The following forces on the midplane are calculated for plates:
 moments — Mx, My and Mxy;
 shear forces — Qx and Qy.
The following stresses are also calculated for shells: x , y and xy. Stress tensor has the following
form:
  x  xy 0 
T    xy  y 0  , (25.1.4)
 0 0 0 
because shear stresses  xz  1/ 5 Qx / h ,  yz  1/ 5Qy / h are not taken into account.
Principal stresses are determined on the lower (L), middle (M) and upper (U) surfaces for each point
where the forces are calculated. And
xU/L = x  6Mx/h2,
yU/L = y  6My/h2, (25.1.5)
xyU/L 2
= xy  6Mxy/h ,
where h — thickness of the element.
Then the principal planes for the upper and lower surfaces are parallel, and the principal stresses are
determined by the formula
2
x   y  x   y 
1,2       xy .
2
(25.1.6)
2  2 
The position of the principal planes is characterized by the angle of the principal stress 1 to the X1 axis
  x
  arctg 1 . (25.1.7)
 xy
If xy = 0, it is considered that  = 0, and in this case the directions of the principal planes coincide
with the axes of the coordinate system of the output of stresses in the element.
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Bar Elements
Principal stresses in bar elements are determined by the formula
2
  
1,2  x   x   2xy  2xz . (25.1.8)
2  2 
Here x, xy and xz are normal and shear stresses respectively in the
characteristic points of the bar cross-section (Fig. 25.1-1).
Principal stresses are calculated for bar elements the sections of which are
defined parametrically or selected from the assortment of rolled profiles. Fig.
25.1-2 and Fig. 25.1-3 show the characteristic points of the sections for which the
calculations are performed.
Figure 25.1-1
Values of the principal stresses are not calculated in the points which are not located on the material
part of the cross-section (for example, point 9 for the hollow section).
Figure 25.1-2. Parametric sections
Figure 25.1-3. Rolled steel profiles (with the numbers of characteristic points)
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25.2. Calculating Equivalent Stresses

In the case of simple deformation types, in particular the uniaxial stress state, the danger of the current
stresses is estimated by comparing them to the experimentally determined value (to the yield stress for
plastic materials or to the fracture strength for brittle materials). In the case of a complex stress state
characterized by the principal stresses 1, 2 and 3, a certain hypothesis (failure theory) on the primary
effect of a certain factor on the strength of material is used. A certain equivalent stress е can be compared
to the limit value  0 , which corresponds to the simple uniaxial tension. The condition of non-occurrence
of the limit state in the material is written as follows
e  f  1 , 2 , 3 , k1 ,..., kn   0 ,
where k1,...,kn — material constants, which can be absent.
Here are some designations of the used constants:
1
 0  (1   2   3 ) — average stress (hydrostatic pressure);
3
1
i  (1   2 ) 2  (2  3 )2  (3  1 ) 2  — stress intensity;
2  
0 , 0 , 0 — ultimate stresses of the material at the uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, and pure
shear, respectively;
  0 / 0 ;   0 / 0 ;   0 / 0 ;   1/ 0 .
Sometimes it is more convenient to compare the equivalent stress to the limit 0 corresponding to the
strength of the sample material in the simple uniaxial compression. The respective equivalent stress is
designated as S.
The software implements four failure theories the information on which is given in Table 25.2-1. All
of them belong to the isotropic materials and the conditions of static loading, when the history of the
behavior of the structure does not affect the formulation of the failure conditions.
Table 25.2-1
No. Expressions for the calculation
Failure theory of the equivalent tensile е and Scope
compressive stress s
1 Maximum normal stress е = 1 For brittle homogeneous materials
theory s = 3 (ceramics, glass)
2 Maximum linear strain е = 1 –  (2+3) For brittle materials under simple
theory s = 3 –  (1+2) compression
Maximum shear stress е = 1 – 3 For plastic materials with low hardening,
theory s = е for which the local plastic deformations in
3 the form of slip lines are typical (tempered
steel)
shear stresses or the specific e i 2 1

The theory of octahedral     1 (   ) 2 
2
For most plastic materials (steel, copper,
nickel)

1
4 distortion energy 2
(2  3 ) 2  (3  1 ) 2 
s = e
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25.3. Preparing Data for the Calculation of the Principal and

Equivalent Stresses
The initial data for the calculation of the principal and equivalent stresses are prepared in the respective
dialog box (Fig. 25.3-1), which can be invoked from the Special Initial Data section of the Project tree.
The calculation can be performed for individual loadings or for their combinations.
The type of the analysis is specified with the help of the checkboxes in the upper part of the dialog
box.
The radio buttons of the Failure theory group enable to select the theory according to which the
equivalent stresses are calculated.
Figure 25.3-1. The Analysis of Principal

and Equivalent Stresses dialog box
Figure 25.3-2. Table of principal and equivalent stresses in

the selected element
If you click the Delete data button, the information necessary for the calculation of the principal and
equivalent stresses will be deleted from the initial data, and the calculation will not be performed.
SCAD does not perform the calculation of the principal and equivalent
stresses for the design combinations of forces. Since the design combinations are
selected based on the search of the extreme value of a certain component of the
stress state, it can not be connected to the search of the principal and equivalent
stresses, which are calculated using all the components of the stress state.
The results of the calculation can be printed as tables with the help of the Print Tables section of the
Project tree or the Documenter (see Chapter 13). Moreover, the Information on the Element dialog box
enables to display the principal and equivalent stresses in the tabular form (Fig. 25.3-2).
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25.4. Graphical Display of the Results of the Calculation of

the Principal and Equivalent Stresses
The Analysis of principal and equivalent stresses mode of the Postprocessors toolbar is used for the
graphical display of the results of the calculation of the principal and equivalent stresses. The mode of the
graphical analysis of the results enables to plot isolines and isofields of the principal and equivalent stresses for
plate elements, and to display the directions of one of the principal planes. Isosurfaces of stresses can be
displayed for solid elements. Diagrams or a color scale of diagrams can be also obtained for bars (25.4-2).
Figure 25.4-1. The toolbar of the Analysis of principal and equivalent stresses mode
The toolbar of this mode contains the following functions:
— stress diagrams;
— change the display axis of diagrams;
— color display of the values of principal/equivalent stresses;
— color display of values of principal/equivalent stresses with the selected value;
— display isolines of principal/equivalent stresses;
— display isofields of principal/equivalent stresses;
— display isofields and isolines of principal/equivalent stresses;
— display isosurfaces of stresses in solid elements;
— display isolines of principal/equivalent stresses with a constant step;
— display isofields of principal/equivalent stresses with a constant step;
— display isofields of principal/equivalent stresses with the selected value;
— display directions of principal planes with the maximum stress;
— display directions of principal planes with the minimum stress;
— display directions of principal planes with the maximum compressive stress;
— display directions of principal planes with the maximum tensile stress;

The toolbar also contains the following lists: Select type of stress; Select layer, where the selected
stresses of plates are analyzed; Select loading or combination of loadings.
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The following designations are used when determining the type of the output information:
1, 2, 3 — principal stresses;
E1 — equivalent stress (reduced to the equivalent tension) according to the first failure theory;
S1 — equivalent stress (reduced to the equivalent compression) according to the first failure theory;
E2, E3, E4 — equivalent stresses (reduced to the equivalent tension) according to the 2 – 4 failure
theories;
S2, S3, S4 — equivalent stresses (reduced to the equivalent compression) according to the 2 – 4
failure theories.
The following numbering of the failure theories is used:
1 — maximum normal stress theory;
2 — maximum linear strain theory;
3 — maximum shear stress theory;
4 — Huber-Hencky-von Mises theory.
The control of the display is performed with the help of the buttons of the toolbar (Fig. 25.4-1)
similarly to the output of forces and stresses, therefore only the description of the operations which are
unique or have certain differences is given below.
Color Display of Principal/Equivalent Stresses in Bars
The software calculates principal/equivalent stresses for bar elements in a number of points specific to
each cross-sectional shape. At the display of diagrams (mode ) or the color display of diagrams (modes
) a diagram of the minimal value for all points is plotted for the stresses σ1, σs1, σs2, σs3, σs4; and a
diagram of the maximal value for all points is plotted for the stresses σ3, σe1, σe2, σe3, σe4.
The button enables to change the display axis of diagrams and thus select a variant of the display
with a "better visibility" (see Fig. 25.4-2).
Diagrams Color display of diagrams
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Isofields + direction of principal planes

Figure 25.4-2. Graphical display of the principal/equivalent stresses in bars.
Display of Directions of Principal Planes
The direction of the selected principal plane for plate elements is displayed as a segment with the
center in the geometric center of the finite element. There are 4 modes for drawing the principal planes on
the plate elements:
— a plane corresponding to the stress σ1 is drawn;
— a plane corresponding to the stress σ3 is drawn;
— if 3<0, then a plane corresponding to the stress σ3 is drawn;
— if 1>0, then a plane corresponding to the stress σ1 is drawn.
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26.Nonlinear Calculations in SCAD
26. Nonlinear Calculations in SCAD

26.1. General Information
The problems of the analysis of load-bearing structures focused on the refined prediction of the
peculiarities of the behavior of the system at all stages of its operation including the stages prior to the
failure can not be usually solved by the methods of the linear structural mechanics. Educational literature
[1, 2] and the majority of software consider the following “set of nonlinearities”: deviation from Hooke's
law (physical nonlinearity), failure to consider the equilibrium conditions in geometrical terms of the non-
deformed state (geometric nonlinearity), accounting for the possible changes in the design model during
the deformation process (structural nonlinearity). The nonlinearity related to the accumulation of stress
and strain during the changes of the structure as it is created (genetic nonlinearity) should be added to
them.
Without going into details, let’s formulate some general warnings on the issue of the nonlinear
analysis . Some of them (but not all) are given in Table 26.1-1.
Table 26.1-1
Peculiarity Linear problems Nonlinear problems
Relationship between Displacements are linearly dependent on The relationship between displacement and
displacement and load the applied load load is nonlinear
Relationship between A relationship between stress and strain is In the problems where the physical
stress and strain assumed to be linear nonlinearity is considered the “stress-strain”
relationship can be a nonlinear function of
stress or strain
Value of displacement The change in geometry due to the Displacements can be not small, it is
displacement is assumed to be small, and is necessary to use the deformed state to check
ignored when checking the equilibrium the equilibrium
Reversibility All deformations are completely reversible After the load is removed, the state of the
and disappear when the system is unloaded system can differ from the initial one
Boundary conditions Boundary conditions remain unchanged Boundary conditions can change, for
during the calculation example, the contact areas change
Sequence of load The sequence of load application is not The state of the structure can depend on the
application important, the final state does not depend sequence of load application
on it
Use of the results The results of the calculation for different The decomposition of the problem into
loads can be added or multiplied by certain components with the subsequent
coefficients in order to combine the design combination of the results is impossible
states
Initial stress-strain state The initial stress-strain state is It is usually required to specify the initial
insignificant stress-strain state, especially in the case of
the nonlinearity related to the behavior of the
material
You should be careful when using the concept of “physical nonlinearity”, which is often identified
with the plastic behavior of the material. However, many programs consider the case when a linear
relationship between stress and strain is replaced by a nonlinear function, the same for loading and
758
unloading. Such nonlinear elastic materials almost never occur in nature. Plastic materials usually have
residual deformations after unloading.
SCAD enables to perform the calculation of the geometrically non-linear systems, cable-stayed
structures, and problems with unilateral constraints.
26.2. Geometric Nonlinearity

Geometrically nonlinear behavior of the elastic system is related to the need to take into account the
changes in the geometry of the system at its deformation under the load. Thus, technically, different
geometric distortions can be considered, but SCAD enables to take into account only the so-called
“von Karman approximation” when it is assumed that the squares of the rotation angles are of the same
order of magnitude as the relative elongation of the material, which in turn is assumed to be small
compared to one. This issue is considered in more detail in Sec. 3.5 of [3].
The interaction between bending effects and longitudinal forces (the phenomenon of buckling in bars)
is considered, when, for example, the linear equation for a flexible plate of thickness h
D 2 2 q
  w , (26.2.1)
h h
is replaced by the following equations
D 2 2 2 2 w 2 2 w  2  2 w q
  w 2  2  2  2 2   ;
h y x x y xy xy h
(26.2.2)
 2  2 
 w 2 w 2 w
    E 
2 2
  2  2
 xy  x y 
with respect to the deflection function w( x, y ) and the stress function  ( x, y ) , through which the
membrane forces are determined as
2  2 2
x  ; y  ;  xy  .
y 2
x 2
xy
The following designation of the differential operator is used in (26.2.1) and (26.2.2)
2 2
2   ,
x 2 y 2
q — load value.
Geometrically nonlinear effects can be taken into account if the finite elements given in Table 26.2-1
are used in the model.
Elements 301–310 are analogous to bar elements, and 341–350 — to shell elements, and 331-338 —
to solid elements. They are considered in detail in Sec. 3.3-3.5. The initial information and loads are
specified for them in the same way. The calculated forces and sign conventions coincide as well (see Sec.
13.5).
If you want to change the type of a linear element to a nonlinear one to take the geometric
nonlinearity into account, invoke the Specify elements to take into account the geometric nonlinearity
operation in the Assign toolbar, select the respective elements in the model and click the OK button. A
similar result can be obtained with the help of the Specify the type of finite elements operation. Before
selecting the type of a shell or bar element (linear) in the respective dialog box (Fig. 26.2-1), you should
first check the Accounting for geometric nonlinearity checkbox. The selected type is assigned to the
elements in the traditional way, and the number of the type of the nonlinear element will be automatically
modified by adding 300.
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Table 26.2-1
FE Linear
Description
type analog
301- 1-10
310
341 41
342 42
344 44
345 45
350 50
331 31
332 32
333 33
334 34
335 35
336 36
337 37
338 38
760
Figure 26.2-1. The Specify the Element Type dialog box
26.3. Cable-Stayed Elements

The design model of a cable-stayed element is a flexible thread with a small sag which in the initial state is
characterized by the temperature T0 and strain H0, is loaded by a certain transverse load q0(х), and for
which the strain becomes equal to Н when the chord is elongated by  and the transverse load changes to
q(х), and the temperature – to T.
The equation that relates these values for flat threads:
(H - H0 )L D D
D= - 2
+ 02 + a (T - T0 ) L , (26.3.1)
EA 2H 2H 0
where
L L
2 2
D= ò Q ( x )dx , D0 = ò Q0 ( x )dx ,
0 0
Q(x) — shear force arising in a simply supported beam of the span L from the action of load q(х),
directed across the chord of the cable-stayed element;
Q0(x)— the same from the load q0(х);
 — thermal expansion coefficient;
E — elastic modulus of the thread material;
A — cross-sectional area of the thread.
The equation (26.3.1) can be expressed in the dimensionless variables  = /L , 0 = 0/L , t=
H/(EA), and the following designations
H0 L D D
D0 = -a (T - T0 ) L - 02 , K =
EA 2H 0 2 L( EA) 2
as:
K (26.3.2)
d = t- -d 0 .
t2
Diagram of the  vs. t relationship at 0 = 0 is given in Fig. 26.3-1, the value 0 can be easily taken
into account by moving the origin. It can be seen from the figure that as K decreases the curve t = t()
approaches its asymptotes. The X-axis is an asymptote when  < 0, and the line with the tangent of the
angle of EA/L – when  are positive. Instant compliance of the cable-stayed element in the vicinity of a
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certain stress state characterized by the strain Н can be easily determined by differentiating the equation of
state (26.3.1):
dD L D
= + 3. (26.3.3)
dH EA H
When performing the analysis of cable-stayed
systems it is important to specify the reference
state correctly, which is characterized by the initial
values of the shear loads on cable-stayed elements
q0 (it is usually a component of the load from the
self-weight of the cable stay perpendicular to the
chord of the cable-stayed element) and the values of
Figure 26.3-1. Dimensionless relationship the strains H0  0.
between the strain and the increase of the chord
The main difficulty is that all values of H0 must correspond to the equilibrium state of the system in
which the prestressing creates a certain pattern of internal forces corresponding to the initial external load
q0, which can be absent. There are usually many possible equilibrium conditions of the system each of
which corresponds to its distribution of prestressing forces in cable stays H0,i (i = 1,…,m), where m —
number of cable stays in the system. Therefore, when designing the cable-stayed structures the engineer
has a task of selecting a rational initial stress state from the set of allowable ones based on the certain
criteria of optimality and structural limitations. These criteria and limitations may vary depending on the
particular design problem.
The following operation is provided in SCAD in order to facilitate these calculations when working
with cable-stayed elements — cable stays are deleted, and the prestressing forces are applied to the
remaining part of the structure. The system might turn out to be unstable after deleting the cable stays,
which is typical for masts with a hinged trunk. In order to avoid this problem it is sometimes necessary to
install additional elastic constraints with such a small stiffness that their effect on the general stress-strain
state can be neglected.
The parameters of a cable-stayed element can be specified after clicking the Create cable-stayed
elements button in the Special elements toolbar (see Sec. 6.4). The Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog
box (Fig. 26.3-2) appears after clicking this button. If the input method other than the numerical and
parametric description is selected, the only difference from the specification of stiffness properties of bar
elements is the fact that it is necessary to specify the value of prestressing. The dialog box for the
numerical and parametric description is shown in Fig. 26.3-3.
When specifying the stiffness properties by selecting the section from the assortment of rolled profiles
the Zinc coated steel wire ropes assortment is available only for cable-stayed elements.
If the assortment of zinc coated steel wire ropes is used to specify the
stiffness properties of cable-stayed elements, the elastic modulus of steel is
specified in accordance with the recommendations of the respective codes and
can be changed by the user.
762
Figure 26.3-2. The General Data tab of Figure 26.3-3. The Numerical Description tab of
the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box the Rigidity of Bar Elements dialog box
In addition to performing the static calculations it is also necessary to carry out the calculations of the
free oscillations, because otherwise it is impossible to determine the pulsation component of the wind load,
perform the seismic analysis, etc. The spectral analysis of the system (determination of frequencies and its
natural oscillation modes) makes sense only in the linear formulation. In the case of the nonlinear problems
we can talk about the expansion of the motion of the system by the natural oscillation modes in the vicinity
of the considered equilibrium position at the linearization of the behavior of the system in this vicinity. The
determination of the stress-strain state (SSS) of the system at its static loading should be performed taking
into account the geometrically nonlinear effects mentioned above. In the case of the dynamic analysis,
knowing the SSS of the structure from the acting static loads, it is necessary to construct a dynamic model
of the so-called linearized system.
This concept refers to a structure working in the geometrically linear formulation but taking into
account the achieved level of forces in the cable stays in the state prior to the linearization, as well as the
achieved level of compressive forces in the respective compressed elements of the design model.
A linearized system usually refers to the initial system all the constituent elements of which are
considered in the linear formulation but with tangential (instantaneous) stiffness matrices.
Such a system can be built by replacing cable-stayed elements by bars, the rigidity of which is
calculated by the following formula
1
EA = , (26.3.4)
1 Dy + Dz
+
EA LH 3
which is easily obtained from (26.3.3) and takes into account the fact that a cable-stayed element can be
loaded in two planes.
A cable-stayed element has type 308 in the finite element library. It allows the same types of loads as
the element of type 305 ─ bar of the general position described in Sec. 3.3. Strain of the cable stay NX is
obtained in the result of the calculation. More detailed information on the analysis of cable stays is given in
[4].
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Note: If the “self-weight” load is specified in the nonlinear loading, it will

be ignored on the cable-stayed elements, since it is taken into account
automatically. The following warning will appear in the analysis log:
The additionally specified “self-weight” load on the following cable-stayed
elements will be ignored in the nonlinear loading (No. of the loading): (list
of elements)
26.4. Unilateral Constraints

Unilateral constraints are constraints which can take only the forces of a certain sign and are disabled when
the forces of the opposite sign appear, or, which is the same, allow displacements only in a certain
direction and not restrain the displacements in the opposite direction. The respective finite element
implemented in the software models the behavior of a perfect unilateral constraint (without friction).
Like the general type elastic constraints (see Sec. 3.8, 6.4), unilateral constraints can be single-node
(between the node and the “ground”) or two-node (between two nodes). In order to specify the
characteristics of the unilateral constraint click the button in the Nodes and Elements tab.
The Unilateral Constraints dialog box (Fig. 26.4-1) will appear, where you can specify the
performance of the unilateral constraint (constraint is disabled at compression or at tension), its direction
and rigidity (force required for the unit displacement).
The parameters of the initial state of a unilateral constraint are its distinctive feature. For example, the
gap 0 in a unilateral constraint or the prestressing which can be interpreted as the negative gap, i.e. 0 < 0,
can be taken into account for the simplest model of the bar which can take tension and is disabled when
compression appears (Fig. 26.4-2).
If you want to enable a constraint when working in the system, it is necessary to select the gap first, or
if you want to disable it, it is necessary to overcome the prestress.
Figure 26.4-2. Unilateral bar
Figure 26.4-1. The Unilateral Constraints dialog

box
Two variants of the diagram of the behavior of such an element as the relationship between the
longitudinal force H and the increase of the distance between the end points  are given in Fig. 26.4-3,
where a variant with prestressing (equal to Н0) corresponds to the case a, and a variant of the system with a
gap 0 corresponds to the case b.
Slope of the diagram is equal to EA/L (EA — tensile stiffness of the bar, L — length of the bar).
764
Figure 26.4-3. Variants of the diagram Н — 

A single-node element of the unilateral constraint has type 351 in the finite element library, and the
two-node element has type 352. Their linear analogues are elements modeling the constraints of finite
rigidity, 51 and 55, respectively. A force (reaction in the spring) corresponding to the degree of freedom in
the direction of which the constraint of finite rigidity acts when it is enabled is obtained in the result of the
calculation.
765
26.5. Control of the Nonlinear Analysis

Nonlinear calculations are performed using the incremental
method, which is based on the monitoring of the behavior of the
system at relatively small load increments. A linearized system
of governing equations is solved at each step for the current
increment of the vector of nodal loads generated for the
considered loading.
The calculation is focused on solving nonlinear problems
in several modifications of the incremental method:
 simple incremental method;
 incremental method accounting for the residual;
Figure 26.5-1. Graphic illustration of the  incremental-iterative method.
modifications of the incremental method When the simple incremental method is used (Fig. 26.5-1),
(simple) a linearized problem is solved in each step Р, and assuming
that this solution is sufficiently accurate, a transition to the next
step of the nonlinear loading occurs. The error of the solution of
the nonlinear problem is not controlled; the number of steps is
specified by the user. The stiffness of the linearized system
(slope ) is taken without accounting for the force residual.
The incremental method accounting for the residual
provides the iterative refinement of the nonlinear load at the
subsequent step Р by taking into account the residual in the
equations of equilibrium. Iterations are performed with a
Figure 26.5-2. Graphic illustration of the constant value of the linearized stiffness matrix (Fig. 26.5-2),
modifications of the incremental method which was calculated at the beginning of the subsequent step
(accounting for the residual) (angle  remains unchanged in the step).
Finally, when the incremental-iterative method is used
(Fig. 26.5-3), the iterative refinement is performed at each step
Р with the adjustment of the linearized stiffness matrix at each
iteration (angle  changes within the step).
Incremental process simulates the behavior of the system
at the increasing (decreasing if the values of the loading factor
are negative) loads acting on the system. It is assumed that all
components of the loads related to the given loading increase
(decrease) simultaneously in equal proportion.
Figure 26.5-3. Graphic illustration of the

modifications of the incremental method
(incremental-iterative)
The history of the nonlinear loading can be studied by specifying a sequence of individual variants of
the loading. In this case the beginning of the application of the new nonlinear loading corresponds to the
end of the previous one, i.e. the new loading is the continuation of the previous one. In particular, you can
use the previously modeled loading, but with the negative value of loading factor, which enables to explore
766
the full “loading-unloading” cycle. This technique enables to evaluate the accuracy of the calculation of the
discrepancy between the initial and final states of the system.
The analysis of the stress-strain state of the structure taking into account the nonlinear effects is
performed in those cases when at least one nonlinear element is specified in the design model. Different
types of bars, three- and four-node shell elements taking into account the geometric nonlinearity, as well as
the single- and two-node elements modeling unilateral constraints, and cable-stayed elements can be
specified as such elements. Linear and nonlinear finite elements can be combined in one problem.
Data for the control of the analysis of the stress-strain state
of the structure are specified in the Control the Stepwise
Process dialog box (Fig. 26.5-4), which can be invoked from the
Design Model section of the project tree (the Modeling of
Nonlinear Loads operation). The dialog box contains a list of
specified nonlinear loadings, a table for modeling the loading of
the structure, a list for selecting the modification of the
incremental method, a text field for specifying the number of
iterations, and a number of control buttons.
Data describing one step are specified in each line of the
table. It is necessary to perform the following actions to prepare
the data:
− select the number of the linear loading from the list in
the Number of the loading column;
− specify the loading factor for the current step in the
Figure 26.5-4. The Control the Loading factor column as a multiplier to the value of
Stepwise Process dialog box the full load;
− specify the number of steps in the Number of steps column which should be performed with the
specified factor (if the number is greater than one, the step will consist of several steps, each of
which will be performed with the loading factor specified in the previous column);
− check the checkbox in the Save results column if you want to analyze the results of the current step
(if a number greater than one is specified in the Number of steps column, only the resulting
information is output without the results of the intermediate steps);
− repeat the above actions for each step of the analysis;
− select the necessary modification of the incremental method in the Method list;
− if the incremental-iterative method is selected, it is necessary to specify the limitation on the
number of iterations in the Number of iterations field;
− click the Save button, and the prepared data will appear in the list of nonlinear loadings;
− if it is necessary to prepare several lists, click the New list button and repeat the above actions for
other loadings;
− if the results of the calculation of the new list are the continuation of the loading of the previous
one, check the Loading is the continuation of the previous loading checkbox after clicking the
New list button.
There are also the following options:
 Perform the calculation of the dynamic loading after the nonlinear analysis. If this checkbox is
checked, a list with a set of dynamic loadings of the model appears. After performing the steps of
the nonlinear calculation the dynamic calculation selected in the list will be performed (for the
system linearized after the nonlinear calculation).
767
 Perform the stability analysis after the nonlinear analysis. If this checkbox is checked, the
stability analysis will be performed after performing the nonlinear calculation (for the system
linearized after the nonlinear calculation). There must be data for performing the stability analysis
of the linear system.
The Delete list button enables to delete the current list (its number corresponds to the number of the
nonlinear loading). If you click the Delete data button, all the control information will be deleted, and the
nonlinear calculation will be blocked.
Additional parameters described in the Chapter 11 are also used in the nonlinear calculation.
When performing the nonlinear calculation the relative residual (deformation and load) is output into
the analysis log after each step of the iterative process.
When performing the linear calculation the nonlinear elements of the

design model work as their corresponding linear elements.

In addition to the parameters described in Chapter 12 the number of the step in the loading, at which the
results of the calculation are saved, is specified in the line in the “Select loading” window (Fig. 26.6-1) at
the graphical analysis of the results of the calculation (deformations, force diagrams etc.). The step is not
specified for the results of the dynamic loadings, since the dynamic calculation for the linearized system is
performed for the nonlinear loading after completing all the steps of the loading.
In the case of the nonlinear calculation the
following designations are used in the “Select
loading” list (Fig. 26.6-1) for the identification of the
output information:
LN + LS – amplitude from the nonlinear and
static load (static wind) of the dynamic loading;
LN + SD – amplitude from the nonlinear and
dynamic envelope of the components of the
dynamic loading;
LN + LS + SD or LN + LS – SD – amplitude
from the nonlinear, static and dynamic
components of the dynamic loading;
LN + S1, LN – S1, LN + S2, LN – S2 ... –
amplitude from the nonlinear, and dynamic
envelope from the real and imaginary
Figure 26.6-1. The “Select loading” list for the components of the dynamic loading;
nonlinear analysis LN + Т1, LN + Т2, ... – amplitude from the
nonlinear and dynamic component at the given
moment in time.
A fragment of the table of displacements for the nonlinear problem is given in Fig. 26.6-2. The table
is generated by the Documenter.
768
Figure 26.6-2. Fragment of the “Displacements” table for the nonlinear problem
The design combinations of forces should be calculated (see Chapter 18), so that the results of the
nonlinear calculation could be used when selecting/checking steel and/or reinforced concrete structures.
Nonlinear Loading History

The control of the nonlinear loading history of the elements and nodes is performed with the help of the
respective operation which can be invoked from the Information on the Element and Information on the
Node dialog boxes respectively.
1. E.I. Grigolyuk, V.I. Shalashilin, Problems of nonlinear deformation. — M.: Nauka, 1988.
2. V.V. Novozhilov, The theory of elasticity.— Sudpromgiz, 1958.— 370 p.
3. A.V. Perelmuter, V.I. Slivker, Design models of structures and a possibility of their analysis.— M.:DMK Press,
2007. – 600 p.
4. A.V. Perelmuter, SCAD Office. Calculation of guyed masts. — Kiev: SCAD Soft, Ltd. — 47 p.
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27.Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics
27. Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics

When installing the equipment and machinery which create periodic loads (machines with rotating parts,
crank mechanisms, etc.) on the structures, the amplitude of a certain displacement or internal force depends
both on the natural frequencies of the structure i (i = 1, …, n), and on the frequency  of the exciting
force
P = P0 sin (t).
Peak value Р0 of the harmonic load is defined by the design assignment and depends on the design of
the equipment which causes this load. If there are no accurate data, you can use the recommendations of
SNiP 2.02.05-87 “Foundations of Machines with Dynamic Loads” and assume
m
P0 =  Q
k 1
k
,
where Qk — weight of each rotor of the machine, and the coefficient  is determined by the Table 27-1:
Table 27-1
Type of the machine Coefficient 
Turbomachines 0,20
Electric machines with the number of revolutions nrev per minute:
more than 750 0,20
from 750 to 500 0,15
less than 500 0,10
Centrifuges with a rotor diameter d, m d (nrev/1000)2
Centrifugal pumps 0,15
Smoke exhaust fans and fans 0,8 (nrev/1000)2,
but not less than
0,20
Due to the inaccuracy of determining the natural frequencies caused both by the approximate
representation of the design model, and the rounding errors in the arithmetic calculations, as well as the
possible instability of the angular frequency of excitation , reaching 10%, it is necessary to assess the
behavior of the system when the frequency  varies in a certain range from 1 to 2. It might be
particularly important for the values , approaching one of the natural frequencies i (near-resonant
mode), that can occur when starting or stopping the machine. The amplitude-frequency characteristic
(AFC) is a relationship between the peak value of a certain component of the stress-strain state
(displacement, stress, internal force) and the frequency of the excitation  . It is determined by the
calculation of the system for the harmonic action at the frequencies of the exciting force changing in the
specified range. The peak value of the force P0 remains unchanged.
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27.1. Preparation of the Initial Data

The initial data for the calculation of AFC include:
 a group of loads containing one or several harmonic loads P0, applied to the nodes and/or elements of
the design model;
 special data which are specified in the Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics dialog box
(Fig. 27.1-1).
It should be noted that only synchronous (with the same frequency) and
common-mode harmonic loads can be included in one group.
The following data are specified in the dialog box:

 list of the groups of nodes for which the AFC are
calculated, or the list of the numbers of these nodes;
 direction along which the displacement components
are determined (X, Y, Z), or the indicator of the full
displacement (+);
 value of the maximum allowable amplitude, which
is indicated on the graph with the results of the
calculation (you do not have to specify it);
 lower and upper frequency limits (frequency range),
for which the calculation is performed;
 division step of the frequency range used when
determining the amplitudes (when the spectrum of
Figure 27.1-1. The Amplitude-Frequency natural frequencies is dense, the step should be
Characteristics dialog box decreased). There should be 3–4 division steps
between each pair of natural frequencies;
 coefficient of internal friction.
Moreover, it is necessary to select the number of the loading in the list where the natural oscillation
modes were determined, and the group of loads.
The calculation is performed after preparing all the data and invoking the respective item in the
project tree.

The results of the calculation in the form of a set of AFC plots for the specified nodes are displayed in the
Amplitude-Frequency Characteristics dialog box (Fig. 27.2-1).
The dialog box contains a list of nodes for which the amplitude-frequency characteristics are
calculated. There are checkboxes next to each node number in the list, which enable to control the display
of the plot for the respective node. The All nodes checkbox is used to enable/disable the display of plots
for all nodes. A separate group of buttons Direction enables to select the direction (X, Y, Z
or full — button with the + sign) of the AFC for which the drawing is performed.
If you want to narrow or broaden the range of the analyzed frequencies, check the respective
checkbox and specify the limits of the new range in the from and to text fields.
771
Figure 27.2-1. Dialog box with the results of the calculation of the AFC
The Report and Table buttons enable to generate a report in a word processor format or obtain an
Excel table.
If you place the cursor in the field of the graph, the information field with the values in the selected
point will appear next to the cursor which enables to explore the graph dynamically.
You can change the color, thickness and style of lines for each type of data, and the Background color
button enables to change the background for the graphs.
772
28.Response Spectra
28. Response Spectra

Response spectrum is a set of values of the maximum absolute or relative response accelerations of the
linear oscillator at the action given by the accelerogram taking into account the natural damping frequency
of the oscillator. They are usually used when designing nuclear power plants (see Sec.5.2 of Design codes
for earthquake-resistant nuclear plants NR-031-01).
28.1. Seismic Analysis

We consider the oscillations of linear discrete systems with many degrees of freedom obtained from any
continual or combined systems after applying to them the discretization procedure of the finite element
method. A system of ordinary differential equations is solved
Mu K u  0, (28.1.1)
where {u} — displacement vector;

[M] — mass matrix;
[K] — stiffness matrix.
Forced oscillations of a discrete linear system with the resistance proportional to the velocity (so-
called viscous damping according to the Voigt-Kelvin hypothesis) are described by a system of ordinary
differential equations
[M]{u}  [C]{u}  [K]{u}  {F(t)} , (28.1.2)
where [C] — energy dissipation matrix;

{F(t)} — load vector.
In the case of the kinematic excitation portable inertial forces are used as the load and the system of
equations (28.1.2) can be written as
[M]{u}  [C]{u}  [K]{u}   [M]{I}x 0 (t) , (28.1.3)
where {u} — relative displacement vector (for example, in the XOY coordinate system connected with the
ground);
{I} — vector the components of which are the cosines of the angles between the directions of the
displacements in the coordinates and the ground acceleration vector;
x 0 (t) — ground acceleration.
The solution of equation (28.1.3) is found as an expansion by natural oscillation modes of the system
(the so-called “modal superposition”)
n
{u}   {Φ j }Ψ j (t) , (28.1.4)
j 1
where n — number of the degrees of freedom of the system (of the eigenvalues and eigenvectors taken into
account);
 j — j-th natural oscillation mode of the discrete system;
 j (t) — unknown time functions which have to be determined.

Suppose that the following condition holds for the dissipation matrix [С]:
773
28.Response Spectra
0 , i j
Φi  [C]Φ j   
T
,
2i ωi Φi  [M]Φi  ,
T
i j
where i — i-th natural frequency of the discrete system.
After substituting (28.1.4) in (28.1.3) and multiplying (28.1.3) by the vector  i T in order to find
 j (t) we obtain the following differential equation
Ψ  2i ωi Ψ i  ωi2 Ψ i   Di x 0 (t) , (28.1.5)
where
Φi  [M]{I} x (t) .
T
Di 
Φi  [M]Φi 
T 0
In order to determine the inertial loads on the structure it is necessary to know the accelerations of its
points:
n n
ua  u {I}x0 (t)  Φi   Ψ j (t)  Di x0 (t)  Φi  Ψja (t) .
i1 i 1
Seismic oscillations of discrete systems are described by the systems of differential equations with a
more general form of the right-hand side:
[M]{u}[C]{u}[K]{u} [M] ({Ix}x0 (t)  {Iy}y0 (t)  {Iz}z0 (t), (28.1.6)
where x 0 (t), y 0 (t) and z 0 (t) — components of the analytical accelerogram.

If any of the components is not taken into account, the respective part of the load from (28.1.6) is
excluded.
28.2. Accelerograms and Response Spectra

When analyzing the seismic resistance of the equipment it is necessary to determine the seismic inertial
loads acting on it. The method of the separate consideration of the seismic oscillations of the building and
equipment using the accelerograms and spectra calculated for the equipment attachment points is assumed.
The calculation is performed as follows:
− forced oscillations of the structure under the seismic action specified by the analytical
accelerogram on the ground are determined (calculated);
− the acceleration variation laws for the selected points of the structure are determined;
− taking the accelerograms as an exciting action the forced linear oscillations of the linear non-
conservative oscillators are calculated, and the relationships of the modules of their maximum
absolute or relative accelerations and their natural frequencies and dissipation factors are
determined.
Thus, equation (28.1.2) is solved for each considered point where:
 dissipation factor  is determined;
 the load is the calculated exciting action from the analytical accelerogram;
 the sets of natural frequencies of the oscillators at the calculation of the response spectrum are
determined and given in Table 28.2-1.
774
28.Response Spectra
Natural frequencies of the calculated structure are added to the values of the frequencies of the non-
conservative oscillators given in the Table 28.2-11. This is done in order to allow for the possibility of
resonance with them.
Table 28.2-1
Frequency range, Hz Increments, Hz
0,23,0 0,10
3,03,6 0,15
3,65,0 0,20
5,08,0 0,25
8,015,0 0,5
15,018,0 1,0
2,0
18,022,0
3,0
22,034,0
The solutions are found for each specified oscillator on the whole range of the accelerogram action,
and the maximum absolute value is selected, which is the response spectrum of the given point for the
given accelerogram.
28.3. Input Data and Analysis of the Results

The Response Spectra dialog box of the postprocessor (Fig. 28.3-1) contains a list of nodes for which the
spectra have to be calculated (the numbers of nodes are specified in the List of nodes field with the “space”
separator).
Accelerograms can be loaded into the Initial list by clicking the
Find button. Names of the accelerograms for which the
calculations of spectra have to be performed are selected in the
Initial list and transferred to the list of accelerograms used in the
calculation — Selected, by clicking the Add button. An
accelerogram can be removed from the Selected list by clicking the
Remove button. Moreover, in order to perform the calculation it is
necessary to:
− specify the direction of the action;
− select the type of spectra (absolute or relative
accelerations);
− specify the value of the dissipation factor in the respective
field;
− if the dissipation factor is specified for each mode, its
values are separated by spaces in the respective text field;
if the number of the specified values of the factor is less
than the number of the obtained oscillation modes, the last
entered value applies to all the remaining modes;
− select the loading from which the natural oscillation modes
Figure 28.3-1. The Response Spectra are taken in the Dynamic action list.
dialog box
1
Seismic Analysis of Safety-Related Nuclear Structures and Commentary on Standard for Analysis of Safety-Related
Nuclear Structures // ASCE Standard, Sept. 1986
775
28.Response Spectra
If one (and only one) accelerogram is selected in the Selected list, the View button enables to
preview this accelerogram.
Calculation is performed after preparing all the data and invoking the respective item in the project
tree.
The results can be viewed and documented in the dialog box (Fig. 28.3-2), which can be invoked
from the project tree.
Figure 28.3-2. The Response Spectra dialog box

The following procedure is recommended for generating the spectra:
− select the number of the node for which the spectra are generated in the Node list;
− select the line with the number of the loading in the Loading list;
− select the name in the Accelerogram list;
− specify the minimum and maximum values of the frequencies for which the spectrum is determined
in the from and to fields of the Frequency range;
− use the checkboxes to specify the direction for which the response spectra are plotted (the SUM
line enables to obtain the graph of the total acceleration).
The button enables to preview the selected accelerogram.
If only one plot is displayed on the screen, the software enables to perform the procedure of
expanding the peaks and reducing the maximums (see. [1, Chapter 7]). The user can select which plots
should be displayed on the screen (the calculated spectrum, design spectrum, or both spectra).
The Report and Table buttons enable to generate a report in a text format or obtain an Excel table.
If you place the cursor in the field of the graph, the information field with the values of the factors in
the selected point will appear next to the cursor which enables to explore the graph dynamically.
You can change the color, thickness and style of lines for each type of data, and the Background
color button enables to change the background for the graphs.
776
28.Response Spectra
28.4. Preparation of the Accelerogram Files

Four standard sample accelerograms are supplied with SCAD . After the installation their files with the
.spc extension can be found in the root directory of SCAD Office.
In order to use these files, they should be copied to the directory with the initial data. Other
accelerograms should be saved in this directory as well.
Information on the specification of the accelerograms as the text files with the specified extension is
given in Sec. 8.7. The Accelerogram Editor, which is described in Sec. 30.7, can be used for this purpose.
1. A.N. Birbraer, Seismic analysis of structures. St. Petersburg. — Nauka. — 1998 — 255 p.
777
29.Data Archiving Language
29. Data Archiving Language

The possibilities of modern computer technology, advanced interactive computer graphics and fast
numerical methods for solving systems of linear equations have allowed to create design models
containing tens of thousands of nodes and elements, and, hence, to increase the dimensions of the solved
problems by dozens of times in comparison with the earlier versions of SCAD. It obviously becomes
problematic to use the language tools for describing the parameters of such design models. However,
taking into account the fact that there are a large number of projects in the archives, the design models of
which have been prepared long ago and described in the text format, all modern versions of the software
enable to import the initial data in this format. The user can prepare some data on the structure as a text
file, import it, and supplement the missing data with the help of the SCAD graphical preprocessor. It
should also be noted that a text file enables to use the additional features of the software which are not yet
implemented in its graphical preprocessor.
29.1. Export and Import Text Files with the Initial Data
The latest versions of SCAD have the options of not only importing but also exporting the descriptions of
the design model in the text format, which enables to transfer the initial data into the archive in the form
available for the control. The syntax of the data archiving language was changed starting with version 11.1.
This is due to the fact that the previous version was created in the late 70s and now it can no longer
describe all the peculiarities of the specification of the design model.
The file of the initial data must have a .txt extension in the text format, and, as before, it can be
created in the text editor. For the continuity of the versions the input of the initial data in the text format
remains in the previous edition of the syntax1.
It should be noted that this format of the program supports the “bottom-up” compatibility with the
previous versions, i.e. the initial data prepared for SCAD of the previous versions can be imported into the
latest versions of the software, but the direct import of data (without correcting) from the latest versions
into the previous ones is not guaranteed. In order to obtain a text format of the previous versions it is
necessary to first save the project of version 21.1 as a project of version 11.7, and only then save it in the
text format in the version 11.5 or 11.7.
This chapter provides the description of the architecture and syntax of the archiving language which
enables to correctly and briefly describe the design model, its topology, constraints and loads, use the
specific features of the finite element library, etc.
A design model is an idealized model of a structure (see Sec. 2). When the text input is used, it is
necessary to divide the model into finite elements, and make the drawing; number the nodes; specify the
support nodes and create the respective constraints in them (restrain the displacements for some degrees of
freedom in the node or limit the displacements of the node by finite elements which model the constraint);
specify the FE type and the rigidity type for the elements. The numbering of nodes and elements is
necessary for the determination of the sequence of the specification of the initial information in the
language of archiving and reading the counter results. Finite elements which have the same stiffness
properties are combined into the rigidity types the numbers of which should be output for the element in
the drawing.
A design model is described in the right-hand Cartesian coordinate system X, Y, Z, which is
considered to be global. Not only Cartesian, but also cylindrical, spherical, toroidal, and other coordinate
1
See Chapter 25 Data Archiving Language in the previous editions of “SCAD Office. SCAD system” 2004-2008.
778
systems can be used for the specification of the coordinates of nodes. It should be noted that the values of
the displacements of nodes are always output in the global coordinate system.
The position and values of the weights of the masses of the structure and other dynamic parameters
are indicated on the design model at the calculation for the dynamic actions.
In the general case each node of the model has 6 degrees of freedom which are assigned the following
numbers: 1, 2 and 3 — linear displacements along the X, Y and Z axes respectively; 4, 5 and 6 — rotations
about the X, Y and Z axes. Some types of finite elements have up to 15 degrees of freedom.
Boundary conditions in the design model can be specified directly (restriction of displacements: linear
— along X, Y, Z; angular — about UX, UY, UZ in any combinations in the Cartesian coordinate system).
They can also be specified with the help of the constraints of finite rigidity or with the help of the special
FE, which enable to impose the constraints in the directions of the axes of the local coordinate systems.
Static actions (see Sec. 8.1) are specified as concentrated forces and moments in the nodes of the
design model (nodal loads) in the directions of the global coordinate system, and also on elements as
concentrated and distributed forces and moments in the directions of the local or global coordinate systems
(see Sec. 3).
Dynamic actions (see Sec. 8.7) are specified as nodal loads. Masses of the structure are specified as
the self-weight of structures, equipment, etc.; both local and nodal loads can be used.
Different systems of measurement units can be used when specifying the initial data. The following
units of measurement are the base ones:
 L — lengths (default value — meters);
 F — forces (default value — ton-force);
 s — cross-sectional dimensions of bars (default value — centimeters);
 t — temperatures (default value — degrees Celsius).
Units of measurement of other values are derivatives of the base ones.
Time measurement units — seconds.
29.2. Architecture and Syntax of the Archiving Language

Initial information is divided into separate documents in accordance with Table 29.2-1.
Summary table of the documents of the initial data. Table 29.2-1
Document
Name Character of the information
number
Header 0 General information: code, index of the system type, division of elements for
the output of forces, coordinate system, etc.
Elements 1 FE type, rigidity type and node numbers for each element
Boundary conditions 2 Number of the bar FE, number of its node (1 — beginning, 2 — end) and
number of the degree of freedom in the direction of which the constraint is
removed
Stiffness properties 3 Set of the stiffness properties for the determination of each type of rigidity
Coordinates 4 Three coordinates of each node
(Cartesian, spherical, cylindrical, etc.)
Constraints 5 Numbers of nodes and numbers of the degrees of freedom in the direction of
which the displacements are restrained by the external constraints or the
displacements are merged (declared identical)
Characteristics of loadings 6 Description of the loading, its name, type and dynamic data
Loadings 7 Specification of the loads in the loadings
Characteristics of groups of loads 9 Specification of the names of the groups of loads and some of their additional
characteristics
Groups of loads 10 Specification of the loads in the groups
Modules in FORUM 12 Lists of elements included in the FORUM modules
779
Document
number
Variations of models 14 Lists of models included in the variation of models
Modeling the loading of the 16 Modeling the loading of the structure at the nonlinear analysis
structure
Prestressing 17 Specified prestressing in finite elements
Local coordinate systems of 19 For the specification of constraints in the local coordinate systems of nodes
nodes
Local coordinate systems of the 20 For the specification of the load in the local coordinate systems of the nodes
load
Grid lines 21 Name and snap of grid lines
Characteristics of the nonlinear 22 Diagrams of nonlinearity etc.
material
Contours 27 Name of the contour and the list of nodes belonging to it
Structural members and their 28 Parameters of the structural member and the list of its constituent finite
groups for checking the steel elements, lists of finite elements forming a group
structures
Unification when checking and 29 Names of the unified groups and the lists of finite elements included in them
selecting the rolled steel sections
Results of selecting the rolled 30 List of sections suggested on the basis of the results of the selection
steel sections
Rigid inserts 31 Values of the rigid inserts
Position of the principal axes of 32 Rotation angles of the principal or coordinate axes of inertia of the bar
inertia elements, position of the orthotropy axes for the plate and solid elements
Coordinate systems for 33 Local coordinate systems for the calculation of forces and stresses in the plate
calculating stresses and forces and solid elements
Subsoil parameters 34 Subsoil parameters for all types of elements
Combinations of loadings 36 Coefficients with which the loadings are included in the combination
Stability analysis 37 Types of the analyzed characteristics, parameters, and a list of loadings
(combinations of loadings) for which the calculation is performed
Principal and equivalent stresses 38 Number of the type of analysis and number of the failure theory in accordance
with which the stresses are calculated
Loads from the structural 39 List of elements from which the loads on the fragment are taken, orientation
fragment angle of the fragment, list of nodes to which the loads are transferred
Groups of elements 47
Groups of nodes 48
Reinforcement of sections of r/c 53 Data for the generation: parameters of groups, lists of elements
elements
Response spectra 59
AFC 60
DCF 61
List of DCF elements 62
Groups in DCF 63
Unification in DCF 64
Data on the progressive collapse 70
Loads at the direct integration 71
Data on the erection 72
Constraints at the erection stages 1005, Constraints at the erection stage the number of which is given by the first part
2005, … of the figure
Boundary conditions at the 1002,
erection stages 2002, …
Subsoil parameters at the 1034, Subsoil parameters at the erection stage the number of which is given by the
erection stages 2034, … first part of the figure
Coefficients of variation of the 1073, Coefficients of variation of the rigidities at the erection stage the number of
rigidities at the erection stages 2073, … which is given by the first part of the figure
Specified reinforcement of plates 74
780
Document
number
Specified reinforcement of bars 75
DCF for the nonlinear analysis 81
List of DCF elements for the 82
nonlinear analysis
Groups in DCF for the nonlinear 83
analysis
Unification in DCF for the 84
nonlinear analysis
Information in the documents is mostly digital — real and integer numbers. Moreover, there are some
alphabetic inclusions of type R (repetition statement) and identifiers — keywords of the data, for example,
AX (rigid insert along the X1 axis) etc.
The following rules are observed when specifying the initial information:
 each document has its number and is enclosed in parentheses;
 “(” — symbol of the beginning of the document;
 “)” — symbol of the end of the document;
 information between the symbols “) (” is ignored — it is considered as a comment;
 symbol “(” is followed by the number of the document separated from the subsequent information
by the symbol “/” (slash);
 information in the documents is divided into lines. The number of the document is followed by the
actual information. Line ends with the symbol “/” — slash;
 line starting with the symbol “*” is considered as a comment;
 each document can have its structure of lines the description of which is given in the respective
section;
 numbers and the used text inserts placed in a line are separated from each other by one or several
spaces;
 the integer and fractional parts of a number are separated by a period;
 text variables containing special characters have to be given in quotes;
 documents can be arranged in any order.
When specifying the initial information a number of approaches is allowed which considerably reduce its
volume: indicators of repetitions when there are regularities, default specification principle which enables to
imply the presence of certain information for a number of common cases without specifying it, etc.
Reduction of the Volume of the Initial Information When There are

Regularities
Methods of the Reduced Record of the Lists

Input language allows the use of lists.
The volume of the information in the lists is reduced in the following way:
 if the numbers of the elements (or nodes) in the line of the document are arranged in order, the
record of the type 1–N is applicable (i. e. from the 1-st to the N-th), which does not exclude a
simple enumeration;
 numbers of elements of the list 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 can be described with the help of the repetition
statement R in the following way: 1 R 17 4; this record indicates a list which includes each fourth
element (4) from the set of elements with the numbers from the first (1) to the seventeenth (17).
781
Repetition statement works in the lines of the document 0 in the following way: number before R is
the first number of the list; number after R is the last number of the list (if it is a term of the progression);
the third number is the step of the arithmetic progression.
Both methods of the description can be combined in the description of the list of objects, for example,
1–25 26 R 41 3 42 43. In the given example the list will include all elements with the numbers from 1 to 25
(1–25), as well as 26, 29, 32, 35, 38, 41 (26 R 41 3), 42, 43.
Repetition Statement of the Lines of Documents
A repetition statement placed in a single line is used:
R N1 N2 N3 : K1 K2 K3 K4.../
The line begins with a character R, which is followed by 1, 2, or 3 integers:
 N1 – number of duplicate lines;
 N2 – number of repetitions (number N2 can be absent, in this case the number of repetitions is
equal to 1);
 N3 – number of the line from which the number of the duplicate lines is counted. Number N3 can
be absent. In this case, the lines immediately preceding the repetition statement are repeated.
Steps of the repetitions for each component of a normal line of the document are indicated after the
colon. Their number can not exceed the amount of numbers (positions) in the line of the document, in
which the repetition statement is used, i.e.:
 K1 – step with which the numbers of the 1-st position of the line change;
 K2 – step with which the numbers of the 2-nd position of the line change, and so on.
Their values can have different magnitude and sign for each position.
If the number of specified values of Ki is less than the number of positions in a line, the line of
repeaters is supplemented with zeros, for example:
5 10 20 40/ 5 10 20 40/
R 1 4:0 0 1 1/ corresponds to the record: 5 10 21 41/
5 10 22 42/
5 10 23 43/
5 10 24 44/
Repetition statements can be arranged in order. Number of the line and the number of lines counted
by the repetition statements are determined for an expanded document (taking into account the previous
repetitions).
Zero strings appear in the positions containing integer data when a repeated string is added to zero at
any repetition step. The character of the integer data makes this rule convenient.
In the documents (for example, 4) with real numbers zeros will be added with a repetition step.
Examples of using the repetition statements are given in the description of the respective documents.
29.3. General Information on the Problem. Document 0 “Header”

The header document consists of separate lines each of which has its number and contains the calculation
control parameters.
The unnumbered first line indicates the version of the language:
(0;Version=21/
782
Table 29.3-1
Line No. Character of the information Default value Note
1 Code of the problem, Not obligatory
information on the problem
2 Index of the system type Index of the system type 5
3 Coordinate systems Cartesian coordinate system
4 Organization of the calculation Forces are calculated in the beginning,
of forces in the intermediate middle, and end of the bar, for other FE —
sections of bars and forces in in the center of gravity
the nodes of other FE
8 Control of the calculation of the DCF are calculated for all elements of the When there is document 8
design combinations of forces model
12 Unification of the sections of No unification Only when there is document 8
elements
15 Specification of the DCF One DCF group for all elements Only when there is document 8
groups
16 Allowing for crane and brake DCF includes not more than 2 crane and Only when there is document 8
loadings in DCF one brake loading
17 Groups of elements
18 Groups of nodes
19 Characteristics of steel Used in the checks and selection of rolled
steel sections. Absent by default
21 Data for stability
22 Data for the calculation of
principal and equivalent
stresses
23 Calculation parameters
31 Names of groups of elements
32 Names of groups of nodes
33 Units of measurement T, cm, m, degrees Celsius, sec.
Some lines can contain only their number. Lines are filled as and when necessary, i.e. a document
may consist of only one line, for example:
(0; Version=21/1; Frame/)
Most lines of a document have a list structure. Peculiarities of arranging the lists are given in the
description of these lines. General rules of filling the lines are as follows:
 line starts with its number followed by the semicolon “;”;
 the line number is followed by any number of lists separated from each other by a semicolon “;”;
 list can have a title separated from the rest of the list by a colon “:”;
 line ends with the symbol “/”;
 each line can be created as a separate zero document.
Code of the Problem (Line 1)

Code of the problem is a text expression. The first 128 characters of this expression are used to identify the
problem. If the code of the problem consists of several words or contains special characters, it is given in
quotes. In this case the space is allowed, for example,
1;"This is the name of the problem"/
783
Comments can be written in a line. If there are comments, the code of the problem and the comments
are separated by a semicolon “;”.
Index of the System Type (Line 2)

The index of the system type is specified as a number and defines the set and number of the degrees of
freedom in the nodes of the design model, and characterizes the peculiarities of its stress-strain state. In
accordance with this index zero unknowns are removed from the system of equations.
The following numbers are used to specify the index of the system type (see Table 29.3-2): 1–5, 8, 9
and 11. The specified index of the system type has to include all the necessary degrees of freedom for the
finite elements used in the design model.
The main characteristics of the models depending on the value of their index. Table 29.3-2
Index Displacements in the Types of the
of the Position in node in the directions degrees of
Characteristics of structures
system space of the global freedom in the
type coordinate system documents
1 XOZ plane Linear along X, Z 1, 3 Plane hinged bar system. Deep beam (plane
stress problem) and a plane-strain problem of
the theory of elasticity
2 XOZ plane Linear along X, Z; 1, 3, 5 Plane frame
rotation UY about the Y
axis
3 XOY plane Linear along Z; 3, 4, 5 Grade beam, plate, plate on an elastic
rotations UX, UY about subgrade
the X and Y axes
4 Any Linear along X, Y, Z 1, 2, 3 Spatial hinged bar system, massive body
(spatial problem of the theory of elasticity)
5 Any Linear along X, Y, Z; 1–6 General type system. Enables to design the
rotations UX, UY and spatial structures of buildings, shells. Any
UZ about the X, Y and structure with the indexes of system type 1–4
Z axes can be calculated with the index 5
8 Any The following six 1–12 Structures from multilayer shallow shells and
analogues are added to plates. Additional degrees of freedom take
the six degrees of into account the effect of deformations of
freedom of the index 5: transverse shear and compression at the spatial
AX, AY, AZ and BX, behavior of the structure
BY, BZ
9 Any The following six 1–9, 12–15 Structures from multilayer shallow shells and
analogues are added to plates. Additional degrees of freedom take
the six degrees of into account the effect of the interlayer shear
freedom of the index 5: and curvature
AX, AY, AZ and CX,
CY, CZ
11 ROZ Linear AX and Z along 10, 3 Axisymmetric problem of the theory of
the R and Z axes elasticity when the body and the load applied
respectively to it have the rotational symmetry
784
Coordinate Systems (Line 3)

Line 3 is introduced in those cases when it is necessary to transform the coordinates of nodes specified in
the document 4. Cylindrical, spherical and other coordinate systems can be used.
Information in a line is specified as lists with the following structure:
<type of the transformation> [list of nodes][: numerical properties of the transformation]*;
The transformations of the coordinates specified in the line 3 can be also used when specifying the loads in
these coordinate systems. If the list of nodes is not specified, the transformation is performed for all nodes.
The allowable types of transformations and the numerical properties necessary for them, as well as
the specification of loads in these coordinate systems is described in detail in Sec. 29.13.
The transformations are performed consecutively for each list. You should remember that the
information of this line is not saved in the project.
Calculation of Forces in the Intermediate Sections and Nodes

(Line 4)
The number of sections in which the forces have to be calculated is specified in this line for the bar finite
elements. For other finite elements it is indicated whether it is necessary to calculate the nodal forces and
(or) calculate the stresses in the nodes of the elements.
A line consists of the lists of the type:
к: <list of elements>;
For bars к is the number of sections. If к  2, the forces will be calculated only in the beginning and
in the end of the bar.
For other finite elements к can have one of the following values:
 к = 0 — forces in the center of the finite element are calculated (by default);
 к < 100 — forces in the center of the finite element and forces transferred by the element to the
node (reactions) are calculated;
 к = 100 — stresses (forces) in the points of junction of the FE with the nodes and in its center are
calculated;
 к = 101 — forces in the points of junction of the FE with the nodes, in its center, and forces
transferred by the element to the node (reactions) are calculated.
If an element is included in several lists, the information from the last list where it is specified is valid
for it.
If the line 4 is missing, it means that forces in the beginning, middle and end of the bars will be
calculated, and only the forces in the center will be calculated for other FE.
Control of the Calculation of the Design Combinations of Forces

(Line 8)
This line is filled when there is document 8 (see Sec. 28.11). The list of elements for which the design
combinations of forces have to be calculated is specified in it.
Unification of the Sections of Elements (Line 12)

The numbers of the unified groups (see Chapter 18), sections for which the elements of the groups should
be unified, and the type of unification are specified in this line.
*
Hereinafter optional language elements are enclosed in square brackets.
785
A line consists of lists the titles of which indicate the type and group of unification, and the listing
contains the numbers of elements included in the given group. The number of groups in each type is from
one to nine.
Type and group of unification are specified by a two-digit number, where the first digit indicates the
type of unification, and the second one — the unification group, for example, record
12; 21 75-86/
means: line 12, type of unification 1, unified group 2, elements included in this group have numbers from
75 to 86 inclusive. Any type of unification can be used for plate FE, i.e. possible 39 = 27 unified groups
can be implemented.
If this line is missing, it means that there is no unification.
Organization of the Groups of Design Combinations of Forces (Line

15)
This line is filled when there is document 8 and in the case, when DCF coefficients specified in the
document 8 are not identical for different groups of elements of the model (see Chapter 18).
The values of the coefficients with which the given loading will be involved in the selection of DCF
are specified in the document 8 starting with the 10-th column. The numbers of the columns of the
coefficients with which the group of elements is included in the DCF are specified in the title of the line
15. The numbers of these elements are listed after the title. The column 10 corresponds to the 1-st
combination and when the line 15 is filled, it gets the number 1, column 11 gets the number 2, column 12
— 3 and so on.
The number of integers in the title indicates the number of the considered columns of the coefficients
in the combinations. The first three numbers of the columns correspond to:
 the first main combination;
 the second main combination;
 the special combination.
One element can be included in not more than two groups of combinations.
The record: 15; 1 2 3: 181-184; 4 5 6: 508-511;/ means that the DCF the coefficients of which are in
10 (1), 11(2), 12(3) columns are determined for elements 181–184, and the DCF the coefficients of which
are in 13(4), 14(5) and 15(6) columns are determined for elements 508–511.
If the number of the element is not indicated in any group of the combinations (or the line is missing),
the DCF for this element will be performed for all the filled columns of the coefficients of the document 8.
Allowable Number of Crane and Brake Loadings Included in the

Design Combinations of Forces (Line 16)
This line is filled only if there are crane loadings. Two numbers are specified in the line: the number of
simultaneously considered crane loadings and the number of simultaneously considered brake loadings.
One brake and two crane loadings are considered simultaneously by default.
Data for Stability (Line 21)

A line is specified in the following form:
<parameters> [:<list of loadings,(combinations)>]
where parameters:
 type of analysis ( 0 – loadings, 1 – combinations );
 indicator of the calculation of coefficients;
 indicator of the calculation of modes;
786
 indicator of the calculation of unsupported lengths;

 upper search limit;
 lower search limit.
The list of loadings, (combinations) is separated from the parameters by a colon “:” and can be
absent. In this case the calculations are performed for all static loadings.
Data for Calculating the Principal and Equivalent Stresses (Line

22)
The following parameters are specified:
 indicator of the calculation of principal stresses for loadings;
 indicator of the calculation of principal stresses for combinations of loadings;
 indicator of the calculation of equivalent stresses for loadings;
 indicator of the calculation of equivalent stresses for combinations of loadings;
 number of failure theory;
 constants for the failure theories (up to 4).
Parameters of the Calculation (Line 23)

This line contains the values of the parameters many of which are described in Chapter 11. Here is an
example of filling of such a line:
23;LoadingCode=1;
SteelCode=1;
ConcreteCode=1;
SafetyCode=1;
TypeSolver=0;
NoForceInsert=1;
PrecessionGauss=12;
MaxQuantityPointTime=2;
MaxIterStabForm=20;
QuantityStepAddLoad=10;
CoeffIntervalGeom=5;
LoadingCode, SteelCode, ConcreteCode, SafetyCode parameters define design codes used for
combining loads and actions, analysis of steel structural members, analysis of reinforced concrete
structural members, and safety codes respectively. The following table shows the numbering used.
LoadingCode SteelCode ConcreteCode SafetyCode
1 - SNiP 2.01.07-85 with 1 - SNiP II-23-81 1 - SNiP 2.03.01-84 1 - GOST 27751
modifications No. 2) 2 - SP 53-102-2004 2 - SNiP 2.03.01-84 (with 2 - GOST P 54257-2010
2 - SNiP 2.01.07-85 3 - Eurocode 3 modifications for Ukraine) 3 - DBN B.1.2-14-2009
3 - DBN B.1.2-2-2006 5 - SP 16.13330.2016 5 - SNiP 52-01-2003 4 - Eurocode 0
6 - SP 20.13330.2011 6 - DBN B.2.6-163:2010 7 - SP 63.13330.2012 5 - GOST 27751-2014
9 - SP 20.13330.2016 7 - DBN B.2.6-198:2014
Lists of the Deleted Nodes and Elements (Lines 31 and 32)

Contains the lists of the deleted nodes (31) and elements (32), which can be returned into the design model
with the help of the respective restoration operations (see Chapter 6).
787
Units of Measurement (Line 33)

This line enables to specify the dimensions of the values in the initial data. The base units of the linear
values are meters, of the force values – tons, of the temperature values – degrees Celsius. A special
conversion factor is introduced for the description of the cross-sectional dimensions of bars.
The line contains the designations of the units and the conversion factors with respect to the base
units. The order of the specification of the conversion factors is given below. The line has the following
form:
33: L 1 s  2 F 3 t  4 /
Here L, s, F, t — designations of the units of measurement of the linear sizes, cross-sectional
dimensions of bars, forces, temperature, respectively; 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 — conversion factors.
29.4. Documents Describing the Design Model
Document 1. “Elements”
Each line of the document contains either the description of the finite element or that of the repetition
statement.
The description of the element has the following form:
< type > < rigidity number> <list of the nodes of the elements> [Name=<name>]/
where
 element type is specified according to Table 3.2-1.
 rigidity number from document 3;
 list of nodes of the element in accordance with its description;
 name of the element in the case of its specification is saved under any transformations of the design
model. It is given in quotes if there are special characters.
The repetition statement has the form described in Sec. 29.2.
Example:
(1/ 2 15 3 10/ r 1 5: 0 0 1 1/ 51 21 12/ 31 2 34 35 40 41 22 23 28 29/ 21 1 11 14 18 19/ 12 1 12 15 27/ )
The example contains the information on the first 10 elements:
1-st – has type 2, rigidity number 15 from the document 3; 2-node element, numbers of the nodes in the
element:
3 – number of the first node, 10 – number of the second node;
2–6-th – elements also have type 2 and rigidity number 15, and the numbers of nodes are 4, 11 for the 2-nd
element and 8, 15 for the 6-th element respectively. They are obtained with the help of the repetition
statement.
7-th – type 51, rigidity number 21; single-node element, node 12;
8-th – type 31, rigidity type 2, 8-node element, numbers of nodes: 34, 35, 40, 41, 22, 23, 28, 29;
9-th – type 21, rigidity type 1, 4-node element, numbers of nodes: 11, 14, 18, 19;
10-th – type 12, rigidity type 1, 3-node element; numbers of nodes: 12, 15, 27.
You should keep in mind that:
 each FE in the design model is assigned its number in the document 1, which is then used for the
identification of the results of the calculation (forces, stresses, DCF, etc.) and it is used in all the
postprocessors of the software for working with the element;
788
 the sequence of the description of nodes must correspond to their order described in Chapter 3 (see
Table 3.2-1);
 the sequence of the description of nodes defines the direction of the local coordinate axes of the
element X1, Y1, Z1 for many types of FE.
Document 2. “Boundary Conditions”

This document is used to describe the boundary conditions in the nodes of the design model: releases of
angular constraints (hinged connection) or releases of linear constraints (slider connection).
The line of the document has the following form:
<list of released constraints> Node = <node number> [Name=<name>]: <list of elements>
A combination of the released constraints at which an element can move with respect to the structure
as a rigid body is not allowed.
Example:
(2/ 1 Node=1 : 1-10/ 6 Node=2 : 1-10/
It means that the elements 1-10 have a slider connection in the X direction in the first node and the
hinged connection along Z.
Document 4. “ Coordinates ”
The coordinates of the nodes of the design model are specified in the document. The type of the coordinate
system is defined in the line 3 of the document 0 (Cartesian, cylindrical, spherical, toroidal). The Cartesian
coordinate system is selected by default. Each line of the document 4 describes three spatial coordinates of
the node. When filling the line 3 of the document 0 the coordinates are specified in accordance with the
type of the used transformations in the selected coordinate system.
Since the lines of the document are not numbered, the coordinates are specified in the ascending order
of the node numbers. If the line contains one or two numbers, the last missing coordinates are assumed to
be equal to 0. Only two coordinates can be specified for the indexes of the system type 1 and 2 (line 2 of
the document 0) which describe the XOZ plane. The name of the node can be specified using the Name
identifier.
The repetition statement has the form described in Sec. 29.2.
Example:
(4/1.5 2.8 Name=”Node at Coordinates of the first 8 nodes are described here:
the level 1-1”/ node 1 with the coordinates X=1.5m and Y=2.8m (Z=0) and the specified
name;
2.3 3.7 8.8/ 5/r 1 5: 0 0 2/
node 2 with the coordinates X=2.3m and Y=3.7m, Z=8.8m;
node 3 with the coordinates X=5m (Y=Z=0);
nodes 4-8 are obtained from the 3-rd one by successively rising it by 2 m
along Z.
Document 5. “ Constraints ” 1
This document is used to specify the boundary conditions. The line of the document has the following
form:
<list of constraints > [Type = <type>] [Name=<name>]: <list of nodes> /
1
Documents with the numbers 1005, 2005, … describe the constraints at the erection stages (see Chapter 14).
789
<list of constraints> is the list of the numbers of the degrees of freedom of the node on which the
constraints are imposed.
The type defines the way in which the constraints are imposed:
 0 – constraint of the respective degrees of freedom;
 1 – combination of the degrees of freedom in the specified directions for all nodes of the list.
Constraints are specified in the global coordinate system and are designated in the following way:
1, 2, 3 — linear displacement along the X, Y and Z axes respectively;
4, 5, 6 — rotation angles about the X, Y, Z axes respectively;
7, 8, ..., 15 — additional degrees of freedom for the multilayer and other elements.
Example:
(5/ 1-3 : 1-10/ 3 Type=1 : 11-15/)
Here the constraints are imposed in the directions 1, 2, 3 in the nodes 1-10; the displacements are
merged in the direction Z in the nodes 11-15.
This document is not obligatory, for example, it can be missing in the calculation of the plates on an
elastic subgrade.
29.5. Properties of Elements
Document 3. “ Stiffness Properties ”

The document is used to describe physical and mechanical characteristics and some geometric properties
of finite elements. Since the stiffness properties are directly related to the type of the finite element, the
detailed description of the input values is given in the respective sections of Chapter 3. The rules for
preparing a document are given here.
The number of the rigidity type is indicated in the first position of each line of the document. This
number is used in the column 2 of the document 1 when describing the FE. Then a certain set of
characteristics is specified for each type of FE. Keywords can be used in the document for denoting the
input characteristics.
The next positions contain the parameters specific to the elements of the given type. Both positional
parameters (they always take a certain position in the line), and keyword ones, for the identification of
which keywords are used, can be used in a document.
When specifying the characteristics in the document 3, a system of units described in the line 33 of the
document 0 is used.
In the simplest cases the stiffness properties of the FE can be specified as the following sets of the
positional parameters:
Е, ν,  — for plate elements;
Е, ν, , С1, С2 — for plates on an elastic subgrade 1;
Е, ν — for solid FE,
where Е — elastic modulus; ν — Poisson's ratio;  — plate thickness; С1, С2 — subsoil parameters.
The numerical description of the rigidities of the bar finite elements can be performed with the help of
the positional parameters according to the rules given in Table 29.5-1.
Table 29.5-1
FE types Stiffness properties Designations
1, 4 EF EF — axial stiffness;
1
The specification of the rigid inserts, subsoil parameters, local coordinate systems in the 3-rd document is obsolete,
but acceptable. It is better to use documents 31-34.
790
2 EF EIY [GFY] EIY, EIZ — bending stiffness about Y1 and Z1 axes;

3, 4 EIY GIkr GIkr — torsional stiffness;
5, 6 EF EIY EIZ GIkr [GFY GFZ] GFY, GFZ — shear stiffness.
Moreover, the stiffness properties can be specified as a combination of keywords (identifiers) and
their corresponding parameters. The identifiers, unless stated otherwise, can appear in any order. The order
of the identifiers can be arbitrary for the types of rigidity of the bar elements. For other types of elements
the identifier from the first line of the respective table is the first.
All the possible variants of the specification of the stiffness properties are given: in the Table 29.5-2 –
for bar elements, in the Table 29.5-3 – for plates, in the Table 29.5-4 – for solid elements, in the Table 29.5-5 –
for multilayer plates.
Table 29.5-2
Characteristic of bar elements
Contents Identifier Parameters Notes
Numerical no EF EIY EIZ GIkr Specified at the numerical and numerical and
characteristics [GFY GFZ] parametric specification of the stiffness properties.
The amount of numbers depends on the type of the
finite element according to Table 29.5-1.
Follow immediately after the number of the rigidity
type
Parametric sections S0 E, b, h E — elastic modulus
S1 E, b, h, b1, h1 Description and sizes of sections are given in the
S2 E, b, h, b1, h1 Table 3.3-3
S3 E, b, h, b1, h1, b2, h2
S4 E, b, h, b1, h1
S5 E, b, h, b1, h1
S6 E, D, d
S7 E, b, h, b1, h1, h2, h3
S8 E, b1, h1, Y1, Z1,
b2, h2, Y2, Z2, …
Rolled steel profiles ST <section name> Section from the Full assortment of GOST profiles
<line number> (see Appendix)
STZ <catalogue name> The Appendix contains the assortment of rolled
<section name> profiles included in SCAD.
<line number> The following records are equivalent:
STZ RUSSIAN <section name> <line number>
ST < section name> <line number>
Compound sections STK <catalogue name> The types of the compound sections are given in
from rolled steel <section name> Fig. 3.3-2.
profiles <line number> The layout code and the additional parameters are
<layout code> specified in accordance with Table 3.3-4
<additional parameters>
Sections from S199 E ν EF EIY EIZ GIKR GFY E — elastic modulus;
Section Builder, GFZ Y1 Y2 Z1 Z2 Alfa ν — Poisson’s ratio;
Consul, EF, EIY, EIZ, GIKR, GFY, GFZ — stiffness properties
TONUS (see Table 29.5-1);
Y1, Y2, Z1, Z2 — section core sizes;
Alfa — rotation of the principal axes of inertia with
respect to the grid lines
FILE <file name> This file must contain the data from the builder
791

Elastic modulus E E
Poisson’s ratio NU ν The value 0.2 is taken for parametric sections by
default and 0.3 – for the rolled steel sections
Element type KE <element type> For specifying the element type. The set of
parameters at the numerical and numerical and
parametric description of the rigidities depends on its
value (see Table 29.5-1)
Section core sizes Y lY,1 lY,2 See Fig. 3.3-10. Used for the selection of DCF at the
Z lZ,1 lZ,2 numerical specification of the rigidities
Shear GF no Allowing for shear in the elements. It is necessary to
specify GFY and GFZ at the numerical description
Prestressing N N In the nonlinear analysis, for example, the
prestressing of the cable stay
Specific weight RO ρ Specific weight
Name NAME <name of the rigidity Name of the rigidity type. It cannot be longer than
type> eight characters. If it contains special characters, it
is given in quotes
Calculated additional SHIFT GIkr GFY GFZ They are additionally calculated by the software
characteristics when there is no rolled steel in the assortment
For cable-stayed VANTA Indicator of the cable-stayed element
elements
Table 29.5-3
Characteristics of plates
Properties of the GE, GEI Е   For the isotropic, orthotropic, anisotropic materials
material GEO E1 E2 12 21 G12  respectively (see Sec. 3.4).
GEA E1 E2 12 21 G12 12,1 The number of the rigidity type of plates must be
12,2 1,12 2,12  followed by the description of the material
Additional PD, PDI no The analysis of the plane-strain systems (instead of the
properties of the PDT E3 13 31 plane stress ones) for the isotropic (PD and PDI),
material for PDO E3 13 31 23 32 transverse isotropic (PDT), orthotropic and anisotropic
plane-strain PDA E3 13 31 23 32 12,3 materials (PDA) respectively
systems 3,12
XNT XТ YТ ZТ
Name NAME <name of the rigidity Name of the rigidity type. It cannot be longer than eight
type> characters. If it contains special characters, it is given in
quotes
Table 29.5-4
Characteristics of solid elements
Properties of the OB E Specification of the numerical characteristics of the
material OBT E E3 12 13 G13 isotropic (ОВ), transverse isotropic (ОВТ) and
OBO E1 E2 E3 12 21 orthotropic (ОВО) materials (see Sec. 3.5).
13 31 23 32 The number of the rigidity type of solid elements
G12 G13 G23 must be followed by the description of the material
792

type> eight characters. If it contains special characters, it is
given in quotes
Table 29.5-5
Characteristics of multilayer plates
Indicator of the GEM no Follows immediately after the number of the rigidity
characteristics of type in the document 3. Its specification is obligatory
multilayer plates
Properties of the L, LI E(k) (k) δ(k) For the isotropic, transverse isotropic, and
material LT E(k) 13(k) 31(k) G13(k) orthotropic materials respectively (see Sec. 3.7).
δ(k) The characteristics of the materials of layers are
LO E1(k) E2(k) E3(k) 12(k) specified right after the GEM identifier
21(k) 13(k) 31(k) 23(k) consecutively, starting with the lowest.
32(k) G12(k) G13(k) There must be at least one identifier L, LI, LT or
G23 δ(k) (k) LO
Eccentricity DZ  Specification of the eccentricity in the case when the
coordinate surface does not coincide with the midplane
of the element
type> eight characters. If it contains special characters, it is
given in quotes
The examples of the description of the stiffness properties in the document 3 are given in the Table
29.5-7.
Table 29.5-6
Characteristics of unilateral constraints
Indicator of the OSD EF Follows immediately after the number of
characteristics of the rigidity type in the document 3. Its
unilateral constraints specification is obligatory
Direction of the constraint ORT X, Y, Z Direction of the constraint if it is defined
by two nodes of the element
Sign SGN ±1 The constraint is disabled at
compression/tension
Gap DL DL The value of the gap after which the
constraint is enabled/disabled
Prestressing N N
Prestressing by displacing DZ DZ
793
Table 29.5-7
Characteristics of the constraints of finite rigidity, elastic constraints, null elements and rigid bodies
Indicator of the SPRING EX, EY, EZ ... Follows immediately after the number of
characteristics the rigidity type in the document 3. Its
specification is obligatory.
It is followed by the stiffness values. If
there are no constraints, a zero value is
specified
Prestressing by TYPE 51, 55, 100 or 151 Type of the finite element.
displacing 151 – for null elements
Table 29.5-8
Characteristics of the peripheral elements of the plate
Indicator of the BED e1, e2 Follows immediately after the number of the
characteristics rigidity type in the document 3. Its
specification is obligatory.
It is followed by the stiffness values in
accordance with the description of the
element
Prestressing by TYPE 53 or 54 Type of the finite element
displacing
Table 29.5-9
Examples of the description of stiffness properties
Text of the document 3 Contents
1 S0 3.52e+06 30 40 RO 2.5 NAME Rectangular section 30х40cm, elastic modulus of the material
“Column”/ 3.52e+06T/m2, specific weight 2.5T/m3
2 STZ RUS_OLD I2 10 RO 7.85/ Section from “The old assortments (1926, 1932 years)”. I-beam 24a
according to OST 16-1932 (10-th line of the assortment), specific weight
— 7.85T/m3
3 GE 3.06e+06 0.15 0.1 RO 2.5/ Rigidities of an isotropic plate with the thickness of 0.1m, lying on the
elastic subgrade
Document 31. “ Rigid Inserts ”

X1 Y1 Z1 X2 Y2 Z2 [Type=3]: <list of elements> /,

where
X1 Y1 Z1 – vector defining a rigid insert at the beginning of the element;
X2 Y2 Z2 – vector defining a rigid insert at the end of the element;
GroupElem=1 – type of the bar element;
Type – type of specification of the rigid inserts: 0 – Fig. 3.3-12, 3 - Fig. 3.3-13 when a rigid insert is
specified in the global coordinate system.
794
Document 32. “ Position of the Principal Axes of Inertia ”

<identifier> <data >: <list of elements> /
It enables to specify the directions of the principal axes of inertia of the bar elements for the specification
of the correct position of the section of the element, and those of the plate and solid elements to take into
account the orthotropy of the material.
The allowed identifiers and the data for them are given below.
Element type Identifier Data Contents

Bars F FК Value of the angle in degrees or radians (see Fig.
FR FК 3.3-6)
FK XТ YТ ZТ Coordinates of the point (see Fig. 3.3-7 and 3.3-8)
ZK lying on the Y1 or Z1 axis
FD XD YD ZD Vector defining the direction of the Y1 or Z1 axes
ZD
Plates EX XD YD ZD Specification in the global coordinate system by the
EXT XТ YТ ZТ vector (EX) or by the coordinates of the point lying
on this axis (EXT). The specified direction is
projected on the plane of the element for the
determination of the orthotropy X0 axis. The Z0 axis
coincides with the Z1 axis, the Y0 axis is orthogonal to
X0 and Z0, the system X0, Y0, Z1 is right-hand
EY XD YD ZD Specification in the global coordinate system by the
EYT XТ YТ ZТ vector (EY) or by the coordinates of the point lying
on this axis (EYT). The specified direction is
projected on the plane of the element for the
determination of the orthotropy Y0 axis. The Z0 axis
coincides with the Z1 axis, the Y0 axis is orthogonal to
X0 and Z0, the system X0, Y0, Z1 is right-hand
Solid elements VXY Specification by the vectors defining the directions of

the X0 and Y0 axes
VXZ X1, Y1, Z1, Specification by the vectors defining the directions of
X2, Y2, Z2 the X0 and Z0 axes
VYZ Specification by the vectors defining the directions of
the Y0 and Z0 axes
FR α, β, γ Three Euler angles
VCPP X1, Y1, Z1, In the cylindrical system by two points
X2, Y2, Z2
VSPP X1, Y1, Z1, In the spherical system by two points
X2, Y2, Z2
Document 33. “ Coordinate Systems for Calculating Stresses and

Forces ”
This document is similar to document 32.
795
Document 34. “Subsoil Parameters”

<identifier> <data > [<identifier> <data >…]: <list of elements> /
Specifies the parameters of the elastic subgrade for the bar and plate elements.
Element type Identifier Data Contents
b — width of the bar section (m);
C1Z — Winkler coefficient in the direction of the
CZ b C1Z C2Z Z1 axis (T/m3);
C2Z — Pasternak coefficient in the direction of the
Z1 axis (T/m)
Bars
h — height of the bar section (m);
C1Y — Winkler coefficient in the direction of the
CY h C1Y C2Y Y1 axis (T/m3);
C2Y — Pasternak coefficient in the direction of the
Y1 axis (T/m)
C1 C1 Compression stiffness of the elastic subgrade
C2 Shear stiffness of the elastic subgrade for the
C2,x C2,y isotropic, orthotropic, and anisotropic elastic
Plates
C2 C2,x C2,y C2,xy subgrade. Their coordinate system coincides with
the coordinate system of the stiffness
characteristics
29.6. Specifying Static Loadings

Documents 6 and 7 are used to specify the static loadings. Static loads can be defined as concentrated and
distributed forces and moments, thermal actions, and also by the value of the displacement of the constraint
(specified displacement). The following information is specified for each load:
In the  type of load (static, dynamic);
document 6:  data for dynamic loadings.
In the  number of the loading in which the load is applied;
document 7:  type of load;
 direction of the load along the axes of the local or global coordinate systems;
 point of load application (lists of the numbers of nodes or elements);
 load values (with their signs) and, if necessary, snaps which define the position of
the load within one finite element, linear expansion coefficients for the thermal
load, etc.
Document 6. “ Types of Loads ”

Each line of the document has the following form:
<loading number> [Type = <type>] [Name=<name>]
[<Numerical characteristics of the dynamic loadings>]
[Aks=<file name>]
[AksX=<file name>] [AksY=<file name>] [AksZ=<file name>]
[Betta=<file name>]
[BettaX=<file name>] [BettaY=<file name>] [BettaZ=<file name>]
[: <mass mask for the dynamic loading>]
796
Type – reserved for the description of the characteristics of loadings. For static loadings – 0.
[Aks=<file name>] – name of the accelerogram file for the seismic loadings. The accelerogram acts in all
three directions. The following identifiers are used for the specification of different accelerograms in
different directions.
[AksX=<file name>] – name of the accelerogram file for the seismic loadings. The accelerogram acts in
the X direction.
[AksY=<file name>] – name of the accelerogram file for the seismic loadings. The accelerogram acts in
the Y direction.
[AksZ=<file name>] – name of the accelerogram file for the seismic loadings. The accelerogram acts in
the Z direction.
[Betta=<file name>] – name of the dynamic amplification factor file for the seismic loadings. The
dynamic amplification factor acts in all three directions. The following identifiers are used for the
specification of different dynamic amplification factors in different directions.
[BettaX=<file name>] – name of the dynamic amplification factor file for the seismic loadings. The
dynamic amplification factor acts in the X direction.
[BettaY=<file name>] – name of the dynamic amplification factor file for the seismic loadings. The
dynamic amplification factor acts in the Y direction.
[BettaZ=<file name>] – name of the dynamic amplification factor file for the seismic loadings. The
dynamic amplification factor acts in the Z direction.
<mass mask for the dynamic loading> – enables to take into account the masses only in the given
directions in the given loading. If this identifier is missing, all the specified masses will be taken into
account. For example, “:1 2” means that only the masses in the Х and Y directions will be taken into
account in the calculation.
Document 7. “ Values of Loads ”

The document is used to specify the loads on the structure. Each line of this document has the following
form:
<type of load> <direction of the load> <list of the load values> [Load=<number>] [File=<name>]
: <list of nodes, elements or loadings depending on the type of load> ,

where
[Load=<number>] - indicates the loading to which the described load corresponds. If this identifier is
missing, the load refers to the last given number.
<type of load> - specifies the description of the load.
The main types of loads are given in Table 29.6-1.
Table 29.6-1
Types of loads
Characteristics Type Contents
Load on the node 0 Load in the directions of the axes of the global coordinate system
1 Specified displacement in the node (see Sec. 8.2)
2 Load in the special coordinate system specified in the line 3 of the header
document
3 Load in the special coordinate system specified in the document 7
Masses at the description of 4 3-rd number 3. Masses are generated automatically by converting the static
797
Characteristics Type Contents

the dynamic loadings loading the number of which is indicated in the first position of the line (see
Sec. 8.6)
100 Node’s loading history given as a graph
Load on the finite elements 5 Concentrated in a point
in the directions of the axes 45 Concentrated in a point of the bar element with the snap in the fractions of
of its local coordinate system the length of the flexible part
6 Uniformly distributed
7 Trapezoidal
47 Trapezoidal on the bar elements with the snap in the fractions of the length
of the flexible part
8, 88 Thermal
9 Uniformly distributed along the line connecting any two nodes of the
element
10 Trapezoidal load along the line connecting any two nodes of the element
Analysis for the specified 11 Load on the “null elements” modeling the specified displacement in the
displacements with the help local coordinate system of the element (see Sec. 8.2)
of the null elements
Load on the finite elements 15, 16,
in the directions of the axes 17, 19,
Similarly to the load in the local coordinate system
of the global coordinate 20
system
55, 57 Analogues of the loads of type 45 and 47 in the global coordinate system
Self-weight 96 The self-weight factor is specified
Allowing for the rigid inserts 46, 56 Uniformly distributed taking into account the load applied to the rigid
inserts in the local and global coordinate systems
Self-weight 116 The self-weight factor is specified taking into account the load applied to
the rigid inserts
Masses 85, 86 Concentrated and uniformly distributed masses in all directions
<direction of the load> - numerical designation of the direction of the load.
The load directions are denoted by integers — 1, 2, 3 along the X, Y, Z axes of the global coordinate
system, or X1, Y1, Z1 of the local coordinate system depending of the type of load; and 4, 5, 6 — angular
directions about the same axes. The peculiarities of the specification of loads for the dynamic actions are
described in Sec. 29.7. The order of the specification of the static and dynamic loadings is arbitrary.
<list of the load values>
The nodal force or moment, as well as the uniformly distributed load are described by one number —
their value. For example, the local load for bars in the form of a concentrated force or moment is described
by two numbers: the value and snap to the first node, and that for shell elements — by three numbers: the
value and snaps to the first node in the directions of the local X1 and Y1 axes.
The values of loads specified for the finite elements and their order are indicated in the description of
elements in Chapter 3 and, as a rule, correspond to the sequence of their input in the graphical
preprocessor. The peculiarities of the specification of thermal loads on plates and solid elements are given
in the Tables 29.6-2 and 29.6-3.
798
Table 29.6-2
Thermal load on flat elements
Document 6
FE Load values in the
directio Contents
typetype document 7
n
11-20 8 0 t,  t — temperature difference between the upper and lower
4 t, x surfaces,
5 t, y , x, y — linear expansion coefficients in all the directions
21-30 8 0 t,  and only in the X or Y direction, respectively,
1 t, x t — increase (decrease) of the temperature of the middle layer
3 t, z of the plate with respect to the normal operating conditions
(restraint temperature)
41-50 8 0 t, t, 
1 t, x
2 t, y
4 t, x
5 t, y
11-20 88 0 t, t,  Used for the unification of loads on the plate elements.
21-30 1 t, t, x For the directions 1, 2 t is not taken into account, for the
41-50 2 t, t y directions 4, 5 t is not taken into account
4 t, t, x
5 t, t, y
Table 29.6-3
Thermal load on solid elements
Document 6 Load values in
Contents
type Direction the doc.7
8 0 t,  t(degrees) — increase (decrease) of the temperature with respect to
1 t, x the normal operating conditions (restraint temperature),
2 t, y  — thermal linear expansion coefficient for an isotropic body,
3 t, z x, Y, z — thermal linear expansion coefficients for the axes of the
orthotropic body.
The specification of loads for the dynamic loadings is given in Sec. 29.7.
The following sign convention is used in SCAD when specifying the loads:
 positive concentrated and distributed forces are opposite to the respective axes of the global or local
coordinate system, and the moments act clockwise when viewed from the end of the axes;
 the specified displacement is considered to be positive if it is directed along the axis or counter-
clockwise.
It means that the vectors of displacements and rotations determined according to the right-hand screw
rule coincide with the respective axes, and the vectors of forces and moments are opposite to them.
[File=<name>] – used when specifying some types of dynamic loads. For example, when describing
the pulse or at the direct integration of the equations of motion (see Chapter 15).
Documents 9 and 10. “Groups of Loads”

The description of the groups of loads is completely identical to the description of loadings. Loads
included in the groups are recorded in the document 9 (analogue of the document 6) and document 10
(analogue of the document 7).
799
29.7. Description of Dynamic Loadings

When describing the dynamic loadings it is necessary to specify the following data in the documents 6 and 7:
 specify the characteristics of dynamic loadings in the document 6;
 describe masses in the document 7, and specify the additional data necessary for the analysis for the
impact and pulse actions, harmonic oscillations, etc.
Description of Masses in Documents 6 and 7

It is necessary to describe the masses for all types of dynamic actions in the document 7, which are
specified as the weights in tones, i.e. mass multiplied by the gravitational acceleration. The software
enables to generate the masses automatically on the basis of the local loads of one or several static
loadings. Masses can be specified as a special local load intended only for the description of masses, or in
the form of the concentrated nodal forces.
Masses can be described in the following three ways (including the case when they are in one
loading):
 as concentrated nodal forces;
 as a local load of the type 4 on the elements of the design model indicating index 0 — for uniformly
distributed and 1 — for concentrated loads (loads of the type 4 0 and 4 1) in the position used for the
indicator of the direction of the load action;
 with an automatic transformation of the static loads into masses (loads of type 4 3).
Masses (their weights are specified) form the inertial forces corresponding to the translational
displacements of a node X, Y, Z. Inertial moments correspond to the angular displacements of the nodes.
Moments of inertia of the masses concentrated in these nodes are specified to take them into account.
Concentrated nodal masses are described as ordinary nodal loads. When they are specified, the
degrees corresponding to the index of the model type have to be assigned.
Automatic Generation of Masses
SCAD enables to generate the masses automatically for the dynamic loadings on the basis of the
static loadings (loads of type 4, direction 3). In this case a line of the document 7 will have the following
form:
4 3 Load=k r : <list of loadings>/,
where 4 3 — code of the type and direction of the load;
k — number of the dynamic loading for which the masses are specified;
r — coefficient by which the weights in the static loadings are multiplied when the masses are
generated;
<list of loadings> — list of static loadings from which the masses are formed.
Characteristics of Dynamic Loadings

Chapter 8 contains the list of dynamic modules currently implemented in SCAD. The characteristics of
dynamic actions depend on the dynamic module and are recorded in the document 6, which is composed in
such a way so that the content of the first 3 positions for all types of dynamic actions is the same and
means:
 position 1 — number of the module (type) of the dynamic action, which defines the nature of the
information following it;
 position 2 — maximum number of the natural oscillation modes which have to be taken into account
in the calculation;
800
 position 3 — for the modules 21 and 31 (wind pulsation) — number of the wind static loading, for all
other types of loadings — zero.
The information depending on the dynamic module follows from the 4-th position. Since it is much
easier to specify the characteristics of the dynamic actions in the graphical preprocessor, we will not
describe their filling in detail. We will only note that both the coefficients depending on the selected codes,
and the names of the accelerogram files or the dynamic amplification spectra are indicated (see Sec. 8.7).
Specifying Pulse Loads

When the dynamic modules 22 and 42 are used, pulse actions are described in the document 7 as ordinary
nodal concentrated forces with the specified directions, but instead of one number the following numbers
are recorded:
Q P|A f |0 T0 n F/ ,
where Q — weight of the mass, in the node (it is set to 0, if the mass is already described elsewhere, or the
pulse comes to the point where the mass is not specified);
Р or А — the average pulse value in Tsec, if the number of the pulse mode is specified by a positive
number from 1 to 6, or the pulse amplitude at the values of the number from 11 to 16;
f — number of the pulse mode (see Fig. 2.4-1). If the number is equal to 100, the pulse mode is in the
file the name of which is given after the FILE identifier;
|0 — duration of the pulse or impact action, sec. When it has a zero value, the pulse is considered to
be instantaneous;
T0 — repetition period of the action, sec;
n — number of repetitions. It does not have to be specified if there is one pulse;
F — start time of the pulse action, sec. By default — 0.
It is not necessary to specify the last four numbers.
If the pulse mode is specified with the help of a graph, it must be in the text file with the .spi
extension. Its structure is given below.
A file with the .p30 extension containing the specified and calculated pulse characteristics is
generated in the calculation process. For example:
Loading – 3
node direct. pulse time amplitude period phase multiplicity file name
2 3 2.000 104.72 2.000 52.360 0.000 1 harmonics
Loading – 4
node direct. pulse time amplitude period phase multiplicity file name
2 3 2.602 100.00 2.000 0.000 0.000 1
Specifying Impact Loads

The impact is described in the document 7 as ordinary nodal concentrated forces with the specified
directions of the action, the following numbers are recorded:
Q M V T R A/,
where Q — weight of the mass coming into the node. It can be set to 0, if this mass is already described
elsewhere, or the impact comes into the point where the mass is not specified;
M — weight of the mass of the impact body. If after the impact the mass of the impact body is
attached to the structure, it has to be added to the first number;
V — velocity of impact m/sec;
T — impact duration (sec). When it has a zero value, the pulse is considered to be instantaneous;
R — coefficient of restitution;
801
A — angle (in radians) between the direction of the impact and the normal to the area it is acting on
(only for the module 33).
Files with Pulse Parameters

A text file with the description of the pulse has the .spi extension and contains the following information:
 comment (obligatory) which ends with the character “#” ;
 scaling factor;
 type of information, which can take the following values:
0 — Р(А) is a scaling factor to the values specified by the graph, which is scaled by the specified
value  along the time axis;
1 — P(A) is a pulse value, then the area of the graph will be equal to the specified value P, and
duration — ;
2 — Р (А) is the amplitude of the pulse graph, and duration — ;
3 — it is considered that the known accelerations of masses due to the external action are
specified with the help of the graph. The graph is normalized similarly to the type 2, but the
specified values are also multiplied by the mass in the node in the direction of the pulse action;
 sequence of pairs of numbers, the first one of which is the time value, and the second one is the
corresponding pulse value. The starting point is obviously zero.
Example of a file with a pulse mode:
Test
#
1 0
0.000000 0.000000 0.050000 0.006000 0.100000 0.012000 0.150000 0.017999
0.200000 0.023998
0.250000 0.029996 0.300000 0.035992 0.350000 0.041988 0.400000 0.047982 …
Document 71. “Loading History”

It includes the data for the module of the direct integration of the equations of motion (see Chapter 15).
29.8. Auxiliary Documents
Document 21. “Grid Lines”

The parameters of grid lines are specified in this document. The line of the document has the following
form:
<direction> <name> <coordinate>
where the indicator of the direction has the following values:
1 — for the transverse grid lines (these are usually numbered grid lines);
2 — for the longitudinal grid lines (these are usually lettered grid lines);
3 — for the elevations.
The name of the grid line is given in quotes (for the elevations — it coincides with the value of the
coordinate), and the value of the coordinate corresponds to:
 for the elevations — the Z coordinate;
 for the numbered grid lines — the X coordinate;
 for the lettered grid lines — the Y coordinate.
Example of filling the document 21.
(21 /
1 "1" 0./
802
1 "2" 7.8/
1 "3" 15./
2 "A" 0./
2 "B" 2.4/
2 "C" 7.2/
3 "0" 0./
3 "3.3" 3.3/)
Document 27. “Meshing Contour”

Groups of nodes which make up the meshing contours are specified in this document. Each line of this
document contains the description of one contour saved when performing the meshing, and has the
following form:
Name <contour name>: <list of nodes>
where Name — keyword followed by the meshing contour name given in quotes;
list of nodes — numbers of nodes which form the vertices of the contour (the numbers of the first and
the last nodes coincide).
Example:
(27/ Name="Contour No. 1": 1 149 164 16 1/
Name="Contour No. 2": 10 5 15 11 28 10/...)
Document 47. “Groups of Elements”

Each group of elements has its corresponding record of the following form in the document
<purpose of the group><type> [Name=<name>]:<list of elements>
The first position of the record contains the index indicating the purpose of the group (1 — group for
the reinforcement selection postprocessor; 2 — general purpose group). The second position contains the
types of elements in the group (0 — arbitrarily; 1 — bars; 2 — plates). The second position is used only in
the groups for the reinforcement selection postprocessor.
Document 48. “Groups of Nodes”

Each group of nodes has its corresponding record of the following form in the document
2 0: [Name=<name>]:<list of elements>
It includes an index of the group type (2) and the type of operation with the nodes (0).
29.9. Erection Documents

The main data for the Erection mode (Chapter 14) are in the document 72 Erection Mode. Each line of
this document has the following form:
Name <name of the stage> LoadBase <main loading>
Elem <list of elements>; Load <list of loadings>;
{LoadGroup <list of groups of loadings>;]
[Type<accounting for the deformation of the model at the previous stage>] /
Moreover, the following groups of elements can appear for the erection stages:
 1005, 2005, … – constraints;
 1002, 2002, … – boundary conditions;
 1034, 2034, … – subsoil parameters;
 1073, 2073, … – coefficients of variation of the rigidities.
803
The first part of the number describes the number of the erection stage. The Constraints and Subsoil
Parameters documents are completely similar to those described above. The lines of the Coefficients of
Variation of the Rigidities documents have the following structure:
<coefficient> : <list of elements> / .
29.10. Documents for Checking and Selecting Rolled Steel

Sections
The check and selection of the rolled steel sections is performed on the basis of the following documents:
28 – “Check and selection of rolled steel sections”;
29 – “Unification at the selection of rolled steel sections”.
They have a complex structure, and therefore they should be specified with the help of the graphical
postprocessor.
29.11. Documents for Reinforcing Sections of R/C Elements and

Its Check
The check and selection of reinforcement is performed on the basis of the following documents:
53 – “Reinforcement of the sections of the r/c elements”;
74 – “Specified reinforcement of plates”;
75 – “Specified reinforcement of bars”.
They have a complex structure, and therefore they should be specified with the help of the graphical
postprocessor.
29.12. Initial Data of Postprocessors
Documents of Design Combinations

The information is specified in the documents 61, 62, 63, and 64. The following information is specified in
the document 61 (see Fig. 18-12):
<characteristics of the loading> :
<list of simultaneous loadings>;
<list of mutually exclusive loadings>;
<list of related loadings> /
The characteristics of the loading include:
 type of loading;
 subtype of loading;
 crane number;
 crane mode;
 indicator of the activity (consideration) of the loading.
If there is no corresponding list, 0 is output.
List of the elements for the selection of DCF, groups of DCF, and unification groups are output in the
documents 62, 63, and 64 respectively.
Documents of Design Combinations for Nonlinear Analysis

The information specified in the documents 81, 82, 83, and 84 is completely identical to the ordinary DCF.
804
Document 36. “Combinations of Loadings”

The document describes combinations of loadings. The values of the coefficients with which the respective
loadings are included in the combination are given in the sequential order of the loadings in each line of the
document. Starting from the second combination the number of the coefficients is increased by one, since
the preceding combinations can be included as loadings in the subsequent ones with their coefficients.
(36/
1. 1. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1./
1. 0. 1. 0. 0. 1. 0. 0./
1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 1. 0. 0./)
Document 37. “Stability”

The document contains one line with the following data:
 position 1 — contains the index the zero value of which indicates that the stability analysis is
performed for loadings, and one — for combinations of loadings;
 position 2 — one in this position means that in the analysis process it is necessary to determine the
stability factor of safety;
 position 3 — one in this position means that in the analysis process it is necessary to determine the
buckling modes;
 position 4 — one in this position means that in the analysis process it is necessary to calculate the
unsupported lengths of the elements;
 position 5 — value defining the upper search limit of the stability factor of safety;
 position 6 — value defining the accuracy of the calculations;
 position 7 — number of loadings or combinations of loadings in the problem;
 position 8 — numbers of loadings or combinations for which the stability analysis is performed.
(37/ 0 1 1 1 2. .01 4 1 2 3 4/)
Document 38. “Principal and Equivalent Stresses”

This document contains the data which are used for the control of the mode of the calculation of the
principal and equivalent stresses. The positions in the line of this document are described below:
 position 1 — not used (always 0);
 position 2 — one in this position means that the calculation of the principal stresses for loadings
will be performed;
 position 3 — one in this position means that the calculation of the principal stresses for the
combinations of loadings will be performed;
 position 4 — one in this position means that the calculation of stresses for loadings will be
performed;
 position 5 — one in this position means that the calculation of the equivalent stresses for the
combinations of loadings will be performed;
 position 6 — index of the failure theory according to which the calculations will be performed is
specified in this position. Indices correspond to:
1 — the maximum normal stress theory;
2 — the maximum linear strain theory;
3 — the maximum shear stress theory;
4 — the Huber–Hencky–von Mises theory;
 positions 7–12 — reserve positions (filled with zeros).
805

(38/ 0 1 1 1 1 4 0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0/)
Document 39. “Loads from the Structural Fragment”

The document contains the data for performing the calculation of loads from the structural fragment. The
information includes a line with the settings of the mode, a line with the numbers of the elements which
make up the fragment, and additionally one line with the data for each structural fragment, with the lists of
nodes in which the loads are calculated. The first position of each line with the description of the segments
contains the value of the rotation angle of the segment about the X axis of the global coordinate system.
(39/
1 1 1/
1-456 461-684/
30.0 253/
0.0 13 21 73/
60.0 1 2 53 79/)
Document 53. “Reinforcement of Reinforced Concrete Elements”

The document has a complex structure and enables to save the data for the reinforcement at the
export/import of the text file.
Document 70. Progressive Collapse

It contains the following information:
 evaluation level: 0 – cautious, 1 – no;
 number of the combination;
 number of the groups of loads;
 indicator for saving the progressive collapse problem with an addition to a .dst file;
 dynamic amplification factor (by default 2);
 coefficient for the collapsing structures (groups);
 uncertainty interval, where the strength of the element is not yet exhausted;
 type of the analysis: 0 – linear, 1 – nonlinear;
 method of the nonlinear analysis: 0 – simple incremental, 1 – incremental-iterative, 2 – iterative;
 number of steps;
 maximum number of iterations.
29.13. Special Coordinate Systems

Line 3 of the document 0 is introduced in those cases when it is necessary to transform the coordinates of
the nodes specified in the document 4. Cylindrical, spherical and other coordinate systems can be used.
Information in a line is specified as lists with the following structure:
<index of the transformation type> [: <list of nodes>]
[: <numerical properties of the transformation>];
The transformations of the coordinates specified in the line 3 can be also used when specifying the loads in
these coordinate systems. If the list of nodes is not specified, the transformation is performed for all nodes. The
allowable types of transformations and the numerical properties necessary for them are given in the Table
29.13-1. If two numbers are indicated in the Type column, the angles are specified in degrees for the first
type, and in radians — for the second one.
806
Table 29.13-1
Numerical
Name Type Coordinates Directions of the load axes
properties
Cylindrical 1(11) r — polar radius; X — along the radius from
φ — polar radius in radians the center;
(degrees); Y — along the tangent No
z — applicate counterclockwise when
viewed from the end of the Z
axis;
Z — coincides with the Z
axis
Spherical 2(12) r — polar radius; X — along the radius from R0 — for the
 — polar radius in radians the center; toroidal one
(degrees); Y — along the parallel
 — angle between the counterclockwise when
radius and the vertical axis viewed from the end of the Z
in radians (degrees) axis;
for a torus — in a circle
parallel to the XOY plane;
and toroidal Z — along the meridian,
making a right-hand system
together with X and Y
Tension (compression) 3 Q1 Q 2 Q 3 —
along the coordinate coefficients of
axes tension
(compression)
along the X, Y, Z
axes, respectively
Quadratic transfer 4 X2 = X; Z — perpendicular to the
surface Y2 = Y; surface and makes an angle
Z2 = AX2+BY2+C less than 90 with the Z axis;
Y — perpendicular to Z2 and
lies in the same plane with the
Z axis making an angle
greater than 90 with the Z
axis;
X — perpendicular to Y2 and
Z2;
System X2, Y2, Z2 is right-
hand
Transfer of the 5 X2 = X + A; ABC
coordinates in space Y2 = Y + B;
Z2 = Z + C
Affine transformation 6 X2 = L11 X + L12 X + L13 X; L11 L12 L13
Y2 = L21 Y + L22 Y + L23 Y; L21 L22 L23
Z2 = L31 Z + L32 Z + L33 Z L31 L32 L33
807
Numerical
Name Type Coordinates Directions of the load axes
properties
Transfer with the 7(17) X2=X cos  Y sin + A; AB
rotation in the XOY Y2=X sin  Y cos + B;
plane Z2= Z
Transfer with the 8(18) X2 = X cos  Z sin + A; AB

rotation in the XOZ Y2 = Y;
plane Z2 = X sin + Z cos + B
9 X2 = X; ABC
Y2 = Y;
Z A  x2  B  y2  C
Transfer surface 10 X2 = X; ABC
Y2 = Y;
Z  A  x  B y  C
29.14. Specifying a Load in the Special Coordinate Systems

Documents 6 and 7 are used to specify the loads in the special coordinate systems. Loads of type 2 are
specified for the nodes the coordinates of which are given in the special coordinate systems, and those of
type 3 — for all nodes.
A nodal load in the special coordinate system can be specified for each node the coordinates of which
are given in this system. In order to do it index 2 (load type) is input into the second position of the
document 6. The number of the direction of load is specified in the position 3 of the document 6: 1, 2, 3 —
along the X2, Y2, Z2 axes, respectively; 4, 5, 6 — about the same axes.
The values of the nodal loads are specified in the document 7. The positive sign corresponds to the
action against the local coordinate axes and the clockwise rotation when viewed from the end of the
respective local axis.
Load type 3 is used when specifying the loads in the special coordinate systems for the nodes
specified in the global coordinate system. Document 7 contains the information necessary for the
transformation. The direction of the load in the document 6 is specified in the similar way as the direction
for the load of type 2.
Two coordinate systems are implemented for the load of type 3:
 cylindrical, for which the following information is specified in the document 7:
f 1 [A B]
where f — value of the load the direction of which in the local coordinate system is described in the
document 6;
1 — indicator of the cylindrical transformation;
А, В — coordinates of the center of the cylinder in the XOY plane. If they are not specified, it is
assumed that the axis of the cylinder lies on the Z axis.
 spherical, for which the following information is specified in the document 7:
f 2 [A B C],
808
where f — value of the load the direction of which in the local coordinate system is described in the
document 6;
2 — indicator of the spherical transformation;
А, В, С — coordinates of the center of the sphere in space. If they are not specified, it is assumed
that the sphere is located in the origin.
Since the amount of information in one line in the document 7 is limited by

four numbers, more than one line has to be used to specify five characteristics
necessary for the specification of loads in the spherical coordinate system.
809
30.Service Functions
30. Service Functions

Service functions include not only the special functions of the Service menu, but also a number of other
functions which enable to save the screen image, save the description of the design model in the text
format etc.
30.1. Save the Fragment of the Model
The operation of saving the fragment can be invoked from the Control toolbar and enables to save the
fragment of the design model (selected with the help of the fragmentation functions described in Sec. 10.1)
as a separate model. The new model will include all the attributes of the fragment (rigidities, constraints,
loads etc.). Before saving, the program asks whether it is necessary to pack the data and prompts for the
path to the considered file. In the case of a positive answer, a dialog box with packing options appears.
The operation is available only from the preprocessor.
30.2. Special Functions of the Service Menu

The Service menu enables to invoke special functions, such as the standard Windows calculator, the
formula calculator, and the measurement units converter. Moreover, reference tables with the properties of
concrete and the characteristics of reinforcement can be also invoked from this menu.
Formula Calculator
The formula calculator can be invoked from the SCAD Office program by clicking on the icon . The
Service menu enables to invoke the standard Windows calculator (if it has been installed together with the
system), and a special formula calculator (Fig. 30.2-1).
This calculator is used to perform calculations by formulae that can be specified in a text field.
The following rules should be observed when entering a formula:
 names of functions must be entered in lowercase Roman letters;
 the fractional and the integer parts of a number must be separated by a period;
 arithmetic operations must be specified with the symbols +, , *, /, ^ (raising to a power), for
example, 2.5*2.5*2.5 can also be written as 2.5^3.
The following mathematical functions can be used in the formulae:
floor — the greatest integer not greater than the argument;
tan — tangent;
sin — sine;
cos — cosine;
asin — arc sine;
acos — arc cosine;
atan — arc tangent;
exp — exponent;
ceil — the least integer greater than the argument;
tanh — hyperbolic tangent;
Figure 30.2-1. The dialog box of the sinh — hyperbolic sine;
calculator cosh — hyperbolic cosine;
ln — natural logarithm;
log — decimal logarithm;
810
abs — absolute value;

sqrt — square root.
Depending on the state of the Degrees/Radians switch buttons, arguments of the trigonometric
functions (sin, cos, tan) and results of inverse trigonometric functions (asin, acos, atan) can be presented
in degrees or radians, respectively.
Only parentheses are allowed for grouping arguments together; these can be nested as deeply as
desired.
Example.
Formula
1, 2  sin(0, 43)  6, 7 6,8  5 0, 003
must be written as follows:
1.2+sin(0.43)+6.7*sqrt(6.8)0.003^(1/5).
There is an additional option of using three independent variables x, y, z in formulas. Values for the
variables will be specified in respective text fields. This makes it possible to perform a series of similar
calculations with different parameters. For example, the following formula
1, 2  sin( x )  6, 7 6,8  5 y
must be written in this mode as follows
1.2+sin(x)+6.7*sqrt(6.8)y^(1/5).
Furthermore, if you have entered a formula depending on the variables x, y, z, the field at the bottom
will display a symbolic expression of its partial derivative with respect to one of the variables (x, y, or z)
for which the respective marker , , is enabled at the moment.
button allows to save the current state of the text field with a formula and the respective values
of variables and to open data saved earlier. After pressing the button the drop-down menu appears.
Selecting its first position (Save) will save the entered data. The other lines display the formulas entered
earlier, which can be selected by the mouse-pointer.
The button enables to invoke the Settings dialog box where you can specify the number of
significant digits after the decimal point at the output of the results of the calculation.
Converting Units of Measurement

The calculator can be invoked from the SCAD Office
program group — icon , or from the Service menu.
The application enables to convert the data specified in
different units of measurement (Fig. 30.2-2). In order to
perform the operation, select a tab of respective measures
(Length, Area etc.).
The order of converting operations depends on whether the
units of measurement are simple (i.e. length, area or time) or
compound (i.e. pressure, speed or mass).
If you have to convert simple units of measurement, you
Figure 30.2-2. The Converting Units of just have to enter a number into one of the text fields. As a
Measurement dialog box result you will receive values in all other units of measurement.
811
If the units are compound, you have to select the original units
of measurement in the drop-down lists of one line and the units
you wish to convert to in the other one. Enter the number in the
text field of the first line and you will receive the result in the
second one.
The respective drop-down list enables to change the
language (Russian/English).
Properties of Concrete
A multi-tab dialog box of this mode (Fig. 30.2-3) contains data
given in Section 2 (Tables 12, 13 and 18) of SNiP 2.03.01-84*
(Tables 5.1, 5.2 and 5.4 of SP 52-101-2003, Tables 6.7, 6.8 and
6.11 of SP 63.13330.2012), as well as information on the
minimum allowable concrete cover.
Figure 30.2-3. The Concrete Class

dialog box
Characteristics of Reinforcement
This mode (Fig. 30.2-4) provides data on the classes of
reinforcement and the assortment of reinforcement products,
including an effective area of the cross-section for a particular
number of rebars, a theoretical weight of one linear meter and
diameters of reinforcement of various classes. Moreover, a
separate tab provides information about reinforcing meshes
according to GOST 23279-85.
Figure 30.2-4. The Reinforcement

mode
A separate tab enables to convert the cross-sectional area of reinforcement into bars, select the
number of bars, and arrange the rebars in the section of the element.
The program enables to select both the minimum required amount of reinforcement of one diameter,
and the combinations of bars. In this case, it is possible to obtain the dimensions of the bars and their
arrangement in the section of the element.
The result can be obtained with a certain deviation specified by the user (i.e., the total area of the
selected bars can be smaller/larger than the specified value by the specified deviation). If the deviation is
0%, the nearest larger value of the total area of the bars of a certain diameter is determined (the 0%
812
deviation limitation is applicable only for single bars, a certain possible deviation has to be specified for a
combination of bars).
The algorithm for selecting rebars is based on the following limitations and assumptions:
 the maximum possible number of rows of reinforcement along the height – 3 rows;
 number of rebars in the third row – 2;
 up to five different diameters can be used in a section of the element (it is recommended to use not
more than two different diameters);
 bars of larger diameter are placed in the first row at the corners of the section. The bars of larger
diameter in each row are always placed at the edges;
 the cross-sectional area of the reinforcement in the section of the smaller bar should not be less
than 25% of the cross-sectional area of the larger bar;
 the bars of the 1st row are aligned along the border of the concrete cover (the centers of gravity of
the bars are not on the same line, so that the stirrup could be installed);
 the centers of the bars of the second and third rows lie on the same straight line.
The program enables to obtain a report document. Only the variants of the calculation results selected
by the user will be output in the report.
The Reduced/Equivalent Diameter, C.o.G. of Reinforcement tab enables to perform the
following auxiliary operations:
Reduced diameter — enables to determine the reduced diameter of a rebar under the constrained
placement of two rebars (pairwise without a gap between them, or with the distance between the rebars of a
pair less than the distance required for individual rebars). When specifying the distances between the
rebars and determining the anchorage length, this pair of rebars should be considered as a reduced rebar
with a diameter of d red  d12  d 22  c12 , where d1 and d 2 – diameters of the considered rebars, d1 –
clear distance between these rebars taken as not greater than the diameter of a smaller rebar (see Sec. 5.40
and Fig. 102 Guide on designing of concrete and reinforced concrete structures made of heavy-weight or
lightweight concrete (no prestressing) (to SNiP 2.03.01.-84)).
Equivalent diameter — enables to determine the equivalent diameter of a rebar when determining
the crack opening width if rebars of different diameters are used in the section.
For a section with rebars n1 of diameter d1 and n2 of diameter d 2 , the equivalent diameter d eq is
determined according to the following formula:
n1d12  n2 d 22
d eq 
n1d1  n2 d 2
Center of gravity of the multi-row reinforcement — enables to determine the distance from the
edge of concrete to the center of gravity of the multi-row reinforcement.
For a section with rebars of a certain diameter with the total area of As1 ( Asn ) located at a distance
of as1 (asn ) from the edge of the element, the center of gravity of the multi-row reinforcement is
determined according to the following formula:
As1as1  As 2 as 2  ...  Asn asn
a
As1  As 2  ...  Asn
Reinforcement Consumption
The tab Reinforcement Consumption enables the operation of calculation of the weight of the
reinforcement, total cross-sectional area, as well as the number of rebars for a rectangular or arbitrarily-
813
shaped area. The calculation is performed for a set of bars having both the same and different diameters.
The program enables to perform four types of analysis:
 reinforcement consumption (determination of the total area and the total weight of the
bundle of N rebars);
 reinforcement consumption for a strip, aL;
 reinforcement consumption for a rectangular area, ab;
 reinforcement consumption for an arbitrarily-shaped area, A.
The control of the operation is performed in the multi-tab Reinforcement dialog box, which is
invoked from the respective section of the Service menu. The type of analysis can be selected with the help
of the respective radio buttons in the Reinforcement Consumption tab, then you have to specify the
parameters of the reinforcement and, if necessary, the size of the area.
Reinforcement Consumption for a Bundle from N Rebars
The total area and the total weight of the given number of rebars of different diameter is calculated,
and the ovelap can be taken into account (specified in % of the total length of the reinforcement). Each
diameter of reinforcement has a corresponding line in the table (Fig. 30.2-5). New lines can be added and
the existing ones can be deleted with the help of the Add and Delete buttons respectively. The analysis is
performed by clicking the Calculate button. A report with the results of the analysis can be generated by
clicking the respective button.
Type of analysis
Characteristics of
reinforcement
Results of analysis
The Calculate button
Figure 30.2-5. The Reinforcement Consumption tab for the calculation of a bundle from N rebars
Reinforcement Consumption for a Strip
The total length of rebars, their total weight and the number of rebars is calculated for a certain strip
with the length — a, and the ovelap can be taken into account (specified in % of the length of the
reinforcement). In the transverse direction of the strip, the reinforcement can be represented by either a
single bar or a bundle of bars with the overall length — L. The analysis is performed by clicking the
Calculate button. A report with the results of the analysis can be generated by clicking the respective
button (Fig. 30.2-6).
When the reinforcement at the edges of the strip is taken into account, one bar is added to the total
number of bars.
814
Figure 30.2-6. The Reinforcement Consumption tab for the calculation of the reinforcement consumption
for a strip
Reinforcement Consumption for a Rectangle
The total length of rebars, their total weight and the number of rebars is calculated for a certain
rectangular area — ab, and the ovelap can be taken into account. The reinforcement can be placed along
one face, for example, a, and along both faces. The overlap is given as multiple of the diameter of
reinforcement, for example, the number 10 in the Overlap column corresponds to the value 10D, where D
is the diameter of reinforcement. When the reinforcement at the edges of the rectangle is taken into
account, bars of the given length arranged along the edge of the rectangle are added to the total number of
bars.
The analysis is performed by clicking the Calculate button. A report with the results of the analysis
can be generated by clicking the respective button (Fig. 30.2-7).
Figure 30.2-7. The Reinforcement Consumption tab for the calculation of the reinforcement consumption
for a rectangle
815
Reinforcement Consumption for an Area

The total length of rebars, their total weight and the number of rebars is calculated for a certain given
area, and the ovelap can be taken into account. The reinforcement can be placed along one of the axes
X(Y), and along both axes. When the ovelap is taken into account, its value is specified in % of the total
length of rebars.
The analysis is performed by clicking the Calculate button. A report with the results of the analysis
can be generated by clicking the respective button.
You can save the results in a file with the initial data with the.sav extension, and generate a report
with the results of the analysis.
30.3. Import and Export the Initial Data Prepared in the Form
of the Text Description
SCAD enables to import the files of the initial data prepared in the text format (see Chapter 29), in the
internal formats of the current version. It allows to use the prepared initial data, and for those who prefer a
text description – to prepare some data or all the data in the form of the text description finishing them with
the help of the tools of the graphical preprocessor.
The text file enables to transfer the initial data to the
archive in the form accessible for the control.
The initial data do not necessarily have to include all
sections of the description of the model to be imported. The
geometric properties are enough (in terms of the archiving
language of the first and fourth documents). And even this
information may be incomplete. It can be corrected and
supplemented with the help of the tools of the graphical
preprocessor.
The Read the project from the text format operation
from the File menu enables to import the data. And the Read
Figure 30.3-1. The Result of the the project from the text format (previous versions)
Performed Operation dialog box operation is used to import the data prepared in SCAD Office
11.5.
After invoking the necessary operation and selecting (the name of the text file in the standard dialog
box) import is performed, the information on which is provided in the Result of the Performed
Operation dialog box (Fig. 30.3-1). It contains information on the errors and inaccuracies in the data, and
error messages.
If the errors are not critical for the problem, then after clicking the OK button it is necessary to select
the path to the new spr-file (in the standard dialog box) and the task will become available for working.
Moreover, you will be asked whether it is necessary to show the log of the import operation. If the answer
is positive, the respective log file will be opened.
The software provides the reverse process as well — export of data, i. e. transformation from the
format of the project to the text description in the Windows encoding. This operation is called Save data
as text and it is available in the File menu.
When importing the data from the text format the system of units of measurement specified in the
data is used (see Sec. 29.3 of this book). When exporting the data to the text format you can specify the
necessary system of units of measurement.
816
30.4. Comments to the Project

The File menu can be used to write the comments when creating a design model, and when necessary — to
save the current status of the project together with the comments, i.e. archive the “intermediate” projects.
The main peculiarity of the archive is that all copies of the project are in the same file as the main project
and remain there until they are deliberately deleted from the archive or the file of the main project is
deleted. The comments can be entered and saved in the Comments to the Project dialog box (Fig. 30.4-1),
which contains a table with the texts of the comments and the buttons controlling their archiving process.
The table has three columns, data and time of entering the comments are specified in the first one, text
is entered in the second column, and the third one contains checkboxes which enable to indicate whether
the archive contains a copy of the project corresponding to the time of entering the comment.
Four buttons are used for working with the archive of the
projects:
 Add a comment without saving the project in the
archive — the comment entered in the second column
of the table is saved in the archive after clicking this
button;
 Add a comment and save the project in the archive
— the current status of the project is saved in the
archive together with the comment;
 Delete the project from the archive — the project
corresponding to the line selected in the table is
removed from the archive, and the comment remains;
 Load the project from the archive — the project
corresponding to the line selected in the table is loaded
as a separate design model (when loading it is necessary
Figure 30.4-1. The Comments to the to specify the name of the file of the new project
Project dialog box different from the name of the file of the original
project).
All comments to the project can be saved as an RTF-file (the Export table button) and automatically
loaded into the text editor specified in the settings.
30.5. Section Viewer
This application can be invoked from the SCAD Office directory on the desktop and is used to
browse through steel profile assortments. The program window (Fig. 30.5-1) includes a list of assortments
and a table of profile properties.
817
To activate a table that contains a list of profiles of a

particular type, open the list of profiles of the desired
assortment and choose a group of the respective profile type in
the list.
To view the section with its dimensions, open the profile
group list and choose the respective profile (Fig. 30.5-2).
There are checkboxes on the left from the names of
sections in the list, which are checked by default. If you
uncheck the checkboxes the respective profiles will be excluded
from the list which is used at the selection in the mode of the
check of the steel structural elements, although this profile can
Figure 30.5-1. The main window of be assigned when specifying the rigidities of elements.
the Section Viewer The sections tables can be sorted in the ascending order of
values of different properties. The properties are selected from
the Sort drop-down list. The order of the sections in the list by
default corresponds to the accepted one in the standard (or
catalogue).
If needed, the selected profile table can be exported as an
RTF format file to an editor associated with this format (the
Print button — ). If not the group of profiles but the name
of the assortment is selected when the printing is invoked, all
the tables of the profiles of this assortment are printed.
The settings (the Settings button— ) of the mode of
Figure 30.5-2. The profile image viewing and printing are performed according to the same rules
as in SCAD.
The Find dialog box enables to find the profile based on
the values of the main geometric properties (the Find button —
) (Fig. 30.5-3). The values (minimum and maximum) of
the characteristics of the profile based on which the search is
performed are entered in the text fields of the Search options
group. Clicking the OK button initiates the search. If one or
more profiles with the specified characteristics are found, their
names are output in the Search results list.
After indicating one of the selected profiles in the list and
clicking the Go button, this profile will be highlighted in the
table with the characteristics of the sections.
Figure 30.5-3. The Find dialog box
818
30.6. Graphics Editor
Graphics editor, which is invoked by clicking the button , enables to specify a design model of a bar
structure or of its fragment using a set of graphics operations similar to those in the 2D AutoCAD
(AutoCAD Light) environment.
Toolbar
Menu
Status bar
Figure 30.6-1. General view of the window of the graphics editor

It should be noted that the SCAD graphics editor does not use operations related to the preparation of
drawings, dimensioning, etc. Therefore, some settings and operations might be unavailable. The authors of
the system were not trying to replace such recognized graphical tools as AutoCAD, Micro Station, and the
like. The goal was more modest – to enable the experts and amateurs of these graphic systems to work in a
familiar environment. Since the rules of “drawing” implemented in the graphics editor are quite standard,
only a brief list of objects which can be input in the software is given below:
Point — draw a point ;
Line — draw a line ;
Polyline — draw a polyline ;
Spline — draw a spline ;
Circle — draw a circle (with the specified center and radius , through three points);
Arc — draw an arc ( center, start and end, start, center and end);
Ellipse — draw an ellipse ;
Rectangle — draw a rectangle .
Selection
The selection can be performed by clicking on the object (Point), by selecting the necessary objects
by a rectangular marquee, an arbitrary polygon or polyline.
819
Object Snap
The objects can be snapped to each other in the following ways:
Point — snap to the point ;
Endpoint — snap to the start or end point of the line ;
Midpoint — snap to the middle of the line ;
Center — snap to the center of the circle ;
Nearest — snap to the nearest position of the line ;
Grips — snap to grips ;
Intersection — snap to the intersection point of the lines ;
Perpendicular — snap to the perpendicular ;
Tangent — snap to the tangent .
Cursor snaps — provide the accurate positioning.
If the snaps are not specified, it is almost impossible to place the cursor on a certain point of the
model (the space of the model in the graphics editor has a continuous character of the material
coordinates).
Snap Angular
Using the polar (Fig. 30.6-2) snap enables to draw the

lines at a certain angle and of the given length.
A unit angle in degrees is specified in the Increment
angle field. It means that a line can be drawn at any angle
multiple of the specified step.
Figure 30.6-2. The Polar Tracking tab

of the Drafting Aids dialog box
Create Graphics Objects

The following objects can be used when generating a design model in the graphics editor: point, line,
polyline, spline, circle, arc, ellipse, rectangle.
All objects can be created with the help of a cross cursor. If the input operation is not active, the cross
of the cursor is surrounded by a “small” square, and it is used for selecting objects in this mode. If the
snaps are enabled, the cross of the cursor is surrounded by a “large” square. You can stop the input of the
object by right-clicking.
820
Point
In order to create a series of points you have to invoke the operation, indicate the position of the point
in the model with the cursor, and left-click. If the Snap to Grid option is enabled (the button is
pressed), the point will be created in the grid node nearest to the cursor.
Line
The editor enables to create a polygonal chain by sequentially indicating the vertices with the cursor
and fixing each point by left-clicking. You can stop the input by right-clicking.
Polyline
The following procedure is used for creating the polylines:

 click the Polyline button;
 create a polygonal chain the vertices of which will belong to the resulting polyline;
 finish the input by right-clicking.
Spline
This operation is similar to creating a polyline with an automatically set Fit spline type. If you select
the obtained spline and specify other properties for it (similarly to the polyline), you will obtain the same
results as for the polyline.
Circle
A circle can be created by specifying its center and radius, or three points lying on the circle.
Arc
An arc can be created by specifying its center, start and end points, or its three points. The parameters
of the arc can be changed according to the same rules as for the circle (see the Circle section).
Ellipse
In order to create an ellipse you have to indicate its center with the cursor and fix it by left-clicking,
drag the rubber band to the point defining the end of one of the axes, fix it, and drag the second rubber
band to the point defining the half of the length of the other axis. If you select a created ellipse, an “arm”
attached to its center will appear in the drawing. You can capture the free end of the arm with the cursor
and rotate the ellipse by the necessary angle with respect to the center.
The ellipse can be adjusted according to the same rules as the circle.
It should be noted that an ellipse or its part will be correctly transferred to the SCAD preprocessor
only after applying the Explode operation to them. Curves forming the ellipse will be replaced by a set of
straight line segments in the result of performing this operation.
821
Rectangle
A rectangle can be created by specifying the start and end points of its diagonal.
Editing Objects
Basic Points A system of basic points is provided for all geometric

objects (Fig. 30.6-3), which enable to perform various
transformations of the shape and position of the objects.
Depending on the type of the object the basic points are located
as follows:
 line — ends and midpoint;
 polyline — ends of the segments;
 spline — vertices;
 arc — ends and midpoint;
 rectangle — center, corner points, and midpoints on the
sides;
 circle and ellipse — center and four points on the
contour line.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to adjust
Figure 30.6-3. Basic points of the the object with the help of the basic points:
geometric objects − select the object;
− move the cursor to the basic point and left-click;
− drag the basic point to the new place while holding the
mouse button.
If the basic point located in the center of the line, circle,
rectangle or ellipse is used to move the object, then it is moved
as a whole. Besides the basic points “arms” are provided for
ellipses and rectangles, which enable to rotate the object.
Similar arms are used to change the shape of the curve in the
case of the transformation of a polyline into a controlled Bezier
curve.
The list of editing functions (Fig. 30.6-4) is invoked by
right-clicking (if the object is selected).
Figure 30.6-4. Drop-down menu with a
list of editing functions
Copy
It is necessary to perform the following actions to copy the objects:

− select objects for copying (right-click to finish the selection);
− indicate the basic point of copying, i.e. a point which will be used to snap the object to the copying
point;
− move the objects into the copying point using the “rubber band”;
− left-click to confirm copying (right-click to cancel it).
822
The same object can be copied successively several times, confirming the copying every time. Right-
click to finish the copying.
Move
The position of the objects can be changed by moving them without changing their orientation and
size. In order to perform this operation it is necessary to:
− select the objects you want to move (right-click to finish the selection);
− indicate the basic point of moving;
− move the objects using the “rubber band”;
− left-click to confirm the operation (right-click to cancel it).
Mirror
Mirroring is performed with respect to the given axis defined by two points. The original objects are
not saved after performing the operation. In order to perform this operation it is necessary to:
− select the objects you want to mirror (right-click to finish the selection);
− specify the first point of the mirror axis;
− specify the second point;
− left-click to confirm mirroring (right-click to cancel it).
Rotate
Rotation of the objects can be performed by specifying the center of the rotation and the starting point
of the rotation. In order to perform this operation it is necessary to:
− select the objects you want to rotate (right-click to finish the selection);
− specify the point corresponding to the center of the rotation;
− specify the starting point of the rotation;
− rotate the objects;
− left-click to confirm the rotation (right-click to cancel it).
Erase
In order to perform this operation select the objects you want to delete and click the Erase button.
This operation can be also performed by pressing the Delete key on the keyboard.
Scale
When scaling the objects the equality of the scaling factors for the X and Y axes is observed. Thus,
the proportions of the object do not change when the sizes are increased or decreased. Scaling is performed
by specifying the basic segment. The scaling factor is determined from the ratio of the lengths of the basic
and current segments.
Scaling:
− select the objects you want to scale;
− specify the start point of the basic segment;
− specify the end point of the basic segment;
823
− perform scaling by changing the length of the current segment (decrease or increase);
− left-click to confirm the scaling (right-click to cancel it).
30.7. Accelerogram Editor
SCAD has a capability of analyzing the behavior of structures under seismic actions described by
given accelerograms. The accelerograms must be prepared in advance as files of a certain format which
will be described later.
The accelerogram file format is simple and straightforward, so such files can be created and processed
by any text editor or word processor. To further facilitate the accelerogram preparation process, SCAD
Office has been supplemented with auxiliary software named Accelerogram Editor.
Along with the common data editing functionality, this program enables you to perform an analysis of
an accelerogram. Particularly, the following information can be obtained in both graphical and tabular
form:
 an accelerogram (an acceleration vs. time relationship);
 a velocigram (a velocity vs. time relationship);
 a seismogram (a displacement vs. time relationship);
 an amplitude Fourier spectrum (absolute value of the accelerogram’s Fourier transform vs.
frequency);
 a power spectrum (absolute value of the accelerogram’s Fourier transform squared vs. frequency);
 response spectra for given values of logarithmic decrements of oscillations 1;
 general properties (maximum and root-mean-square accelerations, velocities and displacements).
Accelerograms usually contain errors, no matter whether they are instrumental (i.e. recorded with
seismograph) or analytical (calculated on the basis of a measured seismogram). In analytical accelerograms
the errors commonly arise because of the numerical differentiation. Most often, these errors will be great in
magnitude for the high-frequency component of the action. In instrumental accelerograms, the errors will
arise during the recording and digitizing. Most of the recorded accelerograms contain great errors in a
long-period range. The Accelerogram Editor program does not offer any means for correcting
instrumental errors of the baseline or signal frequency filtering. It is just assumed that such actions have
been previously performed.
Another typical error commonly made in accelerograms is introducing an offset and a slope to the
baseline (see [2] for examples). Let’s give an example borrowed from the book [4] that shows how even
the smallest errors of this kind can enormously distort the depiction of displacements experienced by a
designed structure. Suppose there is a given harmonic action x (t )  w sin( t ) subjected to a small
perturbation in the form of a slope of the baseline of 0, 001wt and an offset of the same line by 0, 03w .
The said perturbations are hardly noticeable on the accelerogram of x (t ) , but they make the seismogram
look utterly different from what it should be like; the equation of the latter becomes
t2 1
x (t )  w(0, 001  0, 03t  2 sin  t ) . The program suggests a capability of accelerogram balancing in
2 
order to be able to amend errors of this type.
Accelerogram files usually have the .spc extension and are plain text files. There is an arbitrary text
(comment) at the beginning of each file, which is followed by a separator character # and three numbers (a
1
See books [1], [4] for definitions and discussions.
824
factor for converting the given values to m/sec2, a number of points in the accelerogram, and a time step in
seconds). It is assumed that the acceleration values were recorded at a constant time step. The listed data is
followed by the acceleration values. The number of specified values must conform to the number of points.
The accelerations, the time step, and the conversion factor are floating-point numbers with a period serving
as a separator between their integer and fractional parts. All numbers in the file must be separated by
spaces or start from a new line. An example of such a file can be found in Chapter 8.
Settings
The application contains setting operations common for all SCAD Office programs. Therefore, the
description of operations specific only to the Accelerogram Editor is given below.
The Calculation tab (Fig. 30.7-1) allows you to choose a
maximum value for the frequency up to which the Fourier
spectra and the maximum period for the response spectra will
be calculated. Moreover, the user can also choose the type of
scale of response spectra (period-acceleration or frequency-
acceleration). If the frequency vs. acceleration relationship is
generated, the user can select a set of frequency increments
(according to the recommendations of MP 1.5.2.05.999.0027-
2011 or ASCE 4-98). Moreover, the user can prepare a text file
(with the .txt extension) with a list of frequencies, for which the
Figure 30.7-1. The Calculation tab values of the response spectra should be output. In order to load
a file select the From file option and click the Open button.
The file should contain the values of the respective frequencies
(in Hz). If when calculating the response spectra it turns out that
the calculated frequency exceeds the maximum one specified in
the file, the list of frequencies is supplemented based of the last
increment specified by the user (the difference between the last
two numbers). The frequencies in the file must be specified as
floating-point numbers with a period serving as a separator
between their integer and fractional parts. All numbers in the
file must be separated by spaces or start from a new line. A
uniform scale with a step specified in this tab can be also used.
The Visualization tab (Fig. 30.7-2) contains controls for

selecting the background color for the plot window (the
Window row), colors of the coordinate axes, and of plots. To
alter a color, place the pointer onto the row with the respective
title and double-click to open a standard Windows color dialog.
Figure 30.7-2. The Visualization tab

Settings can be saved to an external file using the Save button, which can be subsequently loaded (the
Load button).
825
Loading and Editing an Accelerogram

An accelerogram can be loaded using the Open item of the File
menu. Choose a file to be loaded in the standard Windows
Open dialog. The list of files in the dialog will contain only
those with the .spc extension. After being loaded, the data of
the accelerogram (time and acceleration) will appear in a table
(Fig. 30.7-3). Data listed in the header of the accelerogram file
will be displayed in the fields Number of Points, Scaling
Factor, Time Step and Comment.
The editing of the accelerogram consists of changing the
acceleration values, entering new lines, deleting lines, and
balancing. The first three operations are done directly in the
table. To add or delete a line, use respective buttons.
Figure 30.7-3. The Table tab
A new line is added before the one that has been selected. If none has been selected, the new line will
be added to the end of the table. When deleting, all selected lines are removed from the table. The value in
the Number of Points field will be adjusted automatically.
The Modify button invokes the dialog box where you can specify the accelerogram scaling factor. For
example, if we have an accelerogram measured for the earthquake of magnitude 7 and we specify a factor
of 2,0, we will obtain an accelerogram which corresponds to the earthquake of magnitude 8.
Clicking the Balance button will perform the balancing of the accelerogram.
The application will recalculate a standard accelerogram for a certain level shifted from the
measurement surface when you click the Transfer of Accelerogram button. This action will open a dialog
box (see Fig. 30.7-4), where the user needs to specify data about the horizontally layered soil deposit, and a
depth for which the new accelerations need to be calculated. The bottom of the lowermost soil layer is
assumed to be the top of the bedrock.
Figure. 30.7-4. The Soils dialog box

The analysis is based on the following assumptions:
 the soil profile is idealized as a system of homogeneous layers;
 each layer of soil is completely defined by its specific weight, shear modulus and damping ratio
(these values are assumed to be independent of frequency);
 the responses in the soil profile are caused by the upward propagation of shear waves from the
underlying rock formation;
 the relationship of the stresses vs. the shear modulus and the damping ratio is linear.
826
Creating Plots
Plots of accelerograms, velocigrams, and other functions are
displayed on the Plots tab (Fig. 30.7-5). The plot type can be
selected from a drop-down list located at the top of the tab. If
the accelerogram is unbalanced, a warning will be displayed.
There is a table of values of the factor being analyzed on the
right from the plot.
When plotting the response spectra, you can choose the
number of spectra to be calculated (up to 7) and specify a
separate logarithmic decrement of oscillations for each. The
decrements for each plot can be either entered explicitly in the
text field of the respective drop-down list or selected from the
set of standard values recommended by State Committee for
Figure 30.7-5. The Plots tab Nuclear Regulation of Russian Federation [3] or IAEA [5].
If the values entered by the user are different from the standard ones presented in the lists, click the
Apply button to see the change in the plot.
The plots will be displayed in different colors. The same colors are used to show the respective values
in the table. If only one plot is displayed on the screen, the software enables to perform the procedure of
expanding the peaks and reducing the maximums (see. [1, Chapter 7]). If there is one plot, the Save button
enables to save the response spectrum in the file with the .spd extension and to use this file as a plot of the
dynamic amplification factor at the seismic analysis.
The application also enables to specify the information on the damping of oscillations specifying one
of the following parameters:
 energy absorption factor;
 damping parameter;
 logarithmic decrement of oscillations;
 loss factor;
 coefficient of internal friction (inelastic resistance).
The respective item in the drop-down list enables to select the method for specifying the data on the
internal losses. If you place the cursor in the field of the graph, the information field with the values of the
factors in the selected point will appear next to the cursor which enables to explore the graph dynamically.
General Properties
This tab (Fig. 30.7-6) displays general properties of the
accelerogram.
Figure 30.7-6. The General

Properties tab
827
30.8. Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor
The structural analysis of seismic actions using a linear spectral theory that is stated in most design
codes (such as SNiP II-07-81, PN AE G-5-006-87, NP-031-01, etc.) involves a plot of the dynamic
amplification factor (DAF)  specified by the codes.
Recently there have appeared new regulatory codes such
as those of the Republic of Kazakhstan or Georgia that make it
necessary to use specific relationships between DAF and the
natural oscillation period (t). A similar problem arises when
local seismic peculiarities need to be taken into account. In this
case the accelerograms of peculiar earthquakes of the region
can be used to build the plots of the (t) function (such as long-
period Romanian earthquakes).
Therefore, we supplemented SCAD with a DAF plot
editor that enables the user to specify any plot of (t).
Figure 30.8-1. The Table tab

The DAF plot files have the .spd extension and are plain text files. There is an arbitrary text
(comment) at the beginning of each file, which is followed by a separator character # and couples of
numbers (a period and a factor). The factor and period values are floating-point numbers with a period
serving as a separator between their integer and fractional parts. All numbers in the file must be separated
by spaces or start from a new line. An example of such a file can be found in Chapter 8.
The DAF plot can be created automatically in compliance with recommendations given in SNiP II-7-
81* “Construction in seismic regions”, PN-031-01 “Design regulations for earthquake-resistant nuclear
power plants”, Eurocode 8, etc. A code can be selected using one of the buttons located in the Table tab
(Fig. 30.8-1) of the Editor of DAF window. Data needed for the plot can be specified in the Parameters
(Fig. 30.8-2) dialog, and it depends on the selected code.
Figure 30.8-2. The Parameters tab (Eurocode 8) Figure 30.8-3. The Plots tab
When needed, the plot can be modified by editing data directly in the table; the allowed actions also
include adding new lines and deleting the selected existing ones (the Add and Delete buttons). The
obtained plot will be shown in the respective tab (Fig. 30.8-3). A comment can be saved together with the
plot itself. The comment should be entered in the respective field in the Table tab.
828
If the DAF plot is built according to the rules different from those stated in the selected codes, then it
can be specified by entering data into the table. To add lines in this case, use the Add button.
The data in the table must be arranged in the ascending order of the period values. There should not
be points with equal period values.
If the plot has been created by a different tool such as a plain text editor, then a point must be used as
a separator between the integer and fractional parts of the numbers. The period must be specified in
seconds.
30.9. CoCon – Reference Manual

This application is an electronic reference manual for determining the stress concentration factors.
The following sources of stress concentration are considered:
 notches and grooves;
 shoulder fillets;
 circular holes;
 non-circular holes.
Moreover, the application also enables to calculate the stress intensity factors for different cases of the
stress-strain state in the presence of cracks.
30.10. KUST – Design-Theoretical Reference Manual

The KUST reference program is designed for solving a certain class of mechanics problems for which
there exist analytical or sufficiently accurate approximate solutions that can be found in the relevant
literature. Though the majority of these problems can be solved with the help of SCAD, using the KUST
program makes it possible to obtain a solution without creating design models. Moreover, some of the
obtained results can be used to specify the initial data when building a finite-element model (e.g., effective
length factors, estimation of natural frequencies, etc.).
All problems that can be solved by this program can be classified into the following categories:
 stability of equilibrium;
 natural vibration frequencies;
 other oscillation problems;
 static analysis;
 auxiliary calculations.
1. A.N. Birbraer, Seismic analysis of structures. St. Petersburg. — Nauka. — 1998 — 255 p.
2. D.I. Mishin, Correcting accelerograms at the modeling of seismic actions. Earthquake-resistant construction.
Safety of structures. — 2001— No. 2. — p. 17-22.
3. NP-031-01 Design codes for earthquake-resistant nuclear plants. — Moscow. — Gosatomnadzor of Russia. —
2001 — 31 p.
4. A.M. Uzdin, T.A. Sandovich, Al-Nasser Mohammad Samih Amin, Fundamentals of the theory of earthquake
resistance and earthquake resistant construction of buildings and structures. St. Petersburg — B.E.Vedeneev
VNIIG Publishing House. — 1993 — 176 p.
5. Safety Series No 50-SG-S1 (Rev. 1). Earthquake and associated topics in relation to nuclear power plant siting.
A safety guide. International Atomic Energy Agency. —Vienna. — 1991.
829
31. Settings
31. Settings
Many parameters used by the software can be changed by the user. Some of these settings have already
been described above, for example, color schemes (see Sec. 10.5), environment settings (see Sec. 10.4),
calculation parameters (see Chapter 11), setting the list of reinforcement spacing (see Sec. 19.11). The
setting of the options which have already been mentioned are described in detail below.
The setting of all these parameters can be invoked from the Settings menu.
Most calculation parameters are saved in the project file (for example, spr-
file). If the dialog box for setting the parameters is invoked from the Settings
menu when there are no open models, the saved values will be used for all
newly created projects.
31.1. Units of Measurement

The program operates with numerous physical quantities having different dimensions. The units of
measurement can be set for each of them which will be used for input and/or output. The multi-tab
Parameters dialog box, which can be invoked by clicking the button in the toolbar or from the
Settings menu, serves this purpose. Units of measurement for the initial data and the results are set in two
different tabs – Units of Measurement and Units of Measurement of Results, which have a similar
structure (Fig. 31.1-1).
The Units of Measurement tab enables you to
define units of measurement used in the analysis. It
contains two groups of data. The first group is used
to specify measurement units of linear sizes, forces,
moments, etc.
For compound units (such as those of moment,
stress, etc.), there is a possibility to define their
component units (such as those for force and for
moment arm) separately using the button .
Figure. 31.1-1. The Units of Measurement tab of

the Parameters dialog box
The second group helps to choose a representation and precision of numerical data. Special controls
are used here to select data representation formats. Make sure to specify the number of significant digits in
either the fixed-point decimal representation or the floating-point scientific notation.
The precision of the data representation (the number of significant digits after the decimal point) can
be assigned using the (decrease) and (increase) buttons, while the scientific notation is turned on by
the button . You can also specify in respective text fields which values should be treated as negligibly
small, so that all absolute values less than the given ones will be displayed as 0 in all visualizations.
Moreover, the dialog box has a tab where you can set the units of measurement which will be used
when outputting the messages in the analysis log (for example, for the total loads) and when exporting the
data.
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31. Settings
31.2. Express Setting of the Units of Measurement

The express setting of the units of measurement
which is invoked from the Settings menu can be
used in those cases when it is necessary to change
the units of measurement “quickly”, setting them,
for example, for all values related to the force
factors (forces, moments, stresses,…). The dialog
box used for these purposes (Fig. 31.2-1) is similar
to the dialog box for setting the units of
measurement (Fig. 31.1-1). The difference is that if
we select, for example, N for the forces, Nm will
be automatically selected for moments, and N/m2 –
for pressure etc.
Figure 31.2-1. The Express Setting of the Units of
Measurement tab of the Parameters dialog box
31.3. Font Setting

Type, size, style and color of the font of the digital information on the design model are specified in the
Font Setting tab (Fig. 31.3-1) of the Parameters dialog box, which can be invoked from the Settings
menu (or by clicking the button in the toolbar).
Figure 31.3-1. The Font Setting tab of the Figure 31.3-2. The Font dialog box
Parameters dialog box
The buttons in the left column enable to select the type of the information for which the font settings are
adjusted. Clicking these buttons invokes the standard Font dialog box of the Windows environment. You can
specify the parameters of the font in this dialog box (Fig. 31.3-2). The font is displayed in the information
field of the Font Setting dialog box. If you click the Apply button, the information will be output in the
selected style in the model. The Set color for all fonts button enables to select and set the same color for all
fonts. The Set default font colors button enables to set the standard values of the font colors.
Font settings can be saved to an external file using the button , which can be subsequently loaded
(the button ).
831
31. Settings
31.4. Sections
If a limited set of the assortments of rolled profiles is used when working with the software, they can be
included in the list of the available ones in the Sections tab (Fig. 31.4-1) of the multi-tab Parameters dialog
box, which can be invoked from the Settings menu.
The left list presents titles of catalogues available in the
program. And the right one contains the titles of the catalogues
which will be used when specifying the stiffness properties of
the elements and selecting sections in the steel elements of the
structure. Selected catalogues can be moved from the left list to
the right one and vice versa using the Add and Remove
buttons, respectively.
Catalogues included in the right list can be arranged in any
convenient order (the same order will be used in the lists or the
dialog boxes for the profile selection). You can use the
Figure 31.4-1. The Sections tab appropriate buttons to move a title up or down the list.
The full list of the assortments of rolled profiles supplied with the software package is given in the
Appendix.
31.5. Report and Languages

The Report and Languages tab (Fig. 31.5-1) enables you to
choose a language for the user interface and for the report.
There are two modes for working with a report document:
View/Edit or Print.
In the View/Edit mode, clicking the Report button in any
active dialog will open the report and allow you to view/edit it.
An application associated with RTF (Rich Text Format) files
(such as MS Word Pad or MS Word) will be invoked to serve
this purpose.
Figure 31.5-1. The Report and
Languages tab
Obviously, it is the user who is fully responsible for any changes made to the text of the report (note
that even results of the calculation can be edited).
There are differences in RTF formats used by MS Word v.7 and MS Word 97 (2000). Therefore, the
program allows you to choose one of the formats in the Type of Report mode.
Clicking the Print button in the Report group will print the report in the form it has been generated
by the program.
Use the Titles text field to specify an RTF file containing headers and footers for pages of the report
document. The file can be selected from a standard list by clicking the button .
The Paper Size setting enables you to choose the paper format for printing the report (the size is
selected from a drop-down list).
Moreover, the margins and the page orientation can be selected before generating the report.
31.6. EN 1993 Settings

The EN 1993 Settings tab (Fig. 31.6-1) enables to select the partial safety factors in compliance with EN
1993-1-1 or in compliance with the National Annexes to Eurocode (NAD). Moreover, this tab enables to
832
31. Settings
select the method for checking the general stability of the elements under bending and compression (select
the respective Annex A or B of EN 1993-1-1), limit the execution of standard checks assuming that the
deformations of steel are elastic, specify the parameter ρlim allowing for the effect of buckling of the section
elements on the rigidity of the structure as a whole, select the method for allowing for shear lag for the
ultimate limit state, specify the parameters η for checking the shear stability of webs, and to define the set
of the used classes of bolts (see Fig. 31.6-1).
If the values of the partial safety factors and other standard parameters of the calculation are specified
in compliance with the recommendations of EN 1993-1-1, then the row with the EU flag ( ),
which is selected by default, should be selected from the drop-down list. If you want to use the National
Annexes, select the row with a flag of the respective state. The numerical values of the respective partial
safety factors and the parameters of the standard calculation will be displayed in the table in the EN 1993
Settings tab.
If the values of the partial safety factors or the parameters of the standard calculation are specified by
the user, then you have to select the Other item in the drop-down list. Thus you can use the application for
custom, nonstandard situations, and also when any modifications are made in NAD.
Figure 31.6-1. The EN 1993 Settings tab of the

Application Settings dialog box
31.7. Visualization Settings of the Result Tables

SCAD invokes the Notepad text editor by default,
which is supplied together with the Windows
operating system, for the visualization of the text
files, for example, created when documenting. But
the user can specify another type of the text editor.
In order to do it, use the Settings menu
Figure 31.7-1. The Select a Program dialog box (Visualization Settings of the Result Tables) and
select the necessary program after clicking the
Browse button in the dialog box (Fig. 31.7-1).
833
31. Settings
31.8. Format Pages for Printing

When printing the design model with the help of the
command the software performs a certain
formatting of the pages (outputs the frame and the
stamp, displays the color scale, outputs the data on
the project, etc.). The rules for formatting pages for
printing can be customized by the user. In order to
do it, use the Format Pages for Printing item in
the Settings menu.
The dialog box will appear (Fig. 31.8-1),
where you can:
 set the position of the data on the project in
the page (at the top or at the bottom);
 invoke the navigator;
 check the checkbox indicating whether it is
Figure 31.8-1. The Format Pages for Printing necessary to print the stamp and the data;
dialog box
 set the rules for outputting the color scale
(vertical/horizontal, on the left/on the right);
 select the position of the comments;
 specify the position of the parameters with
the data on the structural group of steel or
reinforced concrete structures.
Figure 31.8-2. The Stamp dialog box
Clicking the Filling the stamp button invokes the Stamp dialog box, where you can fill the stamp of
the page (Fig. 31.8-2). The Save as template button enables to save the entered information as a template.
The saved template can be used in the current and in other sessions of the program after clicking the Load
template button.
834
31. Settings
31.9. Setting the Design Codes

This operation enables to change the design codes
for:
 the combinations of loads and actions;
 analysis of reinforced concrete structures;
 analysis of steel structures;
 safety codes.
Select the codes from the drop-down lists in
the dialog box (Fig. 31.9-1) and click the OK
button.
Figure 31.9-1. The Setting the Design Codes

dialog box
31.10. Specifying Work Directories

The Specify Directories dialog box invoked by this
operation (Fig. 31.10-1) enables to specify the
names of catalogues from which the project file
should be taken and where the working files and the
results should be put. You can change the purpose
of catalogues only if the projects are not active, i.e.
you have to close the active project before invoking
the operation (the Close Project operation in the
File menu).
Figure 31.10-1. The Specify Directories dialog box
31.11. Table Settings

If the software is running and there are no open models, the View menu contains the Tables submenu (Fig.
31.11-1), which enables to show or hide the tables of the display of filters, initial data and the results
described in Section 4.1.
Figure 31.11-1. The Tables menu

Menu items Select all and Deselect all allow to show/hide all tables.
835
31. Settings
The Collapse tables menu item enables to switch to a mode whereby the filter tree and the tables will be hidden
by default when you load any of the models. They can be opened by dragging the separator to the right.
31.12. Toolbar Settings

The View menu contains the Toolbar Settings submenu (Fig. 31.12-1), which enables to invoke the dialog
boxes for setting the Visualization toolbar or the Filters toolbar.
Figure 31.12-1. The Toolbar Settings menu

The Toolbar Settings dialog box appears (Fig. 31.12-2). It lists the buttons of the respective toolbar
and contains the checkboxes which enable to specify the buttons that should be present in the toolbar.
Figure 31.12-2. The Toolbar Settings dialog box
836
32.Import and Export SCAD Data
32. Import and Export SCAD Data

32.1. Import Design Models
A design model is usually not the only one, and definitely not the original model of the structure. It is
preceded by the architectural models created with specialized software, called architectural design systems,
which include ArchiCAD1, Allplan2, Revit3, and a number of other specialized systems for 3D and 2D
design of a certain class of structures, for example, AdvanceSteel. All of these systems create a more or
less detailed model of the designed structure or of its part, which usually contains information on the
geometric properties (shape, size) and sometimes on the materials the elements of the structure are made
from. A mode of importing data from the above systems and a number of other systems used for the
geometric modeling of structures, for example, from the graphics editors such as AutoCAD, is
implemented in SCAD.
The Import item of the File menu enables to select the format of the imported data.
Figure 32.2-1. Data format selection

When importing files of a certain format a standard Windows dialog box for selecting the imported
file appears. This dialog box provides the preview, and for some types of files which do not contain
information on the linear units of measurement, a list appears where you can select the necessary
measurement unit.
The types of finite elements in the design model are specified as follows for all the imported files:
 bar elements — type 5 (general type bar);
 quadrangular plate elements — four-node shell elements of type 44;
1
Registered trademark of the Graphisoft company.
2
Registered trademark of the Nemetschek company.
3
Registered trademark of the Autodesk company.
837
 triangular plate elements — three-node shell elements of type 42.

In most cases SCAD provides the “direct” reading of the files (for example, the DXF, IFC, SDNF
files, etc.). However, in order to provide the connection with some software (Revit, ArchiCAD, Tekla,
AllPlan) special extensions (plugin) have been developed, which work in the environment of the respective
program and create an intermediate file with the extension .r2s in the result, which can be imported by
SCAD.
Once the user has selected a file for importing, the dialog box for creating a new model appears.
Figure 32.2-2. Dialog box for creating a new model

This dialog box (depending on the contents of the imported file) enables to select the type of the file
obtained in the result of importing — SPR (finite element model) or OPR (enlarged model).
File of the project with the .opr extension contains the description of the enlarged structural model of
the building. The transition from the architectural solution to the design model can be given as the
following sequence of operations:
1) creating an architectural system of the enlarged structural model of the building consisting from
such objects as columns, beams, walls, floors (slabs) and roofs on the basis of the internal data
representation;
2) removing the objects which are not included in the design model from the structural model, for
example, partitions, enclosing elements, architectural details etc.;
3) clarifying, if necessary, the position of objects in the structural model and supplementing it with
new elements not taken into account in the architectural solution;
4) automatic or user-controlled generation of a finite element mesh with the simultaneous
specification of the stiffness properties for the finite elements;
5) specification of the boundary conditions of elements;
6) specification of the loads and special initial data.
Problems dealing with the transfer of the data on sections of bar elements from rolled steel often arise
when importing a model from the modeling systems. In those cases when the program of importing the
data can not unambiguously determine the characteristics of the section and the assortment from which it
should be selected, the user is prompted to select the respective profiles. These operations are performed in
the Matching Profiles dialog box (Fig. 32.2-3).
838
Figure 32.2-3. The Matching Profiles dialog box

The dialog box contains a table with the list of sections and a tree of assortments of rolled profiles. If
the shape of the section and its sizes are recognized by the reader, an icon with the image of the section
will be displayed in the first column of the table. In this case the tree of assortments will by default include
only those assortments which include the sections of the similar type and size (if you want to get access to
all the active assortments, check the All checkbox above the tree of assortments).
Figure 32.2-4. The Matching Profiles dialog box

(representation of parametric sections)
In those cases when the modeling system suggests an option of a parametric section, for example, I-
beam with the respective sizes, the table in the Matching Profiles dialog box (Fig. 32.2-4) will contain a
column with checkboxes. Checked checkboxes indicate sections which will be included in the design
model as parametric. Otherwise, the section must be selected from the assortment.
The second column contains the name of the section from the imported model. It will be used in the
design model as the name of the type of rigidity. It is necessary to perform the following actions to assign
certain profiles from the assortment to the sections:
− select the line of the table with the name of the profile;
− select the necessary assortment of rolled profiles in the tree;
839
− open the list of the selected group of profiles;

− select the line with the necessary size of the profile;
− transfer the description of the selected profiles into the selected line of the table of sections by
clicking the button ◄.
If a line with the specified or recognized profile is selected, you can use the Preview button — ,
clicking which invokes the dialog box with the image of the section.
Import Graphics Files
Import DXF, DWG Files

The description of the geometry of the design model can be imported from AutoCAD or other
systems which support the formats of DWG- or DXF-files. The following types of graphics primitives are
rendered:
3DFACE
SOLID
TRACE
LINE
POLYLINE
LWPOLYLINE
ELLIPSE
CIRCLE
ARC.
When importing DXF and DWG files it is possible to import “regular” files, and also to import files
with nested modules.
Import Files in the 3D Studio Max Format
The import of files in the format of Autodesk 3D
Studio Max (extension .3ds) is implemented in the
software, which enables to obtain the geometry of the
design models of shell structures or their fragments.
This system can be successfully used to generate
geometric models of complex intersecting surfaces
which are imported into SCAD as a three-
dimensional mesh of three-node shell elements (Fig.
32.2-5).
Figure 32.2-5. Fragment imported from Autodesk

3D Studio Max
Import Files in the SGI Invertor Format
Files in the SGI Invertor format (extension .iv) enable to transfer the information on the geometry of
three-dimensional objects consisting from bars and shell elements into the software.
840
Import Files in the WaveFront Advanced Visualizer Format

Files of this type are used by the Advanced Visualizer application for storing the information on three-
dimensional geometric objects. Data on bars and shell elements are transferred into the software.
Import Files in Other Formats
In addition to the formats described above, the geometric information can be imported in the
following formats: Movie BYU Surface Geometry (extension .byu), ASCII Stereo Lithography (extension
.stl) and Greg Hood ASCII Triangle Format (extension .tri).
Plugins
Revit
The plugin for Revit performs the export of the data on the model into the R2S format, which can be
imported into SCAD.
The following data of the analytical model are transferred during the export.
Coordinates of nodes and constraints.
The information on geometry, orientation of the local axes, material, rigid inserts and hinges is
transferred for bar elements. Curved bars are approximated by a set of ordinary bars.
The information on geometry (including the data on holes), thickness and the data on the material are
exported for plate elements.
Only “Hosted” loads, i.e. those which are directly connected to the element or node, are taken into
account when exporting loadings.
All loadings (with their names) are exported.
The following types of loads in the global coordinate system can be exported in each loading (Revit
does not support the ability to specify loads in the local coordinate system of the element):
 nodal loads;
 concentrated loads on bars and plates;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on bars;
 uniform and trapezoidal loads distributed along the line on plates;
 distributed and trapezoidal loads on plates.
ArchiCAD
The plugin for ArchiCAD performs the export of the data on the model into the R2S format, which
can be imported into SCAD.
The following data are transferred during the export.
The information on geometry, orientation of the local axes is transferred for bar elements. The
respective stiffness properties will be created for bars with a circular or rectangular cross-section during the
export. For cross-sections with a shape other than rectangular a bar element will be created, but the cross-
sectional shape will not be specified for it.
The information on geometry (including the data on holes) and thickness equal to the sum of
thicknesses of bearing layers is exported for plate elements. Finishing layers of laminates are not taken into
account neither in the calculation of thickness, nor in the calculation of the vertices of the plates. Curved
plates are approximated by a set of ordinary plates. The average thickness is used for the plates with
uneven thickness during the export.
841
Tekla
User Interface
In order to use the plugin you have to create an analytical model with the help of the menu item
Analysis-Analysis & Design Models-New.
In order to run the plugin go to the menu Detailing-Components-Component Catalog and activate the
TeklaToSCAD component.
A dialog box will appear where you have to select a model created earlier, click the Export to SCAD
button, and select the file name.
Once the data are exported, the following message will appear on the screen.
Export options
The plugin for Tekla performs the export of the data on the model into the R2S format, which can be
imported into SCAD.
The following data of the model are transferred during the export.
Coordinates of nodes and imposed constraints.
The information on geometry (coordinates of the beginning and end of each element), orientation of
the local axes, rigid inserts and hinges, physical properties of the material is transferred for bar elements.
Curved bars are approximated by a set of ordinary bars. The following types of the cross-sections of bars
can be exported — parametric, rolled steel sections and custom ones. A representation in the form of the
Consul cross-section is created for the custom sections during the export. A list of correspondences
between the profiles from the assortment of SCAD and Tekla is used during the export of rolled steel
sections.
The information on geometry (including the data on holes), thickness and the data on the material are
exported for plate elements.
The data on the rigid bodies can be exported as well.
All loadings (with their names) are exported.
The following types of loads can be exported in each loading:
 nodal loads (forces and moments);
 concentrated and distributed (uniform and trapezoidal) loads on bars in the global and local
coordinate systems;
 concentrated loads on plates in the local coordinate system;
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 loads distributed along the line on the side of the plate;

 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on the plates in the local coordinate system;
 thermal loads on bars.
Limitations
Tekla describes loads on plates as a polygon and the values of forces or moments in each of its
vertices. Loads distributed along the line are described as a segment and the values of forces or moments at
the ends of the segment. These loads will be exported only if the coordinates of the vertices of the polygon
(or segment) coincide with the coordinates of the vertices of the plate.
IFC
When importing files of the IFC format the formats of the 2x3, 2x4 versions are supported both in the text
form, and in the XML format.
The data on coordinates and imposed constraints are imported for nodes.
The data on geometry (coordinates of the beginning and end), orientation of the local axes, hinges,
and parameters of the cross-section are transferred for bar elements. A bar element can have several
representations: geometric and analytical, preference is always given to the analytical one. Two types of
sections are supported: parametric and sections in the form of polygons; the latter are implemented as a
cross-section created by Consul.
The data on geometry (including the data on holes) and thickness are transferred for plate elements.
If the plate elements are represented as a set of polygons (IFC class - IfcFacetedBrep), the
transformation into the analytical model is performed in the following way. Two “largest” faces are found.
If these faces are parallel, they are considered as the top and bottom of the plate, the contour of the plate is
assumed to have the shape of the larger face in the plane in the middle between the found upper and lower
faces. If the selected faces are not parallel, such an element is ignored.
The following types of loads can be imported:
 nodal loads (forces and moments);
 uniformly distributed loads on bars.
If the model has plates with the number of nodes greater than 4, or plates with holes, a project of the
“Standard” (spr) type cannot be created. In this case you can create only the project of the “Forum” (opr)
type.
List of the main classes implemented by IFC:

 Nodes:
◦ IfcStructuralPointConnection
 Bars:
◦ IfcStructuralCurveMember
◦ IfcStructuralCurveMemberVarying
◦ IfcColumn
◦ IfcBeam
◦ IfcMember
 Plates:
◦ IfcWall
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◦ IfcWallStandardCase
◦ IfcPlate
◦ IfcSlab
◦ IfcRoof
◦ IfcFooting
◦ IfcOpeningElement
 Loads:
◦ IfcStructuralLoad
◦ IfcStructuralLoadStatic
◦ IfcStructuralLoadLinearForce
◦ IfcStructuralLoadSingleForce
CIS/2
The import of the CIS/2 format is implemented with the help of the conversion of the file of this format
into the file of the IFC format and subsequent import of the IFC-file. Therefore, all limitations dealing with
the IFC-format are applicable to the CIS/2 format as well and are described in the respective section.
SDNF
When importing files of the SDNF format, the 2.0 and 3.0 versions of this format are supported.
The information on geometry (coordinates of the beginning and end), orientation of the local axes,
rigid inserts, hinges, and section is transferred for bar elements. The format implies that a rolled steel
profile is used as a section; the profile is selected with the help of the special table of correspondences
between the assortments of SCAD and Tekla.
The information on geometry (including the data on holes and fillets) and thickness is imported for
plate elements.
The import of loads uniformly distributed over the whole length of the bar is implemented for
loadings. The format does not imply that there are other types of loads.
type.
GMSH
When importing files of the GMSH format both text and binary types of this format are supported; and the
formats starting from the 2.0 version are supported as well.
The data on the coordinates are imported for nodes.
The list of the main and additional nodes belonging to these elements can be read for all finite
elements.
The following types of GMSH elements are supported:
 bars — types in GMSH: 1, 8, 26, 27, 28;
 3-node plates — types in GMSH: 2, 9, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25;
 4- node plates — types in GMSH: 3, 10, 16;
 tetrahedrons — types in GMSH: 4, 11, 29, 30, 31;
 6-node prisms — types in GMSH: 6, 13, 18;
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 8-node prisms — types in GMSH: 5, 12, 17, 92, 93, 32, 33, 7,14, 19.
GTC
The GraitecExchangeModel library of Graitec company or the AdvanceExchangeModel64.dll library of
the Autodesk company are used to import the files of the GTC or GTCX format. In order to be able to
import the files of the GTC or GTCX format, the respective products of the Graitec company
(AdvanceSteel and/or AdvanceConcrete) or Autodesk company (Autodesk AdvanceSteel and/or Autodesk
AdvanceConcrete) must be installed on the computer.
The information on geometry (coordinates of the beginning and end), orientation of the local axes,
rigid inserts, hinges, physical properties of the material, cross-section is imported for bar elements. Curved
bars are approximated by a set of ordinary bars. Three types of sections are supported: rolled steel,
parametric and compound sections. In the case of rolled steel and compound sections, a special table of
correspondences between the assortments of AdvanceSteel and SCAD is used for selecting the profile.
The data on geometry (including holes and distortions of sides), thickness and physical properties of
the material are imported for plate elements.
type.
Femap
The following is implemented when importing the files of the FNFF format (Femap neutral file format).
The format does not provide the possibility of specifying the units of measurement, therefore it is
assumed that all the data are in the SI system.
The information on the coordinates and constraints is imported for nodes.
The data on geometry (numbers of the start and end nodes), orientation of the local axes, hinges, rigid
inserts, properties of the material, parameters of the cross-section are imported for bar elements. In the
case of a parametric section its sizes are transferred. Otherwise, only the area and the moments of inertia IY
and IZ are transferred. A suitable rolled steel section is selected in SCAD based on these data.
The data on geometry, properties of the material and thickness are imported for plate elements.
The data on geometry and the properties of the material are imported for solid elements.
The data on geometry (numbers of the first and second nodes), orientation of the local axes, and
stiffness in all directions are imported for the elastic constraints.
The data on nodes and imposed constraints are imported for rigid bodies.
For all types of loads, except for the loads on nodes, only the forces are transferred, the moments are
not provided by the format. The following types of loads can be imported:
 nodal loads;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on bars in the local and global coordinate systems;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on plates in the local and global coordinate systems;
 uniformly distributed loads on the faces of solid elements in the global coordinate system.
STAAD
When importing the files of the STAAD format the following data can be transferred.
Support of the commands: TO, REPEAT, REPEAT ALL.
The coordinates and constraints are transferred for nodes.
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The information on geometry (numbers of the start and end nodes), orientation of the local axes, rigid
inserts and hinges, physical properties of the material, parameters of the cross-section is transferred for bar
elements.
The information on geometry (node numbers), thickness and the data on the material are imported for
plate elements.
The data on geometry (node numbers) and the properties of the material are imported for solid
elements.
The data on geometry (node numbers) and imposed constraints are imported for rigid bodies.
The information on parametric sections and rolled steel profiles is transferred for the cross-sections of
bars. A list of correspondences between the profiles from the assortment of SCAD and STAAD is used
during the import of rolled steel sections.
The following types of loads can be imported:
 nodal loads;
 concentrated loads on bars;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on bars;
 triangular loads on bars (such loads are transformed into two trapezoidal ones);
 concentrated loads on plates;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on plates;
 uniformly distributed loads on the faces of solid elements.
ABAQUS
The following is implemented when importing the files of the Abaqus input file format.
Coordinates and constraints are imported for nodes.
The data on geometry (numbers of the start and end nodes), orientation of the local axes, material,
hinges, rigid inserts (through the eccentricities of sections), parameters of the cross-section are imported
for bar elements. The format enables to create 3-node bars. If the middle node is not used by other
elements, it is ignored, if it is used, the bar is divided in two.
The data on geometry, material, thickness and additional nodes are imported for plate elements.
The data on geometry, material and additional nodes are imported for solid elements.
The data on geometry (list of nodes) and imposed constraints are imported for rigid bodies.
The data on geometry (one or two nodes depending on the type of constraint) and stiffness properties
are imported for the elastic constraints.
The data on the coefficient C1 are transferred for the subsoil parameters, in the case of bars this
parameter is specified for the local Z axis.
The groups of nodes and elements are imported.
The following types of the inertial properties are imported for the dynamic actions:
 masses and moments of inertia for nodes;
 concentrated and distributed masses for bar and plate elements.
The following types of loads are imported:
 loads in a node;
 uniform and trapezoidal loads on bars in the global and local coordinate systems;
 loads on plates uniformly distributed along the line;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on plates in the global and local coordinate systems;
 uniformly distributed loads on plates in the local and global coordinate systems;
 uniformly distributed loads on the face of a solid element in the global coordinate system;
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 uniformly distributed loads on solid elements in the global coordinate system.

Thermal loads are not supported due to the different ways of their specification in ABAQUS and
SCAD.
Some types of loads in ABAQUS can be specified in their own coordinate system. In such cases the
load is transferred into the global coordinate system.
Since SCAD operates with values in the SI system, and the Abaqus input file format does not imply
the possibility of specifying the dimension, an additional file with specified conversion factors is used
during the import to recalculate the dimensional values. It is an ordinary text file but with the .ccf
extension. All the dimensional values from the inp-file will be multiplied by the respective factor during
the import. If a certain factor is not specified, it is assumed that it is equal to one. If there is no file with
factors, all factors are assumed to be equal to one. An individual ccf-file can be prepared for each imported
ABAQUS model. The following rules for working with the ccf-file will be used during the import:
 SCAD will browse the directory with the data file (inp-file) to find a file with the same name but
with the .ccf extension;
 if there is no such file, SCAD tries to find the abaqusunits.ccf file in this directory;
 if the abaqusunits.ccf file is not found, all factors are assumed to be equal to one.
ccf-file is a text file in the ANSI coding. It is necessary to observe the following rules when creating it:
 line breaks are denoted as 0x0D 0x0A;
 blank lines are allowed;
 maximum line length — 1000 characters;
 lines starting with ** (two stars in a row) are considered as comments;
 “.” (period) is used as a decimal separator;
 each line with the description of the factor looks as follows: <name of the factor><space><value>[
comment ];
 the names of the factors are case-insensitive.
It is recommended to use Windows Notepad for creating and editing ccf-files. It enables to avoid
problems with coding and line breaks.
The following factors are currently provided:
LENGTH — conversion factor for linear sizes, such as coordinates, sizes of sections, plate thickness,
etc. SCAD implies that all linear sizes are given in meters.
FORCE — conversion factor for force. SCAD implies that all forces are given in newtons.
DENSITY — conversion factor for specific weight. Despite the fact that it is a derivative dimension,
it is specified separately. It is used only for specifying the specific weight of materials. SCAD implies that
the specific weight is given in N/m3.
YOUNGMODULE — conversion factor for the Young's modulus. Despite the fact that it is a
derivative dimension, it is specified separately. It is used only for specifying the Young's modulus of
materials. SCAD implies that the Young's modulus is given in N/m2.
ANGLES — conversion factor for angles. SCAD implies that all angles are given in degrees.
TEMPERATURE — conversion factor for temperatures. It is used for specifying the linear expansion
coefficient of materials. SCAD implies that the temperature is given in degrees Celsius.
MASS — conversion factor for masses in the inertial loads: *Mass, *Rotary Inertia, *Nonstructural
Mass.
All derivative dimensional values, for example, pressure or moment of forces, are recalculated with
the help of these factors. The exceptions are: DENSITY, YOUNGMODULE, MASS.
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An example of the contents of the ccf-file is given below, which enables to import the inp-file with
the ABAQUS data “given” in millimeters, radians and kilograms.
**example.ccf
**example of a file with factors
Angles 0.0174532925199433
**Force
Force 9.8 convert kilograms to newtons
** Linear sizes
LENGTH 0.001 convert millimeters to meters
ANSYS
When importing the files of the ANSYS CDB format the following data can be transferred:
The coordinates and imposed constraints are transferred for nodes.
The data on geometry (numbers of nodes), orientation of the local axes, material, rigid inserts
(through the eccentricities of sections), sections are imported for bar elements. The format enables to
create 3-node bars. If the middle node is not used by other elements, it is ignored, if it is used, the bar is
divided in two.
The information on geometry (node numbers), thickness and the data on the material are imported for
plate elements.
The data on geometry (node numbers) and the properties of the material are imported for solid
elements.
The data on geometry (node numbers) are imported for rigid bodies.
The data on geometry (node numbers) are imported for the elastic constraints.
The masses and moments of inertia for nodes are imported for the dynamic actions.
The following types of loads can be imported for loadings:
 nodal loads;
 concentrated loads on bars;
 uniform and trapezoidal loads on bars. Offsets from the ends of the bars are supported for the
trapezoidal loads;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads on the sides of the plates;
 uniformly distributed loads on the faces of solid elements.
The support of loads with the help of surfaces is implemented as well (SURF elements). A finite
element consisting from the same nodes as the loaded surface is selected for such loads, the load is applied
to the found element.
32.2. Export SCAD Data

The export of the data from SCAD is performed both in the formats of some design software (ABAQUS,
STAAD, ...), and in the standard formats or in the formats which became “de facto” standard (SDNF, IFC,
...). A brief description of the possibilities of export is given below.
It should be noted, that for some formats (for example, GTC, IFC, SDNF, …) it is possible to
combine finite elements into structural members. When the export operation is invoked, a dialog box
appears where the user has to select the options which define the rules for creating structural members.
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The following options are provided:

 creating structural members on the basis of those created in SCAD from rolled steel profiles;
 creating structural members by combining bars with the same rigidity that lie on one line and are
successively adjacent to each other;
 creating structural members by combining plate finite elements with the same rigidity that lie in
one plane, form a connected region, contacting by common nodes;
 rigidities can be transformed into the parametric form for the programs which do not provide the
specification of the stiffness properties of bars on the basis of the rolled steel profiles (otherwise,
only the values of the axial stiffness, bending stiffness etc. will be transferred).
IFC
When exporting a SCAD enlarged model into the IFC format, the 2x3 and 2x4 versions of this format are
supported:
The export can be also performed into the text form or into the XML-format:
Depending on the position in space the type of bar — beam (horizontal element) or column (element
that occupies any position in space except for the horizontal one), is specified during the export of bar
elements. In terms of the IFC it corresponds to the IfcBeam or IfcColumn. The information on the
coordinates of the beginning and end of the bar, orientation of the local axes and the cross-sectional shape
is transferred. The type and sizes are exported for the parametrically defined cross-sections. The rolled
steel profiles are transferred as polygons. A fictitious cross-section in the form of a square with a side of 10
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cm is created for the bars with the type of rigidity incompatible with the IFC format (for example, the
numerical description).
Depending on the position in space a vertical wall, inclined wall, floor, or an arbitrary flat element (in
terms of the IFC — IfcWallStandardCase, IfcWall, IfcSlab or IfcPlate, respectively) is created during the
export of plate elements. The information on geometry (including the data on holes) and thickness is
transferred.
Limitations:
IFC does not provide the presence of solid elements.
IFC does not provide the specification of the majority of loads possible in SCAD, therefore the loads
are not exported.
IFC does not provide a standardized method of specifying the physical properties of the material,
therefore the materials are not exported.
CIS/2
When exporting an enlarged model created by SCAD into the CIS/2 format the user can select the type of
the created CIS/2-model: analytical (Analysis) or graphical (Design).
The following data are exported when the analytical model is used:
 coordinates of nodes and imposed constraints;
 coordinates of the beginning and end of each bar, orientation of the local axes, hinges;
 the cross-sectional shape of the bar is transferred as a parametric description or as a polygon (if the
rolled steel profiles were used in SCAD);
 a fictitious cross-section in the form of a 1010 cm square is created for the bars with the type of
rigidity incompatible with the CIS/2 format (for example, the numerical description);
 rigid inserts are modeled by an additional bar with the special properties of the material.
The following data are exported when the graphical model is used:
 coordinates of the beginning and end of each bar, orientation of the local axes, hinges;
 the cross-sectional shape of the bar is transferred as a parametric description or as a polygon (if the
rolled steel profiles were used in SCAD);
 a fictitious cross-section in the form of a square with a side of 10 cm is created for the bars with the
type of rigidity incompatible with the CIS/2 format (for example, the numerical description);
 rigid inserts are modeled by an additional bar with the special properties of the material;
 geometry and thickness of each plate finite element.
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Limitations:
CIS/2 does not provide solid elements, therefore all the SCAD solid elements will not appear in the
CIS/2-model after the export.
CIS/2 does not provide the specification of the majority of loads possible in SCAD, therefore the
loads are not exported.
CIS/2 does not provide a standardized method of specifying the physical properties of the material,
therefore the materials are not exported.
SDNF
When exporting a SCAD model into the SDNF format, the 2.0 and 3.0 versions of this format are
supported:
The following data are exported:

 coordinates of the beginning and end of each bar;
 point of the orientation of the bar;
 rigid inserts and hinges in bars;
 the SDNF format implies the use of bar cross-sections only in the form of the rolled steel profiles.
A special table of correspondences between the assortments of rolled profiles of SCAD and Tekla
is used during the export. Only the information on the coordinates of the beginning and end of the
finite element, hinges and rigid inserts is exported for the SCAD bar elements with the cross-
sectional shape different from that of the rolled steel section;
 geometry (including the information on holes) and thickness of plate elements..
Limitations:
SDNF does not allow to transfer the information on solid and special finite elements.
Export of the load is not implemented, since only one type of load (trapezoidal the beginning and end
of which coincide with the ends of the bar) is provided in the SDNF format.
SDNF does not provide the specification of the properties of the material, therefore the materials are
not exported.
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GMSH
The user can select the type of the created msh-file: text (ASCII) or binary (Binary), during the export of
the model created by SCAD into the GMSH format:
The information of the coordinates of nodes and the geometry of bar, plate and solid elements is
exported.
Limitations:
Such data as loads, hinges, physical properties of materials etc. are not supported by the msh format
and are not exported.
GTC
The GraitecExchangeModel library of Graitec company or the AdvanceExchangeModel64.dll library of
the Autodesk company are used to export the SCAD model into the GTC format. In order to be able to
export into the GTC format, the respective products of the Graitec company (AdvanceSteel and/or
AdvanceConcrete) or Autodesk company (Autodesk AdvanceSteel and/or Autodesk AdvanceConcrete)
must be installed on the computer. The user can select the format for export (GTC or GTCX):
The following parameters are transferred when exporting the data on the materials:
 name of the material (a file with the list of names known in AdvanceSteel and the respective
properties of the materials are used when selecting the name);
 Young's modulus;
 Poisson's ratio;
 linear expansion coefficient;
 density;
 type: steel, concrete, timber, custom. During the export SCAD specifies the type on the basis of the
analysis of the value of the Young's modulus.
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Profiles for bars

The following parameters are transferred for profiles:
 sizes, for parametric sections;
 name, for rolled steel profiles. A list of correspondences between the profiles from the assortment
of SCAD and AdvanceSteel is used during the export;
 name of the rolled steel profile and the distance between the profiles (for compound sections).
Finite elements
Bars
The following parameters can be transferred for bar finite elements:
 coordinates of the beginning and end of the bar;
 orientation;
 material;
 profile;
 hinges;
 rigid inserts.
Plates
The following parameters can be transferred for plate finite elements:
 geometry (including holes);
 thickness;
 material.
Limitations:
The GTC format does not provide the information on solid elements and loads on the elements.
Femap
The following data can be exported into the FNFF format (Femap neutral file format):
coordinates of nodes and imposed constraints;
the following information is transferred for the bar finite elements (they are assigned the element
type number 5):
 node numbers;
 orientation of local axes;
 information on the rigid inserts;
 physical properties of the materials and the cross-sectional shape;
the following information is transferred for the 3- and 4-node plate elements (they are assigned the
element type number 17):
 data on the thickness;
 physical properties of the materials;
physical properties of the material are transferred for the solid finite elements (they are assigned the
element type number 25 with the following topological subtypes: number 6, 7 or 8 – for a tetrahedron,
triangular prism and quadrangular prism respectively);
the node numbers and the directions of constraints are transferred for the rigid bodies (the element
type number 29 is used);
the data on nodes and parameters of rigidity in all directions are transferred for the elements
modeling an elastic constraint between the nodes (the element type number 6 is used).
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The following geometric properties are transferred during the export of the data on the cross-sectional
shape of the bar:
 area;
 perimeter;
 moments of inertia;
 torsional inertia moments;
 conventional shear areas.
The geometric dimensions are also transferred for the parametric sections. The FNFF format does not
allow to transfer the information on the sections of bars with a different shape.
The following parameters are transferred during the export of data on the physical properties of the
materials:
 type: isotropic or orthotropic;
 Young's modulus;
 Poisson's ratio;
 shear modulus;
 thermal expansion coefficient;
 density.
The following options are implemented during the export of loads:

 export of nodal forces and moments;
 transfer of the trapezoidal and uniformly distributed loads on the bars (in the local or global
coordinate systems);
 transfer of the trapezoidal and uniformly distributed loads on the plates (in the local or global
coordinate systems);
 export of the loads on the faces of the solid elements in the global coordinate system; the loads
specified in the local coordinate system are transformed into the global coordinate system during
the export.
Limitations:
The FNFF format does not allow to transfer the information on the loads on elements as moments.
The FNFF format does not provide the transfer of the load on a part of the bar, therefore it is assumed
that such a load acts on the entire length of the bar.
The uniformly distributed loads on the solid elements are ignored.
STAAD
The following data are transferred during the export into STAAD:
coordinates of nodes and the imposed constraints;
the following information is transferred for the bar finite elements:
 node numbers;
 orientation of the local axes;
 information on the rigid inserts;
 cross-sectional shape;
the following information is transferred for the 3- and 4-node plate elements:
 thickness;
854
the following information is transferred for the solid elements:

 node numbers;
the node numbers and the directions of constraints are transferred during the export of rigid bodies;
the following parameters are transferred during the export of the data on the physical properties of the
materials:
 type: isotropic or orthotropic;
 Young's modulus;
 Poisson's ratio;
 shear modulus;
 thermal expansion coefficient;
 density.
The geometric dimensions of the parametric sections are transferred during the export of data on the
cross-sectional shape. A special table of correspondences between the assortments of rolled profiles of
SCAD and STAAD is used during the export. Other types of cross-sections of bars implemented in SCAD
are not exported due to the limitations of the STAAD format.
The following data are transferred during the export of loads:
 nodal forces and moments;
 uniformly distributed, trapezoidal and concentrated (in the global and local coordinate systems)
loads on bar finite elements;
 concentrated loads on plates;
 uniformly distributed loads on the face of solid finite elements.
Limitations:
The loads on elements specified as moments are not exported.
The loads on plates and solid finite elements in the local coordinate system are transformed into the
global coordinate system during the export, because STAAD does not support the possibility of working
with such loads in the local coordinate system.
ABAQUS
The following data are transferred during the export from SCAD into ABAQUS with the help of the
Abaqus input file format:
coordinates of nodes and the imposed constraints (using the *Boundary ABAQUS section);
the following information is transferred for the bar finite elements:
 node numbers;
 orientation of the local axes;
 information on the physical properties of the materials;
 cross-sectional shape.
The transfer of the data on rigid inserts and hinges is not implemented, since ABAQUS does not have
a complete analogue of these concepts. The correspondence between the types of bar elements is given in
the table below.
Type of the SCAD finite element Type of the ABAQUS finite element
1 T2D2
2, 3 B21
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4 T3D2
other B31
3- and 4-node plates are exported (including the axisymmetric finite elements). The data on the
thickness and physical properties of the materials are exported as well. The correspondence between the
types of plate elements is given in the table below.
61, 64 CAX4
62 CAX3
Three-node plates S3
Four-node plates S4
The data on the physical properties of the materials are exported for the SCAD solid finite elements.
The correspondence between the types of solid elements is given in the table below.
Triangular prism (type 34) C3D6
Quadrangular prism (type 36) C3D8
Tetrahedron (type 32) C3D4
The following table of correspondences is used when transferring the data on the cross-sectional
shape of bar finite elements with a parametric form.
Type in SCAD ABAQUS section Type in SCAD ABAQUS section
S0 RECT S4 ARBITRARY
S1 I S5 BOX
S2 I S6 PIPE
S3 I S7 GENERAL
Only the information on stiffness properties is transferred for all other parameters of rigidity of bars
(implemented in SCAD).
The correspondence between the types of finite elements given in the table below is used during the
export of the data on elastic constraints.
51 Spring1
55 SpringA
The data on the groups of nodes and groups of elements are exported.
Type in SCAD Type in ABAQUS
Group of elements *Elset
Group of nodes *Nset
856
The subsoil parameters C1 are exported with the help of the *FOUNDATION object of ABAQUS.
Only the data for the local Z axis are transferred for bars (due to the absence of a complete analogue).
When transferring the information on the physical properties of the materials the transfer of the
parameters of both isotropic and orthotropic materials is implemented. The following data are transferred:
SCAD ABAQUS
Specific weight *Density
Young's modulus *Elastic
Poisson's ratio *Elastic
Linear expansion coefficient *Expansion
The following table contains the information on the export of the data on loads.
SCAD ABAQUS
Static loads on nodes
Nodal loads *Cload
Static loads on elements
Loads on bars
Distributed, in the global coordinate system, along the X, PX, PY, PZ
Y, Z axes
Distributed, in the local coordinate system, along the Y, Z P1, P2
axes
Moments and other loads on bars Not supported due to the absence of an analogue in
ABAQUS
Loads on plates
Distributed, in the local or global coordinate system, along TRVEC
the X, Y, Z axes
Distributed along the line in the local or global coordinate EDLD
system, along the X, Y, Z axes
Moments and other loads on plates Not supported due to the absence of an analogue in
ABAQUS
Loads on solid elements
Distributed over the entire volume, in the global BX, BY, BZ
coordinate system, along the X, Y, Z axes
Distributed on the face in the global coordinate system, TRVEC
along the X, Y, Z axes
Dynamic loads on nodes
Masses along the X, Y, Z axes *MASS
Moments of inertia of the mass along the X, Y, Z axes *Rotary Inertia
Dynamic loads on elements
857
SCAD ABAQUS
Distributed masses on bars *Nonstructural Mass, units=MASS PER LENGTH
Distributed masses on plates *Nonstructural Mass, units=MASS PER AREA
Distributed masses on solid elements *Nonstructural Mass, units=MASS PER VOLUME
ANSYS
When exporting the data into the ANSYS CDB format the following data can be transferred:
Coordinates and imposed constraints are transferred for nodes.
The data on geometry (node numbers), orientation of the local axes, material, hinges, rigid inserts,
sections are transferred for bar elements. The format does not provide the specification of hinges and rigid
inserts directly on the element, therefore they are modeled with the help of the additional nodes and
constraints between them.
The data on geometry, material, thickness, and additional nodes are transferred for plate elements.
The data on geometry, material, and additional nodes are exported for solid elements.
The data on geometry and imposed constraints are transferred for rigid bodies.
The masses and moments of inertia for nodes are transferred for the dynamic actions.
The following types of loads are transferred for loadings:
 loads in a node;
 uniform and trapezoidal loads on bars in the global and local coordinate systems;
 uniform and trapezoidal loads distributed along the line on plates in the global and local coordinate
systems;
 uniformly distributed and trapezoidal loads for plates in the local and global coordinate systems;
 distributed loads on the face of a solid element in the global coordinate system.
Some loads can not be specified directly for a finite element, in such cases an additional SURF-
element consisting from the same nodes as the given finite element is created, and the load is applied to it.
858
APPENDIX
Appendix
List of Assortments of Rolled Profiles
File name Abbreviation for
Assortment name
in the root directory a text file
GOST russian.prf Russian
Reduced GOST Russhort.prf Russhort
Old Russian Rus_old.prf Rus_old
Assortment of the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant Aschm.prf Aschm
(STO ASChM 20-93)
British Standard Sections British1.prf British1
Overseas Shapes British3.prf British3
Welded profiles WELD.PRF WELD
OTUA Otua.prf Otua
DIN Din.prf Din
ARBED ARBED.PRF ARBED
ASTM Usa.prf Usa
Indian India.prf India
Japanese Steel Japan.prf Japan
Zinc coated steel wire ropes GOST Cable.prf cable
Rebars GOST RebarRU.prf RebarRu
Rebars of Belarus Republic RebarBY.prf RebarBY
Rebars ENV 10080:1996 RebarEC.prf RebarEC
Poland POLAND.PRF POLAND
Thermal roll-formed steel profiles TERM2007.PRF TERM2007
Cold-formed profiles TU1121.PRF TU1121
Cold-formed zinc-coated steel profiles TU112101.PRF TU112101
This table provides the names of the sections of the assortments of rolled profiles which are used in the text
file:
Section name Content
List of the sections of the full assortment of GOST profiles

ce_equal Equal angle GOST 8509-93
ci_uneq Unequal angle GOST 8510-86*
pu_typep Channel with parallel flanges GOST 8240-89
pu_vagon Channel GOST 5267.1-90
pu_uklon Channel with sloped inner flange surfaces GOST 8240-89
P_col_k Column I-beam GOST 26020-83
P_uklon I-beam with sloped inner flange surfaces GOST 8239-89
P_add_d Additional series I-beam GOST 26020-83
P_norm_b Regular I-beam GOST 26020-83
P_wide_h Wide flange I-beam GOST 26020-83
tavr_KT Column T-bar TU 14-2-685-86
tavr_ST T-bar TU 14-2-685-86
diam Longitudinally electric welded Circular Hollow Sections GOST 10704-91
859
APPENDIX

diamold Circular Hollow Sections GOST 10704-91 (reduced list)
pipe8732 Seamless hot finished steel Circular Hollow Sections GOST 8732-78
Circular Hollow Sections GOST P 54157-2010
cg Bent channels with equal flanges GOST 8278-83 (steels С239-С245)
cg2 Bent channels with equal flanges GOST 8278-83 (steels С255-С275)
OKV Square Hollow Sections TU 36-2287-80
ORECT Rectangular Hollow Sections TU 67-2287-80
PU_Ec97 Economical channels with parallel flanges GOST 8240-97
PU_LT97 Light channels with parallel flanges GOST 8240-97
PU_Spc97 Special channels GOST 8240-97
PU_typ97 Channel with parallel flanges GOST 8240-97
PU_ukl97 Channel with sloped inner flange surfaces GOST 8240-97
PU_19425 Special steel channel GOST 19425-74*
P_19425 Special I-beam GOST 19425-74*
OKV66 Square Hollow Sections GOST 12336-66
OKV54157 Square Hollow Sections GOST P 54157-2010
ORECT66 Rectangular Hollow Sections GOST 12336-66
ORECT54157 Rectangular Hollow Sections GOST P 54157-2010
kv_truba Square Steel Hollow Sections GOST 8639-68
pr_truba Rectangular Steel Hollow Sections GOST 8645-68
OKV77 Square Hollow Sections GOST 25577-83*
ORECT77 Rectangular Hollow Sections GOST 25577-83*
OKV30245 Square Hollow Sections GOST 30245-94
REC30245 Rectangular Hollow Sections GOST 30245-94
okv2003 Steel bent closed welded square section GOST 30245-2003
orect2003 Steel bent closed welded rectangular section GOST 30245-2003
kv82_truba Square Steel Hollow Sections GOST 8639-82
Round Calibrated round steel GOST 7417-75
2590 Round Hot-rolled Steel Bars GOST 2590-88
S_259188 Square Hot-rolled Steel Bars GOST 2591-88
okv2012 Steel bent closed welded square section GOST 30245-2012
orct2012 Steel bent closed welded rectangular section GOST 30245-2012
19771_1 Bent equal angle GOST 19771-93 (tab.1)
19771_2 Bent equal angle GOST 19771-93 (tab.2)
19772_1 Bent unequal angle GOST 19772-93 (tab.1)
19772_2 Bent unequal angle GOST 19772-93 (tab.2)
259006 Round Hot-rolled Steel Bars GOST 2590-2006
S_259106 Square Hot-rolled Steel Bars GOST 2591-2006
Pipe1381 Circular Hollow Sections TU 1381-103-05757848-2013
DTV016SH Wide flanged I-beam TU 0925-016-00186269-2016
DTV036SH Wide flang I-beam TU 0925-036-00186269-2016
DTVR016K Column I-beam TU 0925-016-00186269-2016
DTVR016S Regular I-beam TU 0925-016-00186269-2016
DTVR016N Regular I-beam TU 0925-016-00186269-2016
DTVR036K Column I-beam TU 0925-036-00186269-2016
DTVR036N Regular I-beam TU 0925-036-00186269-2016
860
APPENDIX

DTVR036S Pile I-beam TU 0925-036-00186269-2016
DTVR016U Narrow I-beam TU 0925-016-00186269-2016
TU016_U Narrow flange I-beam TU 24107-016-00186269-2017
TU016_N Regular I-beam TU 24107-016-00186269-2017
TU016_Sr Medium flange I-beam TU 24107-016-00186269-2017
TU016_Sh Wide flange I-beam TU 24107-016-00186269-2017
TU016_K Column I-beam TU 24107-016-00186269-2017
TU036_N Regular I-beam TU 24107-036-00186269-2017
TU036_K Column I-beam TU 24107-036-00186269-2017
TU036_Sh Wide flange I-beam TU 24107-036-00186269-2017
TU036_Sv Pile I-beam TU 24107-036-00186269-2017
G57837DB Additional series I-beam GOST R 57837-2017
G57837DK Additional series column I-beam GOST R 57837-2017
G57837Sh Wide flange I-beam GOST R 57837-2017
G57837_B Regular I-beam GOST R 57837-2017
G57837_K Column I-beam GOST R 57837-2017
G57837_S Pile I-beam GOST R 57837-2017
List of the sections of the reduced GOST
ce_equal Equal angle GOST 8509-93
ci_uneq Unequal angle GOST 8510-86*
pu_typep Channel with parallel flanges GOST 8240-89
P_col_k Column I-beam GOST 26020-83
P_uklon I-beam with sloped inner flange surfaces GOST 8239-89
Pu_uklon Channel with sloped inner flange surfaces GOST 8240-89
P_add_d Additional series I-beam GOST 26020-83
P_norm_b Regular I-beam GOST 26020-83
P_wide_h Wide flange I-beam GOST 26020-83
tavr_KT Column T-bar TU 14-2-685-86
tavr_ST T-bar TU 14-2-685-86
diam Longitudinally electric welded Circular Hollow Sections GOST 10704-91
cg Bent channel with equal flanges GOST 8278-83 (steels С239-С245)
cg2 Bent channels with equal flanges GOST 8278-83 (steels С255-С275)
OKV Square Hollow Sections TU 36-2287-80
ORECT Rectangular Hollow Sections TU 67-2287-80
List of the sections of the assortment of the Chelyabinsk Metallurgical Plant
d1 Regular I-beam STO ASChM 20-93
d2 Wide flange I-beam STO ASChM 20-93
d3 Column I-beam STO ASChM 20-93
d4 I-beam R 40-93
d5 Special I-beam STO ASChM 20-93
List of the sections of the old assortments
l1 Equal angle OST 14-1926
l2 Equal angle OST 14-1932
L3 Unequal angle OST 15-1926
L4 Unequal angle OST 15-1932
861
APPENDIX

i1 I-beam OST 16-1926
I2 I-beam OST 16-1932
c1 Channel with sloped inner flange surfaces OST 17-1926
C2 Channel with sloped inner flange surfaces OST 17-1933
Dtavr39 I-beams OST 10016-39
Channel39 Channel OST 10017-39
Equal39 Equal angle OST 10014-39
EnEqual39 Unequal angle OST 10015-39
IPB IPB Shapes DIN 1025
IPB1 IPB1 Shapes DIN 1025
IPBv IPBv Shapes DIN 1025
IPE IPE Shapes DIN 1025
IPEo IPEo Shapes DIN 1025
IPEv IPEv Shapes DIN 1025
List of the sections of the assortment of the British Standard Sections
ub_bs4 Universal Beams BS 4-1:1993
uc_bs4 Universal Columns BS 4-1:1993
ubp_bs4 Universal Bearing Piles BS 4-1:1993
rhs_uk Rectangular Hollow Section
chs_uk Circular Hollow Section
shs_uk Square Hollow Section
joists Joists
equal Equal angle BS EN 10056-1:1999
unequal Unequal angle
channel Channel
t_ub_bs4 Structural Tees cut from UB’s
t_uc_bs4 Structural Tees cut from UC’s
Circular Circular Hollow Sections EN10219-2:2006(E)
Square Square Hollow Sections EN10219-2:2006 (E)
Rectangl Rectangular Hollow Sections EN10219-2:2006 (E)
List of the sections of the assortment of the Overseas Shapes
astm ASTM W Shapes (Universal beams and columns)
ipe IPE Shapes (European universal beams)
he HE Shapes (European universal beams and columns)
rhs_os Rectangular Hollow Section EN10210 (OS)
chs_os Circular Hollow Section EN10210 (OS)
shs_os Square Hollow Section EN10210 (OS)
List of the sections of OTUA
ce_5677 Equal angle (NF A 45-009)
ci_5778 Unequal angle (NF A 45-010)
P_ipn IPN Shapes (NF A 45-209)
P_pa PA Shapes (NF A 45-205)
P_ipea IPE-A Shapes (NF A 45-205)
P_ipe IPE Shapes (NF A 45-205)
P_iper IPE-R Shapes (NF A 45-205)
862
APPENDIX

P_heaa HEA-A Shapes (NF A 45-201)
P_hea HEA Shapes (NF A 45-201)
P_heb HEB Shapes (NF A 45-201)
P_hem HEM, HEC Shapes (NF A 45-201)
Dp_pa Structural Tees cut from PA (NF A 45-205)
Dp_ipea Structural Tees cut from IPE-A (NF A 45-205)
Dp_ipe Structural Tees cut from IPE (NF A 45-205)
Dp_iper Structural Tees cut from IPE-R (NF A 45-205)
Dp_heaa Structural Tees cut from HEA-A (NF A 45-211)
Dp_hea Structural Tees cut from HEA (NF A 45-201)
Dp_heb Structural Tees cut from HEB (NF A 45-201)
Dp_hem Structural Tees cut from HEM, HEC (NF A 45-201)
Upn Channel UPN (NF A 45-202)
Upna Channel UPN-A (NF A 45-202)
Uap Channel UAP (NF A 45-255)
Uapa Channel UAP-A (NF A 45-255)
round Circular Hollow Section
rect Rectangular Hollow Section
square Square Hollow Section
List of the sections of DIN
Equal Equal angle DIN 1028
Unequal Unequal angle DIN 1029
Dtavr_1 Beam DIN 1025
Dtavr_2 IP DIN 1025
Dtavr_3 IP DIN 1025 (9%)
Chanel Channels DIN 1026
Round Circular Hollow Section DIN 2448
Rect Rectangular Hollow Section DIN 59410
Square Square Hollow Section DIN 59410
List of the sections of ARBED
ARB_Equal Equal angle Euronorm 56-77
ARB_Unequal Unequal angle Euronorm 57-78
ARB_ipe European I-beams (IPE)
ARB_ipn European standard beams (IPN) NF A 45-209
ARB_he European wide flange beams (HE)
ARB_hl European wide flange beams (HL)
ARB_hd Wide flange columns (HD)
ARB_hp Wide flange bearing piles (HP)
ARB_w American wide flange beams (W)
ARB_ub British universal beams (UB) BS 4-1:1993
ARB_uc British universal columns (UC) BS 4-1:1993
ARB_uap Channels with parallel flanges NF A 45-255
ARB_upn European standard channels NF A 45-202
863
APPENDIX
List of the sections of ASTM

Equal Equal angle
Unequal Unequal angle
Dtavr_HP H-Piles ASTM A6/A6M-98
Dtavr_M Miscellaneous Shapes
Dtavr_S American Standard Shapes
Dtavr_W Wide Flange Shapes ASTM A6/A6M-98
Tavr_MT Miscellaneous Tees
Tavr_ST American Standard Tees
Tavr_WT Wide Flange Tees
Sh_C American Standard Channels
Sh_MC Miscellaneous Channels
Tube_P Pipe
Tube_PX Extra Strong Pipe
Tube_PXX Double-Extra Strong Pipe
Tube_TS Tube Steel (Square)
Tube_TR Tube Steel (Rectangular)
List of the sections of welded profiles
tv Welded I-beam TU U 01412851.001-95
P_NORM_B Welded I-beam instead of GOST 26020-83 (TU 0925-001-97638531-2016)
D1 Welded I-beam instead of STO ASChM 20-93 (TU 0925-001-97638531-2016)
P_COL_K Column I-beam instead of GOST 26020-83 (TU 0925-001-97638531-2016)
D3 Welded I-beam instaed of STO ASChM 20-93 (TU 0925-001-97638531-2016)
P_COL_KP_WI Broad-flanged beam instead of GOST 26020-83 (TU 0925-001-97638531-2016)
DE_H
D2 Broad-flanged beam instead of STO ASChM 20-93 (TU 0925-001-97638531-2016)
TU_CTO Welded I-beam TU 0925-001-97638531-2016
D1_002.tot Welded I-beam instead of STO ASChM 20-93 (TU 0925-002-62017235-2016)
D2_002.tot Wide flange I-beam instead of STO ASChM 20-93 (TU 0925-002-62017235-2016)
D3_002.tot Welded I-beam instead of STO ASChM 20-93 (TU 0925-002-62017235-2016)
List of the sections of the Indian assortment
Equal Rolled steel equal angle
UnEqual Unequal angle
ISHB Rolled Steel Beams ISHB
ISJB Rolled Steel Beams ISJB
ISLB Rolled Steel Beams ISLB
ISMB Rolled Steel Beams ISMB
ISJC Rolled Steel Channels ISJC
ISLC Rolled Steel Channels ISLC
ISMC Rolled Steel Channels ISMC
Round Circular Hollow Sections
List of the sections of the Japanese assortment
E_Angles Equal Angle
V_Angles Unequal Angle
864
APPENDIX

V2_Angles Unequal Angle 2
SF_Shapes Short Flange Shapes
MF_Shapes Middle Flange Shapes
WF_Shapes Wide Flange Shapes
Channel Channel
SF_Tee Short Flange Tee
MF_Tee Middle Flange Tee
WF_Tee Wide Flange Tee
Pipe Circular Hollow Section
Rect_T Rectangular Hollow Section
Square_T Square Hollow Section
List of the sections of the assortment of GOST zinc coated steel wire ropes
T2-36_1 Load-bearing closed wire rope with two layers of Z-shaped wire and a core of TK type
GOST 18901-73*
T2-37_1 Double strand wire rope of LK-RO type. TU 14-4-902-78
T2-38_1 Load-bearing closed wire rope with one layer of Z-shaped wire and a core of TK type GOST
3090-73*
T2-38_2 Closed wire rope with a layer of wedge and Z-shaped wire and a core of TK type. GOST
7675-73*
T2-38_3 Closed wire rope with layers of wedge and Z-shaped wire and a core of TK type. GOST
7676-73*
T2-39_1 Closed spiral strand zinc coated steel wire ropes. TU 14-4-1216-82
T2-40_1 Single strand wire rope of LK-O type. GOST 3062-80*
T2-40_2 Single strand wire rope of TK type. GOST 3063-80*
T2-40_3 Single strand wire rope of Т12 type. GOST 3064-80*
T2-40_4 Double strand wire rope of LK-O type. GOST 3066-80*
T2-40_5 Double strand wire rope of LK-3 type. GOST 7667-80*
T2-40_6 Double strand steel wire rope of DK-RO type. GOST 7669-80*
T2-41_1 Double strand wire rope of LK-R type. GOST 14954-80*
List of the sections of the assortment of GOST rebars
A_1 Rebars GOST 5781-82*
At_7 Rebars GOST 10884-81
Bp_1 Rebars GOST 6727-80
Bp_2 Rebars GOST 7348-81
B_2 Rebars GOST 7348-81
A400C Rebars STO ASChM 7-93
A500C Rebars STO ASChM 7-93
K_7 Cables GOST 13840-68
K_19 Cables TU 14-4-22-71
List of the sections of the assortment of Belarus Republic rebars
S400-500 Rebars S400, S500 TU RB 190266671.001-2002
865
APPENDIX

S400500 Rebars S400, S500 TU RB 04778771.001-97
S800 Rebars S800 TU RB 04778771.001-97
S500 Rebars S500 STB1341-2002
List of the sections of the assortment of ENV 10080:1996 rebars
B500A Rebars B500A ENV 10080:1996
B500B Rebars B500B ENV 10080:1996
B450C Rebars B450C ENV 10080:1996
Assortment of China
Equal Equal angle GB/T 706-2008
UnEqual Unequal angle GB/T 706-2008
Angle2T Unequal angle type II GB/T 706-2008
Dtavr I-beam with sloped inner flange surfaces GB/T 706-2008
Channel Channel with sloped inner flange surfaces GB/T 706-2008
Round Circular Hollow Sections GB/T 6728-2002
Square Square Hollow Sections GB/T 6728-2002
Rectangl Rectangular Hollow Sections GB/T 6728-2002
Assortment of Poland
Angle_Eq Equal angle PN-EN 10056-1:2000
Equal Equal angle PN-84/H-93401
IPE I-beam PN-91/H-93419
HEA Structural Tees cut from HEA PN-H-93452:2005
HEB Wide flange I-beam PN-H-93452:2005
HEC Structural Tees cut from HEC PN-H-93452:2005
Chanel Channels PN-86/H-93403
Tube_car Square Hollow Sections PN-EN 10219-2:2000
Thermal roll-formed steel profiles
CTO_TPGC Profile TPGC CTO 42481025 006-2007
CTO_TPP Profile TPP CTO 42481025 006-2007
Cold-formed profiles
TU1121U Profile LP TU 1121-009-46216359-2010
TU1121S Profile LC TU 1121-009-46216359-2010
TU1122_U Profile U TU 1122-002-10836231-2014
TU1122_S Profile C TU 1122-02-10836231-2014
TU1120_U Profile U TU 1120-001-37820873-2012
TU1120_S Profile C TU 1120-001-37820873-2012
TU1120S Profile PC TU 1120-001-82861223-2009
Cold-formed zinc-coated steel profiles
TU1121PC Profile PC TU 1121-001-13830080
TU1121PH Profile PN TU 1121-001-13830080
TU1121TC Profile TC TU 1121-001-13830080
TU1121TH Profile TN TU 1121-001-13830080
TU1122AC Profile АС TU 1122-002-82866678-2013
Extruded of aluminium alloys GOST 17576-97
Alum Aluminium-alloy extruded profiles GOST 17576-97
866
APPENDIX
Extensions of the Files in the Working Directory of SCAD

Table 1 provides the extensions for the files with the initial data used in the software.
Files of the initial data Table 1
Extension name Content
.spr Initial data of the SCAD project
.vpr Initial data of the SCAD project with the variations of models
.opr Initial data of the project of the FORUM type
.mpr Initial data describing the erection of the structure (Erection)
.txt Initial data of the SCAD project in the text format
.sec Data on sections created by Section Builder
.cns, .con Data on sections created by Consul
.tns Data on sections created by TONUS
.crs Data of Cross
.spc Files with accelerograms
.spd Files with the spectra of the dynamic amplification factors
.thi File with the time function (for the direct integration mode)
.bak File with the copy of the model in the state before the last saving of the data on the
disk
.AutoSave File with the copy of the data which is created by autosaving
.SCADModelColor File with the data on the color scale settings
.SCADFilters File with the filter settings
.SCADDocMaker File with the data for generating a report
.SCADFonts File with the fonts settings
.SCADMatrix File with the model position
Files which can be divided into the following three groups depending on the type of the information
they contain are saved in the working directory (SWORK by default) in the process of performing the
calculation:
 working files (stiffness matrix and its right-hand sides, internal formats of finite elements etc.);
 results of analysis (displacements, forces, oscillation modes etc.);
 results of generating tables in the text format.
The first two groups contain the files in the binary format, and the third one — in the text format.
All files in the working directory are identified by the name of the problem file and a three-character
extension, where the first letter f (see Table 2) is used for binary files, and p — for text files (see Table 3).
It is necessary to know the file names in order to transfer the problem together with the working files
to another computer or to remove the unnecessary results from the working directory. Obviously, you can
always delete the print files. If there is not enough disk space, you can also delete the file with the stiffness
matrix (extension .f01), which usually has the largest size. The graphical analysis of the results of the
calculation will remain accessible, but mode of continuing the calculation will not work.
When outputting the graphic files generated by the Save the screen image or Save the video with
the animation operations, and also when creating documents for MS Word or MS Excel, the file names
867
APPENDIX
are specified by the user. Their extensions depend on the type of the information (.wmf, .emf — when
saving the screen image, .avi — video file, .rtf — when exporting to MS Word, .xls — when exporting to
MS Excel).
Binary files of the results Table 2
Extensions Content
F00 Internal formats of finite elements after the control
F01 Stiffness matrix
F02 Working file for storing intermediate calculations
F03 Working file for storing intermediate calculations
F04 Natural frequencies of oscillations
Oscillation modes
Inertial loads
F05 Frontal method
F06 Frontal method. Auxiliary information.
F07 Values of displacements
F08 Values of forces
F09 Values of reactions
F10 Design combinations
Unified design combinations
F11 Stiffness matrix for Lanczos
F12 Dynamics for Lanczos
F14 Accelerations for dynamic loadings
F15 Accelerations of points
F16 Stability factors of safety
Buckling modes
F17 Sorted displacements
F19 Principal and equivalent stresses
F20 Principal and equivalent stresses from combinations of loadings
F21 Design combinations
Unified design combinations
F22 New DCF for printing
F23 Old DCF for printing
F24 Right-hand sides
F25 Sorted displacements
F28 DCF for progressive collapse
F29 Design combinations of displacements
F30 Design combinations of reactions in constraints
F31 Results of the nonlinear processor necessary for postprocessing
F32, F33 Working files of the nonlinear processor
F34 Working file of the calculated displacements for the nonlinear processor
F35 Working file of the data of the previous problem
F40 Results of the calculation in the “Steel” postprocessor

F41 Erection data
F42 Erection dynamics
868
APPENDIX
Extensions Content
F43 Erection deformations
F44 Erection forces
F45
F50 Polynomials (working files)
F51 Energy
F53 Loads from the structural fragment in constraints from combinations of loadings
F54 Loads from the structural fragment in constraints
F55 From combinations of loadings:
Stability factors of safety
Buckling modes
F56 Loads from the structural fragment from a combination of loadings
F57 Loads from the structural fragment
F58 Displacements from combinations of loadings
F59 Forces from combinations of loadings
F60 Design combinations of deflections
F71 Response spectra
F72 AFC
F73
F81-F84 Results of integration of the equations of motion
F91 Check "Steel"
F92 Check "R/c"
F93 Check of the progressive collapse "Steel"
F94 Check of the progressive collapse "R/c"
F95 Results of the selection of steel
F96 Results of the reinforcement selection
Text files of the results Table 3

P01 Analysis log
P02 Initial data
P03 Errors in the initial data
P04 Service information
P05 Values of displacements
P06 Values of forces
P07 Values of reactions
P08 Design combinations and unified design combinations
P09 Frequencies of natural oscillations
P10 Oscillation modes
P11 Inertial loads
P12 Superelement structure
P13 Information on the state of the material
P14 Principal and equivalent stresses for forces
P15 Principal and equivalent stresses from combinations of loadings
P16 Explanatory note
P17 Distribution of the weights of masses
869
APPENDIX

P18 Stability factors of safety
P19 Unsupported lengths of elements
P20 Buckling modes
P21 Soil stiffness parameters
P22 From combinations of loadings: values of forces
P23 From combinations of loadings: values of displacements
P24 From combinations of loadings: principal and equivalent stresses
P25 Reactions on the foundation
P26 From combinations of loadings: reactions on the foundation
P27 From combinations of loadings: stability factors of safety
P28 From combinations of loadings: unsupported lengths of elements
P29 From combinations of loadings: buckling modes
Р30 Values of pulses
P31 Accelerations
P32 DCF
P33 Reactions in constraints
P34 Reactions in constraints from combinations of loadings
Р35 Design combinations of displacements
Р36 Design combinations of displacements in constraints
Р37 DCF for the progressive collapse
Р38 Design combinations of deflections
Р39 Accelerations
P71,P72,P73 Response spectra
P97-З99 Reinforcement
"Hot" Keys and Context Menu Settings

The list of “hot” keys of SCAD++ is given in the table below.
Perform the operation Enter

Cancel Escape
Save project Ctrl+S
Save project as… Ctrl+Shift+S
Open project Ctrl+O
Undo the last operation Ctrl+Z
Redo the last undone operation Ctrl+Y or Ctrl+Shift+Z
Print Ctrl+P
Delete selected objects Delete
Close the active project Ctrl+W
Exit to the project tree Ctrl+T
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Information on the element Ctrl+Shift+F

Information on the node Ctrl+F
Help F1
You can also create and modify your own sets of hot keys for the vast majority of operations
implemented in the SCAD pre- and postprocessor. Hot keys can be repeatedly reassigned, including those
that have been defined during the installation. Generally, rules for assigning the hot keys used in any
Windows-application apply to SCAD as well. For example, one or more modifier keys — Ctrl, Alt or
Shift, can be used as a prefix (first keys in a combination). Moreover, one operation can be invoked by
several sets of hot keys.
The Keyboard Settings dialog box, which is invoked from the respective item of the Settings menu,
enables to create and modify the sets of hot keys.
List of categories Operations list
New shortcut
Existing shortcut
Messages
Description of the
selected operation
Dialog Box Keyboard and Context Menu Settings
It is necessary to perform the following operations to create a new combination of hot keys:
 invoke the Keyboard Settings dialog box;
 select the name of the toolbar, filter toolbar, or menu which includes the operation in the Sections
list;
 select the necessary operation (if the hot keys are already assigned for this operation, they will be
displayed in the Assigned key combinations field);
 place the cursor in the New key combination field;
 press the keys of the combination;
 click the Assign button.
To replace an existing combination enter a new set of keys according to the above rules, and then
delete the previous one. To delete a combination select it in the Assigned key combinations field and
click the Delete button in the dialog box.
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APPENDIX
If the new key combination has already been used for invoking another operation, the respective
message will appear in the message field of the dialog box.
The Default button puts the set of hot keys into the default state described above. The Report button
creates a document with a list of all assigned hot keys.
Some commands are repeated in several toolbars (for example, the Display the design model
command). These commands are shown in a list on a pink background. The setting of hot keys for such
commands automatically leads to their setting in all toolbars.
The above-mentioned Keyboard and Context Menu Settings dialog box, which can be invoked from
the Settings menu, enables to create and edit the context menu.
It is necessary to perform the following actions to add the button invoking the operation to the menu:
 invoke the Keyboard and Context Menu Settings dialog box;
 select the name of the toolbar, filter panel or menu the operation belongs to in the Sections list;
 select the line with the name of the necessary operation in the Operations list;
 check the Add to the context menu checkbox;
 repeat the above actions if it is necessary to add other buttons to the menu.
The menu can be edited (buttons can be removed or their order can be changed) in the respective
dialog box, which is invoked by clicking the Context menu button… The order of operations can be
changed by clicking the Up/Down buttons, and the Delete button enables to remove the operation from the
menu.
The set of operations available in the context menu depends on the mode of the software. For example,
the preprocessing operations will be automatically excluded from the menu when working in the
postprocessor.
The information on hot keys (and settings of dialog boxes Information on the Node, Information on
the Element) is saved in the file "%systemdrive%\users\All Users\SCAD Soft\SCADACCEL.tbl". If it is
necessary to transfer the settings to another computer, you just have to copy this file (SCAD++ has to be
closed).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. SCAD OFFICE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................................................4
1.1.Structure CAD.......................................................................................................................................................5
Project .....................................................................................................................................................................5
Functional Modules.................................................................................................................................................5
Processor and Finite Element Library.....................................................................................................................6
Graphical Tools for Generating a Design Model ....................................................................................................8
Enlarged Design Models and Connection with Other Systems...............................................................................8
Groups.....................................................................................................................................................................9
Filters ......................................................................................................................................................................9
Graphical Postprocessor........................................................................................................................................10
Documenting the Results ......................................................................................................................................10
1.2.Design and Analysis Programs............................................................................................................................10
Kristall ..................................................................................................................................................................11
ComeIn..................................................................................................................................................................12
ARBAT .................................................................................................................................................................12
Decor.....................................................................................................................................................................13
ZAPROS ...............................................................................................................................................................14
1.3.Design and Engineering Programs ......................................................................................................................15
Monolit..................................................................................................................................................................15
COMET.................................................................................................................................................................15
1.4.Auxiliary Programs .............................................................................................................................................16
Section Builder......................................................................................................................................................16
Consul ...................................................................................................................................................................16
TONUS .................................................................................................................................................................16
SEZAM.................................................................................................................................................................17
West ......................................................................................................................................................................17
Slope .....................................................................................................................................................................17
Cross .....................................................................................................................................................................18
1.5.Service Functions ................................................................................................................................................18
2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS...................................................................................................................19
2.1.Structure and Its Design Model ...........................................................................................................................19
General Information..............................................................................................................................................19
Design Model According to the Slope Deflection Method ...................................................................................20
Principal and Auxiliary Unknowns .......................................................................................................................22
External and Internal Constraints..........................................................................................................................23
Junction between Elements and Nodes .................................................................................................................23
Groups, Substructures, Super-Elements................................................................................................................24
Loads and Actions.................................................................................................................................................24
2.2.Basic Relationships of the Finite Element Method .............................................................................................25
Linear Static Analysis ...........................................................................................................................................25
Additional Constraints ..........................................................................................................................................27
Rigid Bodies..........................................................................................................................................................27
Dynamical Analysis ..............................................................................................................................................30
Accounting for Damping ......................................................................................................................................32
2.3.Solving Systems of Equations .............................................................................................................................33
2.4.Standard Dynamic Load Cases............................................................................................................................35
Wind Load ............................................................................................................................................................36
Seismic Actions ....................................................................................................................................................37
Pulse Loads ...........................................................................................................................................................39
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Harmonic Excitation............................................................................................................................................. 39
Analysis with Accelerograms............................................................................................................................... 40
Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion ..................................................................................................... 40
2.5.Stability of Equilibrium ...................................................................................................................................... 43
Governing Equations ............................................................................................................................................ 43
Single-Parametric Loading................................................................................................................................... 43
Analysis of a Role Played by Particular Subsystems ........................................................................................... 44
2.6.Design Combinations of Forces (DCF) .............................................................................................................. 45
Bars....................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Membranes (Plane Stress State) ........................................................................................................................... 47
Plates .................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Shells .................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Solid Elements...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Loadings ............................................................................................................................................................... 48
2.7.Erection............................................................................................................................................................... 48
Elementary Actions .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Agreement on the Loads....................................................................................................................................... 49
Variants of the Model Modification ..................................................................................................................... 49
Finite Element Procedures.................................................................................................................................... 50
2.8.Finite Element Models........................................................................................................................................ 52
Convergence of FEM ........................................................................................................................................... 52
Convergence Validation for Some Models........................................................................................................... 54
Circumventing Singularities ................................................................................................................................. 57
Fragmentation....................................................................................................................................................... 57
Counteracting the Dimensional Instability ........................................................................................................... 58
Coupling Elements of Different Dimensionality .................................................................................................. 59
Effects of Merged Displacements......................................................................................................................... 62
Allowing for a Distributive Ability of Soil........................................................................................................... 63
Using Rigid Inserts............................................................................................................................................... 64
References to Chapter 2........................................................................................................................................ 67
3. FINITE ELEMENT LIBRARY ........................................................................................................................ 69
3.1.General Issues ..................................................................................................................................................... 69
3.2.Composition of the Finite Element Library ........................................................................................................ 70
3.3.Bar Elements....................................................................................................................................................... 73
Local Coordinate Systems of the Bar ................................................................................................................... 73
General Description of Bar Finite Elements......................................................................................................... 76
Types of Bar Finite Elements ............................................................................................................................... 77
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Bar Finite Elements ......................................................... 78
Loads on Bar Finite Elements .............................................................................................................................. 82
3.4.Flat Finite Elements for the Calculation of Deep Beams, Thin Plates, and Shallow Shells ............................... 85
Class of the Solved Problems ............................................................................................................................... 85
Material of Structures ........................................................................................................................................... 86
Reissner-Mindlin Plates........................................................................................................................................ 87
Allowing for the Elastic Subgrade........................................................................................................................ 87
Local Coordinate Systems .................................................................................................................................... 88
Types of Flat Finite Elements............................................................................................................................... 88
Hybrid Flat Finite Elements ................................................................................................................................. 92
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Flat Finite Elements......................................................... 92
Loads on Flat Finite Elements .............................................................................................................................. 92
3.5.Finite Elements for Solving the Spatial Problem of the Theory of Elasticity (Solid Elements) ......................... 98
General Information ............................................................................................................................................. 98
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Local Coordinate Systems.....................................................................................................................................99

Set of Finite Elements .........................................................................................................................................100
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Solid Finite Elements .....................................................100
Loads on Solid Finite Elements ..........................................................................................................................101
3.6.Universal Finite Elements for Solving the Axisymmetric Problem of the Theory of Elasticity........................103
General Information............................................................................................................................................103
Set of Finite Elements .........................................................................................................................................104
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Axisymmetric Finite Elements.......................................105
Local Loads.........................................................................................................................................................105
3.7.Finite Elements for the Calculation of the Piecewise Inhomogeneous throughout the Thickness (Laminated)
Plates and Shallow Shells........................................................................................................................................107
Specifying Finite Elements .................................................................................................................................107
Initial Hypotheses of the Model Accounting for the Transverse Shear, Compression of Layers and Curvature 108
Initial Hypotheses of the Model Accounting for the Interlayer Shear and Curvature .........................................111
Multilayer Elements in the FE Library ...............................................................................................................112
Peculiarities of Specifying the Initial Information for Multilayer Finite Elements.............................................113
Local Loads.........................................................................................................................................................114
3.8.Special Finite Elements .....................................................................................................................................114
General Type “Null Element” (FE Type — 154)................................................................................................115
FE Modeling the Constraints of Finite Rigidity (FE Type — 51).......................................................................116
Two-Node Peripheral FE of Elastic Subgrade (FE Type — 53).........................................................................117
Single-Node Peripheral FE of Elastic Subgrade (FE Type — 54) ......................................................................117
FE Modeling an Elastic Constraint between the Nodes (FE Type — 55)...........................................................117
FE Modeling the Behavior of an External Node Damper (FE Type — 56)........................................................118
FE Modeling the Behavior of a Node-to-Node Damper (FE Type — 57)..........................................................118
Rigid Body (FE Type – 100)...............................................................................................................................120
Pseudo-Element Designed for Modeling Elements Excluded from the Design Model (FE Type — 200) .........120
References to Chapter 3. .....................................................................................................................................120
4. STRUCTURE CAD FOR DUMMIES ............................................................................................................122
4.1.Graphical Environment .....................................................................................................................................123
Menus..................................................................................................................................................................123
Toolbars ..............................................................................................................................................................125
Icons....................................................................................................................................................................126
Buttons with Additional Features........................................................................................................................126
Graphs .................................................................................................................................................................127
Filters ..................................................................................................................................................................127
Windows .............................................................................................................................................................129
Mouse..................................................................................................................................................................130
Cursors ................................................................................................................................................................130
Dialog Boxes.......................................................................................................................................................131
Working with Tables...........................................................................................................................................132
Tabular Representation of the Data and Results .................................................................................................133
List of Messages .................................................................................................................................................136
4.2.Undo and Redo Operations................................................................................................................................137
4.3.Color Scales.......................................................................................................................................................137
Control of the Interval Color Scales....................................................................................................................138
4.4.Solution of the Simplest Problem......................................................................................................................141
Loading the Software ..........................................................................................................................................141
Creating a New Project .......................................................................................................................................142
“Control” Section of the Preprocessor Toolbar...................................................................................................144
Creating the Design Model, Calculation and Analysis of Results ......................................................................145
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4.5.Calculation........................................................................................................................................................ 152
4.6.Graphical Analysis of the Calculation Results.................................................................................................. 155
Analysis of Displacements ................................................................................................................................. 156
Analysis of Forces .............................................................................................................................................. 157
4.7.Creating a Design Model from 2D Elements.................................................................................................... 158
Specification of the Boundary Conditions.......................................................................................................... 160
Specification of Loads........................................................................................................................................ 161
Graphical Analysis of the Calculation Results ................................................................................................... 162
4.8.THUS …........................................................................................................................................................... 164
5. CREATING A DESIGN MODEL .................................................................................................................. 166
5.1.Design Models of Frame Bar Structures........................................................................................................... 167
Generate a Frame Prototype Operation .............................................................................................................. 167
Multi-Storey Multi-Span Frames........................................................................................................................ 167
Single-Storey Multi-Span Frames of Industrial Buildings ................................................................................. 170
5.2.Creating Models of Plane Hinged-Bar Systems................................................................................................ 172
Generating a Steel Truss Prototype .................................................................................................................... 172
Work in the Section Tab (Additional Features).................................................................................................. 174
Generating a Timber Truss Prototype ................................................................................................................ 175
Generating Trusses with Elements with a Custom Section ................................................................................ 175
5.3.Spatial Frames and Trusses............................................................................................................................... 175
5.4.Creating a Design Model of a Grade Beam ...................................................................................................... 177
5.5.Generating a Rectangular Mesh of Finite Elements on the Plane ..................................................................... 178
5.6.Surfaces of Revolution...................................................................................................................................... 179
Description of Parametric Prototypes of Surfaces of Revolution ....................................................................... 181
5.7.Creating an Analytically Defined Surface of Revolution ................................................................................. 184
Rules for Entering Mathematical Formulas........................................................................................................ 186
Example. Radio Telescope Reflector ................................................................................................................. 187
Example. Helical Ramp...................................................................................................................................... 187
5.8.Creating an Analytically Defined Surface ........................................................................................................ 187
Example. Shell (Paraboloid of Revolution)........................................................................................................ 188
5.9.Creating Parametric Surfaces............................................................................................................................ 188
Examples of Creating Design Models Using the Operation of Generating Parametric Surfaces ....................... 190
5.10.Creating a Standard Analytic Surface ............................................................................................................. 192
5.11.Creating Standard Structures .......................................................................................................................... 195
5.12.Generating an Arbitrary Mesh of Finite Elements on the Plane ..................................................................... 199
Fundamental Principles ...................................................................................................................................... 199
Specifying a Meshing Contour ........................................................................................................................... 200
Transforming Bars into a Meshing Contour....................................................................................................... 202
Converting the Convex Hull of the Selected Nodes into the Meshing Contour ................................................. 203
Converting Enlarged Elements (Objects) into a Meshing Contour .................................................................... 203
Parameters of Meshing ....................................................................................................................................... 204
Some Nuances .................................................................................................................................................... 206
Mesh Refinement ............................................................................................................................................... 206
Mesh Quality Assessment .................................................................................................................................. 211
Improving the Meshing Quality ......................................................................................................................... 212
Export the Meshing Contour to GMSH.............................................................................................................. 212
5.13.Assembling a Model from Several Models..................................................................................................... 212
Methods of Assembling...................................................................................................................................... 215
Rules of Assembling .......................................................................................................................................... 215
Working with Loads ........................................................................................................................................... 216
5.14.Copying a Design Model ................................................................................................................................ 216
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5.15.Copying the Fragment of the Model................................................................................................................220

5.16.Creating Design Models from Solid Elements ................................................................................................220
5.17.Geometric Transformations.............................................................................................................................221
Moving................................................................................................................................................................221
Rotation about the Given Axis............................................................................................................................222
Scaling along the Given Line..............................................................................................................................222
Scaling in the Given Plane ..................................................................................................................................222
Mirroring with Respect to the Given Axis ..........................................................................................................223
Scaling (Full) ......................................................................................................................................................223
Examples of Geometric Transformations ...........................................................................................................223
5.18.Specification of Grid Lines..............................................................................................................................226
5.19.Creating a Model on Grid Lines ......................................................................................................................228
5.20.Copying the Model along Trajectories ............................................................................................................229
Trajectories .........................................................................................................................................................229
Copying the Model Using the Trajectory as a “Director”...................................................................................230
5.21.Graphics Editor................................................................................................................................................231
6. OPERATIONS WITH NODES AND ELEMENTS.......................................................................................232
6.1.Selection of Nodes and Elements ......................................................................................................................232
6.2.Operations with Nodes ......................................................................................................................................235
Create Nodes.......................................................................................................................................................236
Delete Nodes.......................................................................................................................................................237
Restore Deleted Nodes........................................................................................................................................237
Create Additional Nodes between Nodes............................................................................................................237
Move Nodes ........................................................................................................................................................239
Merge Nodes with the Same Coordinates ...........................................................................................................240
Generate Nodes along an Arc .............................................................................................................................241
Move the Origin ..................................................................................................................................................241
Create Nodes at the Specified Distance from the Selected Ones ........................................................................242
Replace a Node in Elements ...............................................................................................................................242
Select Nodes........................................................................................................................................................243
Create Nodes at the Intersection of Grid Lines ...................................................................................................243
Generate a Generator by the Formula .................................................................................................................244
Move Nodes to the Given Plane..........................................................................................................................245
Round the Node Coordinates ..............................................................................................................................246
Renumbering Nodes............................................................................................................................................247
Copy Node Properties .........................................................................................................................................247
6.3.Operations with Elements..................................................................................................................................249
Create Plates........................................................................................................................................................250
Create Bars..........................................................................................................................................................252
Create Solid Elements .........................................................................................................................................253
Delete Elements ..................................................................................................................................................254
Restore Deleted Elements ...................................................................................................................................255
Create Bars Taking into Account the Intermediate Nodes ..................................................................................255
Divide the Bar .....................................................................................................................................................255
Divide Bars at the Intersection Point...................................................................................................................256
Combine Two Bar Elements ...............................................................................................................................256
Create Bars along an Arc ....................................................................................................................................257
Select Elements ...................................................................................................................................................257
Merge Duplicate Elements..................................................................................................................................258
Divide 4-node Plates ...........................................................................................................................................258
Divide 4-node Plates into 3-node Ones...............................................................................................................259
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Divide 3-node Plates .......................................................................................................................................... 260

Divide Solid Elements........................................................................................................................................ 260
Divide Plates Taking into Account the Intermediate Nodes............................................................................... 261
Separate Elements .............................................................................................................................................. 261
Attach Additional Nodes to the Elements .......................................................................................................... 262
Divide Bars Taking into Account the Intermediate Nodes................................................................................. 262
Move Elements................................................................................................................................................... 263
Detach All Additional Nodes from the Faces of the Elements ........................................................................... 264
Combine Elements ............................................................................................................................................. 264
Divide Plates along the Intersection Line........................................................................................................... 264
Extend the Bar to the Plate ................................................................................................................................. 265
Chamfer Bars...................................................................................................................................................... 265
Create Bars Perpendicular to the Selected One .................................................................................................. 265
Meshing Quality Assessment ............................................................................................................................. 266
Improve the Meshing Quality............................................................................................................................. 266
Export Polygon from the Selected Plates ........................................................................................................... 267
Renumbering Elements ...................................................................................................................................... 267
Copy Element Properties.................................................................................................................................... 267
Divide Bars by a Polygon................................................................................................................................... 269
6.4.Input and Assign Parameters of Special Finite Elements.................................................................................. 269
Create a 0-element.............................................................................................................................................. 270
Create Constraints of Finite Rigidity.................................................................................................................. 271
Create an Elastic Constraint ............................................................................................................................... 272
Create Two-node Peripheral Elements of the Plate ............................................................................................ 273
Create Single-node Peripheral Elements of the Plate ......................................................................................... 274
Create Cable-stayed Elements ............................................................................................................................ 274
Create Unilateral Constraints ............................................................................................................................. 275
Create External Node Dampers .......................................................................................................................... 276
6.5.Input and Assign Parameters of Rigid Bodies .................................................................................................. 277
Create a Rigid Body ........................................................................................................................................... 277
Change the Configuration of a Rigid Body ........................................................................................................ 279
Move the Master Node ....................................................................................................................................... 279
Delete Rigid Body .............................................................................................................................................. 279
Add Slave Nodes ................................................................................................................................................ 279
Remove Slave Nodes.......................................................................................................................................... 279
Move Slave Nodes.............................................................................................................................................. 279
6.6.Groups of Nodes and Elements......................................................................................................................... 279
Create Groups..................................................................................................................................................... 281
Correct the Group............................................................................................................................................... 281
Select Group ....................................................................................................................................................... 281
Operations with Groups...................................................................................................................................... 282
Control the Groups ............................................................................................................................................. 282
7. SPECIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF NODES AND ELEMENTS ...................................................... 285
7.1.Specifying Stiffness Properties ......................................................................................................................... 286
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Bar Elements............................................................................................... 286
Numerical and Parametric Description............................................................................................................... 290
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Plate Elements ............................................................................................ 292
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Solid Elements............................................................................................ 294
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Multilayer Elements ................................................................................... 296
Specifying Stiffness Properties for Axisymmetric Elements.............................................................................. 297
7.2.Specifying Stiffness Properties for Special Finite Elements............................................................................. 298
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Color Indication of the Rigidities........................................................................................................................299

Delete Duplicate Types of Rigidity.....................................................................................................................300
Renumber Rigidities ............................................................................................................................................300
Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Material ...........................................................................................301
7.3.Specifying the Properties of Elements...............................................................................................................302
Specifying the Element Type ..............................................................................................................................302
Specifying Geometrically Nonlinear Elements ...................................................................................................303
Install or Remove Rigid Inserts...........................................................................................................................303
Move the Plate Midplane ....................................................................................................................................304
Install and Delete Hinges and Sliders .................................................................................................................305
Specifying the Orientation Angle of the Axes of the Bar Section.......................................................................306
Specifying Intermediate Sections for the Calculation of Forces .........................................................................307
Change the Direction of the Local Х1 Axis of Bars to the Opposite One ...........................................................308
Change the Direction of the Local Z1 Axis of Plate Elements ............................................................................308
Stresses along the Given Direction .....................................................................................................................309
Specifying the Direction of the Orthotropy Axes ...............................................................................................312
Specifying Subsoil Parameters............................................................................................................................312
Specifying the Prestressing of Elements of the Design Model ...........................................................................313
Specification of the Additional Data for Elements..............................................................................................314
7.4.Specifying Characteristics of Nodes..................................................................................................................315
Installing Constraints in Nodes ...........................................................................................................................315
Merged Displacements........................................................................................................................................316
7.5.Specifying Subsoil Parameters for the Elements of the Design Model with the Help of Cross ........................317
References to Chapter 7 ......................................................................................................................................319
8. SPECIFYING LOADINGS..............................................................................................................................320
8.1.Specifying Static Loadings................................................................................................................................320
Automatic Specification of the Self-weight ........................................................................................................321
Nodal Loads ........................................................................................................................................................322
Specifying Loads for a Group of Nodes..............................................................................................................324
Loads on Bar Elements .......................................................................................................................................325
Specifying Loads for a Group of Elements .........................................................................................................327
Loads on Plates ...................................................................................................................................................327
Specifying Loads for a Group of Elements .........................................................................................................329
Specifying Loads on Solid Elements ..................................................................................................................329
Thermal Loads ....................................................................................................................................................332
8.2.Analysis for the Specified Displacements .........................................................................................................334
Loads through “Null Elements” ..........................................................................................................................334
Specifying a Load by the Displacement of a Constraint .....................................................................................336
8.3.Saving Loadings ................................................................................................................................................337
8.4.Groups of Loads ................................................................................................................................................338
Specifying Loads Using Groups of Nodes and Elements ...................................................................................339
Generating Loadings from Groups of Loads.......................................................................................................340
Specifying Factors for Groups of Loads .............................................................................................................341
8.5.Deleting Loads, Loadings and Groups of Loads ...............................................................................................341
Deleting Loads ....................................................................................................................................................341
Deleting Loadings and Groups of Loads.............................................................................................................343
Pack Loadings.....................................................................................................................................................343
8.6.Preparing Data for the Analysis for Dynamic Actions ......................................................................................343
8.7.Specifying the Parameters of Dynamic Actions ................................................................................................347
Creating a New Loading .....................................................................................................................................347
Correcting Parameters of the Existing Loading ..................................................................................................350
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Peculiarities of Specifying Data on Seismic Actions ......................................................................................... 350

Seismic Analysis according to SNiP II-7-81* .................................................................................................... 353
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP II-7-81* with Modifications from 27.12.99 ............................................. 355
Seismic Analysis according to SP 31-114-2004 of the Russian Federation ....................................................... 356
Seismic Analysis according to SP 14.13330.2011 (Updated edition of SNiP II-7-81*) of the Russian Federation
............................................................................................................................................................................ 357
Seismic Analysis according to MGSN 4.19-05.................................................................................................. 359
Seismic Analysis according to SP 14.13330.2014 (Updated edition of SNiP II-7-81*) of the Russian Federation
............................................................................................................................................................................ 360
Calculation according to the Design Codes for Earthquake-Resistant Nuclear Plants NP-031-01 .................... 362
Seismic Analysis according to Ukrainian Design Codes DBN В.1.1-12:2006 .................................................. 363
Seismic Analysis according to Ukrainian Design Codes DBN В.1.1-12:2014 .................................................. 365
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP В1.2-4-98 of the Republic of Kazakhstan................................................ 366
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP RK 2.03-30-2006 of the Republic of Kazakhstan .................................... 367
Seismic Analysis according to SNRA II-2.02.94 of the Republic of Armenia................................................... 369
Seismic Analysis according to SNRA II-6.02.2006 of the Republic of Armenia............................................... 370
Seismic Analysis according to SNRA AzDTN 2.3-1 of the Republic of Azerbaijan......................................... 371
Seismic Analysis according to SNT 2.01.08-99 and SNT 2.01.08-99* of Turkmenistan .................................. 371
Seismic Analysis according to KMK 2.01.03-96 of the Republic of Uzbekistan............................................... 372
Seismic Analysis according to SNiP KR 20-02:2009 of the Kyrgyz Republic .................................................. 373
Seismic Analysis Based on an Accelerogram .................................................................................................... 374
Seismic Analysis Based on the Specified Accelerograms (3 Components) ....................................................... 376
Seismic Analysis Based on the Specified Accelerograms (6 Components) ....................................................... 376
Wind Pulsation ................................................................................................................................................... 378
Wind Pulsations according to SNiP 2.01.07-85* ............................................................................................... 379
Wind Pulsations according to Moscow City Building Codes (MGSN).............................................................. 380
Wind Pulsations according to SP 20.13330 (Updated Edition of SNiP 2.01.07-85*) ........................................ 380
Pulse or Impact Action ....................................................................................................................................... 381
Modal Analysis................................................................................................................................................... 382
Harmonic Oscillations ........................................................................................................................................ 383
Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion ................................................................................................... 384
Specifying Dynamic Loads and Masses ............................................................................................................. 384
8.8.Correcting the Parameters of Loadings/Groups of Loads................................................................................. 385
References to Chapter 8...................................................................................................................................... 386
9. FORUM PREPROCESSOR............................................................................................................................ 388
9.1.General Principles for Creating a Model .......................................................................................................... 388
Toolbar ............................................................................................................................................................... 389
Loads .................................................................................................................................................................. 393
Groups ................................................................................................................................................................ 394
9.2.Structure of the Model ...................................................................................................................................... 394
Nodes.................................................................................................................................................................. 395
Modules.............................................................................................................................................................. 395
Elements ............................................................................................................................................................. 395
9.3.Creating a New Model...................................................................................................................................... 396
New Project ........................................................................................................................................................ 396
Creating a New Module...................................................................................................................................... 397
Create Elements.................................................................................................................................................. 397
Copying Models and Modules............................................................................................................................ 400
Transferring Elements from One Module to the Other....................................................................................... 400
Control the Blocks.............................................................................................................................................. 401
9.4.Creating Standard Structures ............................................................................................................................ 401
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9.5.Operations with Nodes ......................................................................................................................................404

9.6.Operations with Elements..................................................................................................................................404
Change the Stiffness Properties ..........................................................................................................................404
Connect Walls and Floors ...................................................................................................................................404
Correcting Openings ...........................................................................................................................................405
Delete Openings..................................................................................................................................................406
Extend the Bar to the Plate..................................................................................................................................407
Expansion of the Plate by an Offset from the Faces ...........................................................................................407
Divide Plates along the Intersection Line ...........................................................................................................407
Operations with a Pair of Planar Objects ............................................................................................................409
Create Surfaces of Revolution ............................................................................................................................409
Division of floors and walls by beams and columns lying in their plane............................................................410
9.7.Project Tree .......................................................................................................................................................411
Control Panel ......................................................................................................................................................412
View and Adjust the Parameters of Elements .....................................................................................................412
Adjusting the Geometry of Elements ..................................................................................................................413
9.8.Display Filters ...................................................................................................................................................421
9.9.Specifying Loads ...............................................................................................................................................421
Parameters of the Load Specification Mode .......................................................................................................421
Tables of Loads...................................................................................................................................................422
Permanent Loads.................................................................................................................................................422
Temporary Loads ................................................................................................................................................423
Allowing for Permanent Loads ...........................................................................................................................423
Peculiarities of Allowing for the Self-Weight of Enclosing Structures and Partitions........................................424
Specify the Types of Rooms ...............................................................................................................................424
Delete Loads .......................................................................................................................................................425
Control of the Permanent Loads .........................................................................................................................425
9.10.Export the Model to SCAD .............................................................................................................................425
Generation of a Finite Element Model................................................................................................................426
Modeling the Joint of the Column and Floor Slab Intersection ..........................................................................428
Accounting for Loads..........................................................................................................................................429
Results of Generation Dialog Box ......................................................................................................................431
9.11.Connection with Architectural and Graphic Systems......................................................................................432
9.12.Example of Creating a Model in the FORUM Preprocessor ...........................................................................433
10. CONTROL OF THE DISPLAY OF THE DESIGN MODEL..................................................................438
10.1.Visualization Toolbar ......................................................................................................................................438
Rotation of the Model .........................................................................................................................................438
Set the Rotation Angle ........................................................................................................................................439
Continuous Rotation of the Model......................................................................................................................439
Orbit ....................................................................................................................................................................439
Project the Model on the Coordinate Plane.........................................................................................................439
Isometric Projection ............................................................................................................................................440
Selecting a Planar Fragment................................................................................................................................440
Select a Fragment with a Marquee......................................................................................................................441
Cut on Projections...............................................................................................................................................442
Fragmentation on the Grid Lines ........................................................................................................................444
Undo and Redo Fragmentation of the Design Model..........................................................................................444
Zoom in the Image ..............................................................................................................................................444
Full Screen Mode ................................................................................................................................................445
Rendering Engine................................................................................................................................................445
Fragmentation Using the Tree.............................................................................................................................446
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Table of contents
Fragmentation of the Selected Objects ............................................................................................................... 446

Search of Nodes with the Given Characteristics ................................................................................................ 446
Save the Screen Image........................................................................................................................................ 447
Save as HTML.................................................................................................................................................... 447
Save and Restore the View of the Model on the Screen..................................................................................... 448
10.2.Display Information on the Design Model...................................................................................................... 448
General Comments on Displaying the Information on the Model...................................................................... 448
Saving and Resetting the Filters ......................................................................................................................... 450
Setting the Output of the Digital Information..................................................................................................... 451
Print the Design Model....................................................................................................................................... 451
Reset Display Filters .......................................................................................................................................... 452
Display Information on the Nodes...................................................................................................................... 452
Display Information on the Elements ................................................................................................................. 459
Displaying Loads, Masses and Specified Displacements ................................................................................... 471
Display Axes of the Global Coordinate System ................................................................................................. 475
Display Grid Lines ............................................................................................................................................. 475
Display Dimension Lines ................................................................................................................................... 476
Deleting the Lines of the Invisible Contour ....................................................................................................... 476
Transparency, Lightning, Perspective ................................................................................................................ 477
Color Display of the Groups of Nodes and Elements......................................................................................... 478
Color Display of the Specified Reinforcement................................................................................................... 479
Display Groups of Structural Members.............................................................................................................. 479
Cancel the Selection of Nodes and Elements ..................................................................................................... 480
Navigator............................................................................................................................................................ 480
Show Elements Included/Not Included in the Given Erection Stage ................................................................. 480
Prestressing......................................................................................................................................................... 480
Color Display of Modules .................................................................................................................................. 481
Types of Rooms.................................................................................................................................................. 481
10.3.Displaying the Results of the Calculation....................................................................................................... 481
Visualization of Results Toolbar ........................................................................................................................ 481
Displaying the Deflections in Bars..................................................................................................................... 481
Finite Element Mesh on Isofields....................................................................................................................... 482
Displaying the Deformed Model ........................................................................................................................ 482
Output the Values on Isolines, Isofields and Diagrams...................................................................................... 482
Selective Output of Values on Isolines, Isofields, and Diagrams....................................................................... 483
Control of the Output of Isofields....................................................................................................................... 484
10.4.Environment Settings...................................................................................................................................... 485
10.5.Color Palette Settings...................................................................................................................................... 490
11. CONTROL OF THE CALCULATION..................................................................................................... 492
11.1.General Parameters ......................................................................................................................................... 492
11.2.Gaussian Method ............................................................................................................................................ 494
11.3.Multifrontal Method ....................................................................................................................................... 494
11.4.Iterative Method.............................................................................................................................................. 495
11.5.PARFES.......................................................................................................................................................... 495
11.6.Stability........................................................................................................................................................... 495
11.7.Dynamics ........................................................................................................................................................ 496
11.8.Nonlinearity .................................................................................................................................................... 498
11.9.Elements ......................................................................................................................................................... 498
11.10.Special Settings............................................................................................................................................. 499
11.11.RAM Usage .................................................................................................................................................. 499
11.12.Optimization of the Stiffness Matrix ............................................................................................................ 500
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Table of contents
11.13.Multi-threaded Calculations ..........................................................................................................................500

11.14.Description of Solvers ...................................................................................................................................501
Linear and Nonlinear Statics...............................................................................................................................501
Multifrontal Solver..............................................................................................................................................502
PARFES..............................................................................................................................................................504
Iterative Solver....................................................................................................................................................504
Gaussian Method.................................................................................................................................................505
11.15.Description of the Dynamic Solvers..............................................................................................................505
Subspace Iterations Method ................................................................................................................................506
Method of Steepest Descent................................................................................................................................506
Lanczos Method..................................................................................................................................................507
References to Chapter 11 ....................................................................................................................................509
12. GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE STRESS STRAIN STATE .............................................................511
12.1.General Principles of Controlling the Display of Results................................................................................511
Selecting Loading ...............................................................................................................................................512
Selecting the Considered Factor..........................................................................................................................513
Scale of Display ..................................................................................................................................................513
Displaying Markers, Isolines, Isofields, and Isosurfaces ....................................................................................513
Output of Isolines and Isofields with a Constant Step of the Considered Factor ................................................514
Units of Measurement.........................................................................................................................................515
Displaying the Design Model..............................................................................................................................515
12.2.Analysis of Displacements ..............................................................................................................................516
Determination of the Coordinates of the Center of Mass....................................................................................518
Determination of the Tilt of the Structure ...........................................................................................................519
Determination of the Tilt of the Foundation Slab ...............................................................................................519
Periods and Frequencies of Oscillations .............................................................................................................520
Weights of Nodal Masses....................................................................................................................................521
Inertial Forces .....................................................................................................................................................521
Accelerations.......................................................................................................................................................521
Unsupported Lengths of Bar Elements ...............................................................................................................522
Saving the Deformed Model ...............................................................................................................................522
Accounting for the Initial Imperfections.............................................................................................................523
12.3.Analysis of Forces in Bars...............................................................................................................................524
12.4.Analysis of Forces and Stresses in Plate Elements..........................................................................................526
Control of the Display of Forces and Stresses ....................................................................................................526
Selective Marking of Force Factors ....................................................................................................................528
Plotting Stress Diagrams .....................................................................................................................................528
Isofields of Stresses in Plates ..............................................................................................................................529
Units of Measurement of Force Factors..............................................................................................................531
12.5.Analysis of the Results of Postprocessing .......................................................................................................532
12.6.Graphical Display of the Reactions in Constraints ..........................................................................................533
12.7.Graphical Display of the Forces in Special Finite Elements ...........................................................................533
12.8.Generation of the Groups of Elements ............................................................................................................534
13. DOCUMENTATION OF THE INITIAL DATA AND ANALYSIS RESULTS .....................................535
13.1.Generator of Tables in a Text Format..............................................................................................................535
13.2.Documenter .....................................................................................................................................................538
13.3.Reading the Results .........................................................................................................................................540
Window of the Processor ....................................................................................................................................540
Documentation of the Initial Data.......................................................................................................................544
13.4.Displacements of Nodes ..................................................................................................................................544
Positive Directions of Displacements .................................................................................................................545
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Table of contents
Tables of Displacements..................................................................................................................................... 545

Displacements from Combinations of Loadings ................................................................................................ 547
13.5.Tables of Forces and Stresses in Elements ..................................................................................................... 547
13.6.Stresses and Forces ......................................................................................................................................... 550
Forces in Bars..................................................................................................................................................... 550
Flat Finite Elements............................................................................................................................................ 553
Solid Finite Elements ......................................................................................................................................... 560
Multilayer Shell Elements .................................................................................................................................. 561
Axisymmetric Finite Elements ........................................................................................................................... 563
Special Finite Elements ...................................................................................................................................... 563
13.7.Reactions in Constraints ................................................................................................................................. 566
13.8.Natural Oscillations ........................................................................................................................................ 566
13.9.Design Combinations of Forces (DCF) .......................................................................................................... 568
13.10.DCF at the Analysis of the Progressive Collapse ......................................................................................... 570
13.11.Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints........................................................................................ 570
13.12.Design Combinations of Displacements (DCD) ........................................................................................... 571
13.13.Design Combinations of Deflections ............................................................................................................ 572
13.14.Design Combinations of Punching ............................................................................................................... 572
13.15.Loads from the Structural Fragment ............................................................................................................. 573
13.16.Punching Loads............................................................................................................................................. 573
13.17.Stability Analysis.......................................................................................................................................... 574
13.18.Principal and Equivalent Stresses ................................................................................................................. 575
13.19.Results of the Check of the Elements of Reinforced Concrete and Steel Structures and of the Selection of
Reinforcement and Rolled Steel Sections............................................................................................................... 576
14. ERECTION .................................................................................................................................................. 577
14.1.Creating a Project............................................................................................................................................ 577
14.2.Erection Toolbar ............................................................................................................................................. 578
Initialization of the New Erection Stage............................................................................................................. 579
Adjusting Settings of the Erection Stage ............................................................................................................ 580
Deleting the Erection Stage ................................................................................................................................ 581
Adding Elements in the Current Erection Stage................................................................................................. 581
Deleting Elements in the Current Erection Stage ............................................................................................... 581
Changing the Elastic Moduli for the Current Erection Stage ............................................................................. 581
Creating a List of Loadings ................................................................................................................................ 582
Specifying and Modifying Constraints............................................................................................................... 583
Specifying Hinges .............................................................................................................................................. 583
Deleting Hinges.................................................................................................................................................. 583
Specifying and Changing the Subsoil Parameters .............................................................................................. 584
Specifying Merged Displacements..................................................................................................................... 584
Save Information on the Current Stage as a Separate Problem .......................................................................... 584
Creating and Modifying the Main Model........................................................................................................... 584
14.3.Analysis .......................................................................................................................................................... 585
14.4.Analysis of Results ......................................................................................................................................... 585
14.5.Design Combinations of Forces...................................................................................................................... 586
14.6.Calculation of Elements of Steel and Reinforced Concrete Structures........................................................... 586
15. DIRECT INTEGRATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION ......................................................... 588
15.1.Problem Formulation ...................................................................................................................................... 588
15.2.Specifying the Initial Information................................................................................................................... 592
Specifying the Characteristics of the Dynamic Loading .................................................................................... 592
Specifying Nodal Actions................................................................................................................................... 595
15.3.Calculation ...................................................................................................................................................... 596
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Table of contents
15.4.Results of the Calculation................................................................................................................................597

Results of the Calculation at a Fixed Time .........................................................................................................597
Graphs of Displacements, Velocities and Accelerations of Nodes .....................................................................598
Graphs of Forces (Stresses) in Elements.............................................................................................................598
16. VARIATION OF MODELS ........................................................................................................................600
16.1.Accounting for the Uncertainty of the Parameters of the Design Model.........................................................600
16.2.Differences between Models ...........................................................................................................................600
16.3.Generate a Package of Models ........................................................................................................................600
16.4.Design Combinations of Forces ......................................................................................................................602
16.5.Results of the Calculation and Their Analysis.................................................................................................602
16.6.Using the Variation of Models ........................................................................................................................603
Stiffness Properties .............................................................................................................................................603
Compliance of the Subsoil ..................................................................................................................................604
Nodal Connections..............................................................................................................................................604
17. COMBINATIONS OF LOADINGS ...........................................................................................................605
18. DESIGN COMBINATIONS........................................................................................................................607
18.1.Fundamental Principles ...................................................................................................................................607
Logical Relationship between Loadings .............................................................................................................609
18.2.Criteria of DCF................................................................................................................................................609
Bars .....................................................................................................................................................................609
Membranes (Plane Stress State)..........................................................................................................................610
Plates ...................................................................................................................................................................611
Shells...................................................................................................................................................................611
Special Elements .................................................................................................................................................611
Numbering of the Criteria of DCF ......................................................................................................................611
18.3.Criteria of DCD ...............................................................................................................................................612
18.4.Criteria of Design Combinations of Deflections .............................................................................................612
18.5.Criteria of Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints.........................................................................612
18.6.Criteria of Design Combinations of Punching.................................................................................................613
18.7.Data Preparation ..............................................................................................................................................613
Peculiarities of Specifying Combinations for EN 1990 ......................................................................................617
Peculiarities of Specifying Combinations for Variations of Models, Erection, and Nonlinear Problems...........618
Allowing for the Pulsation Component of the Wind Load..................................................................................619
Crane Loads ........................................................................................................................................................619
Unification ..........................................................................................................................................................620
Groups for DCF ..................................................................................................................................................621
18.8.Design Combinations of Displacements..........................................................................................................622
18.9.Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints ..........................................................................................623
18.10.Design Combinations of Deflections.............................................................................................................623
18.11.Design Combinations for the Progressive Collapse ......................................................................................623
18.12.Analysis of Results (DCF and DCD Postprocessor) .....................................................................................623
Create Combinations of Loadings for DCF ........................................................................................................624
Show Elements the DCF of which Include the Specified Loadings....................................................................625
Show Combinations which Include the Specified Loading.................................................................................625
Show Elements the DCF of which Include the Specified Combinations ............................................................626
Color Indication of Design Combinations of Forces...........................................................................................626
Color Indication of Design Combinations of Displacements..............................................................................627
Color Indication of Design Combinations of Forces (Progressive Collapse)......................................................627
Envelopes of the Diagram of Design Combinations of Forces ...........................................................................627
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Table of contents
Envelopes of the Diagram of Design Combinations of Forces (Progressive Collapse)...................................... 628

Design Combinations of Reactions in Constraints ............................................................................................. 628
Information on the Element/Node ...................................................................................................................... 628
19. REINFORCEMENT OF SECTIONS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ELEMENTS ....................... 630
Definition of the Main Concepts ........................................................................................................................ 630
Reinforcement of Two-dimensional Elements ................................................................................................... 631
Reinforcement of Bar Elements ......................................................................................................................... 631
19.1.Limitations ...................................................................................................................................................... 632
19.2.Selection of Design Codes .............................................................................................................................. 633
19.3.General Information about the Reinforcement Modules................................................................................. 634
Bar 2D (Uniaxial Stress State)............................................................................................................................ 634
Bar 3D (Biaxial Stress State).............................................................................................................................. 635
Plate. Shell.......................................................................................................................................................... 636
Deep Beam ......................................................................................................................................................... 636
19.4.Work with the Postprocessor .......................................................................................................................... 637
19.5.Structural Members and Groups of Structural Members ................................................................................ 637
19.6.Input the Initial Data ....................................................................................................................................... 638
Creating New Structural Groups ........................................................................................................................ 639
The Reinforcement of Bars and Reinforcement of Plates Dialog Boxes............................................................ 639
Selection with Limitation ................................................................................................................................... 640
Accounting for the Maximum Allowable Displacements .................................................................................. 641
Importance Factors ............................................................................................................................................. 641
Additional Information on the Initial Data ......................................................................................................... 642
Correcting the Initial Data of the Structural Groups........................................................................................... 646
Dividing a Group of Reinforcement into Two Groups or More......................................................................... 646
19.7.Main and Additional Groups .......................................................................................................................... 647
19.8.Selection of Elements of Groups .................................................................................................................... 648
19.9.Active Group Visualization Mode .................................................................................................................. 648
19.10.Control of the Groups of Reinforced Concrete Structural Members ............................................................ 648
Specify the Classes of Concrete and Reinforcement .......................................................................................... 650
Information on the Groups of Reinforcement .................................................................................................... 651
19.11.Setting the List of Reinforcement Spacing ................................................................................................... 651
19.12.Selection of Reinforcement........................................................................................................................... 652
Output the Results of the Selection .................................................................................................................... 653
Transformation of the Results of the Reinforcement Selection.......................................................................... 655
Graphical Representation of Results of the Selection of Reinforcement in Bar Elements ................................. 657
Graphical Representation of Results of the Selection of Reinforcement in Plate Elements............................... 658
Export of the Results of Selection of Reinforcement in a Plate to the Design Subsystem of ALLPLAN.......... 660
Generating a Report............................................................................................................................................ 660
19.13.Reading the Results of the Reinforcement Selection .................................................................................... 661
Bar Elements ...................................................................................................................................................... 661
Plate Elements .................................................................................................................................................... 663
19.14.Check of the Specified Reinforcement ......................................................................................................... 663
Specifying the Reinforcement Layout of Plate Elements ................................................................................... 664
Specifying the Reinforcement Layout of Bar Elements ..................................................................................... 666
Graphical Representation of the Specified Reinforcement in Bar Elements ...................................................... 668
Display of the Color Map of the Specified Reinforcement in Plate Elements.................................................... 668
Display Results of the Check ............................................................................................................................. 668
Extreme Factor Values ....................................................................................................................................... 669
Generating a Report............................................................................................................................................ 670
Information on the Element – Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Structures....................................................... 671
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Table of contents
Specified Reinforcement Filter ...........................................................................................................................672

19.15.Weight of the Specified Reinforcement ........................................................................................................674
19.16.Basic Principles of the Selection of Reinforcement in the Finite Elements of a Slab and Shell....................674
Selection of the Type of Reinforcement .............................................................................................................674
Strength Check....................................................................................................................................................677
Analysis for Lateral Forces .................................................................................................................................679
Determination of the Crack Opening Width .......................................................................................................679
General Algorithm ..............................................................................................................................................681
19.17.Implementation of SNiP 52-101-2003 and SP 63.13330.2012......................................................................681
19.18.Factors in Stress-Strain Models .....................................................................................................................682
19.19.Examples of Using the Results of the Reinforcement Selection in Designing ..............................................684
19.20.Punching Analysis .........................................................................................................................................686
Data Preparation, Calculation and Analysis of Results.......................................................................................688
Specify Punching Nodes .....................................................................................................................................688
Select Punching Nodes........................................................................................................................................689
Show Punching Nodes ........................................................................................................................................689
Calculation ..........................................................................................................................................................690
Show Punching Contours....................................................................................................................................690
Display Results ...................................................................................................................................................691
Table of Results ..................................................................................................................................................691
Generating a Report ............................................................................................................................................692
20. CHECK OF THE LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY OF STEEL SECTIONS ..........................................694
Input the Initial Data ...........................................................................................................................................694
20.1.Setting the Parameters .....................................................................................................................................696
Steel ....................................................................................................................................................................696
Service Factors....................................................................................................................................................696
Limit Slenderness................................................................................................................................................697
Creating New Structural Groups.........................................................................................................................698
20.2.Specifying New Structural Members...............................................................................................................698
Effective Length Factors .....................................................................................................................................698
Accounting for the Maximum Allowable Displacements ...................................................................................699
Importance Factors..............................................................................................................................................699
Replacing a Section of a Structural Member.......................................................................................................700
Type of the Structural Member ...........................................................................................................................700
Corrosion analysis...............................................................................................................................................701
Copying the Parameters of Structural Members .................................................................................................701
Control of Structural Members ...........................................................................................................................701
20.3.Specifying Groups of Structural Members ......................................................................................................702
Accounting for the Maximum Allowable Displacements ...................................................................................703
20.4.Correcting the Parameters of Structural Members and Groups of Structural Members ..................................703
Copying the Parameters of Groups of Structural Members ................................................................................704
20.5.Main and Additional Groups ...........................................................................................................................704
20.6.Specifying Unification Groups........................................................................................................................705
20.7.Selection of Elements of Groups .....................................................................................................................706
20.8.Active Group Visualization Mode...................................................................................................................707
20.9.Control of the Groups of Steel Structural Members and Groups of Unifications............................................707
20.10.Changing Steels in the Groups of Structural Members .................................................................................708
20.11.Information on the Groups of Steel Structural Members...............................................................................710
20.12.Visualization of the Modified Sections .........................................................................................................710
20.13.Restore Initial Sections..................................................................................................................................711
887
Table of contents
20.14.Changing the Design Codes.......................................................................................................................... 711

20.15.Check and Selection of Sections................................................................................................................... 712
20.16.On Seismic Actions ...................................................................................................................................... 718
20.17.Analysis of Custom Sections ........................................................................................................................ 719
20.18.Display Results ............................................................................................................................................. 719
20.19.Generating a Report ...................................................................................................................................... 721
20.20.Extreme values of factors.............................................................................................................................. 722
20.21.Create Elements of the Technical Specification for Steel............................................................................. 723
20.22.Steel Consumption........................................................................................................................................ 723
20.23.Selection of Sections..................................................................................................................................... 725
20.24.Information on the Results of the Selection.................................................................................................. 727
Information on the Work of the Postprocessor................................................................................................... 728
21. CALCULATION OF LOADS FROM THE STRUCTURAL FRAGMENT.......................................... 729
21.1.Input Initial Data ............................................................................................................................................. 730
21.2.Description of Fragments................................................................................................................................ 731
21.3.Graphical Analysis of the Results of the Calculation of Loads from the Structural Fragment ....................... 732
22. PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE ANALYSIS................................................................................................ 734
22.1Data Preparation .............................................................................................................................................. 735
The Progressive Collapse Dialog Box................................................................................................................ 735
Peculiarities of Using the Results of the Reinforcement Selection .................................................................... 737
22.2Calculation....................................................................................................................................................... 737
22.3Analysis of Results .......................................................................................................................................... 737
References to Chapter 22.................................................................................................................................... 739
23. STABILITY ANALYSIS............................................................................................................................. 740
23.1.Problem Formulation ...................................................................................................................................... 740
23.2.Search of the Stability Factor of Safety .......................................................................................................... 741
23.3.Buckling Modes.............................................................................................................................................. 742
23.4.Unsupported Lengths ...................................................................................................................................... 742
23.5.Unsupported Lengths and Effective Length Factors....................................................................................... 743
23.6.Design Codes and Stability Analysis of Bars ................................................................................................. 744
23.7.Input Data ....................................................................................................................................................... 744
23.8.Peculiarities of the Analysis for the Dynamic Loadings................................................................................. 745
23.9.Analysis of Results ......................................................................................................................................... 746
24. ENERGY POSTPROCESSOR................................................................................................................... 747
25. PRINCIPAL AND EQUIVALENT STRESSES ....................................................................................... 749
25.1.Principal Stresses for Different Types of Finite Elements .............................................................................. 750
Spatial Problem of the Theory of Elasticity ....................................................................................................... 750
Deep Beam Elements ......................................................................................................................................... 750
Plates and Shells................................................................................................................................................. 751
Bar Elements ...................................................................................................................................................... 752
25.2.Calculating Equivalent Stresses ...................................................................................................................... 753
25.3.Preparing Data for the Calculation of the Principal and Equivalent Stresses ................................................. 754
25.4.Graphical Display of the Results of the Calculation of the Principal and Equivalent Stresses....................... 755
Color Display of Principal/Equivalent Stresses in Bars ..................................................................................... 756
Display of Directions of Principal Planes........................................................................................................... 757
26. NONLINEAR CALCULATIONS IN SCAD ............................................................................................. 758
26.1.General Information........................................................................................................................................ 758
888
Table of contents
26.2.Geometric Nonlinearity ...................................................................................................................................759

26.3.Cable-Stayed Elements....................................................................................................................................761
26.4.Unilateral Constraints......................................................................................................................................764
26.5.Control of the Nonlinear Analysis...................................................................................................................766
Nonlinear Loading History .................................................................................................................................769
27. AMPLITUDE-FREQUENCY CHARACTERISTICS..............................................................................770
27.1.Preparation of the Initial Data .........................................................................................................................771
28. RESPONSE SPECTRA................................................................................................................................773
28.1.Seismic Analysis .............................................................................................................................................773
28.2.Accelerograms and Response Spectra .............................................................................................................774
28.3.Input Data and Analysis of the Results............................................................................................................775
28.4.Preparation of the Accelerogram Files ............................................................................................................777
29. DATA ARCHIVING LANGUAGE ............................................................................................................778
29.1.Export and Import Text Files with the Initial Data..........................................................................................778
29.2.Architecture and Syntax of the Archiving Language ......................................................................................779
Reduction of the Volume of the Initial Information When There are Regularities .............................................781
29.3.General Information on the Problem. Document 0 “Header”..........................................................................782
Code of the Problem (Line 1)..............................................................................................................................783
Index of the System Type (Line 2)......................................................................................................................784
Coordinate Systems (Line 3)...............................................................................................................................785
Calculation of Forces in the Intermediate Sections and Nodes (Line 4) .............................................................785
Control of the Calculation of the Design Combinations of Forces (Line 8) .......................................................785
Unification of the Sections of Elements (Line 12)..............................................................................................785
Organization of the Groups of Design Combinations of Forces (Line 15) .........................................................786
Allowable Number of Crane and Brake Loadings Included in the Design Combinations of Forces (Line 16) ..786
Data for Stability (Line 21) .................................................................................................................................786
Data for Calculating the Principal and Equivalent Stresses (Line 22) ................................................................787
Parameters of the Calculation (Line 23) .............................................................................................................787
Lists of the Deleted Nodes and Elements (Lines 31 and 32)...............................................................................787
Units of Measurement (Line 33) .........................................................................................................................788
29.4.Documents Describing the Design Model .......................................................................................................788
Document 1. “Elements”.....................................................................................................................................788
Document 2. “Boundary Conditions” .................................................................................................................789
Document 4. “Coordinates” ................................................................................................................................789
Document 5. “Constraints” .................................................................................................................................789
29.5.Properties of Elements.....................................................................................................................................790
Document 3. “Stiffness Properties” ....................................................................................................................790
Document 31. “Rigid Inserts” .............................................................................................................................794
Document 32. “Position of the Principal Axes of Inertia” ..................................................................................795
Document 33. “Coordinate Systems for Calculating Stresses and Forces”.........................................................795
Document 34. “Subsoil Parameters”...................................................................................................................796
29.6.Specifying Static Loadings..............................................................................................................................796
Document 6. “Types of Loads”...........................................................................................................................796
Document 7. “Values of Loads” .........................................................................................................................797
Documents 9 and 10. “Groups of Loads” ...........................................................................................................799
29.7.Description of Dynamic Loadings...................................................................................................................800
889
Table of contents
Description of Masses in Documents 6 and 7 .................................................................................................... 800

Characteristics of Dynamic Loadings................................................................................................................. 800
Specifying Pulse Loads ...................................................................................................................................... 801
Specifying Impact Loads.................................................................................................................................... 801
Files with Pulse Parameters................................................................................................................................ 802
Document 71. “Loading History”....................................................................................................................... 802
29.8.Auxiliary Documents ...................................................................................................................................... 802
Document 21. “Grid Lines”................................................................................................................................ 802
Document 27. “Meshing Contour”..................................................................................................................... 803
Document 47. “Groups of Elements” ................................................................................................................. 803
Document 48. “Groups of Nodes”...................................................................................................................... 803
29.9.Erection Documents........................................................................................................................................ 803
29.10.Documents for Checking and Selecting Rolled Steel Sections ..................................................................... 804
29.11.Documents for Reinforcing Sections of R/C Elements and Its Check.......................................................... 804
29.12.Initial Data of Postprocessors ....................................................................................................................... 804
Documents of Design Combinations.................................................................................................................. 804
Documents of Design Combinations for Nonlinear Analysis............................................................................. 804
Document 36. “Combinations of Loadings” ...................................................................................................... 805
Document 37. “Stability” ................................................................................................................................... 805
Document 38. “Principal and Equivalent Stresses”............................................................................................ 805
Document 39. “Loads from the Structural Fragment”........................................................................................ 806
Document 53. “Reinforcement of Reinforced Concrete Elements” ................................................................... 806
Document 70. Progressive Collapse................................................................................................................... 806
29.13.Special Coordinate Systems.......................................................................................................................... 806
29.14.Specifying a Load in the Special Coordinate Systems.................................................................................. 808
30. SERVICE FUNCTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 810
30.1.Save the Fragment of the Model ..................................................................................................................... 810
30.2.Special Functions of the Service Menu........................................................................................................... 810
Formula Calculator............................................................................................................................................. 810
Converting Units of Measurement ..................................................................................................................... 811
Properties of Concrete ........................................................................................................................................ 812
Characteristics of Reinforcement ....................................................................................................................... 812
30.3.Import and Export the Initial Data Prepared in the Form of the Text Description.......................................... 816
30.4.Comments to the Project................................................................................................................................. 817
30.5.Section Viewer................................................................................................................................................ 817
30.6.Graphics Editor ............................................................................................................................................... 819
Create Graphics Objects ..................................................................................................................................... 820
Editing Objects ................................................................................................................................................... 822
30.7.Accelerogram Editor....................................................................................................................................... 824
Settings ............................................................................................................................................................... 825
Loading and Editing an Accelerogram ............................................................................................................... 826
Creating Plots ..................................................................................................................................................... 827
General Properties .............................................................................................................................................. 827
30.8.Editor of Dynamic Amplification Factor ........................................................................................................ 828
30.9.CoCon – Reference Manual............................................................................................................................ 829
30.10.KUST – Design-Theoretical Reference Manual ........................................................................................... 829
31. SETTINGS.................................................................................................................................................... 830
31.1.Units of Measurement..................................................................................................................................... 830
31.2.Express Setting of the Units of Measurement................................................................................................. 831
31.3.Font Setting..................................................................................................................................................... 831
890
Table of contents
31.4.Sections ...........................................................................................................................................................832
31.5.Report and Languages .....................................................................................................................................832
31.6.EN 1993 Settings.............................................................................................................................................832
31.7.Visualization Settings of the Result Tables .....................................................................................................833
31.8.Format Pages for Printing................................................................................................................................834
31.9.Setting the Design Codes.................................................................................................................................835
31.10.Specifying Work Directories .........................................................................................................................835
31.11.Table Settings ................................................................................................................................................835
31.12.Toolbar Settings.............................................................................................................................................836
32. IMPORT AND EXPORT SCAD DATA.....................................................................................................837
32.1.Import Design Models.....................................................................................................................................837
Import Graphics Files..........................................................................................................................................840
Plugins ................................................................................................................................................................841
IFC ......................................................................................................................................................................843
CIS/2 ...................................................................................................................................................................844
SDNF ..................................................................................................................................................................844
GMSH.................................................................................................................................................................844
GTC ....................................................................................................................................................................845
Femap..................................................................................................................................................................845
STAAD ...............................................................................................................................................................845
ABAQUS ............................................................................................................................................................846
ANSYS ...............................................................................................................................................................848
32.2.Export SCAD Data ..........................................................................................................................................848
IFC ......................................................................................................................................................................849
CIS/2 ...................................................................................................................................................................850
SDNF ..................................................................................................................................................................851
GMSH.................................................................................................................................................................852
GTC ....................................................................................................................................................................852
Femap..................................................................................................................................................................853
STAAD ...............................................................................................................................................................854
ABAQUS ............................................................................................................................................................855
ANSYS ...............................................................................................................................................................858
APPENDIX.................................................................................................................................................................859
List of Assortments of Rolled Profiles................................................................................................................859
Extensions of the Files in the Working Directory of SCAD ...............................................................................867
"Hot" Keys and Context Menu Settings..............................................................................................................870
891

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SCAD Office

V.S.Karpilovskyy, E.Z.Kryksunov, А.А Maliarenko,

SCAD Soft 2018

1. SCAD Office System

Figure 1-1. Structure of the SCAD Office

1.1. Structure CAD

Processor and Finite Element Library

Figure 1.1-1. Structure of SCAD

Graphical Tools for Generating a Design Model

Enlarged Design Models and Connection with Other Systems

Figure 1.1-2. Design model generated in the FORUM preprocessor

Documenting the Results

1.2. Design and Analysis Programs

Figure 1.2-1. The check of the load-bearing capacity of a column in ARBAT

(Annex F of SP 50-101-2004, Annexes E, G, L of SP 22.13330.2011 or Annex I of DBN B.2.1-10-2009);

1.3. Design and Engineering Programs

1.4. Auxiliary Programs

 position and characteristics of the boreholes;

1.5. Service Functions

2.1. Structure and Its Design Model

Design Model According to the Slope Deflection Method

Figure 2.1-1. Depiction of a design model: a — traditional; b — detailed

Figure 2.1-2. Two ways of representing the same design model

Principal and Auxiliary Unknowns

External and Internal Constraints

Junction between Elements and Nodes

Groups, Substructures, Super-Elements

Loads and Actions

2.2. Basic Relationships of the Finite Element Method

Linear Static Analysis

where p and q are vectors of volume and surface forces, respectively.

The expression (2.2.4) can be represented in the following form:

and its minimization produces the system of governing equations of FEM:

We have to distinguish between linear and angular

Figure 2.2-2. Modeling of a wide rib by the rigid bodies

Figure 2.2-3. Modeling of a non-central thickness jump

Figure 2.2-4. Modeling of a step

Figure 2.2-5. Modeling of the slab-to-column joint area

where I is a unit matrix, and  = 1/.

Accounting for Damping

 loss factor (complex internal friction)  ;

Let’s use the equation (2.2.28) at i = 1, 2 to find the unknowns α, β:

2.3. Solving Systems of Equations

2.4. Standard Dynamic Load Cases

 direct integration of the equations of motion.

and the square of the dynamic amplification factor is determined as follows:

Figure 2.4-1. Plotting the dynamic amplification factor curve

where i=2, if Ti+1/Ti0,9 and i=0, if Ti+1/Ti<0,9 (Ti>Ti+1).

Figure 2.4-2. Shape functions of pulse loads

where the coefficients are

Analysis with Accelerograms

Direct Integration of the Equations of Motion

velocities uˆ , uˆ , uˆ ; M, K , C – stiffness, mass, and dissipation matrices corresponding to the degrees of

Similarly pt    p  k p  f p t  t0p  , where p  1, 2, , N p – numbers of static loadings at the

2.5. Stability of Equilibrium

Analysis of a Role Played by Particular Subsystems

E2 = 0,5(Z*)Т[K0,2 – K1,2(S*)]Z*, (2.5.11)

2.6. Design Combinations of Forces (DCF)

Figure 2.6-1. Numbering of the checkpoints

Membranes (Plane Stress State)

E2 = 0,5(Z)Т[K0,2 – K1,2(S)]Z*, (2.5.11)