HUMAN

SECURITY
NOW
COMMISSION ON HUMAN SECURITY

New York
2003
Copyright © Commission on Human Security 2003

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ISBN 0-9741108-0-9
Members of the Commission on Human Security

Members of the Commission on Human Security

Co-chairs Sonia Picado S.
Sadako Ogata President of the Board of Directors of the
Scholar-in-Residence, the Ford Foundation, and Inter-American Institute of Human Rights
former United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees Surin Pitsuwan
Member of Parliament and former Minister of
Amartya Sen Foreign Affairs, Thailand
Master, Trinity College, Cambridge, and
Nobel Laureate in Economics, 1998 Donna E. Shalala
President of the University of Miami and former
Commissioners Secretary of Health and Human Services, United
Lakhdar Brahimi States
Special Representative of the UN Secretary-
General for Afghanistan and UN Under Secretary- Peter Sutherland
General Chairman and Managing Director, Goldman Sachs
International, Chairman of BP and former
Lincoln C. Chen Director-General of the General Agreement on
Director, Global Equity Initiative, Harvard Tariffs and Trade
University, and former Vice President of the
Rockefeller Foundation Albert Tevoedjre
Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for
Bronislaw Geremek Côte d’Ivoire, former Deputy Director General of
Historian, former Foreign Minister of Poland the International Labour Organization and former
Minister of Planning, Benin
Frene Frenny Noshir Ginwala
Speaker of the National Assembly of the Carl Tham
Parliament, Republic of South Africa. Swedish Ambassador to Germany and former
Secretary-General of the Olof Palme Centre

iii
Foreword

When the idea of an independent Commission for This report should be seen in the light of the
Human Security was launched at the 2000 UN increased challenges the world faces and the
Millennium Summit, there was general agreement enhanced opportunities. Human security is
on the importance of “freedom from want” and concerned with safeguarding and expanding people’s
“freedom from fear”. Today, three years later, the vital freedoms. It requires both shielding people from
fears are larger and the apprehensions greater. This acute threats and empowering people to take charge
report is an attempt to respond to both old and of their own lives. Needed are integrated policies that
new worries and also to the underlying reasons for focus on people’s survival, livelihood and dignity,
concern. during downturns as well as in prosperity.
In addition to the persistent problems and The demands of human security involve a
vulnerabilities with which the world has long been broad range of interconnected issues. In its work,
familiar, there is a new wave of dramatic crises at the Commission has concentrated on a number of
the turn of the millennium related to terrorist distinct but interrelated areas concerned with
attacks, ethnic violence, epidemics and sudden conflict and poverty, protecting people during
economic downturns. There is also a fear that violent conflict and in post-conflict situations,
existing institutions and policies are not able to defending people who are forced to move,
cope with weakening multilateralism, falling overcoming economic insecurities, guaranteeing
respect for human rights, eroding commitments to the availability and affordability of essential health
eradicate poverty and deprivation, outdated care, and ensuring the elimination of illiteracy and
sectarian perspectives in education systems and the educational deprivation and of schools that
tendency to neglect global responsibilities in an promote intolerance. The recommendations of the
increasingly interrelated world. Commission involve policies aimed at both
At the same time, the opportunities for empowerment and protection, and focus on what
working towards removing insecurity across the can be done in the short and the long run to
world are also larger now than ever before. enhance the opportunities for eliminating
Globalization, despite its challenges, creates new insecurities across the world.
opportunities for economic expansion and, if This report can, of course, be no more than a
properly aligned, can reach peoples and countries beginning, but it is, we believe, extremely
that were previously excluded. Democratic important to move rapidly in the right direction.
principles and practices are continuing to gain The task demands leadership and vision as well as
ground and to attract stronger support. There has commitment from the world community.
also been a massive increase in the role of civil
society and of community organizations. Further, ****
the Millennium Development Goals represent a The independent Commission on Human
major initiative aimed at removing deprivations, Security was an initiative of the Government
on which efforts to improve human security can of Japan. We are grateful for the support
build. and encouragement of UN Secretary-

iv
 Foreword
General Kofi Annan and the active engagement and Center for International Exchange. The United
commitment to human security of successive Prime Nations Office for Project Services efficiently
Ministers of Japan: Keizo Obuchi, Yoshiro Mori managed the administrative arrangements. We are
and Junichiro Koizumi. The continuing support of grateful for their generosity and confidence in our
Ruud Lubbers, UN High Commissioner for work.
Refugees, and Mark Malloch-Brown, Administrator The commissioners each brought unique
of the United Nations Development Programme, contributions to the Commission’s work, reflecting
made possible the establishment of the Commission their wide-ranging professional expertise and
Secretariat and implementation of its research personal commitment. Their insights contributed
programme. We would like to express our deep enormously to the richness of this report. We are
appreciation for their cooperation and advice. We now counting on them to assist in translating the
plan to carry forward their ideas as well as the concept of human security into concrete policy
outcomes of the Commission’s work into a new programmes in their regions of the world.
Advisory Board for Human Security. Finally, we would like to thank those—indeed
The work of the Commission received a great many—who have shared their
generous financial support from the Ministry of understanding, fears and hopes about human
Foreign Affairs of Japan. It also received support security with the Commission in many parts of the
from the Government of Sweden, the World world. We count on everyone’s continuing support
Bank, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Japan to advance human security around the world.

Sadako Ogata Amartya Sen

v
Contents
Members of the Commission on Human Security iii
Foreword iv

Chapter 1 Human security now 1

Security centred on people—not states 2
Protection and empowerment for human security 10
Interdependence and shared sovereignty 12
Feature: Special issues in human security 14

Chapter 2 People caught up in violent conflict 20

Changes in violent conflict 21
Adopting a human security approach 24
Policy conclusions 33

Chapter 3 People on the move 40

Movements of people and state security 42
Movements of people—and development 44
Filling gaps in the institutional and normative frameworks 45
Adopting a human security approach 46
Policy conclusions 52

Chapter 4 Recovering from violent conflict 56

Adopting a human security approach 58
Ensuring public safety 61
Meeting immediate humanitarian needs 63
Launching rehabilitation and reconstruction 64
Emphasizing reconciliation and coexistence 65
Promoting governance and empowerment 66
A new resource mobilization strategy 69
Policy conclusions 70

Chapter 5 Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities 72

Poverty and human security 73
Adopting a human security approach 73
Policy conclusions 90

Chapter 6 Better health for human security 94

The links between health and human security 96
Adopting a human security approach 102
Policy conclusions 109

Chapter 7 Knowledge, skills and values for human security 113

Connecting basic education to human security 114
Adopting a human security approach 116
Policy conclusions 124

vi
Chapter 8 Ways to advance the security of people 129
A global initiative for human security 131
Addressing the basics 133
Linking the many initiatives in a global alliance 142

Outreach for human security 144

Contents
About the Commission on Human Security 153

Boxes
1.1 Rethinking security: An imperative for Africa? 3
1.2 Human security and state security 5
1.3 Development, rights and human security 8
2.1 Conflict data are state-centred, not people-centred 22
2.2 Conflict and interpersonal violence 23
2.3 Compassion fatigue and humanitarian action 29
2.4 Civil society and conflict in multiethnic societies 32
3.1 Managing massive population movements—the break-up of the former Soviet Union 43
3.2 Ensuring refugee security 50
4.1 Gaps in today’s post-conflict strategies 59
4.2 “Imagine Coexistence” projects in Rwanda and Bosnia 67
5.1 The challenge of extreme poverty 74
5.2 The market economy, non-market institutions and human security 76
5.3 The importance of foreign direct investment 77
5.4 Trade and protection 78
5.5 People’s alternatives: the case of SEWA 81
5.6 Civil society and human security 88
6.1 Controlling infectious disease 98
6.2 Ensuring human security for women: reproductive health 100
6.3 What role can antiretroviral drugs play in combating the HIV/AIDS threat? 105
6.4 Minimizing threats to human security through global health surveillance 106
6.5 Community-based health insurance 109
7.1 Private sector partnerships for education in South Africa 117
7.2 Famines, wars and information media 122
7.3 Inflammatory education 124
7.4 The power of the information media for tolerance or terror 125
8.1 Global inequality and persistent conflicts 132

Tables
3.1 Countries with the largest number of international migrants, 2000 40
3.2 Countries with the largest number of internally displaced persons, 2002 41
4.1 Key human security clusters following violent conflict 60
6.1 Estimated global violence-related deaths, 2000 101

Figures
3.1 UNHCR data on refugee population and movements, 1992–2001 41
6.1 The global burden of disease, 2000 95
6.2 Health and human security linkages 97
6.3 Estimates of current and future HIV/AIDS-infected adults in next-wave countries 99
7.1 Estimated world illiteracy rates, by region and gender, 2000 114

vii
Human security
now

1
 With human security the
objective, there must be a
stronger and more integrated
response from communities and
states around the globe

Today’s global flows of goods, services, finance, in the 21st century—a response to the threats of
people and images spotlight the many development reversed, to the threats of violence
interlinkages in the security of all people. We inflicted. With so many dangers transmitted so
share a planet, a biosphere, a technological rapidly in today’s interlinked world, policies and
arsenal, a social fabric. The security of one institutions must respond in new ways to protect
person, one community, one nation rests on the individuals and communities and to empower
decisions of many others—sometimes them to thrive. That response cannot be effective if
fortuitously, sometimes precariously. Political it comes fragmented—from those dealing with
liberalization in recent decades has shifted rights, those with security, those with humanitarian
alliances and begun movements towards concerns and those with development. With
democracy. These processes opened human security the objective, there must be a
opportunities for people but also new fault stronger and more integrated response from
lines. And political and economic instabilities, communities and states around the globe.
some involving bitter conflicts with heavy
casualties and dislocations, have broken out Security centred on people—not states
within states. Thus people throughout the The international community urgently needs a
world, in developing and developed countries new paradigm of security. Why? Because the
alike, live under varied conditions of insecurity. security debate has changed dramatically since the
inception of state security advocated in the 17th
Institutions have gradually responded. The United century. According to that traditional idea, the
Nations completed more peacekeeping operations state would monopolize the rights and means to
in the 1990s than ever in its history. It also protect its citizens. State power and state security
negotiated new international agreements to stop would be established and expanded to sustain
some threats. Transnational corporations, working order and peace. But in the 21st century, both the
in many countries, have transformed scientific and challenges to security and its protectors have
informational advances into practical applications. become more complex. The state remains the
They regularly navigate diverse markets and fundamental purveyor of security. Yet it often fails
cultures, facilitating the exchange of goods and to fulfil its security obligations—and at times has
services. Regional entities are finding appropriate even become a source of threat to its own people.
avenues of coordinated action. And civil society That is why attention must now shift from the
organizations are flourishing, relying on low-cost security of the state to the security of the people—
electronic communication to keep expenses down. to human security (box 1.1).
This report’s call for human security is a Human security complements state security, en-
response to new opportunities for propelling hances human rights and strengthens human develop-
development, for dealing with conflict, for ment. It seeks to protect people against a broad range
blunting the many threats to human security. But of threats to individuals and communities and, further,
it is also a response to the proliferation of menace to empower them to act on their own behalf. And it

2
Box 1.1 Rethinking security: An imperative for governance. They enjoy the protection of fundamental
Africa? rights, have access to resources and the basic necessities
of life, including health and education, and inhabit an
1
Traditional notions of security, shaped largely by the environment that is not injurious to their health and
Cold War, were concerned mainly with a state’s ability well-being. Eradication of poverty is thus central to
to counter external threats. Threats to international ensuring the security of all people, as well as the
peace and security were also usually perceived as threats security of the state.

Human security now

from outside the state (see, for example, chapter 7 of This understanding of human security does not
the United Nations Charter). More recently, thinking replace the security of the state with the security of
about security has shifted. In Africa, for example, such people. It sees the two aspects as mutually dependent.
shifts can be traced to the internal struggles of African Security between states remains a necessary condition
people against colonial rule and occupation, whether in for the security of people, but national security is not
Algeria, Angola, Cape Verde, Kenya, Mozambique, sufficient to guarantee peoples’ security. For that, the
Namibia, South Africa or Zimbabwe. state must provide various protections to its citizens.
Views on security were shaped by the experiences of But individuals also require protection from the
colonialism and neocolonialism and by the complex arbitrary power of the state, through the rule of law
processes through which internal and external forces and emphasis on civil and political rights as well as
combined to dominate and subjugate people. The socio-economic rights.
enemy came from within the state, and the conditions Significantly, such thinking on security takes place
under which people lived every day placed them in alongside the development of renewed initiatives
chronic insecurity. These experiences introduced into focusing on regional and continental cooperation and
the debate such issues as whose security matters and regeneration. A convergence in how we understand
under what conditions, and what are the moral, ethical issues of security and how we view the effects on the
and legal bases for what is now termed a “just war”. lives of people is already evident in the founding
These experiences and perceptions were important in documents of the African Union, the New Partnership
shaping such disparate-seeming issues as how the for Africa’s Development, the Conference on Security,
women’s movement mobilized against oppression and Stability, Development and Cooperation in Africa, and
what form reconstruction, development and the reformed Southern African Development
reconciliation would take in newly independent Community, including its Organ on Politics, Defence
countries. Notable in Africa was the way the women’s and Security.
movement linked struggles for national independence But, of course, this does not mean an end to the
and security to the struggle for equality and social debate about the role of the state in security
equity. The persistent marginalization of countries in management. Rather, it reinforces the point that
Africa from processes of economic growth and without popular participation in shaping agendas on
development, however, reinforced perceptions of security, political and economic elites will go it alone in
exclusion and vulnerability. For these reasons, a process that will further marginalize and impoverish
development, poverty eradication and greater social the people of Africa. It is against this background that
equality were increasingly linked to conflict resolution, the idea of human security must become a tool and
peace-building and state building in Africa. instrument to advance the interests of humanity,
Thinking about security broadened from an exclusive particularly in Africa. Rethinking security in ways that
concern with the security of the state to a concern with place people and their participation at the centre is an
the security of people. Along with this shift came the imperative for the 21st century.
notion that states ought not to be the sole or main
referent of security. People’s interests or the interests of Frene Ginwala
humanity, as a collective, become the focus. In this way,
security becomes an all-encompassing condition in Note: Based on a presentation at the “Parliaments
which individual citizens live in freedom, peace and Uniting for African Unity Conference”, Cape Town,
safety and participate fully in the process of June 2002.

3
 Human security thus brings
together the human elements of
security, of rights, of development

seeks to forge a global alliance to strengthen the opportunities and choices to fulfil his or her
institutional policies that link individuals and the own potential. Every step in this direction is
state—and the state with a global world. Human also a step towards reducing poverty, achieving
security thus brings together the human elements of economic growth and preventing conflict.
security, of rights, of development. Freedom from want, freedom from fear and
The Commission on Human Security’s the freedom of future generations to inherit a
definition of human security: to protect the vital healthy natural environment—these are the
core of all human lives in ways that enhance interrelated building blocks of human, and
human freedoms and human fulfilment. Human therefore national, security.1
security means protecting fundamental freedoms—
freedoms that are the essence of life. It means Human security also reinforces human dignity.
protecting people from critical (severe) and People’s horizons extend far beyond survival, to
pervasive (widespread) threats and situations. It matters of love, culture and faith. Protecting a core
means using processes that build on people’s of activities and abilities is essential for human
strengths and aspirations. It means creating security, but that alone is not enough. Human
political, social, environmental, economic, military security must also aim at developing the
and cultural systems that together give people the capabilities of individuals and communities to
building blocks of survival, livelihood and dignity. make informed choices and to act on behalf of
The vital core of life is a set of elementary causes and interests in many spheres of life. That is
rights and freedoms people enjoy. What people why human security starts from the recognition
consider to be “vital”—what they consider to be “of that people are the most active participants in
the essence of life” and “crucially important”— determining their well-being. It builds on people’s
varies across individuals and societies. That is why efforts, strengthening what they do for themselves.
any concept of human security must be dynamic.
And that is why we refrain from proposing an Human security and state security
itemized list of what makes up human security. Human security complements “state security” in
As UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan points four respects (box 1.2):2
out, human security joins the main agenda items • Its concern is the individual and the community
of peace, security and development. Human rather than the state.
security is comprehensive in the sense that it • Menaces to people’s security include threats and
integrates these agendas: conditions that have not always been classified
as threats to state security.
Human security in its broadest sense embraces • The range of actors is expanded beyond the
far more than the absence of violent conflict. state alone.
It encompasses human rights, good gover- • Achieving human security includes not just
nance, access to education and health care and protecting people but also empowering people
ensuring that each individual has to fend for themselves.

4
Box 1.2 Human security and state security terrorism and the spread of weapons of mass

Security is facing new challenges. In the past, security

destruction, states may revert to a narrower
understanding of state security—rather than foster
1
threats were assumed to emanate from external sources. human security. The credibility and legitimacy of the
State security focused mainly on protecting the state— multilateral institutions and strategies are being
its boundaries, people, institutions and values—from questioned, and long-standing alliances among states
external attacks. are eroding. Under the guise of waging a war against

Human security now

Over the last decades, our understanding of state terrorism, human rights and humanitarian law are
security and the many types of threats has broadened. being violated. Even commitments to earlier
In addition to securing borders, people, values and international agreements are being reviewed.
institutions, we have come to understand the dangers Humanitarian action now also seems to be in crisis.
of environmental pollution, transnational terrorism, Few situations better reflect these new developments
massive population movements and such infectious than the ongoing Palestinian-Israeli conflict. The denial
diseases as HIV/AIDS. Most significant, there is of access to humanitarian actors to reach civilians, the
growing recognition of the role of people—of closing off of whole communities, the willful
individuals and communities—in ensuring their own destruction of civilian properties, as in the Jenin
security. refugee camp in 2002—all imply that people are being
This broadening of security reflects the changing held hostage to protect state security needs. Too little
international and national environments. Internal attention, as in the case of Iraq, is given to the impact
conflicts have overtaken interstate wars as the major on civilians and the possible implications for
threats to international peace and security. The maintaining the principles of impartiality, neutrality
globalization process has deeply transformed relationships and independence guiding humanitarian action. The
between and within states. Although more people than provision of life-saving humanitarian assistance should
ever have access to information and essential social goods, not be used as a bargaining tool in weapons issues, as
the gaps between rich and poor countries—and between in the case of the nuclear armament of the Democratic
wealthy and destitute people—have never been greater People’s Republic of Korea.
than today. The exclusion and deprivation of whole In a world of growing interdependence and
communities of people from the benefits of development transnational issues, reverting to unilateralism and a
naturally contribute to the tensions, violence and conflict narrow interpretation of state security cannot be the
within countries. answer. The United Nations stands as the best and
To achieve peace and stability in today’s only option available to preserve international peace
interdependent world, preventing and mitigating the and stability as well as to protect people, regardless of
impact of internal violent conflicts are not sufficient. race, religion, gender or political opinion. The issue is
Also important are upholding human rights, pursuing how to make the United Nations and other regional
inclusive and equitable development and respecting security organizations more effective in preventing
human dignity and diversity. Equally decisive is to and controlling threats and protecting people, and
develop the capability of individuals and communities to how to complement state security with human
make informed choices and to act on their own behalf. security at the community, national and international
In many respects, human security requires including levels.
the excluded. It focuses on the widest possible range of It is frightening today that the dangers of war loom
people having enough confidence in their future— as large as ever—that hundreds of millions of people do
enough confidence that they can actually think about not feel secure enough to rebuild their houses or plow
the next day, the next week, and the next year. their fields or send their children to school. The
Protecting and empowering people are thus about agenda, vast and complex, must be tackled starting
creating genuine possibilities for people to live in safety from the pervasive and critical threats confronting
and dignity. Seen from this angle, human security people today. Now, more than ever, human security is
reinforces state security but does not replace it. essential.
At the start of the 21st century, we are at a
dangerous crossroads. In response to the threat of Sadako Ogata

5
 Human security broadens the
focus from the security of
borders to the lives of people
and communities inside and
across those borders

People-centred. State security focuses on other states Human security’s distinctive breadth
with aggressive or adversarial designs. States built Human security thus broadens the focus from the
powerful security structures to defend security of borders to the lives of people and
themselves—their boundaries, their institutions, communities inside and across those borders. The
their values, their numbers. Human security shifts idea is for people to be secure, not just for territories
from focusing on external aggression to protecting within borders to be secure against external
people from a range of menaces. aggression. And unlike traditional approaches that
vest the state with full responsibility for state
Menaces. State security has meant protecting security, the process of human security involves a
territorial boundaries with—and from—uniformed much broader spectrum of actors and institutions—
troops. Human security also includes protection of especially people themselves.
citizens from environmental pollution, transnational Human security is concerned with violent
terrorism, massive population movements, such conflict. For whatever form violence takes, whether
infectious diseases as HIV/AIDS and long-term terrorism or crime or war, violence unseats people’s
conditions of oppression and deprivation. security. More than 800,000 people a year lose their
lives to lethal violence—and in 2000, nearly 16
Actors. The range of actors is also greater. No longer million lived as refugees.3 The catastrophic effects
are states the sole actors. Regional and international of war persist for generations. The memory of
organizations, nongovernmental organizations conflict and loss lives on, affecting people’s ability
(NGOs) and civil society are involved in managing to live together in peace.
security issues—as in the fight against HIV/AIDS, Human security is also concerned with
the ban against landmines and the massive deprivation: from extreme impoverishment,
mobilizations in support of human rights. pollution, ill health, illiteracy and other maladies.
Catastrophic accident and illness rank among the
Empowerment. Securing people also entails primary worries of the poor—and accurately, for
empowering people and societies. In many situations, their toll on human lives—causing more than 22
people can contribute directly to identifying and million preventable deaths in 2001. Educational
implementing solutions to the quagmire of insecurity. deprivations are particularly serious for human
In post-conflict situations, for example, bringing security. Without education, men and especially
diverse constituents together to rebuild their women are disadvantaged as productive workers, as
communities can solve security problems. fathers and mothers, as citizens capable of social
Human security and state security are change. Without social protection, personal injury
mutually reinforcing and dependent on each other. or economic collapse can catapult families into
Without human security, state security cannot be penury and desperation. All such losses affect
attained and vice versa. Human security requires people’s power to fend for themselves.
strong and stable institutions. Whereas state Each menace, terrible on its own, justifies
security is focused, human security is broad. attention. Yet to address this range of insecurities

6
Focusing on human security
adds an important perspective
to today’s global challenges
1

Human security now

effectively demands an integrated approach. That markets, usually from a reduced tax base and with
approach would keep the full range of human unpredictable foreign assistance. And conflicts are
deprivation in view, for all people. It would attend prone to recur, deepening poverty even more.5
not only to the protection of refugees from ongoing Economic injustice and inequality also
violence—but also to their health and livelihoods. It polarize communities. The tolerance of conflict by
would concentrate on the provision of basic an otherwise peaceful population is a peculiar
education to the poor—but also on basic education phenomenon in many parts of the contemporary
that is safe, that strengthens civil society and that world, particularly where a large part of the
creates tolerant societies. It would not focus on peace populace feels badly treated or left behind by
to the exclusion of development or on the global economic and social progress. Many who
environment to the exclusion of security. Instead, it find violence utterly unacceptable in their personal
would have a spectrum of basic variables in full view. lives provide remarkably little opposition to
Not only are peace and development both political violence seen as part of a fight against
important. They are also interconnected. The chain injustice—whether for their ethnic group or their
from poverty and deprivation to violent conflict— nation or their faith.
and back—has to be followed carefully. Deprivation In transitions, too, each aspect of human
persists in countries that do not flare up in conflict, security must be kept in view to maintain balance
and conflicts flare up in relatively well-off while moving forward. That balance can be
countries. Deprivation and unequal treatment may tenuous. In post-conflict situations, if countries
not generate an immediate revolt, but they can focus too much on consolidating political stability,
remain in people’s memory and influence the they may be destabilized by economic retreats (or
course of events much later. And while the leaders any number of other factors). In the transition from
of conflicts often come from the more prosperous communism to an open economy, there was cause
parts of society, poverty can provide rich recruiting for celebration in the countries of the former Soviet
grounds for the “foot soldiers” of violent Union. Yet in Tajikistan per capita incomes fell
engagements.4 85%, plunging four-fifths of the population below
Wars destroy human lives and scar survivors. the poverty line. In Latin America, the transition
They destroy homes, economic assets, crops, roads, from authoritarian rule to democracy has often
banks and utility systems. They destroy habits of been impeded by slow or negative growth, weak
trust that form the basis of market transactions and institutions, corruption and reversal of social
broad-based political associations. Poverty rises in protection, leading people to question why
wartime, often significantly. During conflicts, democratic forms of governance do not deliver
gangs, mafias and black market activities can promised benefits.
increase insecurities. Governments may cut social
expenditures, and economic growth may slow or Human security and human rights
even contract. After conflict, countries face the Focusing on human security adds an important
enormous expense of rebuilding their assets and perspective to today’s global challenges. But the

7
Box 1.3 Development, rights and human security lives and is far too upbeat to focus on rearguard actions
needed to secure what has to be safeguarded. This is
Human security is concerned with reducing and—when where the notion of human security becomes
possible—removing the insecurities that plague human particularly relevant.
lives. It contrasts with the notion of state security, Human security as an idea fruitfully supplements the
which concentrates primarily on safeguarding the expansionist perspective of human development by
integrity and robustness of the state and thus has only directly paying attention to what are sometimes called
an indirect connection with the security of the human “downside risks”. The insecurities that threaten human
beings who live in these states. survival or the safety of daily life, or imperil the natural
That contrast may be clear enough, but in dignity of men and women, or expose human beings to
delineating human security adequately, it is also the uncertainty of disease and pestilence, or subject
important to understand how the idea of human vulnerable people to abrupt penury related to economic
security relates to—and differs from—other human- downturns demand that special attention be paid to the
centred concepts, such as human development and dangers of sudden deprivation. Human security demands
human rights. These concepts are fairly widely known protection from these dangers and the empowerment of
and have been championed, with very good reason, for people so that they can cope with—and when possible
a long time, and they too are directly concerned with overcome—these hazards.
the nature of human lives. It is thus fair to ask what the There is, of course, no basic contradiction between
idea of human security can add to these well- the focus of human security and the subject matter of
established ideas. the human development approach. Indeed, formally
speaking, protection and safeguarding can also be seen as
Human development and human security augmentations of a sort, to wit that of safety and
The human development approach, pioneered by the security. But the emphasis and priorities are quite
visionary economist Mahbub ul Haq (under the broad different in the cautious perspective of human security
umbrella of the United Nations Development from those typically found in the relatively sanguine and
Programme, UNDP), has done much to enrich and upward-oriented literature of the human focus of
broaden the literature on development. In particular, it development approaches (and this applies to human
has helped to shift the focus of development attention development as well), which tend to concentrate on
away from an overarching concentration on the growth “growth with equity”, a subject that has generated a vast
of inanimate objects of convenience, such as literature and inspired many policy initiatives. In
commodities produced (reflected in the gross domestic contrast, focusing on human security requires that
product or the gross national product), to the quality serious attention be paid to “downturns with security”,
and richness of human lives, which depend on a since downturns may inescapably occur from time to
number of influences, of which commodity production time, fed by global or local afflictions. This is in addition
is only one. to the adversity of persistent insecurity of those whom
Human development is concerned with removing the the growth process leaves behind, such as the displaced
various hindrances that restrain and restrict human worker or the perennially unemployed.
lives and prevent its blossoming. A few of these Even when the much-discussed problems of uneven
concerns are captured in the much-used “human and unequally shared benefits of growth and expansion
development index” (HDI), which has served as have been successfully addressed, a sudden downturn
something of a flagship of the human development can make the lives of the vulnerable thoroughly and
approach. But the range and reach of that perspective uncommonly deprived. There is much economic
have motivated a vast informational coverage presented evidence that even if people rise together as the process
in the UNDP’s annual Human Development Report and of economic expansion proceeds, when they fall, they
other related publications that go far beyond the HDI. tend to fall very divided. The Asian economic crisis of
The idea of human development, broad as it is, does, 1997–99 made it painfully clear that even a very
however, have a powerfully buoyant quality, since it is successful history of “growth with equity” (as the
concerned with progress and augmentation. It is out to Republic of Korea, Thailand, and many other countries
conquer fresh territory on behalf of enhancing human in East and Southeast Asia had) can provide very little

8
protection to those who are thrown to the wall when a where human security can make a significant
sharp economic downturn suddenly occurs.
The economic case merely illustrates a general
contribution by identifying the importance of freedom
from basic insecurities—new and old. The descriptive
1
contrast between the two perspectives of expansion richness of the considerations that make security so
with equity and downturn with security. For example, important in human lives can, thus, join hands with the
while the foundational demand for expanding regular force of ethical claims that the recognition of certain
health coverage for all human beings in the world is freedoms as human rights provides.

Human security now

tremendously important to advocate and advance, that Human rights and human security can, therefore,
battle has to be distinguished from the immediate need fruitfully supplement each other. On the one hand,
to encounter a suddenly growing pandemic, related to since human rights can be seen as a general box that has
HIV/AIDS or malaria or drug-resistant tuberculosis. to be filled with specific demands with appropriate
Insecurity is a different—and in some ways much motivational substantiation, it is significant that human
starker—problem than unequal expansion. Without security helps to fill one particular part of this
losing any of the commitment that makes human momentous box through reasoned substantiation (by
development important, we also have to rise to the showing the importance of conquering human
challenges of human security that the world currently insecurity). On the other, since human security as an
faces and will long continue to face. important descriptive concept demands ethical force and
political recognition, it is useful that this can be
Human rights and human security appropriately obtained through seeing freedoms related
There is a similar complementarity between the to human security as an important class of human
concepts of human rights and human security. Few rights. Far from being in any kind of competition with
concepts are as frequently invoked in contemporary each other, human security and human rights can be
political debates as human rights. There is something seen as complementary ideas.
deeply attractive in the idea that every person anywhere One of the advantages of seeing human security as a
in the world, irrespective of citizenship or location, has class of human rights is the associative connection that
some basic rights that others should respect. The moral rights have with the corresponding duties of other
appeal of human rights has been used for varying people and institutions. Duties can take the form of
purposes, from resisting torture and arbitrary “perfect obligations”, which constitute specific demands
incarceration to demanding the end of hunger and on particular persons or agents, or of “imperfect
unequal treatment of women. obligations”, which are general demands on anyone in a
Human rights may or may not be legalized, but they position to help. To give effectiveness to the perspective
take the form of strong claims in social ethics. The idea of human security, it is important to consider who in
of pre-legal “natural” or “human” rights has often particular has what obligations (such as the duties of
motivated legislative initiatives, as it did in the US the state to provide certain basic support) and also why
Declaration of Independence or in the French people in general, who are in a position to help reduce
Declaration of the Rights of Man in the 18th century, or insecurities in human lives, have a common—though
in the European Convention for the Protection of incompletely specified—duty to think about what they
Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in the 20th can do. Seeing human security within a general
century. But even when they are not legalized, affirmation framework of human rights can, thus, bring many
of human rights and related activities of advocacy and rewards to the perspective of human security.
monitoring of abuse can sometimes be very effective, To conclude, it is important, on one side, to see how
through the politicization of ethical commitments. the distinct ideas of human security, human
Commitments underlying human rights take the form development and human rights differ, but also to
of demanding that certain basic freedoms of human understand why they can be seen as complementary
beings be respected, aided and enhanced. The basically concepts. Mutual enrichment can go hand in hand with
normative nature of the concept of human rights leaves distinction and clarity.
open the question of which particular freedoms are
crucial enough to count as human rights that society Amartya Sen
should acknowledge, safeguard and promote. This is

9
 Human security naturally
connects several kinds of
freedom—such as freedom from
want and freedom from fear,
as well as freedom to take
action on one’s own behalf

question arises: How does human security relate to universality and interdependence of the human
other approaches already in use in the United rights of all people. Those rights have to be upheld
Nations? comprehensively—civil and political, as well as
The idea of human security fits well with economic and social—as proclaimed in the legally
human development and human rights, but it also binding conventions and protocols that derive
adds something substantial (box 1.3). Human from the 1948 Universal Declaration on Human
security and human development are both Rights.
fundamentally concerned with the lives of human Human rights and human security are
beings—longevity, education, opportunities for therefore mutually reinforcing. Human security
participation. Both are concerned with the basic helps identify the rights at stake in a particular
freedoms that people enjoy. But they look out on situation. And human rights help answer the
shared goals with different scopes. Human question: How should human security be
development “is about people, about expanding promoted? The notion of duties and obligations
their choices to lead lives they value”.6 It has an complements the recognition of the ethical and
optimistic quality, since it focuses on expanding political importance of human security.
opportunities for people so that progress is fair—
“growth with equity”. Human security comple- Protection and empowerment for human
ments human development by deliberately security
focusing on “downside risks”. It recognizes the Human security naturally connects several kinds of
conditions that menace survival, the continuation freedom—such as freedom from want and freedom
of daily life and the dignity of human beings. Even from fear, as well as freedom to take action on
in countries that have promoted growth with one’s own behalf. Ensuring human security
equity, as in some Asian countries, people’s lives are expands “the real freedoms that people enjoy”.8 So
threatened when economic downturns occur.7 The how can we protect the basic freedoms people
recent downturn in Argentina similarly threatened need? And how can we enhance people’s
the lives of many in that country. capabilities to act on their own behalf? Protection
Any notion of development is, in some ways, strategies, set up by states, international agencies,
inescapably “aggregative”. But when it comes to NGOs and the private sector, shield people from
insecurity, there is an important need to keep the menaces. Empowerment strategies enable people to
individual at the centre of attention. Why? Because develop their resilience to difficult conditions.
any larger unit—an ethnic group or a household— Both are required in nearly all situations of human
may discriminate against its own members. This is insecurity, though their form and balance will vary
especially so for women—within the household tremendously.
and, more generally, in society. Protecting people’s security requires
Respecting human rights is at the core of identifying and preparing for events that could
protecting human security. The 1993 Vienna have severe and widespread consequences. Critical
Declaration of Human Rights stresses the and pervasive conditions cut into the core activities

10
To protect people—the first key People’s ability to act on their
to human security—their basic own behalf—and on behalf of
rights and freedoms must be others—is the second key to
1
upheld human security

Human security now

of people’s lives. Risks and threats may be sudden— infrastructure of protection may be imperfect, but
such as conflict or economic or political collapse. it can help to counter threats, mitigate their force,
But they need not be, for what defines a menace to support people threatened and create a more stable
human security is its depth, not only its swift onset. environment.
And many threats and disastrous conditions are
pervasive—affecting many people, again and again. Empowerment
Some causes of human insecurity are deliberately People’s ability to act on their own behalf—and on
orchestrated, and some are inadvertent, the behalf of others—is the second key to human
unexpected downside risks. Some, such as genocide security. Fostering that ability differentiates human
or discrimination against minorities, threaten security from state security, from humanitarian
people’s security directly. Others are indirect work and even from much development work.
threats: when military overinvestment causes under- Empowerment is important because people
investment in public health, when the international develop their potential as individuals and as
community does not provide sufficient resources to communities. Strengthening peoples’ abilities to act
protect refugees in a deprived area. But these on their own behalf is also instrumental to human
menaces must be identified and prioritized in an security. People empowered can demand respect for
empowering way. their dignity when it is violated. They can create
new opportunities for work and address many
Protection problems locally. And they can mobilize for the
Human security is deliberately protective. It security of others—say, by publicizing food
recognizes that people and communities are deeply shortages early, preventing famines or protesting
threatened by events largely beyond their control: a human rights violations by states.
financial crisis, a violent conflict, chronic Supporting people’s ability to act on their own
destitution, a terrorist attack, HIV/AIDS, behalf means providing education and information
underinvestment in health care, water shortages, so that they can scrutinize social arrangements and
pollution from a distant land. take collective action. It means building a public
To protect people—the first key to human space that tolerates opposition, encourages local
security—their basic rights and freedoms must be leadership and cultivates public discussion. It
upheld. To do so requires concerted efforts to flourishes in a supportive larger environment
develop national and international norms, processes (freedom of the press, freedom of information,
and institutions, which must address insecurities in freedom of conscience and belief and freedom to
ways that are systematic not makeshift, compre- organize, with democratic elections and policies of
hensive not compartmentalized, preventive not inclusion). It requires sustained attention to
reactive. Human security helps identify gaps in the processes of development and to emergency relief
infrastructure of protection as well as ways to activities, as well as to the outcomes. The primary
strengthen or improve it. People must participate in question of every human security activity should
formulating and implementing these strategies. The not be: What can we do? It should be: How does

11
 People protected can exercise
many choices. And people
empowered can avoid some
risks and demand
improvements in the system of
protection

this activity build on the efforts and capabilities of It is particularly in arms proliferation and
those directly affected? armed conflict that multilateral authority should be
Protection and empowerment are thus respected to the utmost because of the devastating
mutually reinforcing. People protected can exercise consequences of war. If oversight in these areas is to
many choices. And people empowered can avoid work effectively, the decision-making processes
some risks and demand improvements in the must work, and be seen to work, fairly—with
system of protection. integrity and consistent with the constitution of the
institution in question.
Interdependence and shared sovereignty It was during the inspired period of institution-
This report is testimony to our living in a world building after World War II that the principles and
more interdependent than ever before. All societies instruments of multilateralism were largely created
depend much more on the acts or omissions of and incorporated in many organizations of the UN
others for the security of their people, even for their system. Others, such as the World Trade
survival. This reality is evident in every aspect of Organization, were created later, but all are
life—from sustaining the environment, to relieving dedicated to fostering proper interdependence.
poverty, to avoiding conflict. Given our moral Some of these institutions require reform, renewal
obligations to others, and given our enlightened and adaptation to deal with today’s challenges. But
self-interest, we need to develop institutions that they are an indispensable requirement for a better
allow us to meet our responsibilities to others in world. And they demand respect and support.
today’s interdependent world.
It is no longer viable for any state to assert ***
unrestricted national sovereignty while acting in its The following chapters delve into the implications
own interests, especially where others are affected by of a human security approach for current work in
its actions. There has to be an institutional system conflict and in development. Chapters 2, 3 and 4
of external oversight and decision-making that states explore conflict-related aspects of human security:
voluntarily subscribe to. Why? Because nobody has violent conflict, people on the move and post-
a monopoly on being right (particularly when conflict situations. Chapters 5, 6 and 7 explore
defending one’s own interests), and the assertion of poverty-related aspects of human security:
unilateral rights of action inevitably leads to economic insecurity, ill health and lack of knowl-
conflicting claims by others. Unilateral action does edge. Each chapter suggests further action.
not contribute to the peaceful resolution of Chapter 8, returning to the overarching question
differences. The creation of an independent of how to create a human security initiative,
adjudication authority for disputes in the World proposes concrete actions.
Trade Organization provides an example of a recent This report has had to select a few topics to
advance in the regulation of interdependence. A explore human security. The treatment is thus
renewed commitment to such multilateralism is incomplete, suggestive rather than exhaustive. The
crucial for the future of human security. hope is that others will develop some of the many

12
 1

Human security now

issues reluctantly left aside (see the feature on Ogata, Sadako. 2001. “State Security—Human
special issues of human security on pages 16–19). Security.” UN Public Lectures, the Fridtjof Nansen
Memorial Lecture, UN House, Tokyo, 12
Notes December. [www.unu.edu/hq/public-
1. Annan 2000. lectures/ogata.pdf ].
2. This section draws on Ogata 2001 and 2002 as well ———.2002. “From State Security to Human Security.”
as background materials for the Commission. The Ogden Lecture. Brown University, Providence,
3. WHO 2001. Rhode Island. 26 May.
4. Sen 2002. Sen, Amartya. 1999. Development as Freedom. New York:
5. Stewart and FitzGerald 2001. Anchor Press.
6. UNDP 2002, p.13. ———.2002. “Global Inequality and Persistent
7. It was precisely the impacts of the financial crises on Conflicts.” Paper presented at the Nobel Awards
the lives of people in South East Asia that led the late Conference, Oslo.
Japanese Prime Minister Keizo Obuchi to emphasize the Sen, Amartya, and Jean Drèze. 2002. India: Development
importance of human security as a way of comprehen- and Participation. New Delhi: Oxford University
sively addressing the menaces that affect people’s Press.
survival, livelihood and dignity. Stewart, Frances, and Valpy FitzGerald. 2001. War and
8. Sen 1999, chap. 10. Underdevelopment. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
References UNDP (United Nations Development Programme).
Annan, Kofi. 2000. “Secretary-General Salutes Various years. Human Development Report. New
International Workshop on Human Security in York: Oxford University Press.
Mongolia.” Two-Day Session in Ulaanbaatar, May WHO (World Health Organization). 2001. World
8-10, 2000. Press Release SG/SM/7382. Health Report. Geneva.
[www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000508.
sgsm7382.doc.html]

13
Feature: Special issues in human security

Hunger hunger. Food supplies are seized and cut off; food
As many as 800 million people in the developing aid is hijacked; crops, water supplies, livestock and
world and at least 24 million people in developed land are destroyed and often households and
and transition economies do not have enough families are stripped of assets. In some regions
food.1 These people suffer daily hunger, mal- where food might otherwise have been available,
nutrition and food insecurity even though most conflict made people food-insecure and affected
national food supplies are adequate. The problem their access to adequate food as well as their ability
is a lack of entitlement to food and access to an to lead healthy and productive lives. In southern
adequate food supply.2 Sudan, violence in November 2000 is said to have
Improved nutrition increases the capacity to left some 2.6 million people in need of emergency
earn and produce, and the income earned provides food assistance.6
the means to buy food. Having access to adequate Food insecurity and hunger undermine a
food affects people’s ability to participate in all person’s dignity and well being. A country’s ability
spheres of economic, political and social life and to produce and procure enough food for its
to move out of chronic poverty. people to avoid hunger and malnutrition is
People’s access to food is affected by a critical to human security. The question in
number of factors, including inequitable addressing issues of food insecurity and its results
distribution of food, environmental degradation, is not only how to maintain an adequate national
natural disasters and conflicts. Land degradation supply of food but also how to place an existing
in some areas has severely impaired land adequate supply of food at the disposal of those
productivity. In 1977, 57 million people failed to who need it most. Given the desperate nutritional
produce enough food to sustain themselves as a status of many people, what is urgently required
result of land degradation. By 1984, this number is direct and immediate intervention as well as
had risen to 135 million.3 Natural disasters such longer term development policies.
as droughts can also have terrible multiple Food security to ensure people’s survival
impacts on people. Droughts in the Horn of demands a dual focus on practical strategies in
Africa in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s triggered the immediate term for the direct transfer of
famines and civil wars in a region that was already food to desperate people to improve their food
food-insecure. The famine in Ethiopia in the security, and longer term capacity-building
1980s highlighted the importance of a political initiatives that can gradually improve sustained
commitment to respond to food insecurity and production and access to food. The emphasis
the need for early warning monitoring systems on should be on creating and maintaining viable
malnutrition and food availability.4 avenues of access to food, enhancing entitlement
War and conflict can also lead to reduced food to food and transfering food to people living in
production as well as income losses and limited or critical or pervasive food insecurity. In an
no access to food for many people, with the most increasingly fragmented world, with ongoing
serious impact on the poorest households. A new conflict and poverty, it is more important than
dimension of food insecurity in situations of ever to ensure that food programmes and
conflict is the use of hunger as a weapon and food development assistance are administered in ways
insecurity as a constant threat.5 The world’s 35 that do not fuel further conflict, but instead
million refugees and internally displaced persons encourage peace negotiations and an end to
are among those who experience conflict-induced fighting.

14
Water misery. Washing in polluted seas, for example, is
Without water, survival, human or otherwise, is estimated to cause some 250 million cases of 1
impossible. The relatively little freshwater on our gastroenteritis and upper respiratory disease every
planet in accessible form is unevenly distributed. year.13 Children are particularly vulnerable to
One in five people lack access to safe water,7 and such conditions, and 4,000 children a day die
almost half the world’s population lacks access to from diseases that can be prevented by clean

Human security now

adequate sanitation. More than 1.7 million people water and good sanitation.14
die every year from illnesses linked to poor water Most freshwater is not, however, used for
and sanitation.8 One in three people live in coun- either drinking water or sanitation. Over 70% of
tries that are moderately to severely water deprived.9 freshwater is used for agriculture, and 40% of all
The resulting water scarcity has significant effects food is now raised on irrigated land.15 The
on many aspects of human health, agriculture and explosive growth in irrigation—water for
species diversity. Inevitably, in water-scarce irrigation has increased 60% since 1960—has
situations it is poor women who bear the burden of increased food productivity.16 But poor
carrying water long distances to their homes. management and irrigation design have led to the
The growing concern about the availability salinization of nearly 20% of irrigated land.17
and usage of water focuses on issues of access, Poor techniques cause much of the water to be
equity and ever-increasing needs for water. lost to evaporation, often returning to the water
Meeting these needs for water—particularly in table contaminated by pesticides and waste, with
developing economies—imposes difficult choices harmful effects on people.
on governments. Failure to respond carries Water scarcity may also escalate tensions
human costs as well as significant economic and between nations. While the last outright war over
political risks. Food security, power blackouts and water occurred 4,500 years ago, historical precedent
empty water taps are among the most immediate may not be an absolute guide in the case of water
and sensitive public service issues for which scarcity. Water consumption has increased six-fold
societies hold governments accountable. This in the last century, over twice the rate of population
places considerable strains on the relationships: growth.18 In just over two decades, more than 5
• Within and between countries. billion people could be living in water-stressed
• Between rural and urban populations. nations.19 Moreover, 40% of the world is served by
• Between upper and lower river interests, one or more of 261 international river basins. And
affecting people’s survival and livelihoods. while most international interactions over shared
• Among agricultural, industrial and domestic basins have been cooperative, tensions exist in many
users. areas.20 For example, Turkey’s massive dam projects
• Between human need and the requirements of in the Tigris-Euphrates basin have strained relations
a healthy environment.10 with its downstream neighbors.21
Water scarcity is not only about quantity but Yet water scarcity cannot be permitted to
also quality. Some 90% of sewage and 70% of lock people, regions and nations in a fierce,
industrial waste in developing countries is competitive struggle. The challenge is not to
untreated, often contaminating already scarce mobilize to compete for water but to cooperate in
freshwater supplies.11 More than half the world’s reconciling competing needs. Water resource
major rivers are seriously depleted and polluted as management is therefore an important element in
a result of sewage, chemical discharges, petroleum efforts to build a socially and environmentally
leaks, mine and agricultural runoff and other just society. Recognizing the global threat posed
pollutants.12 The simple act of bathing in many by water scarcity, the United Nations has declared
developing countries can bring life-threatening 2003 the International Year of Freshwater and,

15
through its Millennium Development Goals, These changing population structures will
called for reducing by half the proportion of have major implications for human security. They
people without sustainable access to safe drinking will affect people’s ability to move out of poverty
water by 2025. In a few decades, the growing and cope with crises, especially for households
world population will require 20% more water with a high number of young dependents, as in
than today. Any comprehensive view of human Sub-Saharan Africa. In developed countries, the
security must address this vital scarce resource, ageing population is straining health care
which is integral to our very survival. provision and retirement plans. In developing
countries, the HIV/AIDS crisis is having a
Population devastating impact on the most productive
The number of people in the world is projected segments of the population, leading to profound
to increase from 6.3 billion people in 2000 to 8.9 changes in household composition. Years of
billion by 2050, or at a rate of 77 million a year.22 investments in education and skills training are
The good news is that this projected increase is being lost, and the number of orphans and
considerably less than estimated previously— households headed by women is increasing. Much
some 0.4 billion less—because of expected of the burden falls on women, further eroding
declines in fertility rates. The bad news is that the any sense of security and dignity.
number of projected deaths will be much higher When designing human security strategies,
because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. these longer term shifts in population structures
Population structures will be undergoing need to be taken into account.23 As populations
important changes in the future. Half the world’s age, more emphasis will need to be placed on
projected population increase will be protection and empowerment strategies benefiting
concentrated in eight countries: India, Pakistan, older people. This will have major implications
Nigeria, the United States, China, Bangladesh, for health and education strategies, and for the
Ethiopia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. resources needed for creating a minimum social
Considerable differences in longevity will safety net. Keeping the most productive segments
continue, with the lowest life expectancy at birth of the population healthy will be among the
in developing countries. The median age of biggest challenges.
people is expected to rise by 10 years to 37 by
2050. The median age in 17 developed countries Environment
will be 50 or older in 2050, whereas in many
developing countries it will be 23 years. “In Africa there is no food security, a result
The United Nations Population Division of ecological instability or ecological
projects that at some point in the 21st century insecurity. One of the root causes of human
fertility rates in three of four developing countries insecurity is ecological or resource
will likely fall below 2.1 children per woman, the degradation….without ecological stability we
rate needed to ensure long-term replacement of cannot have food security. We need to
the population. Consequently, the number of promote community-based natural resource
people 60 years old or older is expected to triple, management … to address this.”
from 606 million in 2000 to around 1.9 billion —Sudanese participant at the Commission on Human
in 2050. Although the debate about ageing Security’s Public Hearing in Johannesburg, August, 2002.
populations has focused primarily on developed
countries, the number of older people in The relationship between human security
developing countries is expected to rise from 8% and the environment is most pronounced in areas
in 2000 to nearly 20% in 2050. of human dependence on access to natural

16
resources. Environmental resources are a critical irrigation systems, erosion from deforestation and
part of the livelihoods of many people. When agriculture, and heavy metal and other pollutants 1
these resources are threatened because of from industrial runoff. Pollution and land
environmental change, people’s human security is degradation have extensive health impacts in
also threatened. This relationship is captured in addition to impairing people’s ability to grow
the promotion of sustainable development. And food.27 Creeping desertification may also

Human security now

at the centre of sustainable development is the undermine the ability of a traditional rural
delicate balance between human security and the community to subsist. In addition, more than
environment. 70% of the world’s commercially important fish
For those who live in rural areas, many of stocks are said to be either fully fished,
whom are among are the poorest, economic and overexploited, depleted or slowly recovering.28
household security are intimately connected to The sheer diversity and breadth of
the natural environment. Families rely on forests environmental crises have an enduring impact on
for fuel and on subsistence agriculture for food. human security across generations and time. The
Survival of the biosphere has a determining stresses on the Earth’s ecosystem and their effects
influence on human survival. In Sub-Saharan on the human security of its inhabitants are
Africa and Asia, 75% of the poor live in rural multiple and severe. Emissions from the
areas.24 Most are heavily reliant on common lands consumption of fossil fuels also contribute
for necessities such as wood for fuel and fodder. directly to the build-up of greenhouse gases that
For example, in some states in India, the poor envelope our planet and threaten widespread
obtain 66%–84% of fodder for their animals climate change. An enormous cloud of soot,
from common lands.25 When these resources are acids, and other particles over Asia may be having
degraded, the effect is direct and immediate: poor a substantial impact on the climate of Western
families are forced to migrate to ever more Asia by changing the monsoon pattern, causing
marginal lands; household income falls as non- droughts in some areas and flooding in others.29
timber forest products become depleted. Such environmental impacts have a tremendous
The unchecked consumption of fossil fuels effect, especially on poor people and their food
can lay a suffocating blanket of pollution over security, contributing to hunger and famine.
cities. Whether from smokestacks and car exhausts Governments and other stakeholders are
or from cooking and heating, pollution from the increasingly aware of the relationship between
burning of fossil fuels causes health problems and ecological stability and human security. Civil
premature deaths on a massive scale. In developing society has mobilized strongly to promote
countries, for instance, an estimated 1.9 million sustainable development and increase awareness
people die annually from exposure to high of its importance. The emphasis of governments,
concentrations of small particulate matter in the however, is more on improved environmental
indoor air in rural areas. And some 500,000 people management. There has been little concrete
die each year from the effects of outdoor exposure action at a local level to ensure the participation
to particulate matter and sulphur dioxide.26 These of affected communities and people in such
impacts highlight the risks to people of excessive management. There have been some encouraging
and improper use of fossil fuels and the need to recent exceptions. Strategies designed by Burkina
provide more efficient, sustainable and safe Faso, Mozambique and Nicaragua have sought to
alternatives that are accessible to poor people. give poor people and local communities greater
Among the more intractable and costly access to and control over natural resources.30
environmental problems is land degradation, The crucial links between the environment
including salinization from poorly planned and human survival require more commitment to

17
effective regulation, management and sustainable References
use of natural resources. Critical to this is the Blyberg A., and D.J. Ravindran, eds. 2000. A Circle of
need to explicitly link plans for improved Rights. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
environmental management and sustainable Activism: A Training Resource. International
development to disaster prevention and Human Rights Internship Program/Asian Forum
preparedness. for Human Rights and Development.
CSD (Commission on Sustainable Development).
Notes 1997. Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater
1. FAO 1999b and United Nations, Department of Resources of the World. Report of the Secretary-
Economic and Social Affairs 2001. General.
2. Sen 1981. See also Drèze and Sen 1989, Eide 1995 Drèze, Jean, and Amartya Sen. 1989. Hunger and
and Blyberg and Ravindran 2000, p. 222. Public Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
3. UNEP 1992. Eide, A. 1995. “The Right to an Adequate Standard of
4. Messer, Cohen and Marchione 2002. Living Including the Right to Food.” In A. Eide,
5. Messer 1996. C. Krause and A. Rosas, eds., Economic, Social
6. FAO 1999a. and Cultural Rights. A Textbook. Dordrecht:
7. WHO 2002, p. 68. Marthinus Nijhoff.
8. WHO 2002, p. 68. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). “Global
9. CSD 1997. Network on Integrated Soil Management for
10. World Commission on Dams 2002, p. xxix. Sustainable Use of Salt-affected Soils.”
11. United Nations, Department of Public [www.fao.org/ag/AGL/agll/spush/intro.htm].
Information. ———. 1999a. “Assessment of the World Food
12. World Commission on Water 1999. Security Situation.” Report CFS: 99/2. Prepared
13. GESAMP 2001. for the 25th Session of the Committee on World
14. WHO 2002, p. 68. Food Security. Rome. 31 May 31–2 June.
15. UNEP 2002a, p. 151. [www.fao.org].
16. United Nations, Department of Public ———. 1999b. State of Food Insecurity in the World 1999.
Information. GESAMP (Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific
17. FAO. [www.fao.org/ag/AGL/agll/spush/intro.htm]. Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection).
18. United Nations, Department of Public 2001. Protecting the Oceans from Land-Based
Information. Activities: Land-based Sources and Activities
19. CSD 1997. Affecting the Quality and Uses of the Marine,
20. World Water Assessment Program. Coastal and Associated Freshwater Environment.
[www.unesco.org/water/wwap/targets/ GESAMP Reports and Studies 71.
facts_and_figures.pdf ]. [http://gesamp.imo.org/no71/index.htm]
21. Jacques 2000. Jacques, Leslie. 2000. “Running Dry: Water Scarcity.”
22. United Nations Population Division 2003. Harpers Magazine July 1, 37.
23. Raymond 2003. Jodha, N.S. 1986. “Common Property Resources and
24. Pinstrup-Andersen and Padya-Lorch 2001, p.109. Rural Poor in Dry Regions of India.” Economic
25. Jodha 1986. and Political Weekly 21(27): 1169–81.
26. WHO 1999. Marcus, Rachel, and John Wilkinson. 2002. “Whose
27. UNEP 1992. Poverty Matters? Vulnerability, Social Protection
28. FAO 1999a. and PRSPs.” Working Paper 1. CHIP, London.
29. UNEP 2002. Messer, Ellen. 1996. “Food Wars: Hunger as a Weapon
30. Marcus and Wilkinson 2002. in 1994.” In Ellen Messer and Peter Uvin, eds.,

18
 The Hunger Report: 1995. Amsterdam: Gordon United Nations, Department of Public Information.
and Breach. “Water: A Matter of Life and Death.” Fact 1
Messer, Ellen, Marc J. Cohen and Thomas Marchione. Sheet.
2002. “ECSP Report.” Issue 7. Woodrow Wilson United Nations, Department of Economic and Social
International Center for Scholars, Washington, Affairs. 2001. Report on The World Social Situation
D.C. 2001. New York.

Human security now

Pinstrup-Andersen, Per, and Rajul Padya-Lorch, eds. United Nations Population Division 2003. World
2001. The Unfinished Agenda: Perspectives on Population Prospects: The 2002 Revision.
Overcoming Hunger, Poverty and Environmental ESA/P/WP.180.
Degradation. Washington, D.C.: International WHO (World Health Organization). 1999. Air
Food Policy Research Institute. Quality Guidelines. Geneva.
Raymond, Susan. 2003. “Foreign Assistance in an ———. 2002. World Health Report 2002. Geneva.
Aging World.” Foreign Affairs March/April: World Commission on Dams. 2002. Dams and
91–105. Development: A New Framework for Decision-
Sen, Amartya. 1981. Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Making. London: Earthscan Publications.
Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Oxford World Commission on Water. 1999. World’s Rivers in
University Press. Crisis—Some Are Dying; Others Could Die.
UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). [www.worldwatercouncil.org/Vision/].
1992. Global Environmental Outlook 2. New York. World Water Assessment Program. “Challenges,” and
———. 2002a. Global Environmental Outlook 3. New “Facts and Figures.” [www.unesco.org/
York. water/wwap/targets/facts_and_figures.pdf ].

19
People caught up
in violent conflict

2
Numerous positive
developments offer new
opportunities to prevent violent
2
conflicts and mitigate their
impact on people

People caught up in violent conflict

Wars between states, internal conflicts and armed conflicts in 45 countries (box 2.1).2 The
transnational terrorism pose major risks to highest number of conflicts occurred in 1990–93
people’s survival, livelihoods and dignity—and and the lowest in 1996–97.3 In 2001 there were 24
thus to human security. An estimated 190 major armed conflicts, most in Africa. Of these, 11
million people were killed directly or indirectly had lasted for eight or more years. Of the 20
as a result of the 25 largest violent conflicts in countries with the lowest scores on the human
the 20th century, often in the name of religion, development index in 2002, 16 are in conflict or
politics, ethnicity or racial superiority.1 In many just out of it. The large majority of these conflicts
societies, violent conflict suffocates daily life, have been internal.
adding to pervasive feelings of insecurity and Among the key factors that cause violent
hopelessness. During conflict, groups may internal conflict:
engage in gross violations of human rights and • Competition over land and resources.
war crimes, including torture, genocide and the • Sudden and deep political and economic
use of rape as a weapon of war. transitions.
• Growing inequality among people and
Despite this gloomy picture, numerous positive communities.
developments offer new opportunities to prevent • Increasing crime, corruption and illegal
violent conflicts and mitigate their impact on activities.
people. An important qualitative shift has occurred • Weak and instable political regimes and
as the understanding of state security has widened institutions.
to include the protection of people in conflict. The • Identity politics and historical legacies, such as
creation of the international criminal court is colonialism.4
raising hopes that the slaughter and massive The consequences of these violent internal
displacement of civilian populations will no longer conflicts are devastating, from the collapse of states
occur with impunity. The production and use of and their institutions to surging poverty.5 Another
landmines, which cause indiscriminate harm to consequence is the high proportion of civilian
civilian populations, are being banned, and casualties. The distinction between combatants and
pressure to halt the spread of illicit small arms is civilians in such conflicts is often murky, and
growing. More efforts are preventing violent control over people is often an objective of the
conflicts through confidence-building and fighting. This led to massive forced population
attention to underlying causes. The added value of movements in the 1990s—and to the mass killing,
the human security paradigm is that it places even genocide, of civilians.
people at the centre, not states. Although officially classified as internal, many
internal conflicts are in fact also “international”.
Changes in violent conflict Several countries on all sides have been engaged in
War and conflict have surged in the last decade. the internal conflict in the Democratic Republic of
Between 1990 and 2001, there were 57 major Congo. And in West Africa, the rebel parties in

21
 No internal conflict can be seen
apart from its historical and
regional dimensions

Box 2.1 Conflict data are state-centred, not people- Second, estimates of the number of people killed as a
centred result of violent conflict usually reflect only battle-
related deaths. From 1945 to 2000 more than 50
Violent conflict is defined as a situation in which million people are estimated to have died in wars and
armed force is used to resolve issues of government or conflicts. But many more die from the consequences of
territory, at least one of the parties is the government of conflict—from the destruction of infrastructure, the
a country and there are at least 25 battle-related deaths. collapse of essential health services and the lack of food.
Because data collection is based on this definition, But those data are not available or included (Ghobarah,
current conflict data sets do not provide a complete Huth, and Russett 2001).
picture of violent conflicts confronting people (Mack These omissions have far-reaching policy implications.
2002). Violent conflicts often remain hidden because they do not
First, the requirement that at least one actor be a fit the state-centric criterion. Nor do policy strategies
state party leads to serious omissions. For example, the aimed at preventing and mitigating violent conflict
1994 Rwandan genocide and the attacks of armed adequately address the impact on people. Conflict
rebels on refugee settlements are not included in some prevention and capacity-building strategies target mainly
data sets, despite the high level of civilian casualties, official authorities, not the communities (and community
because so-called government agents were not officially leaders) at risk. This also means that protecting and
involved in the armed conflict. Yet according to data assisting people in internal conflicts is seen primarily
from the Minorities at Risk Project analyzing from the perspective of national sovereignty—and the
communal conflicts, 275 groups were in conflict from principle of non-interference—instead of from a
1990 to 1998 (Gurr 2002, pp. 46–47). perspective of responsibility shared by states.

Guinea, Sierra Leone and Côte d’Ivoire receive exploited to gain control of economic and polit-
tacit support from neighbouring countries. No ical resources while crowding out the provision of
internal conflict can be seen apart from its essential public and social services to people, such
historical and regional dimensions, such as as health and education, with the worst impacts
colonialism and geo-strategic interests, and the felt by the poorest. A consequence of this increase
impact of global economic and political processes, in general insecurity is an increase in interper-
such as globalization. sonal violence, intensifying the dangers people
Borders are no longer an obstacle. A key face (box 2.2).
global process affecting violent conflicts is the rise Terrorist organizations are also a major threat
of transnational organized crime—trafficking in to people’s security and international peace.
people, laundering funds, smuggling drugs, Terrorism is not a new phenomenon. It has been
diamonds and arms. Criminal groups link with used by states and violent movements to attain
local warlords, rebel groups and even government political objectives. But transnational networks—
authorities illegally exploiting natural resources, as often linking crime syndicates—with potential
in Colombia, the Democratic Republic of Congo access to weapons of mass destruction have
and Liberia. Violence and insecurity are often changed its nature.

22
The existing international
security system is not designed
to prevent and deal effectively
2
with the new types of security
threats

People caught up in violent conflict

Box 2.2 Conflict and interpersonal violence stopping attacks by cutting off financial, political
or military support and apprehending possible
In and immediately following conflict, crime rates perpetrators. Equally, state-sponsored terrorism is
soar. So do incidents of gender-based and sexual not being addressed, while legitimate groups are
violence, abuse of the elderly and children, and
being labeled as terrorist organizations to quash
suicides. The increases arise from the trauma of
conflict and its impact on interpersonal relations and
opposition to authoritarian government policies.
community networks, and from the broader issues of And fighting terrorism is taking precedence over
the breakdown of law and order, the police and protecting human rights and promoting the rule of
judicial systems and health and education services, as law and democratic governance.
well as the loss of legitimacy of social and ethical What do these changes in violent conflict
norms. mean for peace and security? It is still too early to
But the influence works both ways. High levels of tell. But the understandings and principles of the
interpersonal violence also appear to affect the international security system, in place for more
likelihood for violent conflict. High rates of communal than 50 years, are being challenged, weakening the
violence may reflect growing inequalities among
established safeguards aimed at preventing and
communities as well as the manipulation of identity
resolving violent conflicts. The objective of the
politics. The surge in high crime rates following the
sudden political and economic transitions in the
international system, designed after World War II,
former Soviet Union reflected not only the breakdown was to help protect states—and the people,
of law and order but also the struggle for control over institutions and values inside their boundaries—
resources, along with spreading corruption and from threats beyond their borders. The inter-
weakening government institutions. Increases in national peace and security system maintained
gender-based and sexual violence may mark a rise in “collective security” by limiting the rights of states
poverty and the collapse of social safety nets. And to use force to self-defence after an attack,
although by itself interpersonal violence will not lead following a UN Security Council resolution. By
to conflict, combined with other factors it leads to a stopping aggression, the drafters of the UN
widespread sense of insecurity easily manipulated
Charter envisaged that wars would belong to the
along identity lines.
past—that wars would no longer be an acceptable
method for resolving international disputes.
What is now being described as the “war on But the existing international security system
terrorism” dominates national and international is not designed to prevent and deal effectively with
security debates. In addition to military actions, it the new types of security threats. New multilateral
has increased attention to other tools to fight strategies are required that focus on the shared
terrorism, such as tracking (and blocking) flows of responsibility to protect people. Considerable
funds, information and people. It has also given progress has been made in the 1990s—as
rise to new areas of multilateral cooperation, such exemplified by the prominence given to human
as the sharing of intelligence. Yet these actions rights and humanitarian action, as well as the
focus on coercive, short-term strategies aimed at efforts to deploy peacekeeping operations and

23
 Putting human security on the
security agenda would inspire
concern for vulnerable groups
during conflict and amplify
support for protecting all
human rights

rebuild conflict-torn countries. But the “war on apprehended, with genocidal intent or not, which
terrorism” has stalled that progress by focusing on is the product of either deliberate state action, or
short-term coercive responses rather than also state neglect or inability to act, or a collapsed
addressing the underlying causes related to state situation; or large scale ‘ethnic cleansing’,
inequality, exclusion and marginalization, and actual or apprehended, whether carried out by
oppression by states as well as people. A killing, force expulsion, acts of terror or rape”.6
multilateral approach must respond to the full This emphasis on responsibility was prompted in
range of human security concerns and requires the part by the Rwanda genocide, perhaps the most
active support of all states—especially the five shocking human security failure in the last
permanent members of the Security Council. decade.
Among the key actors, the UN Security
Adopting a human security approach Council has gradually broadened its understanding
What, then, can be done to protect people in of security to include the protection of people by
violent conflict? Five policies are essential: recognizing the links between security and women,
• Placing human security on the security agenda. children, refugees and HIV/AIDS.7 And to
• Strengthening humanitarian action. promote consistency, the Council adopted an aide
• Respecting human rights and humanitarian law. memoire on the protection of civilians, focusing on
• Disarming people and fighting crime. four themes: protection of civilians in conflict;
• Preventing conflict and respecting citizenship. women, peace and security; children in armed
conflict; and conflict prevention.8
Placing human security on the security agenda In reality, however, few mechanisms can be
Putting human security on the security agenda of invoked to protect the security of people in violent
states, regional organizations and the United conflict.9 Organizational mandates and
Nations would inspire concern for vulnerable groups mechanisms draw heavily from state security
during conflict and amplify support for protecting assumptions, which are inadequate for responding
all human rights. Civil society, humanitarian actors to security issues in internal conflicts. In many
and the media have drawn the attention of instances, there are no cease-fire arrangements to
policymakers to the suffering of people in internal uphold, and it is often hard to distinguish
conflicts. The debate has been dominated by combatants from civilians. Many of the reforms of
questions about intervening in the internal affairs of the UN peace operations recommended in the
a country on humanitarian grounds. Brahimi Report still need to be implemented—
Shifting the focus of the discussion, the strengthening conflict prevention and peace-
International Commission on Intervention and building, developing rapid deployment capacities
State Sovereignty emphasized the responsibility of and improving management.10
states and the international community to protect Also important is incorporating human rights
people—militarily if necessary—in situations specialists and strengthening civilian police by
resulting in a “large scale loss of life, actual or extending their mandate to the reform and

24
The last decade’s significant
progress in developing
normative frameworks to
2
protect women and children
shows what is possible

People caught up in violent conflict

restructuring of local police forces. By emphasizing But the main challenge is dealing with the
public safety—not military security—civilian security of people at the national and local levels.
police can help prevent abuses and corruption Unless there are clear links between the
among local law and order officials. They can also deteriorating security of people and threats to
assist in building capacity and rebuilding trust and international peace and security, the international
legitimacy in the new national law and order community is unlikely to adopt preventive
institutions. Based on the experiences in strategies or to respond. For refugees, for example,
Cambodia, the former Yugoslavia, and Timor- the Security Council recognized in resolution 1296
Leste, a framework for the transition from conflict (2000) the threat that massive forced population
to peace and development should be prepared from movements pose to international peace and
the outset of a peace operation (chapter 4). security and the need to adopt specific measures to
Regional security organizations can also do create a safe environment. In the same resolution,
much for human security: the Security Council asked to be informed of
• The Organization for Security and Co- situations where such a threat may occur. In
operation in Europe is focusing on human practice, however, the Council is seldom in a
rights training, support for independent media, position to propose and authorize any specific
reintegration of former combatants, election steps.
monitoring, and training and capacity-building. What alternative arrangements might
• The peace and security agenda of the New strengthen the security of people? The last decade’s
Partnership for Africa’s Development links significant progress in developing normative
political, security and development issues at the frameworks to protect women and children shows
regional, national and community levels. It can what is possible. For the first time ever, in a Special
form the basis for developing comprehensive Session on Children in 2002, the UN General
strategies that place human security at the Assembly focused on children in conflict and
centre.11 formulated recommendations on how to protect
• The launch of the African Union in mid-2002 and empower them more effectively.14 National
presents new opportunities to invigorate commissions for children in conflict-affected
conflict prevention mechanisms. Through countries could do just this, augmented by
recent institutional innovations, such as a Pan awareness-building and capacity-building.15
African Parliament and a Peace and Security Women and girls are also particularly
Council made up of 15 prominent members, vulnerable in conflict situations.16 Gender-based
people will participate more directly in the violence in conflict often carries a political and
management of regional concerns in Africa.12 symbolic message. Rape, enforced prostitution and
Unlike for the UN Security Council, specific trafficking are included in the definition of war
provisions are included facilitating opportunities crimes and crimes against humanity. The
for civil society to participate in the work of the International Tribunals for Rwanda and the former
Peace and Security Council.13 Yugoslavia issued indictments and convictions on

25
 The big challenge is to translate
the normative developments
into concrete policies and
actions

grounds of sexual violence. It is important that • The missing.19 Disappearances during violent
future peace agreements not grant amnesties for conflict are one of the most contentious issues
such crimes. in peace processes and in truth and
The big challenge, then, is to translate these reconciliation efforts. Public and constructive
normative developments into concrete policies and discussions on “disappearances” are under way
actions at the state, regional and international at the international level. A planned
levels. For example, the mandate of peacekeeping international convention will initiate a new
operations should include specific references for instrument to provide preventive measures,
combating the trafficking in women and girls and such as training law enforcement personnel. It
for policing communities. And women should have will also protect the rights of the disappeared
bigger roles in peace negotiations and settlements. and their families, recognizing the rights to
In addition to women and children, several know the fate of missing people and to receive
other groups should receive greater attention: reparation.
• The elderly.17 During the conflicts in Rwanda
and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the elderly and Strengthening humanitarian action
the very young made up whole villages, with all In conflict and emergency situations, humanitarian
others having fled or been killed. Few action rapidly protects people by addressing their
humanitarian actors have protection guidelines most essential needs for food, water, sanitation,
and policies for the elderly, despite their specific basic health care and shelter. In the 1980s such
needs, including better community care and action had a narrow and distinctive framework.
access to essential services. Today, its scope has broadened in response to the
• The disabled. Violent conflict leads to high changing nature of conflicts and to the increase in
numbers of disabled people, with physical and famines and natural disasters.
psychological needs. These needs are attracting
growing attention and are contributing to Broader—and intertwined. Humanitarian action
preventive measures, such as banning the use of has become intertwined with the political, military
landmines that continue to produce victims and development dimensions of violent conflict—
long after the fighting ceases. But more physical an uneasy relationship. Without the prospect of
and mental rehabilitation services are required. political solution, providing relief and protecting
• The indigenous. The suffering of indigenous civilians and refugees in conflict are untenable. But
people is often disproportionally high as the principles of impartiality, neutrality and
warring factions seek control over their land and independence are supposed to guide humanitarian
natural resources, as in Colombia, Guatemala, action. These principles are easily compromised
Mexico, and Myanmar. Protection strategies when humanitarian action is combined with
need to take into account their unique political and military interventions. So while a
characteristics and traditions, as well as their broader approach is constructive, humanitarian
rights to land and resources.18 action should not be an alternative to finding

26
The cross-fertilization between
approaches with different time
horizons and methods of
2
operation could be fruitful

People caught up in violent conflict

political solutions, nor should its principles be situations. And more development actors such as the
compromised to further political goals. World Bank—accustomed to long-term and more
In a similar vein, humanitarian actors often participatory institution-building approaches—are
depend on military and police forces to reach and working in conflict rather than around it. The cross-
assist civilian populations in need. But as with fertilization between approaches with different time
political action, this close relationship can also horizons and methods of operation could be fruitful.
compromise humanitarian action, because force is Recognition of the relationship between conflict and
inconsistent with neutrality. Military action is often development challenges the strongly ingrained view
masked by humanitarian intervention, as the debate that conflicts are aberrations of the progress towards
on the Kosovo war shows. A sad consequence of development rather than inherently related to it.
such involvement in conflict situations:
humanitarian workers come under attack and are Rights-based approaches. The growing prominence
killed or taken hostage, as in Chechnya, the of human rights has also had a significant impact
Democratic Republic of Congo, and Afghanistan. on humanitarian action. Humanitarian action can
The fight against terrorism is also affecting help realize rights by translating them into policies
humanitarian action, with security issues taking and programmes—and by building up institutional
precedence over humanitarian concerns. Suspected capacities to implement them.20 Rights-based
of having terrorist sympathies, some victims of approaches to humanitarian assistance demonstrate
violent conflict are being denied humanitarian the potential synergies.21
relief. Some leaders justify the threat of military In conflict situations, a rights-based approach,
action by arguing that the impact on the civilian like a human security approach, reorients
population will be minimal, because humanitarian humanitarian strategies towards enhancing people’s
emergency relief will follow immediately behind capabilities, choices and security. It stresses the
military action. In a sense, humanitarian action has right to life, health, food, shelter and education. It
become a victim of its success and effectiveness in also emphasizes non-discrimination policies,
recent years. For some, it has reduced the cost of equality and equity, as well as the rights of specific
waging war, and they view humanitarian action as groups, such as women, children, the elderly, the
a tool available to minimize the impact on disabled and refugees. This leads to new policy
civilians—and mute international criticism. options, such as making access to humanitarian
The relationship between humanitarian and assistance in conflict situations conditional on
development action is often equally complex, progress on certain rights. In Bosnia and
particularly if effective humanitarian aid weakens Herzegovina, for example, communities accepting
the incentive to develop sustainable political and the return of minorities, restoring their properties
development solutions. More humanitarian actors— and respecting their human rights and security,
accustomed to rapid, short-term engagements—are were given priority in the rehabilitation of water
now involved in areas normally the domain of and electricity services and the reconstruction of
development assistance, as in post-conflict buildings under the “Open Cities” programme.

27
 There is a need to strike a
balance among humanitarian,
political, military, human rights
and development strategies

But the rights-based approach has limitations.22 To protect people in conflict, sustained and
Some humanitarian agencies have shied away from predictable funding is essential, based on the needs
active promotion of human rights, fearing that it of people rather than on donor priorities and
would politicize their actions and compromise their interests. But compassion fatigue sets in quickly
access to victims. Nor does a rights-based approach and diverts attention to other issues and
always provide answers when instant choices need to emergencies (box 2.3).
be made between two fundamentally bad options.
The human security approach, with its broader Respecting human rights and international
emphasis, may be able to inform the decision- humanitarian law
making by identifying the least objectionable Protecting human rights and upholding
option. In the former Yugoslavia, all parties to the humanitarian law are essential to human security in
conflict practiced ethnic cleansing. Serbs, Muslims conflict situations.23 Like most international law, the
and Croats were expelled from their homes and protection of human rights has been approached
frequently sought the protection and intervention of mainly from a state-centric perspective—the
the Office of the UN High Commsioner for obligations and duties of states towards individuals.
Refugees (UNHCR). On occasion, the UNHCR So the focus of human rights has been on
was accused of assisting ethnic cleansing by helping monitoring violations by governments.
people to flee enclaves surrounded by armed groups. Human security examines human rights not
But upholding their right not to be forcibly only in relation to states, which have the primary
relocated could have meant letting them face obligation to uphold them, but also in relation to
harassment, sexual violations, torture and death. other actors, such as armed non-government
elements and corporations. Equally, human security
Striking a balance. There is thus a need to strike a focuses on enforcing humanitarian law for all
balance among humanitarian, political, military, parties to the conflict, including armed non-state
human rights and development strategies. actors such as warlords and rebel groups.24
Humanitarian action cannot be an alternative to Enhancing their responsibility and capacity to
peace settlements or to development assistance—or respect human rights and humanitarian law is a
the pretext for military intervention. Rather than major human security priority in conflict situations.
letting efforts to address different kinds of human The role of such institutions as the International
insecurity compete with each other or push in Committee of the Red Cross is critical in this.
opposite directions, their interlinkages must be In Strengthening of the United Nations: An
recognized, and comprehensive approaches Agenda for Further Change, UN Secretary-General
developed that do not smother their Kofi Annan suggested ways to strengthen the
distinctiveness. The human security paradigm Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human
provides such a framework, emphasizing the Rights.25 The human rights machinery should be
protection and empowerment of people, a concern improved, particularly the treaty bodies and
shared by all the different strategies. committees. And the investigation of country

28
Regional human rights
mechanisms can address state
obligations
2

People caught up in violent conflict

Box 2.3 Compassion fatigue and humanitarian action situations and issues should be streamlined.
Including human rights principles and mechanisms
Funding for humanitarian relief has increased in peace agreements provides the basis for
significantly in response to the multitude of violent rebuilding communities and countries.
conflicts. Between 1990 and 2000, official
Regional human rights mechanisms—for
humanitarian aid nearly tripled, from $2 billion to
nearly $6 billion. But unlike development funding,
individuals to turn to in times of conflict—can
humanitarian assistance is unpredictable, increasing or address state obligations, as did the Inter-American
decreasing in response to the number of conflicts and Commission and Court for Human Rights during
humanitarian emergencies. Political, strategic and the civil conflicts in Guatemala, El Salvador and
other interests often dominate human security needs Nicaragua. The Organization for Security and Co-
in the responses of donors. In 2001, for example, operation in Europe promotes protection of
expenditures per refugee by the Office of the UN High human rights through its “Human Dimension”
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) amounted to programme, which links multilateral security issues
$86 in Guinea, $63 in Kenya, $37 in the Democratic with growing respect for domestic human rights
Republic of Congo, and $9 in Pakistan. On average,
and democratization. Its High Commissioner on
expenditures per refugee declined from $25 in 1998 to
National Minorities addresses the relationships
$19 in 2001 due to the significant decline in donor
contributions to the UNHCR. The picture is even
between ethnic groups in conflict situations.
more dire if contributions are examined relative to Similar approaches on behalf of minorities in other
actual needs. regions would be a helpful step forward.
In Africa the Charter for Human and People’s
Percentage of humanitarian relief needs met by Rights and the Court on Human and People’s
consolidated appeals, 2000 Rights provide the normative and institutional
framework for protecting people. But the lack of
Percentage institutional capacity has hampered implemen-
Northern Caucasus tation. The newly created African Union offers
Tanzania
Sierra Leone opportunities for protecting human rights and
Tajikistan
Afghanistan addressing abuses in conflicts. And in Asia, civil
Korea, DPR
Congo, Dem. Rep. society is actively working towards placing human
Sudan rights on the regional conflict agenda.26
Eritrea
South Eastern Europe Many initiatives are under way to overcome
Burundi
Angola the weak capacity of national institutions, but
Uganda
Ethiopia coordination and sustained effort are often lacking.
Congo, Rep.
Great Lakes Region The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
West Africa can assist in the development of national human
Indonesia
Somalia rights offices, mechanisms and capacities.
0 20 40 60 80 100
Civil society and communities can promote
respect for human rights and humanitarian law by

29
 In countries with weak human
rights machinery, support for a
national human rights
mechanism is an important step

pressuring governments and international actors to a few examples of successful efforts. The 1999
negotiate and sign international human rights European Code of Conduct on Arms Transfers
instruments. In countries with weak or non- establishes principles and criteria for the approval of
existent human rights machinery, support for a arms exports to countries where they might be used
national human rights mechanism is an important for internal repression—or to provoke or prolong
step, acknowledging the risks and dangers that conflicts in which serious human rights violations
human rights advocates face. have been documented. The 1996 Wassenaar
Arrangement controls exports of conventional arms
Disarming people and fighting crime and dual-use goods and technologies. The con-
Of an estimated 640 million firearms, three in five vention banning antipersonnel landmines is one of
are held by civilians.27 Some 500,000 people are the most successful human security achievements in
killed with these weapons each year, and many recent years.29 In the first four years the convention
more are intimidated, coerced and displaced. The was in force, it has resulted in the destruction of
easy availability of small arms permits the build up almost 30 million mines by 55 countries that agreed
of armed forces at low costs, facilitates violent to eliminate them from their arsenals.
crime and threatens safety. Also to be addressed are related problems of
Programmes to curtail the spread of small international crime and the illegal trade in arms,
arms and disarm civilians and combatants have had drugs, natural resources and people.30 In some 30
only limited success. Few of the weapons collected countries, armed groups depend on conflict
are destroyed. So linking such programmes with commodities to finance their arms purchases and
strategies to advance human security may prove pay their troops. In the Democratic Republic of
more effective. Coupled with education, changes in Congo, the illegal exploitation of coltan, gold,
attitudes about the role of small arms in societies copper, cobalt and diamonds has fueled the
are a priority and may reduce interpersonal conflict. Transnational criminal networks offer
violence and lessen the impact of violent conflicts. their services in selling conflict commodities and
But the demand for small arms and light providing finances to armed rebel groups.
weapons cannot be effectively addressed without The 2000 UN Convention against
examining the supply side. Four permanent Transnational Crime provides the legal framework
members of the UN Security Council are respon- for criminalizing money laundering, corruption
sible for 78% of global exports of conventional and the obstruction of justice—and for seizing
weapons. In a political climate that urges more goods and funds. Special provisions against the
military spending for the war against terrorism and trafficking and smuggling of people have also been
greater protection of state security, reinvigorating adopted (chapter 3). The challenge is to implement
efforts towards preventing and stopping the illicit these provisions, particularly in countries with
trade and use of small arms is a priority. weak institutions and widespread corruption.
How? Through arms embargoes, monitoring Businesses, recognizing their responsibilities
mechanisms and export controls.28 But there are only for fighting illegal activities, are producing some

30
Preventive strategies should
give higher priority to the
protection of people in
2
collapsed states and
contested regions

People caught up in violent conflict

innovative approaches. The certification of rough contested territories as hotbeds of violence and
diamonds under the Kimberley process points the criminal networks, the international community
way towards greater cooperation, transparency and should seek negotiated settlements and build the
accountability in business practices. The Kimberly capacities of states to protect human security—and
process recognized the importance of a reciprocal thereby prevent violent and criminal networks
responsibility of both suppliers and buyers of from gaining ground.
rough diamonds to prevent the trade in conflict Linked to the collapse and creation of states is
diamonds. the protection of citizenship. With the collapse of
the former Soviet Union and the former
Preventing violent conflict and respecting Yugoslavia, citizens became aliens nearly overnight,
citizenship without leaving their homes—such as the ethnic
The responsibility to protect people in conflict, as Russians living in the newly independent Baltic
argued by the International Commission on states. Having a nationality and being recognized a
Intervention and State Sovereignty, includes a citizen of a country is a key element of human
responsibility to prevent violent conflict. Conflict security, because citizens enjoy the benefits offered
prevention is a strategy—or a culture—that builds by responsible states. Having a nationality is a
on the interlinkages among the various issues fundamental human right, and citizenship is “the
causing conflict.31 It is a lens for examining right to have rights”.34 Without citizenship, people
different actions and assessing their potential are often unable to attend school, receive health
impact on conflict (box 2.4). care, find employment, own property, participate
Preventive strategies are high on the agenda of in politics or travel abroad. Authorities may
states and multilateral organizations, according to consider them illegal residents and force them to
an in-depth study by the Carnegie Commission on flee. Once abroad, they are denied the right to
Preventing Deadly Conflict.32 Tools include early return home—or to stay where they are.
warning mechanisms, targeted sanctions, fact- Citizenship can also be ineffective. Many
finding and diplomatic missions and preventive countries have degrees of citizenship, giving more
deployment of peacekeeping operations.33 To meet or fewer rights to ethnic or religious minority
the shifting challenges, attention to peaceful communities, creating inequalities that lead to
measures to prevent threats is a priority. grievances and possibly to conflict. The objective
Preventive strategies should give higher of these discriminatory policies is to exclude
priority to the protection of people in collapsed communities from political, social and economic
states and contested regions, whose citizenship is power. In one of the worst forms of state-based
often at risk. The long-lasting Palestinian-Israeli violence and injustice, the apartheid regime in
conflict shows the dangers that contested territories South Africa used race-based identities to
pose for the human security of all people in disenfranchise the majority of its people. Exclusion
conflict—and to international peace and security. from land on the grounds of citizenship leads to
Rather than targeting collapsed states and marginalization, poverty and possible conflict, as

31
 There is a legitimate
multilateral interest in
preventing the downside
impacts of citizenship denied

Box 2.4 Civil society and conflict in multiethnic Of the pairs of cities studied—Aligarh and Kolkata,
societies Hyderabad and Lucknow, Ahmedabad and Surat—the
first of each pair is prone to intercommunal violence,
Scholars of ethnic conflict routinely face an enigma: while the second, even in the face of similar
Why do some ethnically diverse communities experience provocation, is not. The cities were selected from
violence while others do not? Rural India, for instance, across India. Hindus and Muslims in each of the
is home to two-thirds of Indians but accounts for only peaceful cities have strong associational relationships.
4% of Hindu-Muslim violence; eight urban centers Varshney suggests that these relationships, by
account for the largest share of ethnic carnage. Most promoting communication between members of
riots in India can be traced to intercommunal economic different religious groups, help maintain peaceful
rivalry, polarized party politics and segregated neighbourhoods. They also aid the formation of
neighbourhoods. Yet many cities displaying similar traits temporary “peace committees” to patrol
avoid riots. In a study of three pairs of Indian cities with neighbourhoods and investigate and quash rumours
similar Hindu-Muslim ratios, one in each pair riot- during times of heightened tension. Thus while
prone and the other not, Ashutosh Varshney concluded Hindus and Muslims have had casual contact over
that the structure of local civil society is not unrelated to centuries in both Ahmedabad and Surat, for example,
the amount of ethnic violence a region faces. Muslims have few associational relationships with
Intercommunal relationships can take two forms: Hindus in Ahmedabad, whereas in Surat, many
associational and quotidian. The associational includes Muslim traders share strong business ties with Hindu
business associations, trade unions, reading clubs and traders. Apparently, these business associations built
similar bodies, and the quotidian involves every day mutual trust and respect, and Surat remained free of
activities such as playing or eating meals together. Both the carnage that wracked Ahmedabad.
kinds of relationships can bind different groups of The recent riots in Gujarat that killed nearly a
people together and promote peace. But the thousand Muslims in 2002 bear out Varshney’s thesis.
associational forms of engagement display more Clearly, what ensures peace is the existence of
resistance to attempts by politicians to polarize ethnic mechanisms that can diffuse tensions before they erupt
communities. This suggests that networks of civic life in violence.
that promote the self-interest of individuals actually
create bonds between diverse people. Source: Varshney 2002.

with the Banyarwanda in the Democratic Republic Aussiedler, have gained citizenship in Germany
of Congo. since 1980.35
Some countries are reluctant to recognize The willful denial of citizenship for whole
certain communities as citizens and to allow communities has major implications for other
them to enter or re-enter the country because of states, due to the potential large-scale population
the possible economic burden. In other movements and the spread of conflict and poverty.
instances, preferential citizenship policies permit Therefore, there is a legitimate multilateral interest
the return of descendents of former nationals. in preventing the downside impacts of citizenship
More than 3.5 million German descendents, denied. And in a world with growing migrations of

32
Human security should be
mainstreamed in the agendas
of international, regional and
2
national security organizations

People caught up in violent conflict

populations across borders (chapter 3), multilateral protect and empower people in conflict, a broad
approaches towards citizenship may be warranted. range of interconnected policies is required:
The current multilateral provisions for • Human security should be mainstreamed in the
citizenship are inadequate, largely because they agendas of international, regional and national
date to the immediate post-World War II period security organizations.
and are not effectively implemented. Moreover, the • Respect for the principles guiding humanitarian
primary focus has been on statelessness, not action is essential when developing
citizenship. Few states have acceded to the 1954 comprehensive strategies linking the political,
Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless military and humanitarian dimensions of
Persons and the 1961 Convention on the protecting people in conflict.
Reduction of Statelessness. The UNHCR promotes • Upholding human rights and humanitarian law
state accession to these conventions and provides is essential in protecting and empowering
technical and advisory services, but it needs a people in conflict.
clearer and more effective mandate. • Concerted efforts are required to disarm people
At the national level, many issues relating to and fight crime.
the denial of citizenship can be resolved by revising • Violent conflict must be prevented and
legislation, correcting administrative procedures mitigated in collapsed states and contested
(issuing birth registration cards) and promoting a territories, while fully upholding all rights.
culture of respect. The problems are more complex • The right of each person to a nationality should
when they relate to access to political, social and be respected, and measures are needed to ensure
economic resources. The lack of effective effective citizenship, a condition for attaining
citizenship is also a poverty issue. People denied human security.
equal access to education, health services or
employment opportunities on citizenship grounds Notes
should be explicitly included in development and 1. Rummel 1994.
poverty reduction strategies. 2. The significance of violent conflict is measured by the
number of “battle-related” deaths, with the threshold
Policy conclusions generally at 1,000 deaths or more a year. Some data sets
Human security focuses on the protection of people, have lowered the number of deaths to 25 a year (see box
not borders or territories. The added value of human 2.1).
security is its focus on a broader range of violent 3. SIPRI 2002.
threats facing people, including war and internal 4. Coletta 2002.
conflict, but also communal conflicts and serious 5. Sen 2001.
criminality. It also broadens understanding of the 6. ICISS 2001, p. xii.
causes of violent conflict by emphasizing the links 7. The Security Council has also paid increasing
with poverty, the inequalities among communities attention to the development of smart sanctions for
and the impact of sudden downturns and risks. To activities such as the trade in raw materials (diamonds,

33
coltan) that fuels conflicts and the proliferation of small People [http://www.treatycouncil.org/
arms and landmines. section_211611.htm].
8. Security Council, 4492nd, SC/7329, 15 March 19. ICRC 2003.
2002. Based on Security Council resolutions and 20. UNDP 2000.
presidential statements adopted in recent years, the aide 21. The rights-based approach has also been extended to
memoire identified 13 core objectives: access to other areas, such as poverty reduction and human
vulnerable populations; separation of civilians and armed development: OHCHR 2002.
elements; justice and reconciliation; security, law and 22. Rieff 2002.
order; disarmament, demobilization, reintegration and 23. Ramcharan 2002.
rehabilitation; small arms and mine action; training of 24. United Nations Economic and Social Council 2001.
security and peacekeeping forces; effects on women; 25. United Nations, General Assembly 2002.
effects on children; safety and security of humanitarian 26. Chulalongkorn University and Commission on
and associated personnel; media and information; Human Security 2002.
natural resources and armed conflicts; and the 27. Graduate Institute of International Studies 2002.
humanitarian impact of sanctions. 28. The Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and
9. In a report to the Security Council, the Secretary- Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light
General has proposed a “roadmap” outlining actions aimed Weapons, adopted following a UN Conference in July
at implementing the aide memoire on the protection of 2001. United Nations, Security Council 2002.
civilians (United Nations, Security Council 2002b). 29. [www.wassenaar.org/docs/IE96.html]. The 1997
10. United Nations 2000. Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling,
11. InterAfrica Group/Justice Africa 2002. Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and
12. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development Their Destruction. As of February 2003, 131 states have
(NEPAD) [www.avmedia.at/nepad/indexgb.html]. ratified the convention.
13. [www.africa-union.org/en/home.asp]. 30. Naim 2003.
14. United Nations 2002b. In addition, the Special 31. Lund 2002.
Session focused on issues such as health and education, 32. Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly
the spread of HIV/AIDS and the protection of children Conflict 1997.
from abuse and exploitation. 33. Hampson and Malone 2002.
15. Harvard Program on Humanitarian Policy and 34. U.S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren in
Conflict Research 2002. Trop v. Dulles, 1958, as quoted in ICIHI 1988, p. 107.
16. United Nations, Security Council 2002b. 35. United Nations, Population Division 2002a, p. 27.
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39
People on the move

3
For many people migration is
vital to protect and attain
human security
3

People on the move

The movement of people across borders re- Table 3.1 Countries with the largest number of international
inforces the interdependence of countries and migrants, 2000

communities and enhances diversity. It facilitates

the transfer of skills and knowledge. It stim- Country Number of people
ulates economic growth and development. And United States 34,988,000
for the majority of people, whether they are Russian Federation 13,259,000
migrating temporarily or permanently, it creates Germany 7,349,000
new opportunities for pleasure or business. Ukraine 6,947,000
France 6,277,000
India 6,271,000
Most people move to improve their livelihood, seek Canada 5,826,000
new opportunities or escape poverty.1 They also Saudi Arabia 5,255,000
leave to rejoin family members elsewhere, the main Australia 4,705,000
legal means of migration into Europe and North Pakistan 4,243,000

America since the adoption of more restrictive Source: United Nations, Population Division 2002b.
immigration policies in the 1980s. Another reason
for moving is forcible displacement or coercion
because of war, violent conflict, human rights
Figure 3.1 UNHCR data on refugee population and
abuses, expulsion or discrimination.2 For many movements, 1992–2001
people, therefore, migration is vital to protect and
attain human security, although their human Movements (million) Population (million)
security may also be at risk while they are migrating. 3.5 20.0
At the end of the 20th century, there were an
3.0
estimated 175 million international migrants,
15.0
nearly 3% of the world’s people and twice the 2.5
number in 1975.3 Some 60% of the international
2.0
migrants, about 104 million, are in developed 10.0
countries—the rest, 71 million, are in developing 1.5
countries. (Table 3.1 shows the 10 countries with
1.0
the largest numbers of international migrants.) 5.0
Of the 175 million international migrants in 0.5
2000, nearly 16 million were refugees, roughly 9%
0 0
(figure 3.1).4 That is down from the peak of nearly 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
19 million refugees in 1993, with the smaller Arrivals Returns Population
number of violent conflicts (chapter 2) and the
Note: These data do not include Palestinian refugees, who are under the mandate of the United
return home of people after peace settlements Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.
(chapter 4).5 The movements within borders are Source: UNHCR 2002b.
considerably larger than those across them. Internal

41
displacement from armed conflict, generalized Table 3.2 Countries with the largest number of internally
violence and human rights abuses is estimated to displaced persons, 2002

have affected more than 25 million people in 47

countries in 2002, of which 5.3 million are the Country Number of people
concern of the UN High Commissioner for Sudan 4,000,000
Refugees (UNHCR).6 (Table 3.2 shows the 10 Angola 3,500,000
countries with the largest numbers of internally Colombia 2,100,000
displaced persons.) Congo, Dem. Rep. 2,275,000
Indonesia 1,100,000
The political transformation in the former Turkey 1,000,000
Soviet Union and the opening of societies Iraq 1,000,000
previously closed, such as China, have meant that Afghanistan 920,000
more people can leave their country. The breakup Source: Norwegian Refugee Council 2002.
of states has also resulted in massive population
movements. Consider the former Soviet Union.
Nearly 9 million people were directly affected, as every year, the majority from South and Southeast
migrants, refugees and displaced persons. People Asia. An estimated 50,000 women and girls a year
previously deported returned home, and many are trafficked into the United States for sexual
Russian nationals were expelled from the newly exploitation.9
independent states (box 3.1).
In addition to political change, economic Movements of people and state security
developments have also influenced the magnitude Massive population movements affect the security
and direction of labour migration. Developed of receiving states, often compelling them to close
countries seek skilled migrants while deterring their borders and forcibly prevent people from
unskilled labourers. And there is increasing reaching safety and protection. Armed elements
migration of workers between developing among civilian refugee populations may spread
countries, particularly in Western Asia, Southeast conflict into neighbouring countries.
Asia and Southern Africa. Recent efforts to combat terrorism have put
In 2001, 44% of developed countries had state security concerns at the forefront in
restrictive immigration policies. So did 39% of discussions of international migration, often to the
developing countries.7 These restrictive policies detriment of migrants and refugees. In the name of
have contributed to the proliferation of traffickers preserving state security, the detention of illegal
and smugglers. It is estimated that more than half migrants without due process is on the rise globally.
the 15–30 million illegal migrants in the world People are frequently turned back by force at border
have been assisted by smugglers or been forcibly points, returned to countries where their human
relocated by traffickers.8 Although comprehensive rights may be at risk. “Profiling” aliens and
figures are unavailable, an estimated 700,000 imposing stringent visa requirements for certain
persons, mainly women and children, are trafficked groups have contributed to a climate of intolerance.

42
 Box 3.1 Managing massive population movements— In addition, the fear of further massive population
the break-up of the former Soviet Union displacements loomed large, in particular with respect
to the 34 million or so Russians, Ukrainians and
3
When the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, the euphoria in Belarussians in the newly independent states. Without
Western Europe was quickly muted by the fear that even moving, their status changed from citizen of the
large numbers of Central Europeans would come Soviet Union to aliens in their new home countries. In
seeking employment. These worries increased when the addition to complex citizenship questions, growing

People on the move

Soviet Union dissolved in 1991 and conflicts broke out intolerance and resentment over past injustices, identity
between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the enclave of politics and the prospect of their forcible expulsion to
Nagorno-Karabakh, in the regions of Abkhazia and the Russian Federation raised the spectre of future
South Ossetia of Georgia, Moldova, and Tajikistan. conflict.
Within the newly created Russian Federation, violent Realizing the complexity of the population
conflicts broke out in North Ossetia and Chechnya. movements, the Russian Federation launched an
But the outbreak of fighting in the former Yugoslavia initiative to hold the 1996 UN Conference on the
quickly overshadowed the complex large-scale “Problems of Refugees, Returnees, Displaced Persons,
population movements in the former Soviet Union, and Migrants”. Before the conference, a study
whose relatively successful efforts to manage them were identified 164 ethno-territorial disputes and claims
largely overlooked. This experience shows that the within the former Soviet Union. The objective of the
orderly and predictable management of population conference was to provide a forum for the countries of
movements is feasible, even in very complex and fluid the region to discuss population displacement in a
situations. humanitarian and non-political way, to identify the
Between 1989 and 1996, nearly 9 million people different categories of people affected and to adopt a
were on the move in the Commonwealth of normative and policy framework. The conference
Independent States (CIS)—one in every 30 inhabitants: adopted a comprehensive plan of action to address
population movements and promote preventive
• Refugees, internally displaced persons, strategies.
and involuntary relocating persons 3,632,000 Among the successes of the process were
• Repatriates to country of development of clearer policies, greater coordination of
ethnic origin 3,296,000 policies, the adoption of a flexible institutional
• Return movements of formerly arrangement and a normative framework to protect
deported peoples 1,184,000 displaced persons, and the provision of humanitarian
• Ecological migrants 689,000 assistance. Among the shortcomings: difficulty
• Illegal migrants 580,000 mobilizing financial resources and inadequate
• Asylum-seekers, non-CIS refugees 68,000 integration of humanitarian and development
dimensions of population movements.

Source: UNHCR 2000, pp. 185–209.

Combating the trafficking in and smuggling of receive assistance and support. Rather than being
people, approached primarily from a state security protected, women and girls are prosecuted for
perspective, has been part of the effort to fight the having entered the country illegally. Of particular
spread of crime. Criminal networks exploit the concern is the growing number of unaccompanied
absence of multilateral migration policies and minors being trafficked.11 In Italy, they made up a
cooperation among countries. Traffickers force third of irregular arrivals in 2000. Some 15,000
women and girls into prostitution. According to a unaccompanied minors arrived in the United States
recent study, 90% of foreign migrant sex workers in that year.
the Balkan countries are victims of trafficking.10 The HIV/AIDS crisis also brought to the fore
But only 30% are so recognized, and only 7% the relationship between movements of people and

43
 The growing inequity between
and within countries affects
displacement patterns

public health. Migrants are more at risk of people have access more to the money, information
contracting and spreading the disease than people and networks that are essential for moving from one
who do not move. They also are more vulnerable country to another.13 The largest movements orig-
to sexual violation and physical abuse. And they inate from middle-income countries, not from the
have greater difficulty getting health services. So poorest countries. Only after years of development is
policies to prevent the spread of HIV/AIDS and a gradual decline in migration noticeable.
other infectious diseases need to protect migrating For developed countries the ageing population
people and their families and populations along prompts a steady demand for more labour
major migratory routes. This requires the migrants. Since the mid-1990s, several European
development of programmes across borders and the countries have introduced temporary worker
inclusion of migrating people in national plans. programmes for highly skilled professionals. But
this need for additional labour migration has not
Movements of people—and development been translated into public support for such
The movement of people is also a development programmes. Instead, there has been public
issue. The growing inequity between and within intolerance of migrants, sentiments often exploited
countries affects displacement patterns.12 As long by politicians.
as inequity and imbalances between labor demand Policies to overcome this gap between public
and supply are growing among countries, people perception and economic need will determine
will seek every opportunity to better their whether managed and predictable migration
livelihoods. The relationships among development, policies will be feasible. The effectiveness of these
poverty and displacement are complex and poorly policies will also be determined by the way the
understood. Poverty is often cited as one of the brain drain of skilled professionals from developing
main causes of irregular migration. So, from a countries is addressed.14 Some 15 percent of
policy perspective, less poverty should mean less college-educated Ghanaians and more than 20
migration pressures. To address the growing percent of Mexicans with a secondary education
number of irregular migrants, the European Union have migrated to the United States.15
adopted a comprehensive policy at its 1999 Sudden economic downturns and structural
Tampere Summit in Finland to “address political, adjustment programs directly affect people’s human
human rights and development issues in countries security and migration aspirations, yet little
and regions of origin and transit…. This requires attention has been paid to this interconnection.
combating poverty, improving living conditions Experiences in Southeast Asia and Latin America
and job opportunities, preventing conflicts and indicate that the impact is significant. During the
consolidating democratic states and ensuring Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s, several
respect for human rights.” countries resorted to the forcible expulsion of
But research also shows that poverty reduction illegal migrants and refused to renew the work
strategies may contribute to increased movements of permits and visas of legal workers. In Latin
people in the short and medium terms because America, too, the economic crisis is pushing people

44
There is no single institutional
arrangement for the orderly
management and protection of
3
people moving across borders

People on the move

to migrate. According to a 2001 survey, nearly countries through the adoption of agreed norms,
500,000 Argentines have applied for immigration principles and institutions—is remarkable, since it
visas to other countries. affects the security of people and of states.
Nor does enough attention go to the
development needs of people internally displaced Institutional arrangements
by war and conflict or by development projects. A There is no single institutional arrangement for the
2002 World Food Programme study on internal orderly management and protection of people
displacement in Indonesia shows that food security moving across borders. The International Labour
is significantly lower among internally displaced Organization has a mandate to protect migrant
persons than among host communities.16 The workers. The International Organization for
incidence of poverty is much higher in the initial Migration facilitates the orderly movement of people
stages of displacement, especially for female-headed at the requests of member states.17 The General
households, and gradually improves over time. The Agreement on Tariffs and Trade also had a mandate
study also noted greater health problems for to promote the freedom of movement of people, but
displaced people. Children’s schooling is also it was not implemented. The UNHCR has a
disrupted during displacement, and many children mandate to protect refugees and identify solutions.
stop attending school or cannot attend because Several other institutions also focus on
they are needed for work. migration, including United Nations Development
Programme, the World Bank and the United
Filling gaps in the institutional and normative Nations Population Division, which produces the
frameworks most comprehensive migration data. For the
From a human security perspective, the movement of internal displacement of people, efforts to
people should be looked at comprehensively, taking coordinate the responses by international agencies
into account the political, civil, security, economic are also under way through the UN Office for the
and social dimensions affecting peoples’ decision to Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.
move. It cannot be approached solely from the
perspectives of the countries of origin, transit or Normative frameworks
destination. It must also be approached from the The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states
perspective of the different stages and motivations for that “Everyone has the right to freedom of move-
displacement—for many people, migration is the ment and residence within the borders of each
only option. Today’s policies, norms and institutions state” and that “Everyone has the right to leave any
are not doing this, leaving major gaps. country, including his own, and to return to his
Except in the case of refugees, it is left largely country” (article 13). But if the right to leave one’s
to individual states to regulate the movement of country is to have practical effect, people must be
people within and across borders. The absence of able to enter another country. States have carefully
an international migration arrangement—ordering guarded their right to determine who is permitted
and regulating the movement of people between to enter and reside in their territory. Consequently,

45
 If the right to leave one’s
country is to have practical
effect, people must be able to
enter another country

there has been little progress in developing a obligations of refugees. In Africa, instruments have
normative framework to regulate the movement of been adopted to broaden the definition of a
people between states and to protect their rights. refugee and recognize the right of asylum.18 But
The most significant effort is the 1990 the effective application of these instruments has
International Convention on the Protection of the come under pressure in recent years. More
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of migrants are applying for refugee status to
Their Families, which came into force in circumvent the restrictive immigration regulations,
December 2002. The convention applies to regular undermining the protection under the convention.
and irregular migrants and their family members Governments are interpreting the definition of
and provides for the protection of their funda- refugee narrowly and preventing people from
mental human rights and freedoms. But as only 19 applying for refugee status by imposing stringent
migrant-sending countries have ratified the visa requirements, detentions and returns at the
convention so far, its effective implementation by border.
receiving countries remains doubtful. In addition, Efforts to strengthen the rights of migrants have
legal migrants benefit from the 1949 International also been taken up at various UN international
Labour Organization Migration for Employment conferences in the past decade. The most significant
Convention and the 1975 Convention on Migrant progress was at the 1993 Vienna World Conference
Workers. But few states have ratified these on Human Rights and the 1994 Cairo International
instruments. There also are regional instruments, Conference on Population and Development, where
such as the 1977 European Convention on the states agreed to uphold basic standards and
Legal Status of Migrant Workers, but they too have implement a program of action. At the 2001
attracted few ratifiers. Durban World Conference against Racism, fear and
The most positive policy developments have hatred of migrants, refugees and asylum-seekers were
been in combating the smuggling and trafficking recognized as one of the main manifestations of
in people, with the G-8 countries making it a modern racism. (Subsequent efforts to organize an
priority. Two protocols in the United Nations international UN conference to examine the
Convention against Transnational Organized relationship between migration and development
Crime contain provisions criminalizing the failed for lack of international support.19)
smuggling and trafficking in migrants by
emphasizing the obligation to prosecute offenders. Adopting a human security approach
The most developed normative framework is The UN Secretary-General, in his 2002 report on
for refugees, under the 1951 Convention Relating Strengthening of the United Nations: An Agenda for
to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol. Further Change, argues for a comprehensive
The convention defines a refugee and prohibits examination of the different dimensions of
the return of people to situations in which their migration, as well as the causes of population
lives may be in danger for refugee-like reasons. It movements and their impact on development.20
also includes an extensive list of rights and Similarly, the Organisation for Economic Co-

46
Achieving these ambitious goals
requires a careful balance
between national sovereignty,
3
security and development
needs and the human security
of people

People on the move

operation and Development has argued that needs at home of internally displaced persons
migration is critical in globalization but that more enables them to remain and not seek protection
cooperation is required to manage it.21 The most elsewhere.
successful example of cooperation on migration is Achieving these ambitious goals requires a
the European Union, which will permit the free careful balance between national sovereignty,
movement of more than 450 million people security and development needs on the one hand
between 25 countries by 2007. Regional strategies and the human security of people on the other.
are also freeing the movement of people between And achieving that balance requires filling the
countries in West Africa, Central America and policy and institutional gaps identified earlier.
Latin America—and within the North American The Commission on Human Security
Free Trade Agreement. In addition, regional proposes the development of an international
discussions are coordinating strategies of sending, migration framework that, among other issues,
transit and receiving countries through the sharing would address:24
of information and agreements on visa regimes and • Taking steps towards the orderly and safe
return policies. Examples include the Puebla movement of people, including increasing
Process in Central America, the Asia-Pacific migratory opportunities and burden-sharing
Consultations, the Berne Initiative and the Dakar among countries.
Consultations.22 • Developing international and regional norms
Common to these initiatives is coordinating for the movement of people between countries
restrictive policies at the highest possible level, and for the rights and obligations of migrants.
while agreeing to protect migrants at the lowest • Formulating strategies to combat trafficking and
possible level.23 From a human security per- smuggling and implementing the relevant
spective, managing migration has to go beyond international and regional conventions, while
coordinating restrictive policies among states. The protecting the rights of victims.
importance of migration for protecting human • Protecting against racism and intolerance and
security should be recognized, in particular for other human rights violations.
people fleeing serious human rights violations, • Developing an institutional framework.
persecution and violent conflict. Also, migration Existing international and regional instru-
should be seen as a process that empowers people ments should be promoted, and new ones
and creates new opportunities for people and states developed. The protocols on the trafficking and
alike. At the same time, the migration of people smuggling of people show that cooperation among
between countries cannot be seen in isolation from states is feasible, often with the close involvement
the displacement of people within countries, given of civil society. Attention should go to adopting
the permeability of borders and the ease of travel. national anti-trafficking legislation and protection
Because internally displaced persons seldom benefit and referral mechanisms for trafficked persons,
from the protection of national and local who should be treated not as criminals but as
authorities, meeting the protection and essential victims of human rights violations.

47
 The refugee regime is under
severe strain, leaving gaps
in the protection of people
fleeing war

For refugees empowering refugees is far from exemplary.27 Too

More than 50 years since its adoption, the refugee often, protection and empowerment strategies aimed
regime is under severe strain, leaving gaps in the at women and children are considered “non-core”
protection of people fleeing war, violent conflict, activities, even though women and children represent
human rights violations and discrimination. To more than 75 percent of the refugee population.28
help close these gaps, states have signed on to an With the burden of hosting refugees unequally
Agenda for Protection, developed under the divided among countries and with most of it borne
UNHCR through global consultations.25 by low-income countries,29 developed countries
Strengthening the protection of refugees requires a need to increase their financial contributions and
better understanding of the causes and actors provide more technical assistance. Among the
forcing people to flee. A narrow state-centric priorities: establishing secure livelihoods,
understanding of persecution and protection fails to protecting people against downside risks, reducing
address the needs of people who have fallen victim inequalities among communities, strengthening
to rebel groups and criminal triads—and whom the governance and respecting human rights.
state fails to protect. A broader understanding Solutions to refugee crises depend primarily
would include grave threats of generalized violence, on the transition to peace and stability in post-
internal conflicts, massive violations of human conflict countries (chapter 4). Voluntary
rights and other serious disturbances of public repatriation and reintegration of people into their
order.26 Moreover, interpretations of the criteria for home communities are the best option. If these
refugee status need to be harmonized among steps are not feasible, donor countries should help
countries to avoid people who are rejected in one refugees become self-sufficient—and if agreed by
country moving on to another. the host country, to settle permanently in their
Protecting refugees is the responsibility not new community. Opportunities to resettle in a
only of states and the UNHCR, but also of civil third country remain limited, despite the
society organizations and refugees themselves. Civil importance for protection. Between 1992 and
society can work to improve education and 2001, some 284,000 refugees were resettled,
training for refugees, provide employment and primarily to the United States, Canada and
health care for women and support community Australia. But such opportunities were choked off
development and integration activities. Refugee by the fight against terrorism. The number of
community groups should take responsibility for refugees resettled to the United States declined
identifying their own needs and managing their from 70,000 in 2001 to 27,000 in 2002 because
resources. of stringent security checks.30 Expanding
From the outset, the emphasis should be on the resettlement opportunities for qualified and needy
productive capacities of refugees, not on their refugees, particularly in Europe, will contribute to
vulnerabilities, for this will allow them to regain their burden-sharing, facilitate the orderly movement of
livelihoods and dignity. The record of many people and ease the need to attract labour
humanitarian and development agencies in migrants.

48
Solutions to refugee crises
depend primarily on the
transition to peace and stability
3
in post-conflict countries

People on the move

Guaranteeing the security of refugees is conflict, the 1949 Geneva Conventions and their
another priority.31 The presence of combatants Additional Protocols provide for the protection of
among civilian refugee populations undermines the civilians, including internally displaced persons.33
humanitarian and non-political character of But international legal norms do not cover all
granting asylum. Security threats take many situations of internal displacement; nor are the
forms—ranging from sexual violence against norms universally respected.34 So the Guiding
women to armed conflict. The military Principles on Internal Displacement were
recruitment of refugees, particularly children, formulated by the United Nations in 1996,
should also be prevented by separating armed drawing on human rights, norms and
elements from the civilian refugee population— humanitarian and refugee law.35 The Guiding
often very difficult because of the lack of capacity Principles cover the protection of people from and
or political will. Failures to ensure the security of during displacement, access to humanitarian
refugees may spill conflict into the country of assistance, and the return, resettlement and
asylum, threatening regional peace and security. To reintegration of people.
meet these challenges, security packages should The innovative approach in drafting the
strengthen police units in unsafe refugee-hosting Guiding Principles, led by Francis Deng, shows
areas, and experienced security officers should what might be done to develop norms for other
provide technical assistance (box 3.2). human security issues. The Guiding Principles link
Such changes can happen only with stronger relevant provisions in human rights and
institutional arrangements. Unilateral restrictive humanitarian and refugee law, giving a unique
action by individual states merely shifts problems framework that stipulates how internally displaced
without addressing them. Agreements are needed persons should be protected.36 The Guiding
on issues not covered by the Refugee Convention Principles also strengthen the application of the
and requiring a multilateral approach involving (broader) human rights norms by demonstrating
states, international actors and civil society their relevance to specific issues and situations.
organizations. Such “Convention Plus” strategies Although the Guiding Principles do not bind
should clarify responsibilities and ensure that the states, they can be an important tool for protection
UNHCR can carry out its mandated and empowerment if translated into concrete and
responsibilities.32 practical policy guidelines and operationalized. In Sri
Lanka, the Guiding Principles contributed to the
For internally displaced persons effective functioning of the open relief centres, which
The needs of internally displaced persons are serve as gathering points for protection from armed
similar to those of refugees in many respects. But skirmishes as well as for food distribution. Efforts to
whereas refugees benefit from a clear set of incorporate these Guiding Principles into national
internationally recognized rights and principles, as legal frameworks should be promoted, as in Angola,
provided under the international refugee system, Colombia and Sri Lanka. And strengthening the
internally displaced persons do not. In war and capacity of national and local human rights

49
 Box 3.2 Ensuring refugee security Following the Rwandan genocide of 1994, members
of the militia and soldiers of the former Rwandan army
In late 2000 and early 2001, some 300,000 Sierra suspected of having committed genocide joined the
Leonean and 90,000 Liberian refugees in southern refugees fleeing to then-Zaire and Tanzania. They took
Guinea were victims of cross-border rebel attacks from control of some of the refugee camps, intimidated the
Sierra Leone. To escape the attacks, the refugees fled civilian population and staged attacks on Rwandan
deeper into the country, accompanied by more than territory. The lack of support by the international
100,000 Guineans who feared for their own safety. community in separating the armed elements from the
Fighting interrupted the delivery of humanitarian civilian population contributed to the collapse of Zaire
assistance, and a UNHCR staff member was killed and and to the persisting humanitarian crisis in the eastern
another was abducted. Many of the Sierra Leonean part of the country. Nearly 10 years after the genocide,
refugees returned home, considering it safer than their the region is still in turmoil. Separation of armed
country of asylum. elements from the civilian populace in 1995–96 could
The impact of the crisis was profound. Of the nearly have made a dramatic difference in the human security
400,000 Liberian and Sierra Leoneon refugees before the of the whole region.
crisis broke out, only 80,600 remained in the country. Several steps can be taken to ensure the safety of
Inflammatory statements on radio and television accused refugees, attuned to escalating or diminishing
the refugees of responsibility for the ills befalling the threats:
country and suggested that all refugees be rounded up • Adopting preventive and corrective measures, such as
and pushed across the border, ending decades of locating camps away from the border and
generous hospitality toward refugees nearly overnight. establishing refugee security committees.
The experience in Guinea is not unique. Other • Dispatching international fact-finding missions and
recent examples include Ethiopia, the Democratic observers.
Republic of Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Tanzania, Thailand, • Strengthening law enforcement mechanisms.
the West Bank and Gaza, and Uganda. • Supporting national police and military forces.
Among the most serious protection problems facing • Deploying international police forces.
refugees is the militarization of settlements. The mixing • Deploying military forces under Chapter VI or VII
of armed elements among civilian refugee populations of the UN Charter.
creates the real danger that the conflict will spread across
borders, affecting the host country as well as refugees. Source: Faubert [www.humansecurity-chs.org].

institutions to act on behalf of internally displaced that international organizations enhance their
persons should be a policy objective. capacity to protect internally displaced persons.
The empowerment of internally displaced Progress has been made toward strengthening
persons has not received enough attention, despite coordination, planning and monitoring through
the crucial role internally displaced persons play in the UN Office for the Coordination of
meeting their own needs and influencing the course Humanitarian Affairs, but implementation of
of conflict.37 In many situations, internally displaced effective programmes on behalf of internally
persons develop survival and coping strategies. In displaced persons remains lacking.38 Further
some, they and host communities develop self- clarification of responsibilities may require
defence units, to ensure that people have time to flee. designating lead agencies, based on their capacity,
In others, women have organized to secure comparative advantage and complementarities.
livelihoods for themselves and to provide basic health Too often, internally displaced persons have
and education to children. But as in refugee settings, been viewed as solely a humanitarian issue. But
humanitarian actors do not adequately draw on or their protection and empowerment cannot be
support such community development activities. considered apart from national development and
More emphasis needs to go to protecting poverty reduction strategies, both critical for
people in their country of origin, so it is critical ending internal displacement through return,

50
Migration issues have to be
squarely put on the
development and poverty
3
reduction agendas

People on the move

resettlement or reintegration. The World Bank, for abroad,42 offer an important channel to share
example, has specific guidelines on “involuntary information and mobilize resources. They also
resettlement” that emphasize the need for provide a safety net to newly arriving members
prevention, compensation and participation of abroad. But not all expatriate activities are
people displaced by development projects.39 The benevolent: in some instances, the networks serve as
experience of development actors should inform an informal conduit for illegal activities, such as
the policies of humanitarian actors. At the same human trafficking and the financing of violent
time, the Guiding Principles on Internal conflict in the country of origin.
Displacement may provide a normative base for Countries of origin are mobilizing such
development actors to ensure the protection of networks to act as a powerful political pressure
people displaced by development projects. group and source of financial resources.43
Remittances by migrants, much greater than the
For economic migrants total amount of official international development
To protect the human security of migrants, a assistance, alleviate poverty of the family members
minimum requirement is a secure legal status that remaining in the country of origin. According to
will enable them to access basic services and to International Monetary Fund data, remittances by
benefit from legal protection of their fundamental migrants were estimated to be about $70 billion in
rights. Various countries have regularized the status 1995 and $100 billion in 2000, nearly twice the
of migrants residing illegally. To facilitate the official development assistance of some $51 billion
integration of permanent migrants and their families, in 2001.44 The 7.3 million overseas Philippine
the granting of citizenship should be eased, workers are estimated to have sent $8 billion home
particularly for second- or third-generation in 2002.45 El Salvador is among the countries most
migrants.40 If not, a second or third class of people dependent on remittances—at least 15 percent of
will have their human security at risk, perhaps giving the population depends on them. In Sri Lanka,
rise to tensions and conflict among communities remittances reached nearly $1 billion in 2000,
Research shows that migrants granted permanent again twice the official development assistance of
resident status or citizenship are more likely to return $490 million in 1998.46
to their country of origin and re-establish links— These remittances shed a new light on the
because they have a new secure base. ongoing debate on the brain drain of skilled
Migration issues also have to be squarely put workers from developing countries. The focus could
on the development and poverty reduction be on benefiting from the “brain gain” rather than
agendas.41 Only by understanding the links among on ways to stop the brain drain.47 By adopting
migration, development and poverty reduction can policies for maintaining links with nationals
effective migration policies be developed. abroad—such as the right to own property, voting
Transnational social networks of people sharing in national elections and dual citizenship—
the same identity or nationality (the diaspora), such countries of origin can attract the return of skilled
as Armenian, Chinese, Indian or Irish communities migrants, either permanently or temporarily. For

51
 Multilateral approaches are
essential for promoting
orderly and predictable
movements of people

example, the Philippines adopted legislation integration into host communities. But to achieve
allowing Filipinos abroad to vote in elections.48 this, displacement issues can no longer be seen as
Setting up an effective institutional solely a humanitarian concern; they should also
arrangement for all this requires: be placed on the development agenda.
• Collecting and analyzing migration data and • The security risks arising during large-scale
research. forced population movements need to be
• Promoting an international normative acknowledged and better understood. Therefore
framework and ensuring its effective greater attention should be given to efforts to
implementation. preserve the humanitarian character of granting
• Facilitating the development and coordination asylum by separating armed elements from
of policies at regional and national levels. civilian refugee populations.
• Protecting migrants when their human security • Given the permeability of borders and the ease
is seriously threatened and they cannot seek of travel, efforts to strengthen the refugee
protection in their country of nationality. regime and establish an international migration
Many of these tasks are now shared among framework need to be accompanied by
different actors, greatly complicating integrated improvements in the protection of internally
policies and operations. displaced persons.

Policy conclusions Notes

Multilateral approaches are essential for promoting 1. Kothari 2002.
orderly and predictable movements of people. 2. If such people cross a border and seek international
Needed is an international migration framework of protection, they are considered refugees; if they do not
norms, processes and institutional arrangements to cross a border, internally displaced persons.
ensure such order and predictability. In that 3. A migrant is defined as a person who lives abroad for
framework, the sovereignty and security of states at least one year. Migration data are notoriously weak,
would be balanced by the human security of people. and efforts are being made to collect better data. Often
• A high-level and broad-based commission large numbers of people are missed. For example, an
should explore available options and areas of estimated 8 million undocumented migrants residing in
consensus, including alternative institutional the United States have not been included in the
arrangements. Parallel to this process, population census (United Nations, Population Division
international, regional and national actors 2002b).
should cooperate more on migration issues. 4. Of the 15.7 million refugees, 12 million were the
Given its unique mandate, the United Nations responsibility of the UN High Commissioner for
should take the lead. Refugees, and the 3.7 million Palestinians fell under the
• Concerted efforts to identify and implement mandate of the United Nations Relief and Works
solutions to displacement situations are required Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.
through voluntary repatriation, resettlement or 5. UNHCR 2002b.

52
 3

People on the move

6. These figures do not include people moving because of migration management. Similar discussions have also
development projects (such as the 40–80 million people been taking place within civil society organizations, such
estimated to have been displaced by the building of large as the initiative taken by the Society for International
dams) or people moving to urban centres (Norwegian Development/Netherlands Chapter on the Future of
Refugee Council 2002; World Commission on Dams Asylum and Migration.
2000; United Nations Populations Division 2002c). 25. Executive Committee of the High Commissioner’s
7. UN Population Division 2002b. Programme, Agenda for Protection,
8. A person trafficked is someone forced (against free A/AC.96/965/Add.1, 26 June 2002.
will or without knowledge) to go to another country. A 26. 1984 Cartagena Declaration, Colombia.
person smuggled is someone who pays a transporter to 27. UNHCR 2002a.
arrange to go to another country through illegal channels 28. UNHCR 2002a.
(Clark 2002). 29. UNHCR 2002b, p 65.
9. US Department of State 2002, p. 2. 30. Migration News, vol. 9, no. 12, December 2002, p. 4.
10. UNICEF/UNOHCHR/OSCE-ODIHR 2002. 31. United Nations, Security Council 2002a.
11. UNAIDS 2001. 32. Lubbers 2002.
12. Bach 2002. 33. Protocol II of the Geneva Convention includes
13. Massey and others 1998, p. 277. several articles (4, 13, 14, and 17) relating to the
14. Tevoedjre 2002. protection of victims in non-international armed conflicts.
15. Carrington and Detragiache 1998. 34. Among the areas that needed to be strengthened are
16. WFP 2002. protection against forcible return to a situation that may
17. The International Labour Organization World threaten a person’s life, right to return to the place of
Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization habitual residence, the issuance of personal
is examining in detail the impact of globalization and documentation, compensation for lost property, and
labour migration, as well as the development of a policy right of access to humanitarian assistance.
framework for international labour mobility and 35. Compilation and Analysis of Legal Norms
migration. Pertaining to Internally Displaced Persons, U.N. Doc.
18. 1969 Organization for African Unity Convention E/CN.4/1996/52/Add.2.
Regulating the Specific Aspects of Refugees in Africa. 36. The Brookings–CUNY Project on Internal
19. United Nations, General Assembly 2000a. Displacement 2002; Kalin 2001.
20. United Nations, General Assembly 2002b. 37. Vincent and Refslund Sorensen 2001.
21. OECD 2001. 38. In January 2002, a small Internal Displaced Persons
22. For an overview, see International Migration Policy Unit was created within the Office for the Coordination
Programme 2002. of Humanitarian Affairs, with personnel seconded from
23. IOM 2001. UN and non-governmental agencies.
24. At the government level, the Berne Initiative was 39. World Bank, Operational Policies, OP 4.12,
launched by Switzerland in June 2001 as a global December 2001.
consultative process for inter-state cooperation on 40. Aleinikoff and Klusmeyer 2002.

53
41. Olesen 2002. for the Commission on Human Security.
42. “A World of Exiles,” The Economist, 4 January 2003. [www.humansecurity-chs.org].
43. Bhagwati 2003. Kalin, Walter. 2001. “How Hard is Soft Law? The
44. Martin 2001. Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement and
45. Migration News, 2002, vol. 9, no. 12, p. 29. the Need for a Normative Framework.” Paper
46. Koser and Van Hear 2002. presented at a Roundtable Meeting, Ralph Bunche
47. Migration News, 2002, vol. 9, no. 12. Institute for International Studies, City University
48. Migration News, 2002, vol. 9, no. 12, p. 30. of New York Graduate Center, 19 December.
Koser, Khalid, and Nicholas Van Hear. 2002. “Asylum
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East Versus West.” Paper prepared for Security with Poverty, International Migration and Asylum,
a Human Face: Expert Workshop on the Feasibility 27–28 September.
of a Human Security Report, Harvard University, Kothari, Uma. 2002. Migration and Chronic Poverty.
Massachusetts, December. Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre.
Bach, Robert L. 2002. “Global Mobility, Inequality and Lubbers, Rudd. 2002. “Opening Statement, 53rd
Security: Reflections on a Human Security Session of the Executive Committee of the High
Agenda.” Paper prepared for the Commission on Commissioner’s Programme.” Geneva, 30
Human Security. [www.humansecurity-chs.org]. September. [www.unhcr.ch].
Bhagwati, Jagdish. 2003. “Borders Beyond Control.” Massey, D.S., J. Arango, G. Hugo, A. Kouaouci, A.
Foreign Affairs 82(1). Pellefrino and J.E. Taylor. 1998. Worlds in Motion:
Carrington, William, and Enrica Detragiache. 1998. Understanding International Migration at the End
“How Big Is the Brain Drain?” IMF Working Paper of the Millennium. Oxford: Oxford University
98/102. Press.
Clark, Michele Anne. 2002. “The Global Status of Norwegian Refugee Council. 2002. Internally Displaced
Trafficking in Persons.” Paper prepared for the People: A Global Survey. London: Earthscan
Commission on Human Security. Publications.
[www.humansecurity-chs.org]. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Faubert, Carol. 2002. “Refugee Security in Africa.” Development). 2001. Trends in International
Paper prepared for the Commission on Human Migration. Paris.
Security. [www.humansecurity-chs.org]. Olesen, Henrik. 2002. “Migration, Return and
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2001. Development: An Institutional Perspective.” Expert
The Role of Regional Consultative Processes in working paper prepared for the Centre for
Managing International Migration. IOM Migration Development Research Study on Migration-
Research Series 3. Geneva. Development Links: Evidence and Policy Options.
International Migration Policy Programme. 2002. Tevoedjre, Albert. 2002. Winning the War against
“Migration and Human Security.” Paper prepared Humiliation: Report of the Independent Commission

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on Africa and the Challenges of the Third ———. 2002c. World Urbanization Prospects: The 2001
Millennium. Paris: Tunde. Revision. ESA/P/WP.173. New York: Population
UNAIDS. 2001. Population Mobility and AIDS. Geneva. Division, Department of Economic and Social
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Refugees). 1997. The State of the Worlds Refugees ———. 2003. World Population Prospects: The 2002
1997: A Humanitarian Agenda. Revision. ESA/P/WP.180. New York: Population
———. 2000. State of the Worlds Refugees, 2000. Division, Department of Economic and Social
Oxford: Oxford University Press. Affairs, United Nations Secretariat.
———. 2002. “Meeting the Rights and Protection United Nations, Security Council. 2001a. Children and
Needs of Refugee Children.” EPAU/2001/02, Armed Conflict: Report of the Secretary-General.
Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit, Geneva. A/56/342. 7 September. New York.
———. 2002. Statistical Yearbook 2001. Geneva. ———. 2001b. Report of the Secretary-General to the
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), OHCHR Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in
(UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Armed Conflict. S/2001/331. New York.
Rights) and OSCE-ODIHR (Organization for ———. 2002a. Report of the Secretary-General to the
Security and Co-operation in Europe/Office for Security Council on the Protection of Civilians in
Democratic Institutions and Human Rights). 2002. Armed Conflict. S/2002/1300. New York.
Trafficking in Human Beings in Southeastern Europe. ———. 2002b. Report of the Secretary-General on Small
Belgrade: Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Arms. S/2002/1053. New York.
United Nations, General Assembly. 2000a. ———. 2002c. Report of the Secretary-General on Women,
“International Migration and Development, Peace and Security. S/2002/1154. New York.
Including the Question of the Convening of a United States, Department of State. 2002. Victims of
United Nations Conference on International Trafficking and Violence Protection Act 2000:
Migration and Development to Address Migration Trafficking in Persons Report. Washington D.C.
Issues.” A/56/167, 3 July 2001. New York. Vincent, Mark, and Birgitte Refslund Sorensen, eds.
———. 2001b. Prevention of Armed Conflict. A/55/985, 2001. Caught Between Borders: Response Strategies of
7 June. New York. the Internally Displaced. London: Pluto Press.
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International Migration from Countries with Resettlement, Rehabilitation, Reparation, and
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ESA/P/WP.176. New York: Population Division, WFP (World Food Programme). 2002. “Internally
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———. 2002b. International Migration Report 2002. Options.” Rome.
ESA/P/WP.178. New York: Population Division,
Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
United Nations Secretariat.

55
Recovering from
violent conflict

4
Helping countries recovering
from conflict lays the
groundwork for development
4
to take off as well as for
human security

Recovering from violent conflict

Cease-fire agreements and peace settlements environment permitted the negotiation of
mark the end of violent conflict, but they do agreements ending long-term conflict, as in
not ensure peace and human security. Cambodia and Mozambique. In other situations,
According to the World Bank, there is a 50-50 the fighting stopped after a cease-fire, but there
chance that renewed violent conflict will erupt, was no peace to keep, and the conflict resumed
and the chance is even higher when control after a lull, as in Burundi and Liberia.
over natural resources is at stake.1 Violent International involvement has varied
conflict causes millions of dollars of damage considerably. In Cambodia and Timor-Leste, the
and destroys societies, often erasing years of United Nations took on de facto administration of
development. Recovery requires yet more the country until elections could be organized. In
resources. At the beginning of the 21st century, countries of the former Yugoslavia, deep
nearly 60 countries are in conflict or have international involvement has continued many
recently emerged from it, the majority among years after the wars ended. In Angola, Liberia and
the poorest.2 In many conflicts, the state and Somalia the involvement of the international
its institutions have collapsed, and lingering community has been patchy—due to lasting
conflicts rage over control of contested insecurity and lack of political will and interest. In
territories. many other post-conflict situations, there has been
little or no international effort to rebuild the
Helping countries recovering from conflict, one of country, as in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia.
the most complex challenges confronting the The transition from conflict has been
international community, lays the groundwork for approached as a continuous process—from
development to take off as well as for human humanitarian relief to rehabilitation and
security. Conflicts’ aftermath affects hundreds of reconstruction, leading to development. The
millions of people in numerous ways, and the presumption has been that only short-term relief is
financial resources required are enormous. The feasible immediately after the conflict ends, and
responsibility of states and the international that any efforts at that time towards rehabilitation
community to protect people in conflict should be and reconstruction would likely be wasted. Only
complemented by a responsibility to rebuild— when the situation is stable and secure and
including after an international military immediate humanitarian needs have been met can
intervention.3 The measure of an intervention’s rehabilitation and reconstruction take off, and only
success is not a military victory—it is the quality of after that can development be launched in earnest.
the peace that is left behind. And the benefits of In reality, recovering from violent conflict
peace must be felt quickly if people are to plan for seldom follows a linear process. Latent conflict
the future.4 lingers, and interpersonal violence and crime may
Since the 1990s, successive cease-fires and actually increase. Power-sharing arrangements,
peace settlements have followed the outbreak of subject to continual confrontation, are difficult to
violent conflicts. The changing international implement. And massive numbers of people,

57
 Post-conflict situations provide
opportunities to recast social,
political and economic
bases of power

displaced internally and sometimes externally, need fragmentation and erasing inequalities. But post-
to be returned and reintegrated into their conflict situations can also create new uncertainties
communities. Inequalities among communities and deepen alienation. If human security is to
may sharpen—leading to new grievances. Famine protect and enlarge people’s choices by promoting
and infectious diseases may spread, causing their individual and collective empowerment, their
additional human suffering.5 rights to political, social and economic freedoms in
Several initiatives have been launched to post-conflict situations must be reasserted:
overcome the challenges. Closer cooperation is • Political. The key issue is establishing a new
being sought among humanitarian actors, democratic political order, preventing
development agencies and financial institutions. competing social, political and economic forces
Special units have been set up to respond to post- from causing potentially destabilizing reactions.
conflict situations, such as the Bureau for Crisis The institutional capacity and policies of the
Prevention and Recovery in the United Nations state are critical to ensuring that grievance is
Development Programme and the Conflict contained and further violence prevented.
Prevention and Reconstruction Unit of the World • Social. Conflict makes poverty and deprivation
Bank. The Organisation for Economic Co- even worse. Social protection systems and other
operation and Development has developed donor coping strategies must be built so that people’s
guidelines on the prevention of violent conflict.6 essential needs and livelihoods are met. The
In 1997, the UN High Commissioner for reestablishment of social capital is critical so
Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Bank jointly that divisions can be healed, and trust
launched the Brookings Process to involve all promoted.
partners in coordinating and jointly programming • Economic. Recovery from conflict is often
activities in a country.7 Concentrated on related to profound economic adjustments, at
institutional and funding arrangements, its success the macro- and micro-levels, that create further
has been limited. Rather than hand over activities hardship for some people and communities.
from international relief to international Equitable and inclusive economic growth is
development actors, the goal should be to critical to promoting political and social
strengthen the capacities of national and local stability, while enlarging opportunities for
actors—so that relief, rehabilitation and people.
development assistance can be handed over to Given the linkages, no element of post-
them. conflict transition can be dealt with in isolation.
Yet many gaps remain in today’s post-crisis
Adopting a human security approach strategies (box 4.1). Protecting people and
Post-conflict situations provide opportunities to communities requires guaranteeing public safety,
promote change, to fundamentally recast social, providing lifesaving humanitarian relief and
political and economic bases of power— essential services and returning and integrating
opportunities for including the excluded, healing people affected by the conflict. Empowering people

58
 4

Recovering from violent conflict

Box 4.1 Gaps in today’s post-conflict strategies Gaps in international responses
• The international architecture is segregated along
From a human security perspective, today’s post- security, humanitarian and development lines,
conflict strategies have many shortcomings, leaving encouraging fragmented and competitive responses.
many gaps: • International actors tend to focus on mandates—not
on presence, comparative advantages and needs of specific
Security gaps situations. Coordination is emphasized, not integration.
• Military troops are frequently deployed to separate • Too little attention goes to building national
combatants—troops that are ill-equipped to deal with capacities and institutions, resulting in the absence of
public security issues, such as civil unrest, crime and national ownership.
the trafficking in people. • Humanitarian agencies focus on speedy interventions
• From the outset, emphasis in peacekeeping but often fail to consider the impact on reconstruction
operations is on pursuing an exit strategy that is not and development activities. Development actors require
directly related to the security needs of the people. long periods to mobilize resources and implement their
• Security strategies do not take into account the needs plans, hampering the conversion of humanitarian
of humanitarian and development actors. activities to longer term development strategies.

Governance gaps Resource gaps

• Peace-building is seen as a “top-down” process, • Assistance tends to peak in the early phases, when
commonly led and imposed by outside actors—rather the capacity to absorb it is low. It has been difficult to
than as a process to be owned by national institutions sustain aid over the medium term, just when
and people. reconstruction and development take off.
• Little attention goes to building national and local • International actors use many fundraising
civil society and communities—or to drawing on their mechanisms—comprehensive appeals, round-tables,
capacities and expertise. consultative groups and country-specific trust funds—
• Organization of national elections receives the most some competing, many raising false expectations about
attention (and is often seen as a manoeuvre for handing the amounts pledged. Negotiations over debt arrears
over international mandates and responsibilities to the often delay the full participation of international
newly elected authorities), with little regard for further financial institutions.
efforts to support governance and democratization. • Donors and multilateral agencies separate their
• Reconciliation efforts pay too little attention to the budgets into humanitarian and development assistance,
coexistence of divided communities and the building of making it difficult to transfer funds from one cluster to
trust. another.
• Funds are earmarked for specific activities and
countries, reflecting the primacy of economic, strategic
or political interests over human security needs.

59
Table 4.1 Key human security clusters following violent conflict

Rehabilitation and Reconciliation Governance

Public safety Humanitarian relief reconstruction and coexistence and empowerment
Control armed elements Facilitate return of Integrate conflict-affected End impunity Establish rule of
• Enforce cease-fire conflict-affected people people • Set up tribunals law framework
• Disarm combatants • Internally displaced • Internally displaced • Involve traditional • Institute
• Demobilize persons persons justice processes constitution,
combatants • Refugees • Refugees judicial system,
• Armed combatants legal reform
• Adopt legislation
• Promote human
rights

Protect civilians Assure food security Rehabilitate infrastructure Establish truth Initiate political
• Establish law and • Meet nutrition standards • Roads • Set up truth reform
order, fight criminal • Launch food production • Housing commission • Institutions
violence • Power • Promote forgiveness • Democratic
• Clear landmines • Transportation • Restore dignity of processes
• Collect small arms victims

Build national security Ensure health security Promote social protection Announce amnesties Strengthen civil
institutions • Provide access to • Employment • Immunity from society
• Police basic health care • Food prosecution for lesser • Participation
• Military • Prevent spread of • Health crimes • Accountability
• Integrate/dissolve infectious diseases • Education • Reparation for victims • Capacity
non-state armed • Provide trauma and • Shelter building
elements mental health care

Protect external security Establish emergency safety Dismantle war economy Promote coexistence Promote access
• Combat illegal net for people at risk • Fight criminal networks • Encourage community- to information
weapons and • Women (female- headed • Re-establish market based initiatives • Independent
drugs trade households); children economy (long-term) media
• Combat trafficking (soldiers); elderly; • Provide micro-credit • Rebuild social capital • Transparency
in people indigenous people;
• Control borders missing people

60
Each post-conflict recovery
requires an integrated human
security framework, developed
4
in full partnership with the
national and local authorities

Recovering from violent conflict

and communities requires building social capital, many human security issues are transnational, the
nurturing the reconciliation and coexistence of regional consultations on Central Asia—organized
divided communities, and restoring governance. by the Commission on Human Security and held
Each post-conflict recovery requires an in Asghabat, Turkmenistan—underscored the need
integrated human security framework, developed for regional cooperation.8 In Afghanistan, Kosovo,
in full partnership with the national and local Rwanda and elsewhere, neighbouring countries
authorities to ensure ownership and commitment have been deeply involved in the conflict and have
to the objectives (table 4.1). The framework should sought to influence the outcome. That is why it is
incorporate the human security issues and needs so important that neighbouring countries be
identified under each of five clusters, emphasizing incorporated in the unified strategic framework
their relationships: and support it.
• Ensuring public safety.
• Meeting immediate humanitarian needs. Ensuring public safety
• Launching rehabilitation and reconstruction. After internal conflict, national authorities are
• Emphasizing reconciliation and coexistence. seldom in a position to ensure the security of
• Promoting governance and empowerment. people. Public safety deteriorates frequently
To the extent possible, all relevant tools and following conflict. While the fighting may have
instruments—political, military, humanitarian and stopped, increased crime rates, revenge killings and
developmental—should come under unified reverse ethnic cleansing threaten people’s safety in
leadership, with integration close to the delivery post-conflict situations. And the police and
points of assistance. The strength of the United military authorities are often violators of human
Nations is its active involvement in country and rights rather than protectors. In addition, inter-
field operations, through which it makes many of personal violence increases, in particular gender-
its biggest contributions. For each of the five based violence, as families and communities are
clusters, lead actors should be identified—based on torn apart and seek to come to terms with the
presence and comparative advantage, not just consequences of the violence (see box 2.2 in
mandated responsibilities. Mandated chapter 2).
responsibilities should be interpreted flexibly, in The deployment of an international or
line with people’s needs and operational necessities. regional military force contributes significantly
And partnerships should be established for donors, towards creating a secure environment (chapter 2).
other multilateral organizations (particularly the From a human security perspective, such engage-
World Bank), non-governmental agencies and ment needs to be rethought. Peace settlements
businesses. focus on the warring parties, not on public safety.
Transition processes also have a deep impact The limited deployment of the International
on neighbouring countries and their people. Yet Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan to Kabul
too often, little or no attention goes to wider and its immediate surroundings reveals the
regional and international dimensions. Because shortcomings. A degree of security may have been

61
 The disarmament,
demobilization and reintegration
into society of former
combatants and their
dependents are critical steps
towards human security

established in the capital, but the rest of the protecting humanitarian relief and reconstruction
country is largely left to fend for itself. This is efforts. As the situation stabilizes and military
detrimental to the security of people, seriously security is maintained, the goals should shift
hampering humanitarian and reconstruction towards upholding public safety through fighting
projects as well. crime (domestic and transnational) and building
The disarmament, demobilization and the capacity of national and local police.
reintegration into society of former combatants and Building on the recommendations in the
their dependents are critical steps towards human Brahimi Report, setting up a trained and well-
security. Equally critical is the removal of small arms equipped United Nations and other regional
and light weapons and landmines from conflict civilian standby police forces can be an important
areas. Without their removal, people are prevented step towards enhancing public safety.10 Crowd
from returning home, and fertile land is left barren. control, rather than military deployment or
But the demobilization of armed combatants is firepower, is more effective for tense situations
much more than a political and military step involving civilians. By emphasizing public safety,
towards peace. Economic opportunities are also police can prevent abuse and corruption among
required. For many combatants, soldiering is no local law and order officials. They can also assist in
more and no less than a lucrative job opportunity, a rebuilding trust and legitimacy in the new national
way to escape debilitating poverty.9 So demobi- law and order institutions.
lization efforts, to be sustainable, should go beyond The reform, or creation, of the state security
short-term skills training to include employment sector should be part of the ongoing effort to
opportunities. In addition, emphasis should go to attain public safety. It is essential not only for
social integration, particularly for child soldiers who wresting control from armed groups and warlords
have received little or no education. If not, former and regaining the monopoly over the legitimate use
combatants will turn to crime or join armed groups of armed force, but also for transparency,
to earn their livelihood. accountability and democratic control. In
But these steps are not adequate for meeting Afghanistan, reform of the security sector is
the safety needs of people in post-conflict foreseen in the Bonn Agreement of 5 December
situations. First, there is a need to gradually shift 2001. It provides for integrating all armed groups
the focus of international actors from ensuring into official security forces, with the assistance of
military security to public safety. Second, the the international community, building a national
reform of the state security sector must be part of army and a national police force and demobilizing
the rehabilitation and governance strategies. civilian militia.11 In addition to reforming the
Just after conflict, national and international army, police and intelligence services, reform of the
authorities will focus on military security, security sector needs to be accompanied by changes
separating armed elements, registering and in the legal system, setting up an independent
demobilizing combatants, curtailing illicit arms judiciary and providing services to manage prisons.
trade, ensuring external security and assisting and Reform of the state security sector also implies

62
Reform of the state security
sector should be seen as an
integral part of any strategy to
4
strengthen governance and
development

Recovering from violent conflict

getting the income and expenditures of the internally displaced persons, demobilized
military, police and other security institutions combatants—reflecting the mandates of agencies
under control, as a part of efforts to establish a providing assistance, not overall needs. So little or
transparent and accountable government, no attention goes to some groups of people, mainly
something that has so far received too little internally displaced persons and affected host
attention from donors.12 communities. The massive population movements
Effective state security institutions upholding immediately after the fighting ceases often make
the rule of law and human rights are an essential the humanitarian situation worse. Communicable
component for achieving human security, diseases, such as the cholera outbreak in Katanga in
development and governance. They are keys to the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2001,
rebuilding trust and confidence in institutions and spread to other areas as people return home. New
creating a climate for reducing poverty and attracting arrivals also put added pressure on food rations.
investments. Despite the growing attention to the The trauma and psychosocial impact of
reform of the state security sector, multilateral actors, suffering also go largely unattended.15 Without
such as the World Bank, have been reluctant to professional assistance and traditional coping
engage. They see such efforts as interfering in the strategies, people who have undergone traumatic
internal and political affairs of a country.13 Far from experiences can come to feel a profound sense of
it, however: reform of the state security sector should shame, hopelessness and mistrust—which can
be seen as an integral part of any strategy to often lead to increased criminal activity and
strengthen governance and development.14 domestic and gender-based violence. In addition to
psychological care and counselling, family
Meeting immediate humanitarian needs members and communities need to be reunited,
When the fighting stops and humanitarian actors and the missing identified, located and accounted
gain access to the people affected, the immediate for. Such interventions can help overcome the
requirement is to provide life-saving humanitarian shame over the violence, help renegotiate
assistance, in the form of food, basic health understanding of cultural and religious norms and
services, shelter and water and sanitation. In the ethics and contribute to coexistence and
1990s, much effort went into expanding the reconciliation.
capacity to meet people’s basic needs. All major In many post-conflict situations, the targets of
multilateral organizations and NGOs have war and persecution in turn become the victims of
developed an emergency capacity and can respond peace. It is the responsibility of states to create the
quickly. The closer working relationships between conditions for people to return in safety and
peacekeeping operations and humanitarian actors dignity. Ideally, returns following a peace
have contributed much to mobilizing and settlement are voluntary, and people are able to
delivering life-saving supplies. benefit from national protection and opportunities
But assistance is often compartmentalized for to earn a living. But this is rarely the case. Returns
different categories of people—refugees, returnees, often are abrupt and under pressure. At the first

63
 Multi-actor programmes should
be established, integrating
repatriation, reintegration,
rehabilitation and
reconstruction

glimmer of peace, people are forced home against focus on providing key services, rebuilding basic
their will. Scores of refugees and internally infrastructure, reintegrating displaced people and
displaced persons are made to settle elsewhere, demobilized combatants and establishing a social
rather than return home and start their lives again. safety net as well as a macroeconomic framework.
Nearly 1 million of the 2 million Afghan returnees Such steps permit people to become independent
from refugee camps in Iran and Pakistan have of humanitarian relief. There is growing realization
settled in Kabul and other large urban areas. Such that launching rehabilitation and reconstruction as
sudden and large-scale population influxes strain soon as possible, even when conflict is still
meagre humanitarian resources and increase ongoing, can be a major incentive for peace. Relief
tensions. and development activities should work in parallel,
In post-conflict situations more attention with relief gradually phasing out. This calls for
should also go to children and youth, who tend to much quicker mobilization of reconstruction and
be forgotten or ignored. In Sierra Leone and the development resources and implementation of
Occupied Palestinian Territories a whole generation activities than under the long time frames now
of youths knows only violence. If they are to required.
rebuild their community, society and country, Among the key issues is the reintegration of
investments need to be made in their education, people affected by the conflict, particularly
skills, employment and health. But concerted returning refugees and internally displaced persons.
efforts are also needed at the international level. Their needs are not systematically incorporated in
rehabilitation and reconstruction strategies or
Launching rehabilitation and reconstruction development planning (chapter 3). So returning
The huge economic cost of violent conflict needs to refugees and internally displaced persons pose a
be factored into the reconstruction agenda. In large burden, especially in urban centres where
Africa, there is a 2% loss of annual economic they tend to overstretch essential services and
growth across the continent as a consequence of assistance and may give rise to higher crime rates.
violent conflict.16 In some countries, as much as But if the return is properly managed, refugees and
40–75% of fiscal and foreign exchange earnings are internally displaced persons can become an asset in
diverted to fighting a war.17 Since September 2002, the recovery from conflict rather than a burden.
the number of poor in the Occupied Palestinian To overcome these shortcomings, multi-actor
Territories has tripled to nearly 2 million, or 60% programmes should be established, integrating
of the population.18 Unemployment has soared to repatriation, reintegration, rehabilitation and
53% of the workforce. Despite the desperate reconstruction activities.19 This requires rethinking
situation, the economy continues to function, in current working arrangements, such as the
part because key essential services and wages are still compartmentalizing of activities along human-
provided by the authorities—creating a safety net. itarian or development lines, and refocusing
During and immediately after conflict, attention from relief and development actors to
rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts should national authorities and communities. A people-

64
Each situation is unique and
each society has different ways
of achieving justice and
4
reconciling differences

Recovering from violent conflict

centred strategy views returning refugees and natural resources and corrupt officials siphoning
internally displaced persons as resources, not off aid monies.
victims. By emphasizing the economic potential of
formerly displaced persons and their role in Emphasizing reconciliation and coexistence
reconstructing, reconciling and governing their Conflict erodes trust in people, communities and
country, such an approach makes the reintegration government institutions, undermining social
of formerly displaced persons in communities and cohesion. If these effects are ignored, the result can
societies as a whole more feasible. be radicalized identity politics, manipulation and
Land and agricultural reforms are receiving grievances—which in turn can lead to renewed
renewed attention in response to pressure from violence, human rights abuses and conflict.
social movements in Colombia, Indonesia, Mexico, The relationship between justice and peace is
the Philippines, South Africa and Zimbabwe.20 In thorny and complex. But more “justice” does not
Rwanda, inheritance and property laws were necessarily lead to more “peace”. Today nearly
amended so that women could own the land and every peace agreement and post-conflict
property of their husbands killed in the genocide. programme includes references to justice and
This has promoted greater gender equality—and reconciliation, seen as integral to peace-building
prevented countless women and their families from and governance. But between vengeance and
becoming destitute. It has also contributed to food forgiveness lie a broad range of options for coming
security. to terms with the past and building trust.22 Each
Bringing the conflict economy under control situation is unique, however, and each society has
in the immediate post-conflict transition is different ways of achieving justice and reconciling
essential. Conflict expenditures contribute to differences.
massive macroeconomic problems. First, there is Justice and reconciliation programmes in
usually an unsustainable debt burden. Of 49 post-conflict situations centre on two strategies.
heavily indebted poor countries, 13 were affected The first, relating to the events that occurred in
by conflict in 2001.21 High interest payments the conflict phase, focuses on establishing the
siphon off funds that should go to social spending. truth of what has happened, upholding justice for
Second, there is a tendency to put macroeconomic the victims and punishing the perpetrators. The
policy reforms above social reforms, especially second focuses on establishing the rule of law,
social protection objectives, to stabilize economies. developing a human rights regime and strength-
Third, this trade-off usually results in declines in ening judicial systems. In most transitions from
education, health, social and infrastructure conflict to peace, a combination of the two
spending just when people can least bear the social strategies is in place.
and human costs. Stringent fiscal and economic Truth and reconciliation commissions have
adjustments during transitions create setbacks for been set up in Argentina, Chad, Chile, El Salvador,
the most vulnerable. The situation is often made Guatemala, South Africa, Sierra Leone and Timor-
worse by criminal networks illegally trading in Leste. Amnesty legislation—or immunity from

65
 A community-centred approach
involving as many people as
possible is essential to
complement the institution-
driven justice and reconciliation
processes

prosecution for all or lesser perpetrators of human From a human security perspective, a
rights abuses—has been adopted in Chile, Greece, community-centred approach involving as many
Rwanda, South Africa and Uruguay. International people as possible is essential to complement the
criminal tribunals have been created for Rwanda institution-driven justice and reconciliation
and the former Yugoslavia. Reparations and processes. The challenge is to make sustainable
compensation have been paid in Germany, reintegration of people into their communities a
Switzerland and Timor-Leste. Common to these realistic option. But this requires a minimal degree
processes is the need to: of trust and confidence. A first priority is to
• Acknowledge and come to terms with what has recognize the legitimacy and dignity of the victims
happened. of the conflict and to enable former enemies to
• Promote healing and restoration of the dignity interact, even at a minimal level. Restoring trust
of victims as well as communities. requires a space for dialogue among people and
• Punish perpetrators for their crime through con- communities. Encouraging joint activities among
fession of guilt, public shame or prosecution. the divided communities, through income
These are important steps towards peace- generation activities and the provision of essential
building and reconciliation, with great symbolic services, can create that space.
value. But to be successful and effective requires: Compared with the justice and reconciliation
• Time and commitment. Neither justice nor objectives, the goals of coexistence are modest: they
reconciliation can be served within short time focus on creating a dialogue among communities
frames. They require sustained commitment (box 4.2). By engaging in parallel activities,
throughout the process. members of conflicting groups build a greater sense
• Strong and effective institutions. To carry out of security and respect for others. Through the
justice, a strong and independent legal system is gradual recognition of increasing economic
essential. And institutions must be able to reach opportunity and human security, members of
out to all people to foster reconciliation. different groups can again come to accept one
• Participation and an agreed framework. another as participants in society and as
Ownership and legitimacy necessitate people’s interdependent actors. They can begin to imagine
participation and consultation in designing the themselves living together in peace. In this sense,
process and the objectives. coexistence bridges vengeance and reconciliation.
In countries emerging from conflict, the
requirements for an effective justice and recon- Promoting governance and empowerment
ciliation strategy are seldom present. Institutions The UN Secretary-General has asserted that “good
are weak or non-existent. Few mechanisms exist to governance at the local, national and international
effectively involve people in public policy debates. levels is perhaps the single most important factor
No effective legal framework functions to in promoting development and advancing the
administer justice. And justice and reconciliation cause of peace”.23 The key issue is how to establish
efforts are often imposed and led by outsiders. a democratic political order, buttressed by social

66
 4

Recovering from violent conflict

Box 4.2 “Imagine Coexistence” projects in Rwanda including local authorities in the design as well as the
and Bosnia implementation of coexistence projects. Participants
felt that the coexistence framework adds an important
“Imagine Coexistence” grew out the efforts to integrate qualitative dimension to humanitarian and
returning refugees and internally displaced persons into development assistance: a smooth transition from relief
their communities. Except for a meagre food ration and to development, preventing further conflict, requires
some household utensils, little attention had been given not only a community-based approach, but also
to their effective and sustainable reintegration, thought involvement of people from different communities.
to be the responsibility of national government actors
as part of their “protection” function. Incidents of Rwanda
reverse ethnic cleansing and increasing violence and The projects are developed at the community level and
crime brought to the foreground the need to promote revolve around an economic activity. The projects are
community-based reconciliation strategies. implemented through Oxfam (UK) and the Norwegian
In 2000, recognizing that reconciliation is a distant People’s Aid, which in turn operates with grass-roots
goal and that people first need to learn to “coexist” associations such as Equipes de Vie, which works with
with each other again, the UN High Commissioner for groups of widows and women whose husbands are
Refugees launched pilot projects in Bosnia and imprisoned on charges of genocide. Considerable
Herzegovina and Rwanda, funded through the UN attention is given to creating a local network, which
Trust Fund for Human Security. The objective was to meets regularly with government officials and
assess the factors contributing to coexistence between representatives of multilateral organizations and donor
divided communities and to devise strategies for governments. Training in peace education and conflict
promoting the coexistence dimension in humanitarian resolution has been included.
projects. At a regional meeting on coexistence, conflict
resolution and human security, participants expressed
Bosnia and Herzegovina the belief that projects aimed at promoting coexistence
The coexistence projects are implemented through require long-term commitment and need to be
Genesis, a local non-governmental agency that focuses integrated into rehabilitation- and development-
on community needs. The projects concentrate on oriented strategies. Particular attention was drawn to
income generating activities, arts and vocational the role of women in bringing communities together,
training. The projects reveal links between coexistence because they tend to be more outspoken and challenge
and restitution and compensation for property lost. official policies that diminish the human security of the
Tensions and distrust increased if the divisions among family and community. Finally, participants argued that
the communities were ignored or if the perception there was tension between the government’s emphasis
existed that one group was favoured over another. Some on reconciliation and national unity and people’s need
local authorities opposed the introduction of to discuss ethnic issues in order to come to terms with
coexistence projects, demonstrating the importance of the past.

67
 A top priority: establishing
institutions that protect people
and uphold the rule of law

and economic growth. The process leading to a have had difficulty consolidating gains and
democratic system is fraught with risks and furthering the democratic process.
potential reversals as competing social, political A top priority: establishing institutions that
and economic forces vie for control and power. protect people and uphold the rule of law. To meet
The (short-term) shortfall of policy frameworks, the responsibility to protect people, a state must
institutional systems and personnel capacity further have functioning institutions. In turn, institutions
compound the problems by being unable to require rules and regulations to operate justly and
contain and prevent grievances. effectively. This requires promoting the rule of law,
Among the key governance issues are to ensure basic rights and freedoms, which in turn
democratization, participation in decision-making, form the basis for democratic governance. Given
accountability of decision-makers, respect for the the centrality of the rule of law in the recovery
rule of law and human rights, and inclusive, from conflict, both for political governance and for
equitable and fair rules and institutions. Governance social and economic growth, growing attention is
issues are closely linked to the empowerment of being given to developing specific assistance
people and communities. Without effective programmes.
governance, people are not empowered. And unless For the first time in 2002, the experiences
people and communities are empowered to let their gained in the various peace operations and in
voices be heard or to participate in decision-making, developing comprehensive rule-of-law strategies
governance is not feasible. have been pulled together.26 Establishing the rule
Nearly all peace settlements address of law requires more than drafting a constitution
governance to varying degrees, but the focus has and laws and establishing courts and a judicial
too often been on short-term stability rather than system. Most important to include are the norms,
long-term sustainability. Holding elections and principles and practices that establish relations
establishing a “legitimate democratic” regime among people and between people and the state.
become part of the exit strategy for international Therefore, establishing or re-establishing the rule
actors, rather than a realistic measure of good of law does not simply imply copying laws and
governance.24 The organization of elections is often institutions from abroad. Considerable efforts are
the objective—rather than a tool for accountability, required to involve people in the process and to be
participation and good governance.25 Numerous aware of how they understand, use and value law
internationally negotiated peace settlements have and its institutions.27
broken down because of ill-designed democratic Few international actors have the capacity to
institutions, processes and power-sharing rapidly deploy civilian law experts, to contribute
arrangements in deeply divided communities. towards national legislation, institutions and
Rather than prevent conflict, such arrangements procedures for strengthening the rule of law.
can fuel tensions if they are perceived as solidifying Capacity in these areas should be strengthened.
existing imbalances and inequities along identity Ultimately, good governance depends on people
lines. That is why many post-conflict countries and communities, and this may not come

68
Greater coherence is required in
planning, budgeting and
resource mobilization for
4
countries emerging from conflict

Recovering from violent conflict

spontaneously to them, especially if they have no the requirements, often reflecting strategic,
positive experiences with participation in public political and economic interests of donors.28
life. So civic education should increase people’s Greater coherence is required in planning,
ownership of the norms, processes and institutions budgeting and resource mobilization for countries
that are fundamental to democratic and well- emerging from conflict.29 As long as the myriad
governed communities and states. fund mobilization mechanisms continue to operate
A vibrant civil society provides a mechanism in parallel—and resist close coordination and
for people to participate, express their views and information sharing—the gaps in responses will not
hold decision-makers accountable. Post-conflict be overcome (see box 4.2). There are good examples
strategies should aim at strengthening civil society of improving the process, such as the 1994 Johan
by encouraging participation and capacity Jørgen Holst Peace Fund for channelling donor
building, particularly for women’s groups, because support for the day to day activities of the
women face limited participation in formal peace Palestinian National Authority. But donors are
processes and implementation of post-conflict reluctant to relinquish their prerogative to select and
transition strategies. This will also help ensure that fund projects that receive high levels of domestic
gender equality is incorporated in legislative support. At the bilateral level, gradual steps are
reforms. The accountability and transparency of being taken towards more flexible funding
civil society groups also need to be enhanced— mechanisms, exemplified by the transitional budget
through codes of conduct and a legal framework lines adopted by Denmark and Norway, Japan’s
stipulating rights and obligations. Peace Building Grant Aid and the European Union’s
Linking Relief, Rehabilitation and Development.
A new resource mobilization strategy A transition fund focusing on human security
Pledges of aid help to consolidate peace should be set up for each post-conflict situation.
agreements. The legitimacy and credibility of new The fund would finance the activities agreed to
leaders often depend on their ability to deliver under the integrated human security framework,
peace dividends. In practice, it takes too long to pooling resources for human security-related
translate pledges into commitments and actual activities. That would enable financing a broader
disbursements that can be spent flexibly. In many range of human security issues than is done today,
instances, the pledges do not mean additional with more attention to activities that are
money, just a repackaging or redirecting of existing chronically underfunded, such as education,
funds, to the detriment of people in other reconciliation and coexistence, reform of the state
countries. Some situations attract considerable security sector and the reintegration of internally
funding, others little. Compassion fatigue and displaced persons. To allow flexible disbursement,
donor fatigue set in quickly, especially in the face the funds should not be earmarked.
of sudden downturns (see box 2.3 in chapter 2). In To maintain the confidence of participating
2002, 16 of the 25 consolidated appeals for donors and beneficiaries, management of such funds
humanitarian assistance received less than half of should emphasize transparency and accountability.

69
 For human security, peace and
development, the multiple gaps
in the present strategies need
to be overcome

Participation by national authorities is essential for 2. Chapter 5 discusses the protection of people
setting priorities and gaining ownership of the following an economic downturn and natural
process. To the extent possible, other parties to disasters.
conflict should be included, to ensure the equitably 3. ICISS 2001, pp. 39–46.
sharing of the benefits of peace. 4. Ogata 2003.
5. Dreze and Sen 1989.
Policy conclusions 6. OECD 2001.
Implementing a human security approach in post- 7. Ogata and Wolfensohn 1999.
conflict transition requires significant changes in 8. www.humansecurity-chs.org
the way donors, multilateral agencies, non- 9. Sen 2001.
governmental organizations and national 10. United Nations 2000.
authorities pursue their goals—at both micro and 11. In post-conflict Afghanistan, France and the
macro levels. For human security, peace and United States are responsible for rebuilding the
development to be achieved, the multiple gaps in national army. Germany is training the police. The
the present strategies need to be overcome: United Kingdom is overseeing the anti-narcotics trade.
• All actors should recognize the responsibility to Japan is leading the demobilization and registration of
rebuild in post-conflict situations. former combatants.
• People’s safety should be assured by focusing on 12. Bal 2002.
public safety. 13. Coletta 2002.
• Life-saving humanitarian assistance should be 14. UNDP 2002, pp. 83–100.
provided, safety nets set up for people most at risk 15. Leaning, Arie and Holleufer 2002.
and rehabilitation and reconstruction activities 16. DFID, 2001.
launched to rebuild infrastructure and create the 17. Green, 1994, p. 48.
conditions for economic activities to take off. 18. World Bank 2003.
• Conditions for democratic governance need to 19. Also known as the 4Rs. UNHCR has launched an
be created by empowering people, initiative, in cooperation with United Nations
emphasizing reconciliation, coexistence and Development Programme and the World Bank, towards
rule of law. overcoming the gaps between relief and development.
• The international community should develop a Pilot projects are underway in Afghanistan, Eritrea,
human security framework and set up a human Sierra Leone and Sri Lanka.
security transition fund for each recovery from 20. FAO 2002.
post-conflict, in full partnership with national 21. DFID 2001.
actors. 22. Minow 1998.
23. United Nations, General Assembly 2002, p. 11.
Notes 24. Dennis McNamara, “The UN has been learning
1. “World Bank Study Says 50-50 Chance of Failure,” how it’s done.” Op-Ed, International Herald Tribune, 29
The Washington Post, 26 November 2002. October 2002.

70
 4

Recovering from violent conflict

25. Paddy Ashdown, “What I Learned in Bosnia.” Op- ICISS (International Commission on Intervention and
Ed, New York Times, October 28, 2002. State Sovereignty). 2001. The Responsibility to
26. An interdepartmental task force was established in Protect. Ottawa: International Development
April 2002 by the Committee on Peace and Security Research Center.
following a recommendation of the Department of Leaning, Jennifer, Sam Arie and Gilber Holleufer. 2002.
Peacekeeping Operations. “Conflict and Human Security.” Paper prepared for
27. Carothers 2003. the Commission on Human Security.
28. United Nations 2002. [www.humansecurity-chs.org].
29. United Nations, General Assembly 2002. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development). 2001. Helping Prevent Violent
References Guidelines: The DAC Guidelines. Paris.
Ball, Nicole. 2002. “Human Security and Human Ogata, Sadako. 2003. “Building Peace: the Lessons of
Development: Linkages and Opportunities.” Afghanistan.” Global Agenda. Davos, Switzerland:
Report of a conference organized by the World Economic Forum
Programme for Strategic and International Studies, [www.globalagendamagazine.com/].
Graduate Institute of International Studies, 8–9 Ogata, Sadako, and James D. Wolfensohn. 1999. “The
March 2001, Geneva. Transition to Peace in War-Torn Societies: Some
DFID (Department for International Development, Personal Observations.”
UK). 2001. “The Causes of Conflict in Africa.” Sen Amartya. 2002. “Global Inequality and Persistent
Consultation document by the Cabinet Sub- Conflicts.” Paper presented at the Nobel Awards
Committee on Conflict Prevention in Africa. Conference, Oslo, 6 December 6 2001.
London. UNDP (United Nations Development Programme).
Minow, Martha. 1998. Between Vengeance and 2000. Human Development Report 2000: Human
Forgiveness: Facing History after Genocide and Mass Rights and Human Development. New York: Oxford
Violence. Boston: Beacon Press. University Press).
Coletta, Nat J. 2002. “Conflict, Human Security and United Nations. 2000. “Report of the Panel on United
Poverty: Implications for IFI Reform.” Paper Nations Peace Operations.” S/2000/809.
prepared for the Commission on Human Security. United Nations, General Assembly. 2002. Strengthening
[www.humansecurity-chs.org]. of the United Nations: An Agenda for Further
Drèze, Jean, and Amartya Sen. 1989. Hunger and Public Change: Report of the Secretary-General. A/57/387.
Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press. World Bank. 2003. Two Years of Intifada, Closures and
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 2002. The Palestinian Economic Crisis. Washington D.C.
State of Food Security in the World 2002. Rome.

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Economic security—
the power to choose
among opportunities

5
Human security at its core
requires a set of vital freedoms
for everyone
5

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

A fifth of the world’s people—1.2 billion— medicines, or safe living conditions, or school
experience severe income poverty and live on uniforms, lunches and transport costs to send their
less than $1 a day, nearly two-thirds of them in children to school. And people who have no means
Asia and a quarter in Africa. Another 1.6 to replace earnings when disaster hits.
billion live on less than $2 a day. Together, 2.8 Thus people’s human security is only partly
billion of the world’s people live in a chronic produced by improving individual and household
state of poverty and daily insecurity, a number ability to generate and marshal resources.5 That is
that has not changed much since 1990.1 About why human security at its core requires a set of
800 million people in the developing world vital freedoms for everyone, to prevent those who
and 24 million in developed and transition are income-poor or unable to grasp opportunities
economies do not have enough to eat.2 to develop their capabilities from going to the wall
when crises hit. Besides basic income and
Economic and financial crises reduce average wages resources, the freedoms to enjoy basic health, basic
and consumption, and poor people, especially the education, shelter, physical safety, and access to
very poorest, feel the worst of the impact. Annually clean water and clean air are vitally important.
throughout the 1990s, natural disasters took the lives Access to these basic resources and opportunities—
of some 80,000 people, affected 200 million people to what might be called a social minimum—can be
and cost an average of $63 billion.3 The attacks of 11 provided by negotiated arrangements by the state,
September 2001 deepened the global economic political parties, public and private interest groups
downturn, with 10.5 million people in the travel and and many other social actors, operating at
tourism industry alone losing their jobs.4 community, national and global levels.6

Poverty and human security Adopting a human security approach

When people’s livelihoods are deeply Three situations of economic insecurity regularly
compromised—when people are uncertain where impair human security: insufficient economic
the next meal will come from, when their life resources, unstable economic flows and asset losses.
savings suddenly plummet in value, when their An ability to save or invest or access resources is
crops fail and they have no savings—human also instrumental to human security. People further
security contracts. People eat less and some starve. their own security by setting aside savings and
They pull their children out of school. They investing in physical, financial and human assets (a
cannot afford clothing, heating or health care. savings account, health insurance or education).
Repeated crises further increase the vulnerability of Three kinds of crises—economic (including
people in absolute or extreme poverty (box 5.1). financial crises, debt crises, terms of trade crises),
But vulnerability and insecurity are natural disasters, and conflict—inflict the greatest
experienced not only by people who live in shocks on society and people’s human security.7
extreme poverty. There are also people who have Economic downturns seem inescapable. Disasters
jobs and yet cannot afford essential prescription are increasing.8 And conflicts continue.

73
Box 5.1 The challenge of extreme poverty Discrepancies in the material situation of individuals
and even differences in development or prosperity levels
At times considered part of the social order, poverty need not always be considered within the framework of
was believed to be an inevitable evil associated with the security, however. Economic growth, social solidarity
human condition. Theories for eradicating poverty policies and social assistance must also provide answers
have abounded, from those of utopian visionaries such to these social challenges. But it is extreme poverty that
as Thomas More to others in more recent times. creates the most dramatic threats in today’s societies.
Society has responded through various institutional Extreme poverty concerns all—individuals, families,
measures for alleviating poverty. The Millennium groups—who subsist in a state of utter deprivation,
Development Goals, recently adopted by the United without enough to eat and or a roof above their heads.
Nations, place the fight against poverty among the top It is not possible to measure extreme poverty only in
priorities of the international community. It is income terms, since the poverty level also depends on
unconscionable to think of human security while the economic and social context. In Sub-Saharan
ignoring the problem of poverty. Africa, death by starvation or malnutrition is at the
In pre-modern societies, assistance to the poor was horizon of everyday life, a threat that erodes the social
provided through local communities—by corporate fabric. In developed countries, continuous
associations, by religious communities, by the warm unemployment means not only loss of income but also
responses of human beings towards those who found a sense of total failure and exclusion from society.
themselves in distress. These forms of solidarity were These groups of laissés pour compte, called the “Fourth
effective in stable situations, when the incidence of World” in Europe, focus attention on the need for
poverty did not reach dramatic levels. However, during inclusionary social policies, not only for relief and
recurrent crises, such community-based activities can temporary assistance.
do very little to alleviate the suffering of the pauperized It has rightly been said that poverty does not
masses, defenseless against starvation and epidemics. necessarily generate terrorism, since terrorists also come
Modern societies prohibited begging and isolated the from among the privileged. It is nevertheless true that
poor in forced labour institutions. Faced with the terrorism takes advantage of misery, knowing that
magnitude of poverty, and driven by fear, organized despair creates favourable conditions for terrorist
society resorted to repression and exclusion, without projects and actions.
being able to resolve the problem. Human security policies must consider the fight
These social concerns and attendant reflection led to against poverty as a major challenge for the
the emergence of modern-day social sciences and social international community. It is imperative to develop
policies. As early as the late 18th century, Jacques global strategies supporting growth and sustainable
Necker, the Swiss-born finance adviser to the French development while at the same time implementing
king, developed the idea that assistance to the poor is policies of economic development and social protection
not only the expression of good intentions, but also a at the national level. Among these, the financing of
political imperative for maintaining order. Thus, the micro-projects among the poor, as in Bangladesh and
fight against poverty appeared as a part of security in elsewhere, has proved its worth.
its national dimension as well as in its global one.
Bronislaw Geremek

74
Promoting basic economic
security, by reducing poverty
and raising living standards,
5
can have substantial social
impact

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

Promoting basic economic security, by human population needs. The central issue from a
reducing poverty and raising living standards, can human security perspective is not whether to use
have substantial social impact. Economic security markets. It is how to support the range of diverse
and the development of social capabilities reinforce institutions that ensure that markets enhance
each other. An extensive body of literature and people’s freedom and human security as effectively
policy experience already exists on these issues. and equitably as possible—and that complement
This chapter identifies four priorities for policy the market by providing core freedoms that the
action to promote human security: market cannot directly supply (see box 5.2).
• Encouraging growth that reaches the extreme Identifying the balance of institutions, policies
poor. and processes necessary for poverty-reducing
• Supporting sustainable livelihoods and decent growth has become somewhat of an international
work. preoccupation. The poverty reduction strategy
• Preventing and containing the effects of papers and comprehensive development
economic crises and natural disasters. frameworks of multilateral agencies and the donor
• Providing social protection for all situations. community—and the combined effects of the
United Nations Development Programme, World
Encouraging growth that reaches the extreme Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
poor other international economic agencies and regional
Economic growth is essential for reducing income development banks—tend to emphasize these
poverty. Projections estimate that it might be issues. Some advances have been made in
possible to achieve the Millennium Development understanding what is required, particularly in
Goal of halving the proportion of people who live understanding the dynamic role that poor
on less than $1 a day (from 29% in 1990 to communities themselves can play in promoting,
14.5% in 2015) if growth in average per capita sustaining and benefiting from growth.
income averages 3.6% a year. But this is nearly
twice the average growth rate achieved over the Addressing distributional issues. Human security is
past decade—an average that hides the spectacular improved if the poor benefit from a greater share
success of China and the failed growth in 70 in the wealth and income generated by economic
countries.9 growth, as in Taiwan and the Republic of Korea.
Markets and trade are basic to economic Also, the overall increase in national prosperity can
growth and have been a source of unprecedented help finance public services, including health care
wealth for some. Market systems can also widen and education. But the fruits of growth certainly
people’s ability to choose and act on their own do not always expand social services or promote
behalf. While some defend market economies and the protection and empowerment of people
others criticize them, extensive use of markets will throughout a society. For example, “based on
be required to generate the kinds of growth and existing income distribution patterns, Brazil has to
human security measures that an expanding grow at three times the rate of Vietnam to achieve

75
 Box 5.2 The market economy, non-market market relations; it only begins it. Market economies
institutions and human security can have many different ownership patterns, resource
availabilities, social opportunities and rules of operation
Globalization has much to offer, but even as we defend (patent laws, anti-trust regulation). Depending on these
it, we must also see the legitimacy of many of the enabling conditions, a market economy would generate
questions that anti-globalization protesters ask. Can the different prices, terms of trades, income distributions
deal that different groups get from globalized economic and overall outcomes. The arrangements for social
and social relations be changed? Can this be done security, social protection and other public
without undermining market relations and without interventions can also alter the outcomes of market
destroying the global market economy? There is processes. All of these enabling conditions depend
evidence to argue that the answer is “yes”. critically on economic, social and political institutions
It is hard to achieve economic prosperity without that operate nationally and globally. As amply
making extensive use of the opportunities of exchange established in empirical studies, the nature of market
and specialization that market relations offer. Although outcomes is strongly influenced by public policies in
the operation of the market economy can be significantly education, health care, social protection measures, land
defective—and that must be taken into account in reform, microcredit facilities and appropriate legal
making public policy—there is no way of dispensing protections. It is the combined use of markets and non-
with markets as an engine of economic progress (see, for market institutions that offers the best prospects for
example, Akerlof 1970; Spence 1973; Stiglitz 1985). less global inequality and more human security.
Recognition of the significance of the market
economy does not end the discussion about globalized Source: Adapted from Sen 2002.

the same average income increase in the poorest agricultural goods and textiles, the predominant
one-fifth of the population. Similarly, Mexico exports of developing countries, are higher than
would have to grow at almost twice the rate of those in such sectors as cars and machine tools.
Indonesia or Uganda to achieve a similar Trade restrictions in rich countries are estimated to
increase”.10 The initial distribution of resources— cost developing countries around $100 billion a
including human capital as well as economic year—several times what they receive in official
resources—matters a great deal. Political processes aid.11 Opening up agricultural and textile markets
and decisions need to address distributional issues by removing such protectionism would benefit the
in order to address persistent levels of inequality. poorest countries most.
The inequality of distribution across the globe also
needs to be addressed (see box 5.3). Developing governance and policies that empower.
Distributional and trade issues aside, policy choices
Reducing developed country trade barriers. Pro- also affect how equitable growth will be. For
tectionist barriers in many developed countries example, the Republic of Korea did much better in
block developing country access to markets that channelling resources to education and health care
could help them generate productive growth and than Brazil did in the 1960s and 1970s, despite
increased employment, exports and other Brazil’s significant economic growth at the time.
opportunities for poor people (box 5.4). For This helped Korea achieve more equitable growth.
example, in the agriculture and textile sectors, Equitable development outcomes are fostered by
farmers and garment workers from developing the “human capital” that educational systems
countries face import barriers that are four times as generate, the initial distribution and redistribution
high as those faced by producers in rich countries, of assets and income, the availability of microcredit
making it difficult for their exports to compete. and legal protections, the extent of corruption and
Average tariffs in countries of the Organisation for rule of law and the power of people’s movements to
Economic Co-operation and Development on engage in social dialogue in support of the poorest.

76
Box 5.3 The importance of foreign direct investment multinational corporations also tends to improve pay

The spectacular increase in direct investment in

and working conditions and to introduce cleaner and
more energy-efficient technologies. It can also transfer
5
developing countries by companies in high-income technology and build markets for local businesses. And
countries in recent decades offers one of the most the taxes collected and paid by multinational
important mechanisms for a fairer distribution of corporations help fund public services.
opportunity around the world. Investment by multinational firms has nevertheless

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

Direct investment offers a lifeline connecting sometimes been criticized for a variety of reasons. And
emerging economies to world markets. It is almost there have been some cases of abuse. But emotional
impossible to envisage how a poor country lacking the attacks on foreign direct investment threaten to damage
technology, management know-how and access to the prospects for economic prosperity and security for
markets could start from scratch in any industry today. people living in poor countries. Of course, companies
To develop a diverse range of high-value industries and must ensure that they have a robust corporate
services that will create and spread prosperity, such governance framework wherever they operate. But the
countries need the catalyst of finance and expertise evidence stacks up decisively in favour of the benefits of
from outside their borders. foreign direct investment for the host country (Klein,
The financial crises of the late 1990s tarnished the Aaron and Hadjimichael 2003).
appeal of cross-border investment. But direct These benefits mean that there is a challenge in
investment has in fact proven relatively stable, in ensuring that foreign direct investment in future is not
contrast to portfolio investments in financial markets. concentrated on just a handful of countries, as it has
Although the total flow of foreign direct investment to been in the past. Most foreign direct investment still
developing countries has declined from its peak of flows between the rich economies. Of the minority
about $150 billion a year during the 1990s because of share flowing to developing countries, China, along
the world economic slowdown, this was much less than with some East Asian and Latin American nations, has
the plunge in bank lending and portfolio investment in benefited the most. Just 10 countries accounted for
shares and bonds in recent years (World Bank 2002; more than half of all foreign direct investment inflows
IMF 2002). to developing countries through the 1990s, and 20
Private business investment dwarfs the scale of countries for almost three-quarters (UNCTAD). China
official aid flows to poor countries. It is also, by alone attracted almost half the total in 2002, and about
definition, a productive transfer of funds. Business is a quarter through the 1990s. The countries that have
about wealth creation, growing capital and paying received the most foreign investment have also enjoyed
dividends to shareholders. But this is not the only the fastest growth in trade and GDP and the biggest
wealth it creates, nor are the shareholders the only declines in poverty.
beneficiaries. Multinational investors generate value in As this contrast suggests, countries that could benefit
producing and distributing higher value products that enormously from foreign investment need to become
local businesses and consumers need, as well as more attractive places to do business. The reasons some
generating export earnings by serving markets overseas. of them fare badly in attracting investors vary, but
Successful businesses, whoever owns them, create include over-regulation, corruption, weak legal systems
wealth for the immediate community in other ways, and political instability. In this way, the different
through the extra jobs generated, and the salaries and sources of human insecurity in such countries reinforce
benefits paid to employees. These wages help generate each other, at great cost to their people.
additional purchases and jobs, multiplying the
beneficial impact on the local economy. Investment by Peter Sutherland

77
 Box 5.4 Trade and protection year, three times U.S. foreign aid to Africa. And it is
poor farmers in North and West Africa, for whom
International trade is a crucial tool for development. cotton is the main cash crop, who will be hit hardest.
But the reality facing the poor countries of the world is Tariffs and quotas for textile imports to rich countries
that rich countries still maintain high barriers against cost developing countries an estimated 27 million
their exports. A poor person in a developing country jobs.
trying to sell goods and services in global markets faces Most perversely, it is often the higher value-added
barriers twice as high as the typical worker in an goods that face the highest barriers. A Chilean tomato
industrial country. A recent study has estimated that exporter faces a U.S. tariff of 2.2% on exports of fresh
full elimination of agricultural protection and tomatoes. But the tariff rises to 8.7% if producers dry
production subsidies in rich countries would increase and pack the tomatoes and to 11.6% if they process the
annual rural income in low- and middle-income tomatoes into sauce. This additional tax hampers
countries by about $60 billion, or 6 percent—more efforts to move into higher value-added activities that
than worldwide aid. The recent Farm Bill in the United would pay better wages and improve the economic
States and the European Union’s decision to postpone security of workers. Such policies indicate the chasm
reform of the Common Agricultural Policy show an between rich countries’ rhetoric on trade liberalization
unwillingness to address this injustice. and their actions, with far-reaching impacts on the
In a world where more than 2 billion people live on livelihoods, incomes and dignity of poor people in the
less than $2 a day, European cattle farmers receive an least developed countries.
average of $2.50 a day per cow in subsidies. U.S.
subsidies to cotton growers will total $3.9 billion this Source: World Bank 2002a, 2003, Stern 2002.

In sum, crucial to healthy and sustainable growth is and United Nations system set up after World War
the mix of policies that support productivity, II have made major progress in strengthening
employment creation, enterprise and human market economies. In the 21st century,
resource development. corresponding energy must be devoted to
The development process in East and cultivating “non-market” institutions to ensure
Southeast Asia shows what countries need to do to human security within the market economy and to
promote growth with human development: protect people during downturns and other crises.
• First, there has to be an emphasis on basic When people experience repeated crises and
education as a prime mover of change. unpreventable disasters that cause them to fall—
• Second, wide dissemination of basic economic whether from extreme poverty, personal injury or
entitlements (through education and training, bankruptcy, or society-wide shocks or disasters—
land reform, credit) broadens access to the the human security perspective is that there should
opportunities offered by the market economy. be hands to catch them.
• Third, state action has to be judiciously
combined with the use of the market economy. Supporting sustainable livelihoods and decent
• Fourth, a wide range of institutional work
interventions is required to enhance capabilities, Most people build or lose their economic security
promote social opportunities and support in the workplace—whether a factory or farm or
market arrangements.12 financial centre or in the public sector or the
The capacity of states to promote governance service sector. In some instances, workers unions
that empowers people and to manage processes of empower people to represent their needs to
economic globalization largely depends on changes management and thus to protect their human
to the institutional architecture for legal, security. In other instances, long-term firm loyalty
educational, health, political, protective and and relationships provide some security. Changes
judicial systems. The Bretton Woods institutions in the global economy have altered production and

78
Women have less time to
engage in activities that can
generate income or enable
5
them to overcome their
marginalization

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

work patterns. Some trends have had a significant directed to “all workers”, irrespective of their sectors
impact on the availability of jobs, especially for and whether they are waged or unwaged, home
low-skill level workers, such as a growing informal workers, or regulated, unregulated or self-regulated.15
sector13 and increasing female participation in the Taking such a comprehensive approach ensures that
work force. Cutting across these trends are the different parts of the working population “whose
needs to deal with environmental factors, address fortunes do not always move together” are not
gender asymmetries in livelihoods and support neglected in the process of furthering the interests
microcredit initiatives to enable poor people to and demands of other groups.16
participate in economic activity. But working conditions and job-related
benefits—such as pensions, health insurance and
Informalization of the labour force. With an minimum wages—are only part of the problem.
estimated 400 million new entrants in the labour The insecurities of many self-employed rural
market and an existing pool of unemployed and workers are compounded by other conditions, such
under-employed people, more than a billion jobs as environmental degradation and a lack of access
need to be created by 2010,14 60% of them in to credit. Women’s livelihoods merit particular
Asia. Indeed, given structural conditions, the skill attention.
pool and numbers of new job entrants in
developing economies, employment in the formal The environment and livelihood insecurity. Many poor
sector may cease to be the norm anywhere—in people have to depend on their local environment
developed and developing countries. for their survival. Some 1.3 billion people live on
Recent trends in Latin America also indicate marginal lands. Particularly for those who live in
that significant growth in the labour force resulted rural areas, economic security is intimately connected
in more self-employment. Self-employment plays a to the natural environment. People in rural areas rely
particularly strong role in Bolivia, where half the on forests for fuel and on agriculture for subsistence.
work force is self-employed. Substantial growth in In Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia, 75% of the poor live
self-employment also occurred in Colombia, rising in rural areas.17 Most are heavily reliant on common
from 32% to 39% of the labour force. lands for necessities such as wood for fuel and fodder.
Developing livelihoods outside typical formal In some states in India, the poor obtain 66–84% of
arrangements must involve creative ways of their fodder from common lands.18 When these
securing both income and meaningful work that resources are degraded, the effect is direct and
build on the capacity and ingenuity of poor people immediate: poor families are forced to migrate to
themselves. Critical aspects to be addressed include ever more marginal lands, household income falls as
access to land, credit, training and education. non-timber forest products become depleted, and
The International Labour Organization’s goal to human security plunges.
promote “opportunities for women and men to Women suffer the effects of environmental
obtain decent and productive work, in conditions of degradation even more acutely since they are
freedom, equity, security and human dignity” is forced to walk further and further to collect wood

79
 There is tremendous scope for
strategic investment to scale-up
initiatives that offer microcredit
facilities to the poorest people

and water. As a result, they have less time to households should be able to lift their families out
engage in activities that can generate income or of poverty every year from borrowing from a
enable them to overcome their marginalization. microcredit program”.21 Clearly, enhancing
Time taken up in the struggles to survive places microcredit schemes to sustain poor people’s
further limits on their limited resources and energy livelihoods under conditions that promote their
to participate in household and community active participation becomes a viable social
decision-making processes. protection and empowerment strategy. There is
tremendous scope for strategic investment to scale-
Microcredit: supporting the livelihoods of poor people. up initiatives that offer microcredit facilities to the
The State of the Microcredit Summit Campaign poorest people.
Report 2002 notes that “As of December 31, 2001, Governments and the international aid
2,186 microcredit institutions reported reaching community can align their interests to address
54,904,102 clients, 26,806,014 of whom were poverty in a developmental way by creating an
among the poorest when they took their first enabling environment for institutions owned and
loan”.19 This is a significant advance since the governed by the poor themselves, such as the
campaign started in 1997, when microcredit Grameen Bank and the Self Employed Women’s
schemes reached some 7.6 million of the poorest Association’s Bank (box 5.5), so that they can
people. The campaign’s goal is to reach 100 million better mobilize savings as well as lend money to
of the poorest families, especially the women of poor people. One way to overcome barriers to
these families, with credit for self-employment and such schemes is to set their capitalization
other financial and business services by 2005. The requirements low enough that many of the
campaign is guided by four core themes: thousands of small microfinance institutions that
• Reaching the poorest (defined initially as the bot- operate as non-governmental organizations can
tom half of those living below their nation’s convert over time to regulated, special-purpose
poverty line but expanded to include all those institutions.
living under the international $1 a day poverty Local strategies can also be aligned with effective
line). actions by governments and the aid community to
• Reaching and empowering women through help create independent wholesaler on-lending
other supportive initiatives (women constitute institutions such as the Palli Karma-Sahayak
21.2 million of the 26.8 million clients reached Foundation in Bangladesh that can provide technical
through microcredit initiatives thus far). assistance and reliable financing to a large number of
• Building financially self-sufficient institutions. microfinance institutions in every country. The
• Ensuring a positive, measurable impact on the establishment of one or more wholesaler on-lending
lives of microcredit clients and their families.20 institutions creates a local currency mechanism for
Illustrative of the impact of microcredit dynamic expansion and growth of a competitive
financing is the experience in Bangladesh, where microfinance sector. Ideally, this will give greater
“as much as 5% of program-participating choices and options to the poorest.

80
 Box 5.5 People’s alternatives: the case of SEWA little whether the cause of their hunger or loss of

A family illness or several days of rain can be just as

livelihood is an earthquake or a broken leg, because
their daily insecurity relates to lack of access to
5
devastating to the security of poor people as an opportunities and conditions for their advancement
earthquake or drought. The poor confront personal at a structural level. These must be addressed with
crises daily. Because poor people live in chronic their participation.
insecurity, they draw on their own resilience under the • Especially in times of crisis, protecting poor people’s

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

harshest conditions. Yet poor people’s ways of coping livelihoods is essential. With few possessions left to
with crisis and protecting themselves and their families lose, the loss of livelihood is often the most
from future crises are rarely recognized. devastating. In 2001, for instance, flooding in
Since 1972, the Self Employed Women’s Association Ahmedabad resulted in the destruction of many slum
(SEWA), based in Ahmedabad, India, has been helping houses. Yet for the paper pickers who lived there, the
female workers in the informal sector to counter and most serious challenge was their loss of livelihood.
cope with the many risks and vulnerabilities they • Ongoing state-provided social services must be
experience—from the search for employment to dealing integrated into effective disaster-response strategies.
with illness to the lack of child-care. In the absence of Responding to drought through relief work and food
state-supported basic social protection measures, few of programmes, for example, can help to improve
these everyday problems and vulnerabilities are people’s security in the short-term. But mitigation
considered “risk worthy” by typical insurance and coping strategies—from fodder banks to
arrangements. SEWA offers its members opportunities rainwater harvesting to artisan training for
to access the kinds of banking and insurance services alternative income—can make a long-term impact.
from which they are normally excluded, to further • Women, because of their multiple roles, especially in
develop their skills and to organize for their political caring for children and the elderly, respond to
rights. Emphasizing that poor women’s resilience is not disaster differently than men do. Women tend to
a substitute for state and private sector responsibility, plan for future downturns and, in the absence of
SEWA has identified some ways for shoring up poor material assets, look to skills-building, savings,
people’s coping strategies to achieve long-term human insurance and group support to get them through
security: times of vulnerability.
• International organizations and the poor perceive
disaster in different ways. For the poor, it matters Source: Adapted from Vaux and Lund 2002.

Livelihoods for women. The notable increase in consequences differently. Women are often denied
female-headed households, concentrated among access to critical resources such as credit, land and
the poor in developing countries, has implications inheritance rights, reflecting the effects of gender
not only for household composition but also for inequality in many societies. Gender can have an
the division of labour between production and enormous impact on economic insecurity,
social reproduction activities. Illustrative of this especially in societies where women have a much
trend: women head 31% of rural households in lower status than men. In these situations, women
Sub-Saharan Africa, 17% in Latin America and the are much more economically dependent on men.
Caribbean and 14% in Asia.22 Women are Even in agriculture and food production, women
experiencing increasing time, space, labour and have limited access to resources and services to
financial pressures that affect their sense of security. enable them to improve their economic security.
Migration and internal displacement also While access to resources is generally limited in
contribute to changes in household composition as developing countries, cultural and traditional
(usually male) workers cope with poverty by factors impose further restrictions on women.
searching for jobs elsewhere. The result is that the distribution of many
Men and women experience economic income-generating assets is heavily skewed in favour
insecurity differently and suffer from its of men. Women own less than 2% of land

81
 The social dislocation and loss
of human capital during crises
limit the ability of poor people
to participate in economic
recovery

globally,23 even as the proportion of female heads of towards women that alone can lead to enduring
households continues to grow. Even where land empowerment.
reform programmes have been instituted specifically
to address inequality, land rights have often been Preventing and containing the effects of
transferred directly to male heads of households. economic crises and natural disasters
The break-up of communal land holdings has led A market economy can spread risk and reduce
to similar results. In these situations, the property volatility. But as the East Asian financial crises
rights of female heads of households and those of demonstrated, when volatility does occur those
married women are often dismissed. who are least able to bear the consequences,
A similar problem exists for access to credit. especially small and micro producers and poor
Only 10% of credit funds are extended to people, are the most vulnerable to its impacts.
women,24 primarily because national legislation and
customary law prevent women from sharing land Containing economic and financial crises. Economic
rights with their husbands or exclude female heads crises in developing countries often bring
of households from land entitlement schemes, immediate threats to human security through
depriving them of the collateral required by lending shrinking output, declining incomes and rising
institutions. As women’s survival strategies are unemployment, causing sharp increases in income
eroded within households, they run the risk of poverty. Financial crises can also have damaging
engaging in hazardous activities to earn an income. long-term effects on human security. The social
Women’s economic insecurity is often not dislocation and loss of human capital during crises
treated with the same gravity as men’s because limit the ability of poor people to participate in
women’s labour takes place primarily in the economic recovery.
household or non-market sphere, without formal • Impacts on people. Many people who previously
financial compensation. Women often perform had secure jobs and livelihoods suddenly lose
basic but critical activities, primarily in the social them. Many others feel vulnerable, threatened
sphere, such as child rearing, caring for the elderly by the risk of losing jobs and income. This was
and undertaking community work. Although this evident in Mexico (1994–95), in East Asia
work improves economic security at the household (1997–98), in Russia (1998), in Brazil (1999),
level, it is not recognized or valued. Depending on and in Argentina, Turkey, and Uruguay
the region and the cultural practices, women may (today).25 In the wake of the Asian crisis of
even be restricted to home-based activities because 1997, 4–5 million Indonesian workers lost their
they are not permitted full mobility within society, jobs, and an estimated 40 million people fell
or even the opportunity to interact socially outside into poverty. During the first six months of the
of their homes. So empowering women with peso crisis in Argentina—which for years had
livelihoods is important for their economic the highest GDP per capita in Latin America—
security and that of their families. In addition, the value of the currency fell by 70%,
employment catalyzes the change in attitudes unemployment skyrocketed to over 25% and

82
Market fluctuations generate
insecurity in all states,
including prosperous ones,
5
and these fluctuations affect
human security

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

real wages dropped. More than half the The burden of a global financial crisis falls not
population is now impoverished.26 so much on investors but on the households of
Those already poor before a crisis hits are workers made unemployed as a result of it—
especially vulnerable.27 First, the self-employed and within them disproportionately on
or family workers and unemployed are excluded women”.31 The burden also falls on those who
from social insurance. Even wage earners are are still employed, but who are impoverished by
not spared since employers often are unable or rising prices and diminishing wages.
unwilling to make contributions to employee • Financial contagion. Globally integrated markets
benefit systems. Second, the poor are unlikely can promote abundant growth but they can also
to save enough to self-insure or to rely on transmit downturns. The way various crises
informal insurance. Third, credit mechanisms spread in the late 1990s astonished the world.
and private insurance are often unavailable Not only did Thailand’s economic crisis spread
because of high transaction costs and through East Asia; reverberations were also felt
asymmetric information. Fourth, often the poor in Africa, Latin America, Central and Eastern
have no voice to demand the changes needed to Europe, and Russia. While the incidence of
improve their human security.28 Fifth, the economic and financial crises does not appear
health, education and assistance programmes to have increased, the crises seemed to have a
that do exist are often cut back during crises. faster onset and to be “more severe and even less
• Crises in developing countries—deeper and longer. predictable and to come in waves”.32 These
Not all markets have the same risks, and the interlinkages are important, as demonstrated in
risks affect different population groups the willingness of the G-8 to provide $300
differently. The severity, frequency and duration billion in emergency loans to Mexico, East Asia,
of economic and financial downturns (both Brazil, and Russia to stabilize their economies—
crises and recessions) are far greater in and thereby everyone else’s.
developing countries than in industrial Market fluctuations generate insecurity in all
countries.29 As the IMF’s World Economic states, including prosperous ones, and these
Outlook 2002 put it, “Economic fluctuations in fluctuations affect human security. Such
developing countries are more severe and have perturbations are a “hardy perennial” in the global
more serious consequences than those in economy.33 During a third of the time since 1990,
industrial countries. The volatility of real GDP there has been a financial crisis somewhere in the
growth in developing countries is higher than world.34 Instead of being surprised again and again,
that in industrial countries, and the volatility of there must be preparations for these perennial
consumption growth is much higher”.30 Some uncertainties just as there are for perennial
groups are more likely to pay the costs of crises uncertainties of health, accidents and other threats.
than others. “Labour in the informal economy, In the wake of the crises of the late 1990s, a number
by definition that large segment deprived of any of institutional reforms, as well as new institutions,
form of social protection, is most vulnerable. have been proposed and are under discussion.35

83
 The prevention or rapid
mitigation of crises in
developing countries would
also improve human security in
emerging markets and
developed countries

With developing countries more prone to Preparing for natural disasters. The third large cause
economic and financial crises (and in need of of shocks is natural disaster—earthquakes, floods,
financial investment), and with such crises having a droughts and famine, windstorms. Over the 10
greater impact on the consumption of already years from 1992, two-thirds of the people affected
vulnerable populations, an obvious step towards by disasters were affected by floods, nearly one
human security would be to prevent or mitigate quarter by drought and famine and 2% by
crises. How? By developing early warning systems earthquakes. But earthquakes were the leading
and by ensuring emergency lending. Social cause of disaster-related deaths in 2001, mostly
protection, discussed later in this chapter, is also because of the terrible quakes in Gujarat, India. In
essential. Africa, 82% of the people who faced disasters faced
Since the mid-1990s, two forums have been drought and famine. Over the same 10-year
working to prevent and address economic crises. period, earthquakes cost $238 billion—34% of the
In 1998, the G-7 developed a “financial stability total costs of natural disasters in that decade.
forum”, based in the Bank for International As terrible as these numbers are, they also hide
Settlements in Basel.36 While it has conducted tremendous progress. Disaster-related deaths in the
regional meetings, and involved developing 1990s were 40% of their level in the 1970s, despite
country representatives in working parties, that the fact that there were more than twice as many
forum does not yet represent the interests—and reported disasters. Although natural disasters in the
very different financial trends—of developing 1990s cost $63 billion annually—more than all
countries.37 The other forum—the G-20— development assistance combined—and although
consists of a broader, informal grouping of global warming could push costs to $300 billion,
countries, including 11 developing and transition the good news is that preventive measures can be
economies, and it has had some success in quite successful. On average, 13 times fewer people
negotiating more effective World Bank and IMF die in countries with high human development
policies. Yet even this forum does not represent than in those with low.38 But countries with low or
small or low-income countries, nor does its medium human development can also manage
agenda as yet incorporate effective crisis recurrent natural forces.
prevention. • In Bangladesh, a cyclone-preparedness
Required, then, is that all institutions improve programme “has successfully warned, evacuated,
the early warning systems now being developed and sheltered millions of people from cyclones
and apply them to developing as well as developed since its inception in the early 1970s”. In the
countries. In an interlinked global economy, 1990s, the program evacuated 2.5 million people
financial crises can spread rapidly, so the into emergency shelters before cyclones hit.39
prevention or rapid mitigation of crises in • “When floods struck Vietnam in 1999, only
developing countries would also improve human one of 2,450 flood- and typhoon-resistant
security in emerging markets and developed homes built with Red Cross assistance
countries. succumbed”.40

84
Measures to ensure that there
is adequate social protection for
all, including the working poor
5
and those not in paid work,
are critical

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

• “When two years of record floods inundated Social protection aims to provide a social
Mozambique, well-prepared local and national minimum to ensure that every person is able to
resources saved 34,000 people from drowning”. develop the capabilities to participate actively in all
• “When the most powerful hurricane for half a spheres of life. Measures to ensure that there is
century hit Cuba…effective disaster planning adequate social protection for all, including the
and preparedness ensured that 700,000 people working poor and those not in paid work, are critical
were evacuated to safety”.41 interventions required of governments, business and
A human security approach would improve citizens. Such measures should include employer-
disaster preparedness, for example, by identifying and employee-based contributions—to unemploy-
risk-prone areas and encouraging families to move ment insurance, pensions, training—as well as
or develop insurance and coping mechanisms or by government-subsidized social assistance (through
teaching earthquake-resistant building techniques public works) and cash and in-kind transfers) to
and irrigation and planting techniques that those in need. These measures can provide a
acknowledge fragile environments. Direct minimum economic and social standard, based on
investment in disaster preparation, and targets for dialogue with all social actors, for those in chronic
reducing disaster risk, have been called for strongly poverty as well as those who suffer temporary
by those who work in disaster preparedness. economic hardship during economic downturns and
other crises. Policies and programmes to address the
Providing social protection for all situations special needs of children, the elderly and the disabled
International, regional and national recognition of should also be incorporated into social protection
the precarious situation of people in a globalizing arrangements.
world has resulted in the search for new ways to Establishing social protection measures may
meet people’s basic security needs in countries in seem particularly difficult in times of acute
all regions, including the provision, delivery and economic or social stress, and each situation
financing of social services. The search for requires a set of policies that are responsive to
responses to new and persistent problems specific contexts and history. Still, the lessons of
prompted reform of welfare systems in developed the recent crises have shown the virtues of:
countries, a revised social agenda following the • Putting systems in place to ensure basic
collapse of state provision of social services in economic security before economic or
countries in transition, and a new interest in social catastrophic crises hit.
“safety nets” and social protection in developing • Expanding existing programmes if the crisis has
countries suffering economic setbacks engendered already hit. Scaling up existing programmes is
by financial volatility (as in East Asia), undergoing one of the most cost-effective and time-effective
fundamental structural change (as in Latin America ways of responding to a financial crisis or
and elsewhere), or experiencing long periods of emergency.
stagnation and even economic regress (as in Africa • Setting up regular in-depth information-
and elsewhere).42 gathering mechanisms.

85
 Negotiating policy priorities
and the mix of public, private
and community-led initiatives
must be expanded to include
poor people themselves

Decisions on the mix of policy and pro- as investments rather than costs. For example,
gramme measures need to emerge from a social helping poor people to maintain their access to
dialogue with all actors, not just the government, basic social services during shocks fosters their
the private sector and workers organizations. future productive capacity”.43
Because the majority of the poorest people are not • Sustaining poverty reduction. Social protection
represented by these groups, or covered by any measures should include active labour market
form of social security or social protection initiatives, such as training and retraining the
measures that can provide a springboard to propel unemployed, the underemployed and new job
them out of poverty, policy negotiations on what entrants. Governments and other actors need to
should be included in social protection review private sector and public incentive
programmes need their active engagement. The measures, such as direct and indirect subsidies for
process of negotiating policy priorities and the mix job creation and enterprise development of micro
of public, private and community-led initiatives initiatives at the community level. Also essential is
must be expanded to include representation and redirecting resources into effective and sustained
voice of poor people themselves. This requires social expenditures, with better targeting towards
government and private sector support to provide the poorest and most vulnerable.
the space and the information needed for the • Fulfilling ethical and basic socio-economic
appropriate representation of community obligations. Governments, working with all
members. And it requires resources and aid to stakeholders, have often committed themselves
build the capacity to negotiate from informed to promote, respect and protect people’s right to
positions. Some of the objectives of such an core capabilities and minimum economic
agenda: security alongside their commitments to civil
• Empowering workers to better integrate with the and political rights. These include the 145
market. Markets work more effectively in governments that have ratified the International
generating wealth and security if built on Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
foundations that include adequate social Rights. The obligation to end transient and
security and social protection measures. Then, chronic poverty by honouring the fundamental
when downturns occur—and they will—people rights of people means that the state must take
are protected, able to recover and to move appropriate legislative, administrative, judicial
ahead. In the absence of social protection, crises and budgetary action to achieve this. The
will threaten the market system itself, which policies and institutional arrangements—
flourishes only in the presence of productive including macroeconomic strategies and service
workers, socio-political stability and sound delivery programmes that protect people’s rights
social policies and investments. Conversely, to basic education, health care, food, shelter,
financing social protection requires growth. water and income—must be made accessible
Thus it is very important that countries both and available to the most vulnerable and at-risk
design and view “social protection interventions as a first priority.

86
Mechanisms must be in place to
ensure multi-level and multi-
stakeholder monitoring of
5
social policy objectives

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

Many countries, including developed properly supported, people’s creative responses and
countries, in parallel with implementing social resilience can provide the bulk of protection for
protection are actively incorporating social human security. Grass-roots efforts to build people’s
protection policies into the core business of the resilience through community-based savings
state. In that way, these policies anchor a human schemes, credit facilities and insurance systems are
security approach of safeguarding people who are important to enable people to survive low-intensity
vulnerable and suffer the worst impacts of political crises. For example, a local community-based
and economic downturns and crises. What is organization might set up a revolving credit fund,
needed is not large amounts of additional financial from which community members can borrow to
capacity within the state but more efficient purchase a sewing machine or goat or table saw or
integration of social policy objectives into other productive tool. Insurance costs are built into
macroeconomic and trade-related policy processes. the repayment schedule. As loans are repaid, money
Moreover, mechanisms must be in place to ensure becomes available for additional loans to other
multi-level and multi-stakeholder monitoring of community members.
these policy objectives. That requires leadership Such initiatives should be supported as the
from within state and private sector-led processes first frontier in building up productive assets and
and civil society initiatives. The emphasis would be saving habits, thus helping to mitigate the impacts
on creating a broad participatory process to arrive of some downturns. Grass-roots work can be
at a focused agenda for social protection and to strengthened from the outside. International
create the institutional and policy space to work NGOs such as Oxfam provide seed capital and
towards achieving such an agenda in a systematic technical assistance for revolving credit schemes
and phased way. run by community-based organizations.
Governments cannot provide social protection Community-driven development projects of
alone (see box 5.6). Significant engagement by civil international donors, such as the World Bank’s
society also generates pressure and undergirds district poverty initiatives in four states in India or
political will and policy choices—as India, the Kecamatan Development Project in Indonesia,
Thailand and Latin America have shown.44 To have granted large loans ($100–200 million or
communicate concerns and develop an advocacy more) to be disbursed to small self-formed groups
agenda to deal with insecurities, people need at the village level for productive purposes. And
support from the range of institutions around then there are the microcredit institutions such as
them, as well as an umbrella of resources above the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee
them. and the Grameen Bank.
Promoting this first frontier of institutions
Supporting community organizations: the “first requires assistance well beyond seed capital,
frontier”. At the community level, the capacity of assistance that builds up the institutional fabric
grass-roots organizations and other intermediaries itself. For small community-based organizations to
between the state and people is important. If support human security, they must mature into

87
Box 5.6 Civil society and human security of civil society organizations under the umbrella of the
Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) joined the
With more than 30,000 international non- government in its court action against pharmaceutical
governmental organizations (NGOs) and many more companies to make anti-retroviral drugs for the
local and national NGOs, they are emerging as a treatment of HIV/AIDS affordable and available in
visible, credible and accountable force in advancing South Africa. Civil society organizations help to
human security. Cutbacks in state-run services and amplify the voice of the economically and politically
social expenditures have left many core health, disempowered. On issue-specific campaigns related to
education, livelihood and social security needs unmet, fair trade, violence against women, human rights and
especially among poor people. NGOs and community- environmental violations, to name a few, international
based organizations have moved in to fill some of the civil society has brought to the world’s attention threats
gap, developing creative responses to address poor to human security. Pointing to problems of
people’s needs. Less rigid in their operations than unaccountable, unrepresentative systems of political
governments, they are able to find closer connecting and economic governance at all levels, they highlight
points to people in need more quickly. Some NGOs the need for better regulatory frameworks and
have also become important advocates for policy institutional measures in support of poor people.
change responsive to poverty and inequality. Civil society representatives ensure that human
Programmes in education, microfinance, insurance security is as much about building effective political,
schemes and health care help to reduce and prevent economic and social institutions as it is about
livelihood insecurity, economic deprivation and the challenging bad government policy and budget
potential for household and community-based violence. allocations or preparing for downside risks arising from
Just as threats to people’s security are now transnational natural disasters and financial crises. NGOs can
(disease, crime syndicates, cross-border trafficking in empower and mobilize a range of civil society
women and children), so too are NGO systems of organizations within their countries through rights-
response. NGOs are linked to subregional, regional and based education to strengthen citizen participation in
international structures. Oxfam, for instance, has economic and political processes and to ensure that
offices in more than 80 countries, while Development institutional arrangements are responsive to people’s
Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) has needs.
networks in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean Promoting human security within a framework of
and Pacific Island states. Such initiatives, linked more protection and empowerment requires an enhanced role
closely to the poorest and most insecure people, are for civil society supported by more resources. A global
able to combine service and care with social movement initiative for human security is dependent on how well
activism on policy concerns in ways that can enhance the international community mobilizes and harnesses
human security across national boundaries. the energy, commitment and creativity of the NGO
Some civil society initiatives are also finding new sector and other social actors.
ways of working with states to complement and
support state-led action on problems faced by poor Source: Adapted from Michael 2002; Anheier, Glasius
communities. In South Africa, a broad-based coalition and Kaldor 2001.

88
Much of the motivation and
leadership for social protection
must come from within
5

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

organizations that can work with local govern- political priority. The national insurance systems in
ments and strengthen governance by building Japan and Western Europe are struggling, and
leadership that ensures the equitable delivery of while the US economy was booming in the 1990s
services. Central is the need to develop the well over 40 million US citizens still lacked health
technical and policy capacity of such leadership to insurance.45 In contrast, Costa Rica, Sri Lanka and
promote transparent, accountable, well-managed the Indian state of Kerala have managed very
and financially sustainable processes. Participation effective social protection systems on the same
in governance processes must ensure representation budget as other regions that offered no such
of previously excluded and marginalized groups protections.46
and communities so that their interests, needs and The experience of the countries of the
concerns become part of a common social agenda. Commonwealth of Independent States shows the
For many communities, resilience against daily challenge of providing social protection during
insecurities and risks depends on social networks deep transitions. In 2000, their GDP stood at 63%
and informal care arrangements, which provide of its 1990 level. Income poverty had increased
support during times of crisis and stress. These fivefold.47 How is the state to respond? Sudden
informal networks are built on patterns of social economic and financial crises have also shown that
solidarity that have evolved over time at the grass- even growth with equity, as in the Republic of
roots level. Their effectiveness can be enhanced by Korea, was no guarantee that some people would
giving communities access to basic social not become poor or be pushed deeper into poverty.
infrastructure and income. In numerous examples The absence of a proper system of social safety nets
of household and community survival and coping and a rapid system of compensatory protection led
strategies, orphans, the elderly and disabled, among to new pockets of inequality and destitution in
others, have been able to provide mutual Korea, despite the country’s remarkable growth and
assistance, especially when they themselves have new social protection programmes during the
had a social minimum to help them anticipate and crisis.48
respond to risks within their own households. Again, much of the motivation and
But there are limits to people’s resilience. The leadership for social protection must come from
enormous and long-term impacts of HIV/AIDS within—as it did in Korea, which responded to
and other infectious diseases, extended deprivation, the crisis by instituting unemployment insurance,
unemployment, conflict and violence wipe out public works and pensions. Maintaining social
these coping mechanisms. And people’s resilience protection during times of war or civil unrest,
and survival strategies cannot be a substitute for post-conflict reconstruction or economic
government responsibility for promoting and liberalization is yet more difficult. But it is not
protecting human well-being. impossible to protect at least some primary
expenditures. In a study of patterns of
Financing social protection internationally. Adequate government expenditure during 25 internal
financing for social protection is largely a matter of conflicts, only three countries reduced social and

89
 If human security is to be
realized, then, external
resources must be available to
national governments or their
people for occasional crises

economic expenditures across the board in favour together to foster markets that will generate
of military expenditures. In Mozambique, equitable growth. The strategies and policies are
Nicaragua and Sudan, social expenditure per more or less known. The challenge: to act on
capita actually increased by more than 20% them.
during the conflict period.49 • Given the increased informalization of labour,
Moreover, when crises compound or states new ways need to be found to empower workers
collapse, the ability to finance social protection to maintain a stable and sufficient income
evaporates. In many of the transition economies, stream. Improving female labour markets is
unemployment was already high. But when the particularly important.
Russian economic crisis struck, social safety nets • Mitigating the effects of economic downturns
were incapable of dealing with more unemployment and crises requires development and better
and falling real incomes. As a result, poverty understanding of early warning systems. It
generally worsened. In Moldova, for example, the also requires that social protection systems be
poverty rate increased from 35% in mid-1997 to in place ahead of time. Similarly, preventive
46% at the end of 1998 and to 56% in mid-1999.50 work can make an astonishing difference in
If human security is to be realized, then, limiting the human security cost of natural
external resources must be available to national disasters.
governments or their people for occasional crises, • Support for social protection should be infused
and in a form that does not bind future with the same professionalism, resource base
generations to an intolerable burden of debt. and political will that has characterized support
Whether this assistance comes from governments for market policies.
or private sector institutions or a new self-standing
funding mechanism, it is and will be integral to Notes
human security. 1. World Bank 1990.
2. FAO 1999 and United Nations Department of
Policy conclusions Economic and Social Affairs 2001b.
Along with the emphasis on “growth with equity”, 3. Walter 2002, pp. 9–10.
we need a new commitment to “downturn with 4. World Travel and Tourism Council 2002.
security”. We need to plan realistically how to protect 5. The household is a common unit of analysis for
people in adverse (but inevitable) situations of studies of income and consumption. The household
danger, inflation, unemployment and fiscal crises— generally consists of a group of people living together
when the constraints seem overwhelming and the (though it can consist of only one person) and making
freedom to undertake positive action seems frail. common provisions for food and other essentials of
• One of the keys to meeting the first living. Household members may pool their income to a
Millennium Development Goal—to eradicate greater or lesser extent; they may be related or unrelated
poverty and hunger—is for governments, the persons or a combination of both.
World Trade Organization and other actors 6. Sen 1999b.

90
 5

Economic security—the power to choose among opportunities

7. World Bank 2001b. 28. Lustig 2000.
8. Walter 2002 reports 1,110 natural disasters in the 29. IMF 2002, box 3.4, p 125.
1970s, 1,987 in the 1980s, and 2,742 in the 1990s. 30. IMF 2002, box 3.4, p 125.
9. World Bank 2002c, p. 6. 31. IMF 2002, p. 14.
10. Watkins 1998, p. 134. 32. IMF 1999, chap. 3, p. 68.
11. Watkins 2002, pp. 10–11. 33. Kindelberger 2000.
12. See, for instance, Sen 1999a. 34. Griffith-Jones and Kimmis 2002, p. 3.
13. See, for instance, United Nations, Department of 35. Grunberg and Khan 2000.
Economic and Social Affairs, 2001. In many 36. Taylor 2002.
developing countries there has been a significant 37. See IMF 2002, chap. 3, and Griffith-Jones and
increase in the numbers of people working in the Kimmis 2002.
informal, unregulated sector of the economy, either as 38. Walters 2002, p. 172.
self employed workers at a survivalist level or as 39. Walters 2002, p.174.
unregistered subcontracted workers for micro and small 40. Walters 2002, p. 15.
business enterprises. 41. Walters 2002, p. 6.
14. ILO 2003. 42. As discussed in United Nations, Department of
15. Sen 2000, p. 120. Economic and Social Affairs 2001 and Commission on
16. Sen 2000, p. 120. Human Security 2002.
17. Pinstrup-Andersen and Padya-Lorch 2001, p. 109. 43. World Bank. 2001a, p. 9.
18. Jodha 1986. 44. Gooptu 2001, Archer and Costello 1990, and
19. Daley-Harris 2002b, p. 3. Anheier, Clasus and Kaldor 2001.
20. See Daley-Harris 2002a for research and thinking 45. Marshall and Butzback 2002.
on these themes. 46. Sen and Drèze 2002. See also Deneulin 2002.
21. As concluded in Shahidur Khandker’s research in the 47. World Bank 2002b.
World Bank (1998). He studied Bangladesh: Grameen 48. World Bank 2002b.
Bank with 2.3 million members, the Bangladesh Rural 49. Stewart, Huang and Wang 2001, p. 88.
Advancement Committee (BRAC) with 3 million, and 50. World Bank 2002b, p. 13.
RD-12 (a government run program).
22. FAO 2002. References
23. FAO 2003. [www.fao.org/sd/fsdirect/fbdirect/ Akerlof, George. 1970. “The Market for ‘Lemons’:
FSP001.htm]. Quality Uncertainty and the Market Mechanism.”
24. FAO 2003. [www.fao.org/sd/fsdirect/fbdirect/ Quarterly Journal of Economics.
FSP001.htm]. Anheier, Helmut, Marlies Glasius and Mary Kaldor.
25. This section draws on the research paper by 2001. Global Civil Society 2001. Oxford: Oxford
Griffith-Jones and Kimmis 2002. University Press.
26. ILO 2003, p. 19. Archer, D., and P. Costello. 1990. Literacy and Power: The
27. Lustig 2000. Latin American Battleground. London: Earthscan.

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Commission on Human Security. 2002. “Reports on ———. 1999. World Economic Outlook 1999.
Regional Consultation.” [www.humansecurity- Washington, D.C.
chs.org]. ———. 2002. World Economic Outlook 2002.
Daley-Harris, Sam, ed. 2002a. Pathways Out of Poverty: Washington, D.C.
Innovations in Microfinance for the Poorest Families. ———. Various issues. Global Financial Stability
Bloomfield, Conn.: Kumarian Press. Reports. Washington, D.C.
———. 2002b. State of the Microcredit Summit ILO (International Labour Organization). 2003. Global
Campaign Report 2002. Washington, D.C.: The Employment Trends 2003. Geneva: International
Microcredit Summit Campaign. Labour Office.
[www.microcreditsummit.org/]. Jodha, N.S. 1986. “Common Property Resources and
Deneulin, Severine. 2002. “Responding to the Values of Rural Poor in Dry Regions of India.” Economic and
the Poor through Participation (Part Two): The Political Weekly 21(27): 1169-81.
Case of Costa Rica.” Queen Elizabeth House, Kindelberger, Charles P. 2000. Manias, Panics, and
Oxford. Draft. Crashes. Fourth Edition. John Wiley & Sons.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1999. Klein, Michael, Carl Aaron and Bita Hadjimichael.
The State of Food Security in the World 1999. 2003. “Foreign Direct Investment and Poverty
Rome. Reduction.” World Bank, Washington, D.C.
———. 2002. Food and Agricultural Organization: Lustig, Nora. 2000. Crises and the Poor: Socially
Report, 2002. Responsible Macroeconomics. Washington, D.C.:
———. 2003. “Women in Development Service.” Inter-American Development Bank.
Women and Population Division, Women and Marshall, Katherine, and Olivier Butzback, eds. 2002.
Sustainable Food Security. [www.fao.org/sd/ New Social Policy Agendas for Europe and Asia:
fsdirect/fbdirect/FSP001.htm]. Challenges, Experiences, and Lessons. Washington,
Gooptu, Nandini. 2001. The Politics of the Urban Poor D.C.: World Bank.
in Early Twentieth-Century India. Cambridge Michael, Sarah. 2002. “The Role of NGOs in Human
University Press. Security.” Paper prepared for the Commission on
Griffith-Jones, Stephanie, and Jenny Kimmis. 2002. Human Security. [www.humansecurity-chs.org].
“International Financial Volatility.” Paper prepared Pinstrup-Andersen, Per, and Rajul Padya-Lorch. eds.
for the Commission on Human Security. 2001. The Unfinished Agenda: Perspectives on
[www.humansecurity-chs.org]. Overcoming Hunger, Poverty and Environmental
Grunberg, Isabelle, and Sarbuland Khan. 2000. Degradation. Washington, D.C.: International
Globalization: The United Nations Development Food Policy Research Institute.
Dialogue—Finance, Trade, Poverty, Peace-building. Sen, Amartya. 1999a. “Beyond the Crisis: Development
UNU Policy Perspectives 4. New York: United Strategies in Asia.” Institute of South East Asian
Nations University Press. Studies, Singapore.
IMF (International Monetary Fund). Various years. ———. 1999b. Development as Freedom. New York:
“Global Financial Stability.” Washington, D.C. Anchor Press.

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———. 2000. “Work and Rights.” International Labour United Nations, Department of Economic and Social
Review 139 (2). Affairs. 2001. Report on the World Social Situation
———. 2002. “Global Inequality and Human Security.” 2001. New York.
Ishizaka Lecture Series, Tokyo, February. Vaux, Tony, and Frances Lund. 2002. “Overcoming
Sen, Amartya, and Jean Drèze. 2002. India: Development Crisis: Working Women and Security.” Paper
and Participation. New Delhi: Oxford University prepared for the Commission on Human Security.
Press. [www.humansecurity-chs.org].
Spence, Michael. 1973. “Job Market Signalling.” Walter, Jonathan, ed. 2002. 2002. World Disasters Report
Quarterly Journal of Economics 87. 2002: Focus on Reducing Risk. Red Cross. Kumarian
Standing, Guy. 2002. Beyond the New Parernalism: Basic Press.
Security as Equality. London: Verso. Watkins, Kevin. 1998. Economic Growth With Equity.
Stern, Nicholas. 2002. “Dynamic Development: Oxford: Oxfam.
Innovation and Inclusion.” Munich Lectures in ———. 2002. Rigged Rules and Double Standards.
Economics. [http://econ.worldbank.org/files/ World Bank. 1990. World Development Report 1990.
22048_CES_Munich_Lecture_Nov_19.pdf ]. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, Frances, Cindy Huang and Michael Wang. ———. 2001a. Social Protection Sector Strategy: From
2001. “Internal Wars: An Empirical Overview of Safety Net to Springboard. Washington, D.C.
the Economic and Social Consequences.” In ———. 2001b. World Development Report 2000/2001:
Frances Stewart and Valpy Fitzgerald, eds., The Attacking Poverty. New York: Oxford University
Economic and Social Consequences of Conflict (War Press.
and Underdevelopment). Vol 1. Oxford: Oxford ———. 2002a. Global Economic Prospects and the
University Press. Developing Countries 2002. Washington, D.C.
Stiglitz, Joseph E. 1985. “Information and Economic ———. 2002b. Transition—The First 10 Years: Analysis
Analysis: A Perspective.” Economic Journal 95. and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet
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Management.” In Deepak Nayyar, ed., Governing ———. 2002c. World Development Indicators 2002.
Globalization. WIDER Studies in Development Washington, D.C.
Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ———. 2003. Global Economic Prospects and the
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Developing Countries 2003. Washington, DC.
Development). Various years. World Investment World Travel and Tourism Council. 2002.
Report. Geneva. [www.wttc.org].

93
Better health for
human security

6
Disease and poverty go hand
in hand. So, too, do disease
and conflict
6

Better health for human security

One of the most significant human eating more healthful foods, getting more exercise,
achievements of the 20th century is the practicing safe sex. But many avoidable deaths—
spectacular progress in health. About a billion especially those due to infectious diseases,
people today have average life expectancies of nutritional deprivations of children and maternity-
nearly 80 years, twice the average of a century related risks of unsafe childbearing and
before. These gains were made possible by childrearing—can be prevented only by reaching
material advances in the provision of food, people trapped in poverty or conflict. This gap in
education and clean water; medical avoidable deaths is due to differences in risks and
developments in scientific knowledge; and vulnerabilities and in access to modern health
political and social advances that harnessed knowledge and care. Disease and poverty go hand
new knowledge for human betterment.1 in hand. So, too, do disease and conflict.
Simple comparisons illuminate these tragic
But good health, like so many things, is inequitably health failings. The average lifespan in Sierra Leone
distributed. Entering the 21st century, about half and Ethiopia is only about half that in Japan and
the world’s people had been left behind, unable to Sweden.3 Fewer than half the newborns in Guinea-
achieve their full health potential. World health
today spotlights the paradox of unprecedented Figure 6.1 The global burden of disease, 2000
achievement among the privileged and a vast
burden of preventable diseases among those less Annual deaths 55.7 million
World population 6.04 billion
privileged, the majority of humankind (figure 6.1).
Middle East
Differing risks and vulnerabilities to avoidable 4.0 million deaths
health insults are found among people of different (population
Americas 481 million) Southeast Asia
ages, sexes, communities, classes, races and nations. 5.9 million deaths 14.2 million deaths
No surprise then that the poor, marginalized and (population (population 1,535 million)
827 million)
excluded have a higher risk of dying than other
groups. Especially vulnerable are children and
women across all groups. These disparities are Europe
9.6 million deaths
found not only among countries—but within (population
countries, rich and poor. 873 million)

The World Health Organization (WHO)

recently estimated that more than 40% of the 56
million deaths each year are avoidable, given the Africa
Western Pacific
11.4 million deaths
world’s existing knowledge, technologies and 10.5 million deaths
(population 1,687 million)
(population 633 million)
resources.2 Social, behavioural, economic and
environmental conditions shape these outcomes.
Many of the unnecessary deaths can be prevented Source: WHO 2000.
by better health behaviour—stopping smoking,

95
 Good health is both essential
and instrumental to achieving
human security

Bissau survive to their fifth birthday. Inequities in Other societies trapped in prolonged conflict
health are marked among and within countries. In (Sudan) or recovering from war (Afghanistan) have
the United States, children in poverty are far more “slow-burn” health crises characterized by very high
likely to become sick and die than their better-off or stagnant death rates. Sixteen of the 20 countries
counterparts. Disturbing inequities are compounded with the worst human development indexes are
by “hot spots” of health emergencies around the either in the midst of conflict or recently emerging
world. Health crises threaten the interdependence from it.6 Worldwide, war and poverty are the
and solidarity of global health efforts. gravest threats to health and human security.
In just two decades, HIV/AIDS has become
the world’s fourth ranking cause of death. Life The links between health and human security
expectancy averages only 47 years in Sub-Saharan Good health is both essential and instrumental to
Africa, 15 years less than it would without AIDS. achieving human security. It is essential because the
With 22 million cumulative deaths and more than very heart of security is protecting human lives.
40 million HIV-infected people, HIV/AIDS will Health security is at the vital core of human
soon become the greatest health catastrophe in security—and illness, disability and avoidable death
human history—exacting a death toll greater than are “critical pervasive threats” to human security.
two world wars in the 20th century, the influenza Health is defined here as not just the absence of
epidemic of 1918 or the Black Death of the 14th disease, but as “a state of complete physical, mental
century. The devastation is being superimposed on and social well-being”. Health is both objective
other crises, such as the ongoing drought and physical wellness and subjective psychosocial well-
famine in Southern Africa. Among the few poor being and confidence about the future.
populations with reliable health statistics, the worst In this view, good health is instrumental to
health condition documented, due to both human dignity and human security. It enables
HIV/AIDS and underdevelopment, is in Bandim, people to exercise choice, pursue social
Guinea-Bissau, where life expectancy today is a opportunities and plan for their future. A healthy
meagre 36 years.4 child can learn, grow and develop. An adult cured
Health crises also plague the countries in of tuberculosis can resume work to support the
transition to democracy and a market economy. livelihood of her family. Saving a child’s life can
Russia and several Eastern European countries have secure the future generations of a family. The
experienced rising mortality. In Russia, higher absence of good health can result in enormous
mortality rates are particularly marked among less grief (the loss of a newborn or young child) and
educated adult men, unable to cope with changing can precipitate an economic catastrophe for the
circumstances.5 In Latin America, the transition to family (the sudden death of a working adult).
democracy and open markets has not yielded the Health’s instrumental role is collective as well
social benefits hoped for, instead perpetuating or as personal. Good health is a precondition for
exacerbating some of the world’s severest income social stability. Sudden outbreaks of a contagious
and social inequalities. disease or other health crisis can destabilize an

96
Three health challenges stand
out as closely linked to human
security: global infectious
6
diseases, poverty-related
threats, and violence and crisis

Better health for human security

entire society. In times of crisis, visible and The health field is also reconnecting to
demonstrable capacity for effective health action is concerns about security. Links extend beyond
essential to calm public fears. Even during conflict, military security to more comprehensive health
combatants have agreed on ceasefires to enable security (figure 6.2).
immunizations of children, recognizing the shared Four criteria influence the strength of links
importance of good health. between health and human security:
Health and human security are inextricably • The scale of the disease burden now and into
linked, but good health is not synonymous with the future.
security. Nor does security encompass all aspects of • The urgency for action.
human health. So, which health challenges are • The depth and extent of the impact on society.
linked particularly to human security? • The interdependencies or “externalities” that
Health security and military security are can exert ripple effects beyond particular
directly related. Indeed, from a historical diseases, persons or locations.
perspective, the legitimacy of rulers has depended Applying these criteria, three health challenges
on their capacity to protect the health of the public, stand out as closely linked to human security:
through military and other means. In recent global infectious diseases, poverty-related threats,
decades, especially during the Cold War, health and and violence and crisis. The connection between
military security fields went separate ways, each infectious diseases and human security has been
developing its distinctive technical aspects, political forcefully validated by recent developments—the
constituencies and institutional networks.7 HIV/AIDS epidemic, the accelerating spread of
But throughout human history, military
security has had strong health dimensions.8 Battles
have been won by disease rather than arms. Figure 6.2 Health and human security linkages
Maintaining the health of combatants has been an
important element of military preparedness and
has motivated research into the control of tropical Health
Human security
diseases and the health impacts of military action.
Troop movements have spread contagious diseases. Conflict and
humanitarian Survival
Recently, those concerned with military security emergencies
Critical
have redoubled their focus on the health aspects of pervasive
defence—on germs as weapons, on epidemics Illness threats
Infectious Injury
weakening fragile states, on health risks among diseases Disability Vital
military troops, on the humanitarian impact of Death core

military action. The possibility that biological

weapons of mass destruction would be used has Poverty and inequity
Livelihood Dignity
caused an upsurge of public attention and put
health matters squarely on the security agenda.

97
 Box 6.1 Controlling infectious disease However, these control methods have been largely
ineffective for eradication because of the difficulty of
Although few infectious diseases have been eradicated identifying infected individuals, assuring patient
throughout the century, the criteria for eradication are compliance with treatment, and combating the disease’s
clear. Clinical diagnosis of the disease must be possible. resistance to treatment and its ease of transmission.
There must a low degree of transmissibility and a In an increasingly globalized world, most methods of
relatively slow rate of spread. There can be no non- control and eradication will remain ineffective without
human carrier, such as mosquitoes in the case of coordinated control between poor and rich countries.
malaria. Finally, eradication requires practical and As global populations move at unprecedented rates,
effective interventions that are safe, inexpensive, long difficulties in the identification of infected individuals,
lasting and easily deployed and that provide strong the long incubation periods of diseases like HIV/AIDS
immunity to secondary infection. and the uncoordinated monitoring procedures of exit
Attempts to eradicate disease have typically relied on and entry countries make control of disease more
vaccines, as for smallpox, or curative prophylactic challenging. The HIV/AIDS epidemic alone has made
methodologies, as for yaws and guinea worm. In some it clear that there is no place in the world from which a
cases, such as tuberculosis, there has been controversy country is disconnected. Increased international
over the best method of disease control or eradication. cooperation will be required for effective monitoring,
The BCG vaccine is administered to 85% of the control and eradication of infectious diseases, to
world’s children, but its effectiveness is currently prevent further outbreaks and decrease transmission
unknown. Because of this ambiguity, most countries both within and between countries.
have turned to a combination of treatment (directly
observed treatment, short course) and quarantine. Source: Heyman 2002.

contagious diseases, the looming threat of cow disease in Europe. Public fears are aroused.
bioterrorism, epidemics that weaken already fragile The economic costs are staggering. And
states and the creation of new international funds government credibility is questioned (box 6.1).9
and organizations. Poverty-related health threats Start with HIV/AIDS. Within a few years of
are perhaps the greatest burden of human its discovery, this equal-opportunity pathogen has
insecurity. Most preventable infectious diseases, spread to every continent, every country. It kills
nutritional deprivation and maternity-related risks productive adults, impoverishes families, creates
are concentrated among the world’s poor. Poverty orphans, destroys communities and weakens
and disease set up a vicious spiral with negative fragile governments. Even the elderly are affected
economic and human consequences. And all forms because of the deterioration of their adult
of violence—collective, interpersonal and self- working children. In some heavily-infected
directed—are public health problems. Indeed, the countries, HIV/AIDS is depleting skilled workers
growing social crises of violence all have strong (teachers, nurses, police officers, civil servants),
health dimensions. with health staff losses as high as 40% in some
countries.10
Global infectious diseases The burden of HIV/AIDS is overwhelmingly
Many recent developments explain the emergence concentrated among the poorest people in the
of infectious diseases on the global agenda—the poorest regions, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa.
discovery of more than two dozen new disease The US National Intelligence Council recently
agents, the spread of antibiotic resistance and the released projections of the “next wave” of the
devastating impact of recent epidemics—cholera in HIV/AIDS epidemic in five populous countries—
Latin America, plague in India, the ebola virus in China, Ethiopia, India, Nigeria and Russia (figure
Africa, dengue fever in Southeast Asia and mad 6.3). The council estimated that the number of

98
The burden of HIV/AIDS is
overwhelmingly concentrated
among the poorest people in
6
the poorest regions

Better health for human security

people infected with HIV/AIDS in these countries Figure 6.3 High and low estimates of current and future
is likely to soar from 14–23 million today to HIV/AIDS-infected adults in next-wave countries, 2002
and 2010
50–75 million in 2010.11 Even in rich countries,
HIV/AIDS threatens to resurge, concentrated
Millions
among the poor and excluded. 25
In 2000, the UN Security Council declared
HIV/AIDS a national security threat, followed by
20
similar announcements by the G-8 at meetings in
Okinawa and Genoa. Underscoring the political
15
imperatives for global action, the UN General
Assembly devoted a special session to HIV/AIDS
in 2001, and a Global Fund to Fight AIDS, 10

Tuberculosis, and Malaria was launched in 2002.

5
Poverty-related threats
Poverty and infectious diseases are fellow 0
2002 2010 2002 2010 2002 2010 2002 2010 2002 2010
travellers—each feeding on the other. The poor are Nigeria Ethiopia Russia India China
at higher risk of infectious disease, and sickness can
Low High
deepen poverty, creating a vicious cycle of illness
and poverty. Especially prevalent among the poor Source: National Intelligence Council 2002.

are the first-generation diseases—common

infections and maternity-related diseases, mainly
affecting children and women (box 6.2). The risk suffering but also to prevent family bankruptcy.
and vulnerability to these poverty-related health For the poor with fragile asset bases, catastrophic
threats are compounded by hunger, malnutrition sickness deprives the family of daily wages, and
and environmental threats, especially the lack of compulsory health expenditures put enormous
clean drinking water and sanitation. A significant pressures on limited resources.
share of the world’s avoidable deaths and human HIV/AIDS, for instance, decreases the ability
insecurities is linked to poverty. of affected individuals to work and increases their
When poor people have voice, they health care costs, resulting in greater financial
consistently express fears about the multiple strain on their households. To cope financially,
insecurities of everyday life.12 They worry about families initially respond by depleting any savings
economic insecurity from loss of jobs. They fear and by selling their non-productive assets.
local violence. They want to immunize their Children are removed from school, to lower family
children. And not surprisingly, they rank expenses and to care for the sick. The number and
preventable sickness and premature death high quality of meals are reduced to stretch resources,
among their priorities, not only to avoid pain and weakening the ability of the sick to fight off

99
 Box 6.2 Ensuring human security for women: to pregnancy. Second, many women do not receive any
reproductive health type of antenatal care. Over half of births in developing
countries are not assisted by a trained birth attendant.
Complications from childbirth are the leading cause of And after birth, as few as 5% of women in poor
death among women in many developing countries. countries receive postpartum care. Factors impeding
Over 515,000 women die yearly in pregnancy or woman’s access to many of these reproductive health
childbirth, and 99% of these deaths occur in services include the accessibility of clinics, the cost of
developing countries. The risk of dying from services, control over resources within households,
childbirth is 1 in 1,800 in developed countries but 1 in decision-making power within family units, social
48 in developing countries. This gap implies that isolation and time constraints.
countless pregnancy-related deaths in developing While many other health indicators have improved
countries could be prevented with adequate resources in recent decades, little progress has been made in
and services. decreasing maternal mortality rates. Provision of
For every woman who dies in childbirth, 10–15 primary health service is complicated by the social,
more women become incapacitated or disabled due to political, cultural and economic environments of poor
complications from childbirth. Over a quarter of countries, which can marginalize women’s roles and
women in the developing world, approximately 300 participation. Women are often discriminated against in
million women, suffer from short- or long-term access to education, food, employment, financial
complications of childbirth. Each time a woman gives resources and primary health care services. Addressing
birth, she is at significant risk of death or disability. She issues of women’s status and integrating them into
is also exposed to these risks more often since she will mainstream social and political systems will be essential
be likely to bear more children than a woman in a for improving reproductive health and allowing women
developed country. High rates of maternal mortality wider participation within society. In addition,
leave over a million children around the world inexpensive and technologically simple methods are
motherless each year. A study in Bangladesh showed needed to promote women’s reproductive health.
that such children are 3 to 10 times more likely to die Improving the quality of reproductive health care and
within two years than children who live with both women’s access to it will not only improve the security
parents (Strong 1992). of billions of women around the world, but also that of
There are many reasons for the high risk of death their children and families.
and disability during pregnancy and childbirth for
women in developing countries. First, they lack access Source: UN Population Fund [www.unfpa.org/
to family planning or safe abortion services. The UN mothers/facts.htm; www.safemotherhood.org/
Population Fund estimates that meeting family facts_and_figures/maternal_mortality.htm;
planning needs in developing countries alone would www.unfpa.org/mothers/statsbycountry.htm;
reduce maternal deaths and injuries by 20%. Unsafe www.unfpa.org/mothers/skilled_att.htm] and Strong
abortions account for nearly 15% of all deaths related 1992.

secondary infections. Later, families are forced to States, high health care costs account for an
sell their land, tools and other productive assets, to estimated half of personal bankruptcies.13
borrow money from relatives and friends and to go
into debt to money-lenders. These strains continue Violence and crisis
even after death. Funeral celebrations can be very Today’s conflicts are both within and among
costly, and traditions of ownership prevent women countries, often driven by inter-group hostilities
and children from inheriting productive assets. and fuelled by the proliferation of small arms
Health emergencies like this can precipitate a (chapters 2 and 3).The health dimensions of
vicious downward spiral of sickness, compulsory conflicts are multifaceted, entailing both
spending, asset depletion and impoverishment. emergency medical demands as well as long-term
And not just in poorer countries. In the United health challenges. To protect people, health

100
All forms of violence—collective,
interpersonal and self-
directed—are public health
6
problems

Better health for human security

responses to complex humanitarian emergencies Table 6.1 Estimated global violence-related deaths, 2000
must navigate through unsafe and unstable
political, military and ecological contexts. The
Rate per Proportion
tradition of “medical neutrality”, sanctioned by 100,000 of total
humanitarian law and human rights covenants, Type of violence Numbera populationb (%)
may be difficult, if not impossible, to uphold. Homicide 520,000 8.8 31.3
Humanitarianism is often overwhelmed by Suicide 815,000 14.5 49.1
political and military imperatives.14 Medical War-related 310,000 5.2 18.6
Totalc 1,659,000 28.8 100.00
workers must work with the military, the United Low- to middle-
Nations and non-governmental organizations— income countries 1,510,000 32.1 91.9
each with its own mandate. High-income
Sickness and death can expand beyond the countries 149,000 14.4 8.9
zone and time of conflict. The scale of deaths due a. Rounded to the nearest 1,000.
to conflict escalate dramatically through ripple b. Age-standardized.
c. Includes 14,000 intential injury dealths resulting for legal
effects, extended in time to neighbouring regions. intervention.
The impact of violence also impairs health, Source: WHO 2002.

retarding economic recovery, increasing security

costs and eroding the trust that underpins the becoming more frequent. These unexpected
functioning of all social institutions. catastrophes can devastate families and
The direct casualties of war are modest in communities, especially the poor living in
comparison with the toll from other forms of precarious environments.
violence—physical, sexual, psychological, Historically well-documented and always
interpersonal, domestic and self-directed (table feared, the use of germs as a biological weapon
6.1).15 became a reality in the United States with the
Although the underlying causes are not well anthrax attacks of 2001. Although the attacks
understood, the overwhelming proportion of resulted in only five deaths, they generated
interpersonal violence takes place among low- unprecedented public fears, nearly paralysing the
income people and in low-income countries. There postal service and the Congress. As many as a third
is also a growing body of evidence that economic, of the workers at the US Centers for Disease
social and political inequality and alienation provide Control were assigned to combat anthrax.
fertile breeding grounds for all forms of violence. Public concerns over biological weapons were
Natural disasters are also a major threat to so aroused that the US government was compelled
health and human security worldwide (chapter 5). to rebuild its stockpile of nearly discarded smallpox
The multidimensional devastation of natural vaccine. Pre-emptive vaccination against smallpox
disasters can wreak havoc on people’s lives. is now being implemented in North America and
Ecological and climatic disasters—hurricanes, Europe. The resulting scrutiny of health
tornadoes, draught, flooding, landslides—are institutions exposed the long-standing

101
 Windows of opportunity are
opening to tackle the last
century’s unfinished health
agenda, to confront this
century’s new threats

underinvestment in public health infrastructures, leaders. Public financing for global health has
underscoring the centrality of public health for the begun to increase from the low levels at which it
protection of people. has stagnated. After the Monterrey Conference on
Financing Development and stimulated by the UN
Adopting a human security approach Millennium Development Goals, resource pledges
Windows of opportunity are opening to tackle the of foreign assistance for health have increased
last century’s unfinished health agenda, to confront significantly—for the first time in decades. New
this century’s new threats and to build a unified actors—civil society, business and the media—are
and secure health future. The world’s poor are joining the field. Non-governmental organizations
threatened by global infectious diseases, poverty- are proliferating, and media coverage of health and
related threats and violence. But in this globalizing security has increased markedly. New institutional
world, no community can be entirely impervious arrangements are being established, such as the
to these contagious threats. Immunizing a child, Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis, and
for example, protects not only that child but also Malaria. And global health security is increasingly
other children, the family and the entire recognized as a political priority. If appropriately
neighborhood. Control of infectious epidemics harnessed, this new awareness and responsiveness
thus has positive externalities where protecting an could help energize global health as a human
individual has wider benefits for others. Poverty security priority.
and its related health threats are not only morally A people-centred approach to global health
unacceptable—they also generate conditions for would focus on empowerment and protection.
new pathogens, disease transmission and social and Empowerment strategies would enhance the
political pathologies. Reducing violence protects capacity of individuals and communities to assume
victims—and also reduces the “culture of violence” responsibility for their own health. These strategies
that perpetuates it. would thus generate the conditions, such as
Ensuring the health security of the public is, community-based insurance for health care, to
like police and fire protection, an indivisible good, enable families and local groups to pursue self-help
with strong multiplier effects. Improvements in strategies. While governments and businesses are
health anywhere benefit everyone everywhere. important, it is people, both directly and through
Protecting the health of the public—locally, government, who have the authority and
nationally, globally—is thus a core public good.16 responsibility for health and human security.
Gross health disparities and selective approaches Protective strategies would promote the three
are neither sustainable nor morally acceptable. institutional pillars of society: to prevent, monitor
Reducing health threats to human security will and anticipate health threats. Protection aims to
require unprecedented cooperation among diverse prevent avoidable disease by reducing risks and
actors and nation states. vulnerabilities to the root causes of unnecessary
Recognition of global interdependencies in sickness and death. Protection also entails
health is growing among the public and political developing early warning systems and building

102
Good health and human
security for all depend on
peace and development
6

Better health for human security

standby preparedness capacity. Protection would Health is also advanced by social arrange-
focus on mitigating and ameliorating the impact of ments, such as health care systems, local health
unavoidable crises, such as natural disasters. A key groups and civic engagement. The role of the
dimension of protection is the recognition that information media is growing in educating and
health security is imbedded in allied social, engaging the public. Most important, the state’s
political and environmental conditions. assumption of responsibility and authority for the
health of its citizens is a critical social arrangement
Fostering peace and equitable development for producing health and human security.
Good health and human security for all depend
on peace and development—to ensure universal Creating and using knowledge
access to the basic requirements of food, nutrition, With people as the ultimate producers of good
clean drinking water, hygiene and sanitation, and health, and with health security dependent on
housing. Peace reduces the threat of violent knowledge, achieving universal basic education is
conflict and illegal trafficking in people and drugs, one of the most important steps to health and
thereby also reducing the threat of HIV/AIDS human security. Knowledge also empowers health
transmission through sexual violence, exploitation workers, professional associations and civil society
and intravenous drug use. Development is to contribute to public health. And knowledge is
especially important for good health by promoting the basic building block for improving the tools
basic education, especially of women, and secure and technologies for health, such as new vaccines,
economic livelihoods. When basic conditions of drugs and diagnostics.
peace and development are achieved, good health
can be attained as part of human security. This Intellectual property for health security. Knowledge
does not require great wealth; it is achievable even builds on the wisdom of the past and the ingenuity
at very low incomes, as has been well demon- of the present for future generations. Traditional
strated in Costa Rica, Vietnam and the Kerala knowledge has given the world such essential drugs
state in India. as aspirin, quinine and taxol—improving the
Health and human security are knowledge- quality of life of millions of people around the
based and socially driven. The knowledge base world. The recent acceleration of global trade has
generates medical technologies, such as vaccines sparked international debate over the ownership
and drugs. It also educates the public to adopt and application of knowledge for human health
healthful behaviour, seek health services and and security. The debate is twofold. Although there
participate in democratic decision-making to are many barriers to poor people’s access to
protect their own health. So, knowledge systems— essential drugs, recently promulgated international
such as health-based information, data and analyses rules governing intellectual property could lessen
on disease risks and spread—should be promoted the capacity of the world’s poorest people to afford
and made openly accessible to achieve health and vaccines and drugs essential to their health security.
human security. Consider life-saving antiretroviral drugs for HIV-

103
 National disease surveillance
and control systems should be
strengthened and then
networked into a global system

positive people in poor countries. Private markets WTO negotiations remain divided over the
alone do not provide sufficient incentives for definition of “insufficient manufacturing capacity”,
investment in knowledge-creation for the many the potential for companies in developed countries
diseases of the poor. Only 10% of global to export generic drugs still under patent and the
investment in health research, for example, is measures necessary to prevent the re-export back to
aimed at the illnesses responsible for 90% of the the developed world of drugs manufactured under
global disease burden (box 6.3).17 compulsory licenses. Among participating
At the centre of the debate is the World Trade countries, only the United States insisted on a
Organization’s (WTO) agreement on Trade-Related limited, inflexible list of key diseases that would
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). qualify for compulsory licensing, such as
Ratified by member countries of the WTO in HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria. All other
1994, TRIPS affords 20 years of patent protection countries, recognizing that health emergencies are
on a worldwide basis to technological inventions, by definition unpredictable—witness the urgent
including vaccines and medicines. Through need for the antibiotic Cipro during the anthrax
patenting, a pharmaceutical company that develops crisis and the emergency production of smallpox
a new drug is granted a temporary global monop- vaccine—wanted a more flexible approach that did
oly on all production, pricing and marketing of the not restrict “public health emergencies” to a few
patented entity. diseases.
In November 2001, the Doha Ministerial Addressing these issues and meeting the
Declaration of the WTO recognized the special challenge to health security posed by the current
challenges faced by developing countries. It intellectual property rights regime will require new
affirmed that “under WTO rules no country approaches and new thinking about the ownership
should be prevented from taking measures for the of knowledge, health as a human right, and market
protection of human, animal or plant life or and institutional structures to both offer incentives
health, or of the environment at the levels it and protect lives.
considers appropriate”. It also reaffirmed the
right of governments to use “compulsory Information to control priority threats. Health
licensing” and “parallel imports” to obtain access empowerment and protection depend on reliable
to key vaccines and drugs to combat national and up-to-date data and analysis and a capacity to
public health emergencies. Compulsory licensing act in response to information. Central to health
and parallel imports by many of the poorest and human security, therefore, are systems to
countries without domestic manufacturing collect and deploy information for detecting
capacity would, however, have little practical disease threats, monitoring their changes and
meaning because under the restrictive TRIPS guiding control efforts. All surveillance and control
clause, developing countries such as Brazil and activities ultimately depend on people and local
India, which now export generic medicines, must communities, but national and international
cease exports by 2005. systems are needed to empower people and

104
 Box 6.3 What role can antiretroviral drugs play in With new funding sources such as the Global Fund
combating the HIV/AIDS threat? to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, the wider use
of antiretroviral therapy in Africa and Asia is
6
Over the last decade, the HIV/AIDS epidemic has increasingly plausible. There are risks as well as benefits
reached daunting proportions, particularly in Africa to the use of antiretroviral therapy that must be
and Asia. With a vaccine still years away, and managed. Major risks include taking attention away
prevention efforts having limited success, large-scale use from prevention efforts, overburdening weak health

Better health for human security

of antiretroviral therapy could help tip the scale of the systems, creating resistance to drugs and improperly
epidemic back to controllable levels. Antiretroviral communicating the limitations of therapy. The
therapies reduce the amount the AIDS virus in affected benefits, however, are substantial and include bolstering
individuals, improving their clinical condition, quality prevention efforts by reducing the stigma of the disease
of life and life expectancy. When provided to pregnant and increasing testing, maintaining the integrity of
women, antiretroviral therapy decreases the risk of communities by increasing life expectancy of affected
transmission to newborns to less than 10%. adults, improving economic performance by sustaining
Until recently, there was widespread concern that work forces, and increasing hope. Many African nations
antiretroviral therapy was too complex and resource have now committed to providing therapy for their
intensive for use in developing countries. The people and are working to consolidate the support
programme requires adequate pharmaceuticals and needed to make this promise a reality.
diagnostics, human resources, information management Making large-scale use of antiretrovirals a reality will
systems and physical infrastructure. Recent work in require increased access to low-cost pharmaceuticals
Botswana, Brazil, Haiti and Thailand, however, and diagnostics, innovative approaches to bolstering
indicates that with proper support and financing human resources for health, better integration of
antiretroviral therapy can play an important role in therapy programmes, and prevention programmes to
combination with prevention. Each of these countries keep the focus on control of the epidemic. If developed
developed unique programmes suited to their situation and developing countries commit to these changes,
and were able to achieve outcomes comparable to those among others, antiretroviral therapy can be a critical
in developed countries. In addition, because of the measure for improving human security until a vaccine
relative ease of implementation, programmes to prevent for HIV/AIDS is found.
mother to child transmission are now being
implemented throughout Africa and Asia. Source: Shisana, Zungu-Dirwayi, and Shisana 2002.

communities. The transnational spread of should not be dependent on “foreign aid”. They
contagious diseases and the ripple effect of health are central to health and human survival for all and
problems call for a global surveillance and control should thus be supported by the global public
system for health and human security. National through all member governments.
disease surveillance and control systems, in Surveillance systems would naturally focus on
variouse stages of maturity, should be strengthened the greatest health threats. In many regions of the
and then networked into a global system (box 6.4). world, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria
That global system would allow for the rapid demand high priority action. Diverse priorities,
sharing of information and responses. It should be however, would be expected among different
plural in participation—including non- communities and countries. There is sufficient
governmental organizations, the media and others. commonality of shared disease threats to link these
But the state and the intergovernmental system local systems into a coherent global system—a win-
must play a key role. The central mission would be win situation for all participants.
to protect the world public from infectious and Among these major killers, HIV/AIDS is a
other contagious threats, irrespective of national global security emergency. But assisted by
boundaries. These national and global systems information, intelligence and monitoring, some

105
Box 6.4 Minimizing threats to human security capacity to international agreements on lines of
through global health surveillance communication and appropriate responses to epidemics.
One of the most successful recent initiatives for global
The challenge of infectious diseases has changed surveillance has been the collaborative development of a
remarkably over the last 30 years. Today the world is highly sensitive global infectious disease surveillance and
more mobile and interconnected as transportation has response system, the Global Outbreak Alert and
become more rapid, communication more Response Network, initiated by the WHO and
instantaneous and borders more permeable. The maintained by Health Canada. Under development
epidemiology of many infectious diseases is rapidly since 1997, it has created a network of over 100
changing, as are the geographical patterns of disease laboratory and disease reporting systems, providing up-
distribution and drug resistance. To respond to to-the-minute reports of infectious disease outbreaks by
infectious disease threats to human security, systematically scanning electronic resources, including
communities must be able to identify infectious web sites, news wires, public health email services and
outbreaks and respond rapidly with international electronic discussion groups. These sources are
support. Improving global surveillance systems collaboratively linked to information networks from
represents the best chance for reducing such threats. government centres, academic institutions, UN
Global health surveillance began in 1896 when the agencies, overseas military laboratories and prominent
International Sanitary Conference agreed on the need for non-governmental organizations, including Médecins
international health surveillance. In 1907 the sans Frontières and the International Federation of Red
Organisation Internationale d’Hygiene Publique was Cross and Red Crescent Societies.
established in Paris to gather information on disease For outbreaks of international concern, electronic
outbreaks for eventual distribution to participating communications are initiated immediately with the
countries. Despite these efforts, international health affected country to provide rapid, confidential
legislation proved ineffective because treaties did not keep assistance. The Global Outbreak Alert and Response
pace with scientific advances, and poorer countries were Network also maintains a global database of health
reluctant to participate, for fear of possible repercussions. professionals who can advise on infectious disease
After World War II the Organisation Internationale control strategies. The WHO’s network of collaborating
d’Hygiene Publique was replaced by the World Health centres of national laboratories and institutes similarly
Organization (WHO). In 1951, WHO issued the helps affected countries make efficient use of scarce
International Sanitary Regulations, renamed the public health expertise and resources.
International Health Regulations in 1969 and later From July 1998 to August 2001 the network
revised in 1981. The aim was to achieve the greatest identified 578 outbreaks in 132 countries, from
possible security against the spread of disease and cholera, meningitis, haemorrhagic fever, and viral
minimal disruption of international trade and travel. encephalitis to anthrax. The network has also
These regulations required member states to notify undertaken numerous containment activities in
WHO within 24 hours of outbreaks of cholera, yellow developing countries. The network has coordinated
fever and plague. WHO possessed no enforcement large-scale monitoring and international assistance by
powers, working only through persuasion and establishing standardized procedures for verifying
recommendation. Again, not all countries complied, infectious disease outbreaks and by coordinating
fearing the costly repercussions on trade and tourism responses with the help of international experts. This
that other reporting countries had faced in the past. approach has helped to minimize the infectious disease-
The present International Health Regulations cover related threats to human security. As the world
only three diseases (cholera, plague, and yellow fever) continues to shrink, efforts like this will remain crucial
and fail to address other infectious diseases with the to protecting the poor from the ravages of infectious
potential for international spread. outbreaks and protecting the global community from
Today, as globalization has accelerated the spread of the rapid international spread of infectious diseases.
disease through trade and travel, the global community
must invest anew in every aspect of infectious disease Source: Heymann 2002; Fidler 1997; WHO 1983;
surveillance systems, from basic laboratory and clinical Zacher 1999; Heymann and Rodier 1998.

106
Promoting community-based
health care through insurance
can protect people from the
6
devastating downside of
catastrophic illness

Better health for human security

heavily-infected countries—such as Thailand, health insurance schemes, they can manage many
Senegal and Uganda—show that HIV/AIDS can health risks at a local level. In strong civil societies,
be contained. Other countries, where the disease is non-governmental initiatives can complement
less widespread—such as Brazil, Mexico, and in public sector health activities and also advocate for
Western Europe—show that it is possible to socially progressive changes in public health. But
contain an incipient epidemic. Many others— where individual and institutional advocates of
China, India and Russia—face the possibility of health security are only weakly present, or even
explosive growth in the epidemic. Until an discouraged, the health security of a population
efficacious vaccine is developed, the only effective rests on a fragile public sector or imbalanced
approach to HIV/AIDS is changing human private market.
behaviour. The health yield of “safe sex”, as Health emergencies arising from epidemics
estimated by WHO, is enormous. Urgent priority demanding urgent action are the small visible tip
should be accorded to health education, peer of a large iceberg. More significant and longer in
support and changes in the conditions that can term are the silent crises of poverty-linked illnesses
accelerate modifications in human behaviour for and violence, especially gender-based domestic
health and human security. violence. Too often neglected, these silent crises of
human insecurity deserve similar priority. A human
Mobilizing social action security approach would recognize these people-
Knowledge that sits on the shelf does little to centred priorities.
advance people’s health. Social arrangements and A central part of the peace and development
institutions, appropriately motivated, are essential agenda should be a core public health system
to health protection and empowerment. The health shaped to national priorities. Because health threats
advances in the 20th century can be attributed in vary among people and countries, these systems
part to the revolutionary development that naturally would focus on the health and human
governments increasingly assumed responsibility security priorities of diverse communities and
and authority for the health of their citizens. Social countries. But the core functions of public health
action by civil society organizations, business, mass are similar—primary prevention and care for major
media and other organizations also contributed to health threats.
these health advances. “Health for All”, promulgated at the Primary
Health Care Conference at Alma Ata in 1978, has
Community-based health. Perhaps because poor people not been realized. The reasons for this failure range
are so vulnerable to health risks, they are from weak political will to economic incapacity.
attempting to mobilize and deploy their health Public systems have not been adequately
security assets. When poor women gain developed, and private markets in health care have
rudimentary health education, they can become catered only to those with the money to pay for
agents of change for their families. When poor care. The revitalizing of Health for All will require
communities train local health workers or set up renewed political commitment translated into

107
 A new balance must be
established among individual,
state and global responsibilities
for health and human security

sustained investments in the people and health security. How? By modernizing inter-
infrastructure for universal prevention and care. As national health rules and regulations, fostering
long as people are deprived of primary prevention partnerships between public and private sectors
and care, health and human security for all are and building the architecture for global health.
unachievable. Formal cooperation in international health
Promoting community-based health care began in 1851, when the first international health
through insurance can protect people from the conference sought to contain disease without
devastating downside of catastrophic illness. impeding international trade. The International
Although not all sickness can be prevented or Health Regulations, last adopted in 1969, were
treated, all people should have access to core built on a series of agreements over the previous
primary health care services. And all should be century and a half. As the first formal recognition
protected from the downside risks of devastating of global health interdependence, they maximize
illness and catastrophic economic loss. Risk-sharing security against infectious diseases while
arrangements based on pooled membership funds minimizing the impact on trade and travel. In this
and community income generation projects have globalizing era, the regulations should be updated
proven successful, as demonstrated by pioneering and expanded to include many emerging
innovation of non-governmental organizations transnational health risks, such as environmental
such as the Self Employed Women’s Association threats, tobacco control and criminal violence.
and the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Given the complexities of these tasks, no
Committee. With health risks more global, risk- single institution can perform them all. Many
sharing requires vastly expanded pools of members. actors are necessary. Recently, innovative
National and global resources should back partnership arrangements between public and
community-based insurance systems, financially private actors have filled gaps and exploited new
and organizationally (box 6.5). opportunities. Mission-driven partnerships have
expanded immunization coverage, developed
Global health security. In this globalizing era, a new vaccines and drugs against neglected diseases and
balance must be established among individual, accelerated health action against priority diseases.
state and global responsibilities for health and Experimental partnership arrangements should be
human security. Responsibility for health security encouraged along with revitalization of formal
is shifting down from the national level to organizations.
individuals, communities and civil society Any global system must grapple with the
organizations—and upwards to international different threats confronted by people living in
institutions and networks. As health security diverse contexts. Privileged people in richer
responsibilities shift, a stronger system of global countries, having mostly controlled the common
health governance is required. Such a system infectious diseases, worry about bioterrorism and
should support and coordinate local and national new or re-emerging infectious diseases that
initiatives—and establish global ground-rules for threaten their health and economy, such as the

108
 Box 6.5 Community-based health insurance pay a premium in exchange for compensation for future

The Declaration of the International Conference on

medical expenses. The community determines the
criteria for eligibility, the level of premiums, the
6
Primary Health Care in Alma Ata in 1978 stated that method for their collection and the level of payouts.
“Primary health care requires and promotes maximum This may allow developing country health sectors,
community and individual self-reliance and partic- which are starved for funds, to mobilize resources that
ipation in the planning, organization, operation and would otherwise be unavailable.

Better health for human security

control of primary health care, making fullest use of Vimo SEWA is one example of a community-based
local, national and other available resources”. But the health insurance plan, organized by informal economy
question of how poor communities can contribute to workers in India. It has been running for more than 10
the provision of health care persists. years and today has 93,000 insured members. From its
Disease or illness can cause an individual or experience with community-based health insurance in
household to enter a downward spiral in which poor India, Vimo SEWA has concluded that health insurance is
health results in the depletion of assets, and low levels not only a growing need and demand of the working
of assets lead to worsening health and the inability to poor, but it is also a significant economic support for
cope with future illness. Government provision of them. Its members regularly acknowledge that it is Vimo
health care should meet the health needs the poor, but SEWA’s health insurance that protects them from slipping
in practice often does not. back into the poverty from which they had struggled to
Community-based health insurance offers the poor emerge. Vimo SEWA’s experience has also proven that
an alternative for coping with health crises. It provides investing in the poor, and women in particular, through
a much-needed level of health security to the poor and community-based health insurance is viable.
allows them to pool their resources to access otherwise
inaccessible health services. Individuals or households Source: Chatterjee and Ranson 2002.

anthrax threat in the United States and mad cow and technology can make a difference. The
disease in Europe. People in poorer contexts, no challenges are to make tools and knowledge
less fearful of terror or economic setbacks, must accessible while promoting incentives and
grapple with the more common infections already structures for the production of new knowledge.
controlled among the rich. Measles, respiratory And social action is needed to deploy that
infections, cholera and other common infectious knowledge for health and human security.
diseases are the greatest threats to the world’s poor. Health and security have long been distinct
These differences in disease risk underscore fields, to the detriment of both. Health has been
the importance of encouraging local and national seen as a “medical problem”, and security, as a
priorities, while seeking mutual health security matter of military defence. The state was
through international cooperation. Public health responsible for the health and defence of the public,
infrastructure can provide “dual-use” capacity for but it assigned these responsibilities to unconnected
managing natural epidemics and defending against ministries. People in all countries want good health
bioterrorism. Early warning and response against and human security. And maintaining artificial
bioterrorism require public health capacity to distinctions between “health” and “security” distorts
identify, validate and control infectious agents. the priorities of what the public wants in most
Developing this core public health infrastructure in democratic societies. The main requirements:
every country benefits not only individuals but also • Urgent action is needed to combat HIV/AIDS
the global community. and other human security-threatening diseases.
• Intellectual property rights should build in
Policy conclusions incentives for advancing human security.
Health and human security are central matters of • National disease surveillance and control
human survival in the 21st century. Knowledge systems should be formally linked into a global

109
 system. Such a system would allow for the rapid Consequences of Open Reporting in a Global
sharing of knowledge and quick response to Economy.” Bulletin of the World Health
infectious disease-related threats, including Organization 78(11): 1358–67.
those resulting from emerging and re-emerging Chatterjee, Mirai, and M. Kent Ranson. 2002.
communicable diseases, drug-resistant strains of “Exploring the Quality and Coverage of
disease and incidents of bioterrorism. Community-Base Health Insurance among the
• Every country should build a core public and Poor: The Vimo SEWA Experience.” Paper
primary health care system, shaped to national prepared for the Commission on Human Security.
priorities. [www.humansecurity-chs.org].
• Community-based health-insurance should Chen, Lincoln C., and G. Berlinguer. 2001. “Health
protect otherwise-vulnerable people from the Equity in a Globalizing World.” In T. Evans, M.
devastating downside of catastrophic illness. Whitehead, F. Diderichsen, A. Bhuiya and M.
Wirth, eds., Challenging Inequities in Health: From
Notes Ethics to Action. Oxford and New York: Oxford
1. World Bank 1993. University Press.
2. WHO 2003. Chen, Lincoln C., and Aafje Rietveld. 1994. “Human
3. UNDP 2002. Security During Complex Humanitarian Emer-
4. INDEPTH Network 2002. gencies: Rapid Assessment and Institutional Cap-
5. Chen, Wittgenstein and McKeon 1996. abilities.” Medicine and Global Survival 1(3): 156–63.
6. Petter Gleditsch and others 2001, UNDP 2002. Chen, Lincoln C., T.G. Evans and R.A. Cash. 1999.
7. Rothschild 1995. “Health as a Global Public Good.” In Inge Kaul,
8. Cash and Narasimhan 2000. Isabelle Grunberg and Marc Stern, eds., Global
9. McNeill 1998. Public Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st
10. Cohen 2002. Century. New York: Oxford University Press.
11. National Intelligence Council 2002. Chen, Lincoln C., F. Wittgenstein and E. McKeon.
12. Narayan 2000. 1996. “The Upsurge of Mortality in Russia: Causes
13. Jacoby and others 2001. and Policy Implications.” Population and
14. Leaning, Briggs and Chen 1999. Development Review 22(3): 517–30.
15. WHO 2002. Cohen, Desmond. 2002. Human Capital and the HIV-
16. Chen, Evans and Cash 1999. Epidemic in Sub-Saharan Africa. Working Paper 2.
17. UNDP 2002. ILO Programme on HIV/AIDS and the World of
Work.
References Fidler, D. 1997. “Return of the Fourth Horseman:
Alkire, S. 2002. “Conceptual Framework for Human Emerging Infectious Disease and International
Security.” Law.” Minnesota Law Review 81: 771–868.
Cash, R. and V. Narasimhan. 2000. “Impediments to Hampson, F. O., and J. Hay. 2002. “Human Security: A
Global Surveillance of Infectious Diseases: Review of the Scholarly Literature.”

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Heymann, David. 2002. “The Evolving Infectious Disease Murray, Christopher J. L., Gary King, Alan D. Lopez,
Threat: Implications for National and Global Niels Tomijima and Etienne Krug. 2002. “Armed
Security.” Paper prepared for the Commission on Conflict as a Public Health Problem.” BMJ
Human Security. [www.humansecurity-chs.org]. 324(7333): 346-49.
Heymann, David, and G. Rodier. 1998. “Global Narayan, Deepa, Robert Chambers, Meera K. Shah and
Surveillance of Communicable Diseases.” Emerging Patti Petesch. 2000. Crying Out for Change: Voices
Infectious Diseases 4: 362–65. of the Poor. Oxford and New York: Oxford
INDEPTH Network. 2002. Population and Health in University Press.
Developing Countries: Volume 1. Ottawa: IDRC. National Intelligence Council. 2002. The Next Wave of
ICISS (International Commission on Intervention and HIV/AIDS: Nigeria, Ethiopia, Russia, India, and China.
State Sovereignty). 2001. The Responsibility to Palme Commission on Disarmament and Security. 1989.
Protect: Report of the International Commission on A World at Peace: Common Security in the Twenty-
Intervention and State Sovereignty. Ottawa: first Century. Stockholm.
International Development Research Centre. Petter Gleditsch, N., P. Wallensteen, and others. 2001.
Jacoby, M.B., T.A. Sullivan and E.Warren. 2001. Armed Conflict 1946–2000: A New Dataset. Joint
“Rethinking the Debates over Health Care report from the Conflict Data Project in the
Financing: Evidence from the Bankruptcy Courts.” Department of Peace and Conflict Research at
NYU Law Review 76(2): 375–418. Uppsala University and the Conditions of War and
Kaul, Inge, Isabelle Grunberg and Marc Stern, eds. Peace Program at the International Peace Research
1999. Global Public Goods: International Institute, Oslo (PRIO).
Cooperation in the 21st Century. New York, Oxford Rothschild, Emma. 1995. “What is Security?” Daedalus
University Press. 124(3): 53–98.
King, Gary, and Christopher J. L. Murray. 2002. Shisana, Olive, Nompumelelo Zungu-Dirwayi and
“Rethinking Human Security.” Political Science William Shisana. 2002. “AIDS: A Threat to
Quarterly (Winter). Human Security.” Human security background
Lammers, E. 1999. Refugees, Gender and Human paper. Global Equity Initiative, Harvard University,
Security: A Theoretical Introduction and Annotated Cambridge, Mass.
Bibliography. Utrecht: International Books. Strong, M.A. 1992. “The Health of Adults in the
Leaning, Jennifer, Susan M. Briggs, and Lincoln C. Developing World: The View from Bangladesh.”
Chen. 1999. Humanitarian Crises: The Medical and Health Transition Review 2(2): 215–24.
Public Health Response. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard UNDP (United Nations Development Programme).
University Press. 1994. Human Development Report 1994: New
Matsumae, T,. and L. C. Chen, eds. 1995. Common Dimensions of Human Security. New York: Oxford
Security in Asia—New Concepts in Human Security. University Press.
Tokyo: Tokai University Press. ———. 2002. Human Development Report 2002:
McNeill, W. 1998. Plagues and People. New York: Deepening Democracy in a Fragmented World. New
Anchor Books. York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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International Health Regulations. Third annotated
edition. Geneva.
———. 2002. World Report on Violence and Health.
Geneva.
———. 2003. World Health Report. Geneva.
World Bank. 1993. World Development Report.
Washington, D.C.
Zacher, Mark. 1999. “Global Epidemiological
Surveillance: International Cooperation to Monitor
Infectious Disease.” In Inge Kaul, Isabelle
Grunberg and Marc Stern, eds. Global Public
Goods: International Cooperation in the 21st Century.
New York: Oxford University Press.

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Knowledge, skills
and values for
human security

7
 The human security perspective
underscores the importance of
basic education, particularly
for girls

In the 1990s, the percentage of children forward: there is not schooling for everyone—no
enrolled in primary education increased in all “universal primary education”. Most of the
regions of the world, despite the difficulties of children out of school live in Asia and Africa.
conflict or macroeconomic instability or poor
growth. Yet the barriers to schooling are sturdy Connecting basic education to human security
enough to block reaching the goal of universal The human security perspective, distinctive in its
primary education by 2015. Adult literacy in emphasis on empowerment and mutal respect,
least developed countries was 53% in 2000, underscores the importance of basic education,
and literacy among youths ages 15–24 was only particularly for girls. Basic education has been the
66%.1 Gender parity for youth literacy has objective of generations of teachers, parents and
been achieved in Central and Eastern Europe government leaders. It is a fundamental human
and Latin America and is close to being right, both in the International Convention on
achieved in East Asia and the Pacific. The other
regions lag behind: for South Asia, 8 girls
Figure 7.1 Estimated world illiteracy rates, by region and
achieve literacy for every 10 boys ages 15–24;
gender, 2000
for the Arab States, it is 8.5 girls and for Sub
Saharan Africa, it is 9 girls. These numbers Percent
hide huge variations within countries.2 60

Of the word’s population of 6.2 billion, about 862 50

million people—or one in seven—are illiterate.3
The highest percentage of illiterate people live in 40
Africa, where more than half the women were
illiterate in 1997. South and West Asia together
30
house about three-quarters of the world’s illiterate
populace, although percentages vary greatly within
20
countries (figure 7.1). Other pockets of illiteracy
may be identified in displaced populations and
10
refugees, illegal immigrants, nomads and disabled
children, but the educational data for these groups
are weak. 0
Developed Latin America East Asia Sub-Saharan Arab South
What about children and youths? Of the countries and the and Africa states Asia
Caribbean Oceaniaa
world’s 775 million primary school-age children,
more than 115 million were not in school in Male Female
1999.4 Nearly all of these out-of-school children
a. Excluding Australia, Japa and New Zealand.
(97%) lived in developing countries, and 60% of Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
them were girls.5 So one shortfall is straight-

114
Education can give people
freedom to promote their
human security and that
7
of others

Knowledge, skills and values for human security

Economic, Cultural and Social Rights and in the Basic education usually boosts the prospects
Convention on the Rights of the Child. In 1872, for gainful employment, increasing returns to land
Japan’s educational code promised that there would or other assets. It is far more critical today than a
be “no community with an illiterate family, nor a generation ago, when the manufacturing and
family with an illiterate person”.6 In the late 1940s, agricultural sectors absorbed more of the
a newly independent India promised universal workforce. So expanding the reach of education
primary education for its populace by 1960. improves economic prospects for individuals, for
Similar campaigns of education for self-reliance communities, for countries.9 The economic
were advanced by Ghana’s Kwame Nkrumah, benefits from education are pervasive—whether in
Tanzania’s Julius Nyerere, Kenya’s Jomo Kenyatta the informal sector, at the cutting edge of high-
and others in post-independence Africa. technology industries or on a family farm. A
Basic education has intrinsic value. The woman’s earning capacity is particularly important,
capability to read and write improves the quality of because it often affects her status and her ability to
life and directly affects people’s security, because make other decisions in the family.
illiteracy and innumeracy are themselves In addition to the human security benefits
insecurities. Illiterate people cannot read public stemming from education, schools can act as
notices or bus signs, utility bills or newspapers, delivery points for other human security
letters or street signs, wills or loan applications. interventions, such as school feeding,
They must find someone to read for them—and immunization, landmine awareness and cholera
hope that the reader is trustworthy and accurate. prevention programmes. Free school meals or
The most immediate contribution of literacy: to rations increase parents’ incentive to send
reduce this core insecurity. children—especially girls—to school. Better
Basic education, especially girls’ education, is nourishment improves a child’s ability to
also fundamental for health. It works through concentrate and thus to learn. Studies in Benin,
many channels. Women, often the primary Burkina Faso and Togo, among others, found that
caregivers, can put their knowledge of health, when school meals were provided, children’s test
sanitation, immunization, nutrition, HIV/AIDS scores improved.10 Thus schooling may enable
prevention and oral rehydration therapy into students to address direct threats to their survival,
practice in the family—if they have that knowledge livelihood and dignity now and in the future.
and if the home environment permits. In Ghana, Education can also give people freedom—
“children of educated mothers are twice as likely to through knowledge, public expression and
survive to their fifth birthday as children of democratic debate—to promote their human
uneducated mothers”.7 Women’s education and security and that of others. Free, independent and
women’s employment are the two signal influences pluralistic information media are an integral part
in reducing fertility rates.8 The impact of an of such freedom, as is an education that opens the
educated woman on her family’s well-being is mind. This was emphasized in the Universal
consistently strong worldwide. Declaration on Human Rights, which articulates

115
 Education and knowledge may
enable groups to identify
common problems and act in
solidarity with others

the right to an education that supports “human Education and knowledge may also enable groups
rights and fundamental freedoms” and promotes to identify common problems and act in solidarity
“understanding, tolerance and friendship among all with others.11 By making people more effectively
nations, racial or religious groups”. Without such vocal, education and information can play a
freedom, when people’s ability to communicate significant protective role and can thus further
with one another and to speak out is suppressed, human security.
lives are impoverished. That is why a further set of
relationships between education and human Adopting a human security approach
security focuses on empowerment. What are the main leverage points for investments
When people are undereducated, their ability in education to further human security?
to understand and invoke their rights can be very Supporting basic education, eliminating gender
limited. Basic education, adult literacy classes and disparity and achieving universal primary
informational radio programming offering education are fundamental. Basic education can
instruction on specific matters of daily concern— have a long reach as a tool for achieving human
such as HIV/AIDS prevention, human rights, child security. This reach is deeply compromised when
nutrition, market prices or agricultural schooling itself threatens children’s security. But it
techniques—can equip people to deal with the can be considerably extended if students, once in
insecurities that loom largest in their lives. school, are empowered to promote their own
When education enables people to express security and taught to appreciate and value human
their needs, the connection to human security diversity. Four priorities for action:
becomes powerful. The works of artists, poets, • Promoting a global commitment to basic
scholars, activists and journalists show the intrinsic education.
value of this freedom. Beyond this intrinsic value, • Protecting students’ human security at and
education can foster democratic resilience. When through school.
women and men can speak freely and explore ideas • Equipping people for action and democratic
without fear of recrimination, the better facets of engagement.
democracy—including the ability of the group to • Teaching mutual respect.
improve on the initial suggestions of individuals—
become visible. Conversely, a lack of knowledge or Promoting a global commitment to basic
an inability to communicate can muffle the education
political voice of the downtrodden and add to their One might expect a human security commission to
insecurity. come up with a more novel recommendation than
So education and knowledge can enable basic education for all. Some issues may no longer
people to be assertive in society—to speak out on startle policy-makers by their originality or cause a
their own behalf. This is particularly important for storm of newspaper headlines. But, simply put,
women, whose empowerment affects their lives, they are undeniable keys to a more secure future.
those of other women and those of their family. Basic education is one of these issues.

116
 Box 7.1. Private sector partnerships for education in costly on-the-job training for an undereducated
South Africa workforce.
One example of private sector initiative is the Business
7
South Africa is the leading economic force in Sub- Trust, a group of 145 South African companies that
Saharan Africa, but its educational system, still invest 2% of after-tax profits over and above their existing
recovering from its apartheid past, is in crisis. An corporate social responsibility programmes in education,
estimated 10% of South African students in grades 1 job creation and crime reduction programmes. The

Knowledge, skills and values for human security

through 7 are repeaters. Yet the government invests a Business Trust has committed 153 million rand (over $15
great deal in education (over 7% of GNP and 22% of million) to improving learning at the primary level
government expenditure during 1995–97). through programmes such as the Primary School
In 1994, recently elected President Nelson Repeater Reduction Programme. This initiative aims to
Mandela called on the private sector to help repair halve the repeater rate in schools over five years. Thus far
the damage done by apartheid to both the education 12,000 teachers have completed 21 of the 35 training
system and the social fabric of the country. modules so that they can implement the programme.
Corporations recognized the wisdom of helping to This undertaking is projected to reach 15,500 teachers
ensure a stable, productive society in which long-term and principals and 1 million primary school pupils by its
investment could flourish and long-term returns completion.
could be realized. Businesses also saw a financial
advantage in helping provide a basic education for Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2002; UNDP
future employees, rather than continuing to provide 2002b, p. 180; Business Trust 2003.

International support and local partnerships. Inter- These are tremendously positive initiatives—to be
nationally, the commitment to basic education strengthened and sustained.
appears stronger than ever before. There is Equally crucial for successful schooling as
widespread political acceptance of the international support are local partnerships of
importance of education as a means to poverty parents and community leaders that support local
reduction, economic growth and human schools and hold teachers accountable for the
development—for all states, including those in or quality of primary education (box 7.1).
emerging from conflict. At the first global One notable absence from this consensus for
conference on education—in Jomtien, Thailand, basic education: it barely appears on security
in 1990—150 governments pledged to achieve agendas. If security strategies mention education at
universal primary education by 2000 and to all, they tend to promote education of their own
halve adult illiteracy. personnel or support high-level research that
In Dakar, Senegal, in 2000, thousands of generates military or strategic advantage. The
children marched in the streets, holding up yellow power of an educated woman to look after her own
umpire cards as a “last warning” to policy-makers. family, to raise and educate healthy children, to
The Dakar conference occurred 10 years after speak in the public space, to be vigilant in
Jomtien, with the policy-makers’ broken promises mediating conflicts before they erupt into
in plain view. Their promise to provide universal violence—that has been overlooked entirely. Yet
primary education by 2000 “had been she, too, is a security asset. Similarly, war-affected
comprehensively broken”.12 The UN Secretary- boys and girls who learn conflict mediation in
General launched a global Girls’ Education refugee schools are security assets that can foster
Initiative in Dakar. And those supporting the coexistence. Educating girls and boys, women and
Education for All campaign renewed their efforts. men, is a cost-efficient investment in human
Universal primary education is one of the security for a country and beyond.
Millennium Development Goals announced in The World Bank and the United Nations
2000, and the Literacy Decade began in 2003. estimate that if four days’ worth of the annual

117
 The security advantages of a
basic education must be
disseminated more widely

military expenditure worldwide were diverted to teachers accountable. And immediate and
education every year, that would provide the sustained attention to systems of teacher training,
funding needed to achieve worldwide primary support and supervision is essential at many levels.
education by 2015.13 The security advantages of a Otherwise countries may meet the letter but not
basic education must be disseminated more the spirit of the Millennium Development Goals
widely. by subjecting children to sub-standard schooling.
Costs also matter. Providing schools, especially
Barriers to education for all. If education is so good quality schools, requires political will,
valuable, to individuals and to societies, why has it financial resources and a solid institutional
been so difficult to achieve universal primary structure, whether public, private or non-
education? The opportunities for education—and governmental. Countries that have achieved good
the barriers to it—vary by country and locality. progress in education have generally devoted 5–7%
But there are three common barriers: poor quality, of their GDP to education.15 But the actual public
insufficient funding and the lack of schooling for investment in education—by national governments
displaced children. as well as bilateral and international agencies—is
Cultural factors and gender roles can reduce often inconsistent with the high regard for universal
the demand for education. But as the Arab Human primary education. Indian political parties have
Development Report 2002 argued, cultural barriers professed an ambition to invest 6% of GDP in
are not impermeable (UNDP 2000a). The quality education. But public expenditure on education
and affordability of schooling—and the safety and declined from 4.4% of GDP in 1989 to 3.6% in
availability of schools—are also powerful drivers of 1997.16 When governments invest too little in
parents’ decisions of whether to send children to education, an astonishing proportion of household
school. Spending on education will lead to expenditure must go to meet the costs of primary
universal enrolment only if education systems school. “In Sub-Saharan Africa, the costs of getting
address these issues. a child through primary school can represent more
Teachers are the crux of any educational than a quarter of the annual income of a poor
system and its quality. A study of schools in India household”.17 While parental involvement is
found that in half the schools investigated, there critical, costs of this magnitude clearly subvert the
was no teaching going on at the time that the right of every child to primary education.
study team visited. The reason for parents’—and In emergencies, children are often denied the
students’—disillusionment with schooling arose normalcy of education precisely when they need it
not from their economic or gender biases but from most. Many children—displaced by conflict, or
the dismal quality of schooling. The study also development projects, or disasters—live in
cited a loss of interest in school as the most temporary communities without access to
common reason boys drop out.14 schooling. They are very difficult to reach in
To realize universal primary schooling, parents wartime—and yet the Millennium Development
and communities need to be empowered to hold Goals and human rights apply to them too.

118
School feeding programmes
help reduce immediate and
chronic hunger and improve
7
children’s learning capacities

Knowledge, skills and values for human security

Preliminary estimates by the UN High Commis- of human security in the school and its environs
sioner for Refugees suggest that enrolment rates should be an integral part of educational quality.
among refugee populations are dishearteningly Schools should promote physical and mental well-
low—about 50%, and less for girls.18 being. They should ensure safety and security for
This is cause for alarm because displaced and both boys and girls. And they should provide
refugee children can benefit greatly from the stable adequate infrastructure, including hygiene and
social environment that school can provide. They sanitation. They should not be recruiting grounds
need schooling to address the economic, health for militia and armed groups.
and social insecurities that press in on their lives.19 Parents’ concerns for the security of adolescent
They also need an environment that supports girls are particularly high—justifiably. In Malawi,
positive values to counter the negative and divisive the high drop-out rate among pre-adolescent girls
messages that would draw them into the conflict has been linked to concerns about safety in the
and perpetuate violence. That is why the Dakar classroom. Sexual abuse of pre-adolescent girls by
Framework and UN Literacy Decade, among other teachers is increasing in countries as diverse as
initiatives, specifically identify refugees, internally Japan and Peru. Studies in South African schools
displaced persons and disaster-affected persons as document that male teachers routinely sought
requiring special support.20 sexual favours from their students. In one Ugandan
These are but three of the issues that need to district, 31% of girls and 15% of boys reported
be addressed for a global commitment to being sexually abused, mainly by teachers.22
schooling. The barriers to universal basic education On the positive side, school feeding
vary in different places. But they are not programmes help reduce immediate and chronic
mysterious. And they are surmountable. hunger and improve children’s learning capacities.
Nutritious school meals also provide incentives to
Protecting students’ human security at and keep children in school. The World Food Pro-
through school gramme has launched a Global School Feeding
Schooling can give great impetus to protecting Initiative because its research and experience show
many dimensions of human security. But it fails that “when food is provided at school, hunger is
when going to school threatens students’ security. immediately alleviated and attendance often
The Voices of the Poor study found this many doubles within one year. Within two years,
times.21 In Kimarayag, Philippines, children said, academic performance can improve by as much as
“we have to cross three creeks to reach our schools. 40% and students remain in school longer and
These creeks swell up to four feet during rainy more graduate”.23
periods. When the rains come, our mothers fear
for our lives”. Equipping people for action and democratic
Many parents are concerned not just about engagement
the value of an education, but about their Access to information and skills—whether in
children’s safety and well-being. So the protection school or through other communication—allows

119
 Access to information and skills
allows people to learn how to
address concerns that directly
affect their security

people to learn how to address concerns that Radio Ada is highly valued—farmers often take
directly affect their security. This can be their radios into the fields with them.
information about vaccination, oral rehydration Free and diverse information media can also
therapies, problem-solving, teamwork, agricultural chronicle events and policies—and can air a
products or legal rights. Armed with such skills, countervailing opinion to state-run or otherwise
people can address their insecurities. controlled press. This information dissemination
Take basic education as an imperative to function of the media allows people to learn of
prevent HIV/AIDS. A 2002 World Bank study, concerns that directly affect their security,
Education and HIV/AIDS, found that “a general including downturns such as macroeconomic
basic education—and not merely instruction on shocks and famine, the HIV/AIDS pandemic and
prevention—is among the strongest weapons government corruption. By providing information
against the HIV/AIDS epidemic”.24 This is the media can promote democratic governance by
especially important for girls, who tend to take care fostering civic debate, mobilizing democratic
of ill relatives and are more vulnerable to infection engagement and checking abuses of power, as the
because they are more likely to have older partners next section suggests.26
and are more easily infected than boys. The Joint Knowledge, education and democratic
United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS engagement are inseparable—and essential. Well
(UNAIDS) found that “in 11 population-based before the economic value of education and
studies, the average infection rates in teenage “human capital” became a driving force behind the
African girls were over five times higher than those international support for education, many argued
in teenage boys. Among young people in their that an educated populace was essential for a stable
early 20s, the rates were three times higher in democracy—among them Aristotle, Nyerere,
women”.25 Transmitting knowledge, self- Nehru and Freire. Of course, much depends on the
confidence and support to girls in their pre-teen content of education and on the structure of
years is a matter of survival—not to transmit is governance. Yet many have argued that education
unconscionable. does create an impetus, however incrementally and
Informational programming—on the radio imperfectly, for local groups and individuals to
and television or in the newspaper—can hold others accountable—whether these others be
complement schools in combating human security international institutions or local schools,
threats. For example, Radio Ada, a not-for-profit government leaders or family members.
community radio station in Ghana, serves about Free and diverse information media can
600,000 people, 60% of them illiterate. All farm- provide individuals with the knowledge required to
related programming is created directly by the exercise their rights and to influence—or
farmers—women and men. Radio programmes challenge—the policies of the state and other
discuss agricultural practices, weather, farming actors. A free and independent press is one of the
calendars, the marketing and prices of farm hallmarks of an open society, where the public is
produce, conservation and government policy. able to debate issues of national interest and

120
Teachers who aim to empower
can raise awareness of the
social environment
7

Knowledge, skills and values for human security

scrutinize government policies. The information stories, more than 600 were intimidated or
media, therefore, fulfil the very important social physically attacked and 37 were killed.28 A
need of providing a forum for public discussion restricted press can neither effectively distribute
and engagement. information nor relay people’s wishes and human
As seen repeatedly, there has been no major security concerns to policy-makers.
famine in a country with a genuinely free press Freedom of the press and of the people who
(box 7.2). The Chinese famine of 1958–61 killed provide accurate information—journalists, human
15–30 million people; it occurred in the absence of rights activists—sometimes at risk of their lives,
an uncensored press or other means of open deserves deliberate protection. In a world
communication. Not only were citizens denied committed to ensuring human security, there is an
information to insist on a change in government urgent need to acknowledge that repression of
policy, but the government did not know the full critical opinion and scrutiny in the name of
extent of the catastrophe. Cambodia, the Demo- “security” is unacceptable. Human security, with its
cratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Soviet dual notions of protection and empowerment of
Union, Sudan, Somalia and Zimbabwe have all people, can materialize only when journalists are
suffered severe hunger in a vacuum of information. free to report on corruption and other potentially
Elsewhere, with famine threatened or reported, as dangerous situations without risk to their lives.
in India after partition, people tend to mobilize Teaching also affects how education and
assistance and political pressure to address the information contribute to popular engagement—
insecurity of famine in its early stages. for adults and for children. A curriculum that
The information media also play a direct role encourages learning by rote can breed a passive
in holding the political leadership accountable. A populace reluctant to question ideas. Teachers who
recent example was the 2000 Peru cable television aim to empower can raise awareness of the social
broadcast of bribes being paid in exchange for environment and provide the tools to address
votes. The exchange had been secretly videotaped. problems. They can also teach students to reason,
The Peruvian press released the tape together with to consider ethical claims, to understand and work
disclosures about military corruption, death squad with such fundamental ideas as human rights,
activities and ties between the illegal drug trade human diversity and interdependence. Chapter 1
and the government. President Fujimori resigned argues the need to grasp the reality of human
immediately following the videotape’s broadcast. interdependence more directly and more widely.
But the press is substantially free in only about This chapter argues the need to instil in the
40% of countries.27 Members of the press and content of education a new emphasis on ethical
other information media are vulnerable to values—and on public debate and democracy. A
harassment, injury and imprisonment in a number key work force to communicate these ideas: the 59
of countries—especially in situations of conflict million people employed as teachers throughout
and under totalitarian regimes. In 2001, 118 the world, two-thirds of them in developing
journalists were imprisoned for pursuing their regions.29

121
 Box 7.2 Famines, wars and information media starvation. An independent media can draw attention
to the direst threats facing a country, and thereby prod
The worst famines in history have been associated with its government into timely action.
wars and authoritarian regimes. War-torn countries like Wars can lead to famine by destroying crops,
Cambodia, Ethiopia and Somalia have faced famine; damaging roads and disrupting the movement of
the Bengal famine of 1943 (which killed 2–3 million essential commodities. The destruction of medical
people), occurred soon after the Japanese army moved networks adds to famine mortality through disease.
into northeastern India. Famines have occurred under Long-run agricultural and trade-related investments
colonialism (as in British India and Ireland), in one- suffer during war, so the general economic stagnation
party states (as in Cambodia, China and the Soviet goes well beyond the destruction of existing capital
Union), and under military dictatorships (as in goods to a devastation of productive abilities. Military
Ethiopia and Somalia). Today, the countries with activities can also accentuate economic and political
famine or near-famine conditions are authoritarian divisions within a country and make it possible for one
ones, like the People’s Republic of Korea and Sudan group to command an unfair share of resources, thereby
(Drèze and Sen 1989). depriving others. Ironically, wars also furnish
No famine has occurred in a functioning democracy. authoritarian regimes with excuses to suppress alternative
Public policies aimed at protecting the vulnerable can political views and any media scrutiny, and thus enable
prevent famines, and governments in multiparty the rulers to ignore a national crisis like famine.
democracies try to do so, as it is difficult to win Ultimately, much of the protective power of a
elections after a famine. The information media play a democracy comes from its free press. Indeed,
central role either by reporting the crisis or by failing to Zimbabwe, which successfully prevented famines by
comment on it. For instance, the British government timely public action in the 1980s, when its multiparty
ignored the Bengal famine until an Indian national democracy worked and the press was free to scrutinize
daily, The Statesman, started running photographs of policy, is now threatened by famine as its political
the dead and the dying and condemning official apathy governance has turned much more authoritarian.
in its editorials. In the People’s Republic of Korea, the
state-sponsored television ran advertisements extolling Source: Nicholas Kristoff, The New York Times, January
the virtues of dieting while people perished of 14, 2003, p. A2; Sen 2001, 1981, 1987.

An example of teaching that empowers is the responsibilities, who become “empowered” agents to
well-known approach to popular education promote human security.
championed by Paolo Freire. The REFLECT Other key work forces for human security
(Regenerated Freirean Literacy through Empowering include the police, the armed forces, private
Community Techniques) approach, developed by security forces and others with access to the means
ActionAid in 1993 to engage adults in an active of coercive force. Programmes including human
learning process, is used by more than 2,500 groups rights education, gender awareness and civic
in more than 30 countries. The focus is to enable engagement should be made available to these
people to “recognize the different forces that are at groups, for they have the most direct power to
work and how they are changing; address those violate physical security. Or to protect it.
forces that determine their access to power; see their
own centrality to any process of change; and make Teaching mutual respect
the orbits spin in their favour”.30 Other forms of Schools and their teachers, whether in developed
adult education, such as public information or developing countries, in primary schools or
campaigns and targeted training programmes on adult literacy classes, can teach mutual respect and
human rights and social mobilization, are also solidarity. They can also perpetuate prejudice.
central. Whatever the manner of teaching, the aim is Education influences a child’s sense of identity.
to produce citizens who embrace their rights and In religious schools, children may learn to think of

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Schools and their teachers can
teach mutual respect and
solidarity. They can also
7
perpetuate prejudice

Knowledge, skills and values for human security

themselves “first” as Buddhists, Christians, Hindus not to ‘return to normal’ after the conflict, for
or Muslims. In public schools, children may be normal is what produced the conflict”.32 In
taught loyalty to their country’s identity and ideals. addition to conflict-resolution courses, Minow
This can be valuable in giving children self-esteem identifies four constructive kinds of “education for
and in forming strong value systems. But school- coexistence”. Intergroup education has students
children may also learn to construct negative from parties in tension learn together. Human
stereotypes. For example, textbooks often present rights training introduces students to the basic
distorted accounts of national history that vilify ideals and concepts of dignity and respect.
traditional “enemy” groups. School lessons can Instruction in moral reasoning includes case studies.
immediately influence the actions of children By rewriting history students learn not to see
displaced in conflict—especially if schools themselves as victimized.33 A wisely constructed
indoctrinate and recruit child soldiers. Prejudices curriculum can broaden a child’s perspective and
are not born in a vacuum (box 7.3). reinforce positive attitudes.
Giving overwhelming prominence to only one Just as a curriculum can support respect for
identity creates a population that can be mobilized diversity or create prejudice, so too can teachers’
to “fight” for that identity in many ways. Con- attitudes shape students’ perspectives and feelings
versely, teaching students to think of themselves and of self-worth. Teachers may regularly favour boys
other students as having multiple identities (as a over girls, or children from superior castes or
female, Cuban, Catholic, Spanish-speaking football influential ethnic groups. They may have much less
enthusiast) may create a stabilizing force because patience with first generation schoolchildren who
students can often find some common ground. A do not have the support at home for homework—
human security consultation among 120 partners in or with children from stereotypically “inferior”
Kigali recommended that the concept of ethnicity backgrounds. This perpetuates the vicious cycle of
be demystified so that students could learn to discrimination by signalling to young children that
welcome and respect diversity, without focusing on it is acceptable to disparage others for their gender,
differences that divide society. Participants in a race or academic performance. These attitudes
public hearing on human security in Johannesburg were documented in a survey in West Bengal that
recommended that the curriculum challenge found a much higher rate of teacher absenteeism in
destructive gender stereotypes. schools with the majority of children from
Many schools serving refugee populations or scheduled castes and tribes (75%, or more than
conflict sites—such as in Burundi, Liberia and twice the 33% at other schools).34 That three out
Somalia—have incorporated peace-building, of four teachers of the poorest and lowest castes fail
mediation or human rights modules into their even to show up for work demonstrates their
curricula.31 The messages that war-affected disdain for students and absence of concern about
children and child soldiers receive in school are censure.
tremendously important. As Martha Minow put it, It may seem a luxury to focus on these matters
“After mass violence, after terror, the challenge is when so many children are outside the school

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 Box 7.3 Inflammatory education and reward, inspire or disillusion. Other students
influence in positive or negative ways, and family and
Inflammatory educational material has existed for the larger social context all contribute to the education
decades, if not centuries, and is a part of educational of the student.
systems throughout the world, even today. Recent Still, textbooks are a critical component of the
claims are made, for example, that textbooks used by educational process. They communicate values, and
Palestinian students incite them to become suicide these values are not always consistent with the
bombers. Other claims are made that Israeli textbooks principles of human security. Quite the contrary, their
incite anti-Palestinian sentiments in readers. Without messages can be destructive of the objectives of human
deciding on the validity of these claims, it is possible to security and, in some instances, actually support the
draw some lessons from a review of examples of infliction of insecurities, violent or otherwise, on
inflammatory content and of the motivations and others.
processes that produce such books. Inflammatory content tends to fall into two basic
Begin with some inescapable observations. First, all categories: overly complimentary of one’s own group or
curricula have to simplify. No book or set of books can overly critical of another group. In the first, students
cover everything. Textbook writers cannot know are taught to identify themselves with one race, religion
everything, and students cannot and should not be or other group. The goal should instead be to teach
expected to learn everything. There must be a process students that they are part of many groups and can
of highlighting and discounting, of including and decide how to live out these identities. In the second
excluding. In short, there must be a process of decision- category, students are taught malice towards “enemies”.
making. Consequently, the biases, motivations and The goal should instead be to cultivate mutual respect
attitudes of the decision-makers are involved in the among diverse groups. While teaching materials,
process. Whether these influences are political, especially about national and group histories, are
economic, ethical, religious, personal or some inevitably inflicted by interests and politics, it is
combination, they are subsequently reflected, to greater nonetheless possible to identify a real difference
or lesser degrees, in the resulting textbooks, which then between those that emphasize superiority of one group
influence the students who study them. or negative stereotypes of others and those that pursue
Of course, textbooks alone do not a student or a complexity, balance, tolerance and peace.
person make. Other influences have strong effects.
Teachers, for example, guide and motivate, discipline Source: Adapted from Minow 2002.

system. But 660 million children, more than a can accelerate progress towards this aim: to
tenth of the world’s population, do go to school. empower all people with education and knowledge,
And they are the ones who will inherit the to equip all people to exercise their rights and
decision-making responsibilities in a few short responsibilities and to teach mutual respect.
decades. Their minds are the nerve-centre of future Empowering all people with education and
human security. It is important to train them in knowledge. The Commission on Human Security
the ways of mutual respect (box 7.4). endorses the UN Literacy Decade and the
Millennium Development Goals of achieving
Policy conclusions universal primary education and eliminating
Education and information—whether for leaders gender disparity in education. To these the
or for the poorest children—must do more than Commission would add four additional priorities:
convey information. It must also kindle • Expanding the “emergency education”
compassion, cultivate mutual respect, host open- programmes of non-governmental organizations
mindedness, advance clarity of thought, foster and international organizations so that all
determination and develop resolve. Three agendas displaced and crisis-affected children have a
for action—one familiar and two equally central— basic education.

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 Box 7.4 The power of the information media for series of hate crimes targeting African Americans, Jews
tolerance or terror and Native Americans shook a small community in
Billings, Montana, in the United States. Racist and
7
In the absence of information, the world is like a anti-Semitic fliers were posted, a Jewish cemetery was
darkened room where monsters are created out of desecrated and threatening phone calls were made.
shadows. Indeed, autocrats and warlords often seek to When a cinderblock was thrown through the window
preserve and expand their power by creating a darkness of a Jewish family displaying a menorah for Hanukkah,

Knowledge, skills and values for human security

through censorship and propaganda that obscures the Billings human rights activists asked that the local
truth and engenders a fearful ignorance that can easily newspaper make this incident front-page news. The
be transformed into hatred of another ethnic group, Billings Gazette printed a full page picture of a
political party or religion. Not only education but also menorah and urged citizens to put the pictures up in
a free press can shed light in the corners and expose the their homes and businesses.
true authors of the nightmare. While the information Hundreds of townspeople responded, and printed
media can be a voice for mutual respect and a forceful menorahs appeared in windows throughout the town.
advocate for principled behaviour, misused the media Bricks were thrown again, through the windows of a
can worsen human insecurity. school and two churches that had put up the menorahs,
In 1994 Rwanda, in an organized campaign of and residents of several homes displaying menorahs had
violence, the Tutsi were referred to as “cockroaches” their cars vandalized. The citizens of Billings countered
and “the enemy” in the media. Rwandan radio the attacks by displaying more of the printed menorahs.
broadcasters on Radio Mille Collines declared that it By the end of December, an estimated 10,000 people in
was the duty of every Hutu to kill a Tutsi and noted Billings had menorahs in their windows. The city did
that “the graves are still only half full”. The station not declare victory, as threats and vandalism continued
broadcast the names and addresses of Tutsis and sporadically. But the violence did not escalate. And the
moderate Hutu along with their vehicle license plates. need for a culture of committed tolerance in the
In less than four months, between 500,000 and a Western frontier town was openly discussed both in the
million people were killed. Owners and broadcasters of information media and in civil society.
Radio Mille Collines were later indicted by the
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda for their Source: Marlise Simons, 2002, “Trial Centers on Role
role in the genocide. of Press during Rwanda Massacre,” New York Times, 3
But the information media can also be a power for March, p. 3; Human Rights Watch [www.hrw.org/
coexistence and respect for human rights. In 1993, a WR2K3/africa9.html].

• Empowering parents, community committees Equipping all people to exercise their rights and
and social movements to hold schools responsibilities. Students and citizens who learn to
accountable for providing a good quality value the power of information, spirited inquiry
education, and urging the information media to and non-violent argument are better equipped to
fulfil their role as public advocates by focusing exercise their rights and responsibilities.
attention on improving education systems. • Increasing partnerships to create and
• Encouraging states and school authorities to disseminate curricula and teacher training
ensure a safe and secure learning environment programmes that consistently develop student
for all children, free of violence, discrimination abilities to form and articulate views and take
and exploitation. action on behalf of these views.
• Advancing innovative uses of curricula, the • Establishing and enforcing laws safeguarding
information media and communications freedom of information and of the press, and
technology (including radio, television, the arts, eliminating laws that may be used to arbitrarily
newspapers and the Internet) to make the restrict such freedoms.
knowledge and skills needed to improve human • Insisting that states and other controlling
security widely accessible. authorities protect the rights of journalists,

125
 human rights activists and other conduits of 11. The categories of assertion and solidarity are
public information so that they may continue developed in Sen and Drèze 2002, sections 1.7 and
to report on human security concerns without chapter 10.
being intimidated or attacked. 12. Watkins 2000, p. 1.
Teaching mutual respect. The information 13. Cited in Watkins 2000, p. 8.
media and educational systems should inculcate 14. Probe Team 1999.
tolerance and affirm interlocking identities. 15. Mehrotra 1997, as cited in Watkins 2000, p.210.
• Ensuring that curricula in all schools cultivate 16. Sen and Drèze 2002, p. 166.
mutual respect and emphasize the multi- 17. Watkins 2000, p. 172.
plicity of identities—including gender, 18. UNHCR 2001.
ethnic, religious and national—so that 19. Sommers 2002.
students learn to recognize the bonds they 20. Dakar Framework for Action, paragraph 8. See also
share with others. Sommers 2002 and Bensalah 2002.
• Ensuring that teachers counter rather than 21. Narayan and others 2000a and 2000b.
perpetuate discrimination—among groups and 22. UNAIDS 2000.
genders within the classroom and among 23. WFP 2001, p. 1.
national, religious and ethnic groups. This may 24. World Bank 2002, p. 10. See also UNICEF,
require adjustment to teacher training and UNAIDS and WHO 2002.
better supervision and incentive systems. 25. UNAIDS 2000.
• Training those with access to coercive force 6. These are discussed in UNDP 2002b, chapter 3
(especially police and peacekeeping forces) to 27. Sussman and Karlekar 2002, p. 5.
support coexistence and respect for human 28. UNDP 2002b, p. 77.
rights for all people. 29. UNESCO 2002b.
30. Archer 2001.
Notes 31. UNESCO Culture of Peace programme
1. UNDP 2002b, p. 233. (supported by UN Resolution 57/6 27 November
2. UNDP 2002b, p. 233. 2002) engages more than 2,000 actors, to promote
3. UNESCO 2002a. such education widely. See also Aguilar and Retamal
4. UNESCO 2002a. 1999, pp. 41–43.
5. UNESCO 2002a. 32. Minow 2002, p 5.
6. Amartya Sen, “To Build a Country, Build a School- 33. Minow 2002.
house,” New York Times, 27 May 2002. 34. Pratichi Trusts 2001.
7. Watkins 2000, p. 3.
8. Drèze and Murthi 2001. References
9. On this and related issues, see Drèze and Sen 1995 Aguilar, Pilar, and Gonzalo Retamal. 1999. Rapid
and Sen and Drèze 2002. Educational Response in Complex Emergencies.
10. Del Rosso 1992, as cited in Watkins 2000, p. 41. Geneva: International Bureau for Education.

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 7

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Archer, David. 2001. “The Evolving Concept of Literacy Education of Suicide Bombers.” The New Republic
in REFLECT.” PLA Notes. “Education and Action 24 June.
9.” International Institute for Environment and Kumar, Krishna. 2001. Prejudice and Pride. New Delhi:
Development. Viking.
Bennett, Jane. 2001. “Peace-building through Larweh, Kofi. 2001. “The Community Radio Station as
Communication in Burundi.” Education Action 15. a Resource for Farmers: The Case of Radio Ada.”
Bensalah, Kasem, ed. 2002. “Guidelines for Education Voices: Newsletter for Participants in Radio Farm
in Situations of Emergency and Crisis: EFA Network October.
Strategic Planning.” UNESCO, Paris. Levinger, Beryl. 1986. “School Feeding Programs in Devel-
Business Trust. 2003. “Learning for Living.” oping Countries: An Analysis of Actual and Potential
[www.btrust.org.za/education/primary_schooling/]. Impact.” USAID Evaluation Special Study 30.
Del Rosso, J. 1992. “School Feeding Programmes: Improv- Levinger, Beryl, Cornelia Janke and Kristin Hicks. 1996.
ing Effectiveness and Increasing the Benefit to Edu- “CRS School Feeding/Education Companion
cation.” Partnership for Child Development, Oxford. Guidebook.”
Drèze, Jean, and Mamta Murthi. 2001. “Fertility, Mehrotra, S. 1997. “Social Development in High-
Education, and Development: Evidence from achieving Countries: Common Elements and Diver-
India.” Population and Development Review 27. sities.” In R. Jolly and S. Mehrotra, eds., Development
Drèze, Jean, and Amartya Sen. 1989. Hunger and Public with a Human Face: Experiences in Social Achievement
Action. Oxford: Clarendon Press. and Economic Growth. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
———. 1995. India: Economic Development and Social Minow. 2002. “Education for Coexistence.” Draft.
Opportunity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Narayan, Deepa, Raj Patel, Kai Schafft, Anne
Foster, A., and M. Rosenszweig. 1995. “Learning by Rademacher and Sara Koch-Schulte. 2000. Voices of
Doing from Others: Human Capital and the Poor: Can Anyone Hear Us? Oxford and New
Technological Change in Agriculture.” Journal of York: Oxford University Press.
Political Economy 103(6). Narayan, Deepa, Robert Chambers, Meera K. Shah and
Funkhouser, E. 1996. “The Urban Informal Sector in Patti Petesch. 2000. Crying Out for Change: Voices
Central America: Household Survey Evidence.” of the Poor. Oxford and New York: Oxford
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Government of Pakistan. 1996. Pakistan Integrated Pratichi Trusts. 2001. “Pratichi Education Report.”
Household Survey Round 1: 1995–1996. Islamabad, [www.amartyasen.net/pratichi.htm].
Pakistan: Federal Bureau of Statistics. Probe Team. 1999. Public Report on Basic Education in
Grantham McGregor, Sally, Susan Chang and Susan India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Walker. 1998. “Evaluation of School Feeding Sen, Amartya. 1981. Poverty and Famines. An Essay on
Programs: Some Jamaican Examples.” American Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford: Clarendon
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Kreuger, Alan, and Jitka Maleckova. 2002. “Does ———. 1987. “Food and Freedom.” CGIAR,
Poverty Cause Terrorism? The Economics and the Washington D.C.

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———. 2001. “The Delivery of Primary Education.” ———. 2002b. “More Children: Fewer Teachers: New
———. 2002a. “Basic Education and Human Security.” UNESCO-ILO Study Sees Global Teacher Shortage
Paper presented at the Kolkata Meeting, organized Causing Decline in Quality Education.” Press
by the Commission on Human Security, UNICEF, release, 5 October.
the Pratichi (India) Trust and Harvard University, UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2002. “Percentage of
Kolkata, India, January. Repeaters by Grade at Primary by Country and By
———.2002b. “Global Inequality and Persistent Gender for the School Years 1998/1999 and
Conflicts.” Paper presented at the Nobel Awards 1999/2000” September.
Conference, Oslo. UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund), UNAIDS
———. 2002c. “Human Security: Notes for the (The Joint United Nations Programme on
Commission.” March. HIV/AIDS) and WHO (World Health
———. 2002d. “Keynote Address.” Chulalongkorn Organization). 2002. Young People and HIV/AIDS
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Sen, Amartya, and Jean Drèze. 2002. India: Development UNDP (United Nations Development Programme).
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Sommers, Marc. 2002. “Children, War and Education: ———. 2002b. Human Development Report 2002. New
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Ways to advance
the security of people

8
 With human security as the
goal, there can be a stronger
integrated response

This report proposes a new framework—a encourages people, as citizens of the world, to
human security framework—to address the support each other when so many are in need. The
conditions and threats people face at the start human security approach thus joins, in one
of the 21st century. Human security is “people- integrated perspective, efforts to solve the problems
centred”, focusing the attention of institutions generated by violent conflict and by economic and
on human beings and communities everywhere. social deprivation. Recent international efforts to
By placing people at the centre, the human reduce poverty and build more comprehensive
security approach calls for enhancing and development frameworks have attempted to
redirecting policies and institutions. Human advance integrated responses to common problems.
rights and human development have reoriented They should now be informed by systematic links
legal, economic and social actions to consider to people in conflict and transition.
their objectives from the perspective of their The Millennium Development Goals also
effect on people. Recognizing the inter- represent a unified response to poverty. Specifying a
dependence and interlinkages among the set of targets and the resource requirements to
world’s people, the human security approach achieve them, the goals are renewing the
builds on these efforts, seeking to forge momentum to reduce poverty. But the goals are
alliances that can wield much greater force only one of seven priorities in the Millennium
together than alone. Declaration of the United Nations, released in
September 2000. Other aspects address “peace,
People want peace, human rights, democracy and security and disarmament”. The declaration also
social equity. But the institutions, policies and includes strengthening the rule of law, taking action
priorities of today do not yet match this ardent against transnational crime, replacing the culture of
expectation. Within the United Nations, the reaction with one of prevention, advancing
economic and security agendas are fragmented, disarmament, and reforming UN sanctions,
with the Security Council charged with issues of peacekeeping and peace-building operations. Still
peace and security, and the General Assembly other sections address “our common environment”,
covering a wide range of economic, social and “human rights, democracy and good governance”,
cultural issues, among many others. The major “protecting the vulnerable” and “meeting the special
resources and operational strength on development needs of Africa”. Significantly, the Millennium
matters are housed in the international financial Declaration directs the world’s attention to the
institutions. So responsibility for the various conditions of billions of people and to the threats
(inseparable) parts of human security is lodged in to survival and well-being.
separate parts of the United Nations and related Just as the Millennium Development Goals
bodies. have brought national and international actors
With human security as the goal, there can be together in a focused struggle against poverty, so
a stronger integrated response—a response that too must there be a consensus on concrete and
fosters both global and local identities and that feasible policy targets to address other aspects of

130
Human security should be
mainstreamed in the work of
global, regional and national
8
security organizations

Ways to advance the security of people

human security. The targets must go well beyond • Complementing the Millennium Development
the Millennium Development Goals to respond to Goals by addressing conflict and violations of
the full range of critical and pervasive threats, as human rights.
contained in the Millennium Declaration. • Enhancing official development and humani-
tarian assistance to accommodate these new
A global initiative for human security directions, paying special attention to countries
The Commission on Human Security proposes falling behind and to failed and abandoned
that a global initiative be mobilized to place states.
human security at the top of local, national,
regional and global agendas. The goals: To prevent Preventing conflict and promoting human
conflict and advance human rights and rights and development
development. To protect and empower people and Preventing conflict is now high on the agenda of the
their communities. To deepen democratic United Nations and the G-8. Available tools include
principles and practices. All to promote a human early warning mechanisms, targeted sanctions, fact-
security culture and framework. finding and diplomatic missions, and preventive
deployments of peacekeeping operations. And more
Putting human security at the top of the agenda emphasis is being placed on education, poverty
Human security should be mainstreamed in the reduction and equity.
work of global, regional and national security Recognizing that protecting people is a
organizations. The UN Security Council has common responsibility is an important step
gradually broadened its understanding of threats to forward. The challenge now is to translate this
global peace and stability to include massive common responsibility into concrete policies and
refugee movements, HIV/AIDS and serious human actions. A strong civil society—and strong
rights violations. But that understanding has to be communities—can prevent conflict by articulating
broadened further to include an array of other group goals, monitoring abuses of power and
human security issues, so that mechanisms can be proposing effective solutions to the many
developed to respond to them. That requires grievances (box 8.1).
emphasizing the security of people along with Development advances freedom when it
military security. It also requires normative frame- enhances people’s capabilities and choices so that
works and new programmes to address the specific they can participate actively in all spheres of life.
insecurities of different communities and groups. The freedoms that people enjoy also depend on
Putting human security at the top of the social and economic arrangements, on political and
agenda will change the way local, national and civil rights (the state, the market, the legal system,
global actors pursue their missions. It calls for: political parties, public interest groups). Promoting
• Integrating development concerns with the basic economic security, by reducing poverty and
activities of human rights and humanitarian raising living standards, can thus have a substantial
agencies. positive social impact—especially by making

131
 Box. 8.1 Global inequality and persistent conflicts turbulence. Indeed, many famines have occurred
without much political rebellion, civil strife or inter-
It is not surprising that possible connections between group warfare.
the two great afflictions of the contemporary world— The second reason concerns the need to go beyond
violent and persistent conflicts, and massive economic empirical observations into causal analysis, and the
inequality and poverty—should attract attention. Even importance of scrutinizing presumed causal linkages.
though definitive empirical work on the causal linkages Surely destitution can give reason enough to defy
between political turmoil and economic deprivations established rules, but it need not give people the
may be rare, the basic presumption that the two courage and the ability to do anything violent.
phenomena have firm causal links is widespread. Destitution can be accompanied not only by economic
Many countries have simultaneously experienced— debility, but also by political helplessness. A starving
and continue to experience—economic destitution wretch can be too frail and too dejected to fight or even
and inequality and political turbulence and strife. to protest. It is thus not surprising that intense
From Afghanistan and Sudan to Ethiopia and suffering and inequity have often enough been
Somalia, there are numerous examples around the accompanied by peace and quiet. However, the
world of people facing these dual adversities. It is thus memory of destitution and devastation may well
not unnatural to ask whether destitution kills twice— linger—and later contribute to generating rebellion and
first through economic privation and second through violence.
political carnage. If the quality of mercy is “twice The third reason for caution is the difficulty of
blessed”, the quality of destitution may well be “twice establishing the direction of causation in cases where
cursed”. economic poverty and violent strife coexist. Do these
This possibility is not in doubt. And its underlying empirical observations provide evidence for the
logic is not hard to understand. Penury and deprivation causation of strife (starting from poverty), or for the
can make people desperate and reckless. It is also not causation of destitution (connected with violent
unreasonable to think that people reduced to stark disorder)? Indeed, there is at least as strong a causal
poverty will have reason to fight for tiny rewards, and link from war and violence to famines and destitution,
this could make conflicts and warfare much more likely. as from the latter to the former.
The possibility of such linkages must be adequately Of course, avoidance of war and eradication of
acknowledged. And yet there are several reasons for destitution are both important ends, and it is quite
caution before jumping to explain hostility and carnage plausible that each feeds the other. The political and
through poverty and privation. military antecedents of destitution seem to deserve
The first concerns empirical evidence. There is no more serious attention than they tend to get. In
dearth of evidence of conflicts and confrontations in particular, it is worth recollecting how famines and
economies with a good deal of poverty and much severe impoverishment have often been associated with
inequality. But there are also economies with no less antecedent military activities and violent encounters.
poverty or inequality that seem to stay sunk just in
economic hardship, without generating serious political Source: Adapted from Sen 2002.

people more resilient to political, economic and infrastructure that shields all people’s lives from
financial downturns. critical and pervasive threats. That infrastructure
includes working institutions at every level of
Protecting and empowering people and society: police systems, environmental regulations,
communities—to promote a culture of human health care networks, education systems, safety nets
security and workfare programmes, vaccination campaigns,
Few societies protect human security with the force diplomatic engagements and early warning systems
and effect of their responses to the many threats to for crises or conflict.
state security. But the aim of human security is to People’s ability to act on their own behalf or
do precisely that—to build a protective on behalf of others is one key to human security.

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The Commission recommends
that the tasks of advancing
human security on all fronts
8
start by addressing some of the
basics and then building on
early successes

Ways to advance the security of people

Empowered people can demand respect for their • Supporting the human security of people on the
dignity when it is violated. They can also create move.
new opportunities for work and address many • Establishing human security transition funds for
problems locally. And they can mobilize action and post-conflict situations.
resources for the security of others. • Encouraging fair trade and markets to benefit
the extreme poor.
Deepening democratic principles and practices • Providing minimum living standards
A democratic political order, buttressed by physical everywhere.
safety and economic growth, helps to protect and • According high priority to universal access to
empower people. Respecting democratic principles basic health care.
is a step towards attaining human security and • Developing an efficient and equitable global
development. It enables people to participate in system for patent rights.
governance and make their voices heard. Deepening • Empowering all people with universal basic
democratic principles and practices at all levels education, through much stronger global and
mitigates the many threats to human security. It national efforts.
requires building strong institutions, establishing • Clarifying the need for a global human identity
the rule of law and empowering people. while respecting the freedom of individuals to
Citizenship, a person’s membership in a have diverse identities and affiliations.
particular state, is at the centre of democratic
governance. It determines whether a person has the 1. Protecting people in violent conflict
right to take part in decisions, voice opinions and Upholding people’s rights and freedoms is a serious
benefit from the protection and rights granted by a challenge in violent conflicts, especially for people
state. But the outright exclusion and discrimi- who face extreme economic and social deprivation.
natory practices against people and communities— Civilians, not combatants, are the main casualties in
often on racial, religious, gender or political conflicts, and civilians are by far the most common
grounds—makes citizenship ineffective. Without targets in ethnic, racial or religious conflicts. There
it, people cannot attain human security. So, has been considerable progress in strengthening and
deepening democratic principles and policies expanding the normative framework—such as
requires inclusive citizenship practices. human rights and humanitarian law—for civilians
caught up in conflict as well as the institutions,
Addressing the basics such as UN agencies, the International Committee
The Commission recommends that the tasks of of the Red Cross, and other non-governmental
advancing human security on all fronts start by actors. But few effective mechanisms can be
addressing some of the basics and then building on invoked to protect people in violent conflict and
early successes: immediately afterwards.
• Protecting people in violent conflict. To help overcome these gaps, comprehensive
• Protecting people from the proliferation of arms. and integrated strategies are essential, linking

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 Comprehensive and integrated
strategies are essential, linking
political, military, humanitarian
and development aspects, all
mutually reinforcing and
dependent

political, military, humanitarian and development protect women, children and other groups from
aspects, all mutually reinforcing and dependent. further dangers. Enabling the police to fulfil their
With a focus on protecting people rather than role requires deliberate investments in legal and
adhering to institutional mandates, the current judicial institutions, so that the police are able to
compartmentalization among the numerous promote respect for human rights and the rule of
uncoordinated actors should be overcome. law.
Upholding fundamental human rights and
humanitarian law in conflict situations is another 2. Protecting people from the proliferation of
gap to be closed—by strengthening human rights arms
organizations at all levels and by reconciling There is also a great need to stop the proliferation
divided communities. The International Criminal of weapons that threatens the security of people.
Court should prosecute perpetrators of serious Four permanent members of the UN Security
human rights violations. And countries should set Council—France, the Russian Federation, the
up tribunals and truth and reconciliation United Kingdom and the United States—are
commissions. These institutional and rights-based responsible for 78% of global exports of
efforts should be complemented by community- conventional weapons. Germany, the remaining
based strategies to promote coexistence and trust major contributor, is responsible for an additional
among people. 5%.1 About two-thirds of these exports go to
Equally urgent is meeting the life-saving needs developing countries.2 This trade in arms foments
of people through humanitarian assistance—in violent conflicts. It also tends to have terrible
effect, an emergency safety net. Particular attention indirect effects on society, the polity and the
should go to collapsed states, for reasons not only economy.
of life-saving needs, but also of security threats
such as terrorism and illegal trafficking in people Small arms. The world holds an estimated 640
and weapons. In addition to attending to women million durable and relatively inexpensive small
and children, protection strategies need to be arms. Although the data are very poor, rough
developed for the elderly, the displaced, the estimates indicate that these weapons kill some
indigenous and the missing. 500,000 people each year, making them de facto
To establish and maintain the safety of people weapons of mass destruction. And they are used to
and communities in conflict situations, responses displace, intimidate or coerce millions more.
should give primacy to public safety. After conflict, Reducing the spread of illicit small arms requires
processes such as national security reforms and the urgent and concerted attention. The work of more
demobilization, disarmament and re-integration of than 500 groups in almost 100 countries that have
combatants should promote social stability and brought the dangers of small arms to the attention
productivity and prevent a surge in crime and of the states and the United Nations deserves
corruption. Civilian police should be strengthened support. Quicker implementation by governments
immediately so that they can keep the peace and of the findings of the Report of the United Nations

134
The feasibility of a humane
international migration
framework should be explored
8

Ways to advance the security of people

Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and be forced to leave their homes to escape extreme
Light Weapons is also needed.3 poverty, chronic deprivation or sudden downturns.

Proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. The International migration framework. There is no

current move towards developing weapons of mass agreed international normative framework for the
destruction—nuclear, chemical and biological— orderly management and protection of people
endangers people in both developing and moving across borders. The feasibility of a humane
developed countries. Efforts must be redoubled to international migration framework should be
strengthen the nuclear non-proliferation regime explored. Such a framework should cover not just
and to supervise and promote implementation of the states receiving migrants but also the sending
other treaties and agreements. Efforts to halt and transit states. Recalling humanity’s
proliferation must enter the mainstream public interdependence, the framework should also strike
policy debate. a careful balance between the security and
development needs of receiving states and the
Military spending. Citizens need to be empowered human security of people on the move. Such a
to scrutinize state security priorities—to consider, framework should aim at:
among other things, military spending in relation • Progressing towards the orderly and safe
to spending on other human security priorities. movement of people, in part by increasing
States should increase the transparency of their migratory opportunities and burden-sharing
reporting, especially on military spending and among countries.
weapons systems. An internationally accepted • Developing international and regional norms
common reporting framework would make these for the movement of people between countries,
reports comparable and enable civil society to as well as the rights and obligations of migrants.
influence the changing structures of military • Formulating strategies to combat human
security. trafficking and smuggling, and implementing
relevant international and regional conventions,
3. Supporting the human security of people on while protecting the rights of victims.
the move • Protecting migrants against racism and
The movement of people across borders and intolerance and other human rights violations.
continents reflects the growing interdependence • Developing an institutional framework.
among countries and people. For the majority of Therefore, the Commission proposes that a
people, migration represents an opportunity to high-level and broad-based task force explore the
improve their livelihoods. For others, such as options and areas of consensus, including
people forced to flee because their lives and alternative institutional arrangements. Parallel to
property are threatened by war, conflict or serious this process, international, regional and national
human rights violations, migrating is vital to actors should cooperate more on migration issues,
protecting their human security. Others may also with the United Nations taking the lead, in line

135
 The international community
must formulate a new
framework and devise a new
funding strategy to rebuild
conflict-torn states

with the Secretary-General’s report on security. It is about people reasserting their rights
strengthening the organization.4 at political, social and economic levels. And one
cannot be achieved without the other. But there
Refugees and internally displaced persons. Protection are gaps in advancing the security of people, in
of refugees and internally displaced persons is a meeting essential needs, in achieving reconciliation
high priority. In particular, the physical security of and coexistence, in launching reconstruction and
displaced people needs to be protected by development activities and in promoting
separating armed elements from civilian refugee governance and empowerment. To close these gaps
populations and preventing gender-based violence. the international community must formulate a
Normative frameworks and institutions need to be new framework and devise a new funding strategy
reinforced. Also required are increased operational to rebuild conflict-torn states—one that focuses on
involvement and greater predictability in the the protection and empowerment of people.
responses of international agencies. Such a human security framework would
Concerted efforts should be pursued to emphasize the linkages among the many issues
identify solutions to displaced populations, affecting people, integrating policies and activities
whether refugees or internally displaced persons. In and moving beyond simply coordinating sectoral
the transition from conflict, the voluntary return approaches. In the spirit of the Brahimi Report on
and integration of displaced people should be a the reform of peacekeeping operations,5 it requires
high priority. The needs of displaced people should setting up unified leadership for all political,
thus be included in reconstruction and military, development and humanitarian actors
development plans, with burden-sharing by close to the delivery point of human security, such
countries and enhanced financial resources from as in Afghanistan and Timor-Leste. International
donors. responses should be driven not by organizational or
donor interests, but by the needs of people and
4. Establishing human security transition funds communities.
for post-conflict situations To apply such a framework, a new fundraising
Cease-fire agreements and peace settlements may strategy is needed for post-conflict situations, at field
mark the end of violent conflict, but they do not level, to ensure coherence in the planning,
automatically imply peace and human security. budgeting and implementation of human security
The responsibility to protect people in conflict activities. The proposal to set up transition funds for
should be complemented by a responsibility to each post-conflict situation is a step in this direction.
rebuild, particularly after an international military Such funds would finance the activities agreed to
intervention. The measure of success is not the under the integrated human security framework,
cessation of conflict—it is the quality of the peace pooling resources for human security activities. The
that is left behind. funds could thus address a broader range of human
A successful transition from conflict to peace security issues than are addressed today and could
and development depends on attaining human focus on chronically underfunded activities, such as

136
The sequencing of market
reforms to promote economic
growth must be balanced with
8
investment in social services
and human development

Ways to advance the security of people

education, reconciliation and coexistence, reform of women, children, the disabled and the elderly,
the national security sector and reintegration of matter a great deal.
displaced people. To allow flexible disbursement, the
funds should not be earmarked. Strengthen social institutions to reach the vulnerable
To maintain the confidence of donors and and the extreme poor. Attention must also be paid to
beneficiaries, management of the funds should strengthening social institutions—such as education,
emphasize transparency and accountability. social services, health and community-based care—to
Participation by national authorities is essential for complement the market’s contribution to human
setting priorities and gaining ownership of the security. For example, women’s unequal access to
process. To ensure equitable sharing of the benefits resources, training and education contributes to
of peace, other parties to conflict should also be labour market discrimination against women;
included to the extent possible. prioritizing education for girls and women, and the
removal of other structural barriers, can help
5. Encouraging fair trade and markets to counteract this discrimination.
benefit the extreme poor
Markets and trade are basic to economic growth Ensure equity in trade arrangements. International
and have been a source of unprecedented wealth trade is crucial for development and growth in all
for some. Extensive use of markets will be essential societies. But the efficiency and equity of trade
to generate the kinds of growth required to meet arrangements are important too. Developing
the needs of the extreme poor. The central issue countries still face higher barriers against their
from a human security perspective is not whether exports, particularly in agriculture and textiles—
to use markets—it is how to support a set of labour-intensive industries that are pivotal for
diverse and complementary institutions to ensure equitable growth in many states. Tariffs and quotas
that markets benefit the extreme poor and enhance for textile imports to rich countries cost developing
people’s human security, freedom and rights. countries an estimated 27 million jobs.6
Agricultural protection and subsidies in rich
Balance market reform with human security countries cost low- and middle-income countries
imperatives. The sequencing of market reforms to about $60 billion in rural income a year. Reducing
promote economic growth must be balanced with barriers to agricultural and textile trade in
investment in social services and human developed countries would thus do much to spur
development to ensure the well-being of the the equitable and vigorous economic growth that
poorest and most vulnerable. Policymakers should human security requires.
give as much priority to advancing people’s security
as to reaping benefits from market expansion, 6. Providing minimum living standards
foreign investment and growth. Emphasizing the everywhere
distribution of the benefits of growth and A comprehensive approach to work and work-based
redirecting resources to the extreme poor, especially security is essential to human security. Secure

137
 A comprehensive approach to
work and work-based security
is essential to human security

livelihoods depend on finding sustained and that address the needs of the poorest and most
creative ways of ensuring both income and vulnerable. While social protection policy can
meaningful work that build on the capacity and enhance opportunities for the poor and
ingenuity of poor people themselves. Critical vulnerable, it does not deal entirely with issues of
aspects to be addressed include access to land, equity and attaining minimum living standards.
credit, training and education, especially for poor
women. Also critical are measures to ensure that 7. According high priority to universal access to
there is a social and economic minimum for all, basic health care
including the working poor and those not in paid The world faces multiple health emergencies,
work. Special measures are needed for those in above all HIV/AIDS. But tuberculosis, malaria and
chronic poverty as well as those who would be most inadequate coverage of child immunizations also
vulnerable to economic hardship during economic create emergency situations. Poverty-related health
downturns, disasters and crises, including women, threats are perhaps the greatest burden of human
children, the disabled and the elderly. insecurity. Most preventable infectious diseases,
At a time when three-quarters of the world’s nutritional deprivation and maternity-related risks
people are not protected by social security are concentrated among the world’s poor people.
measures or do not have secure work or wage Poverty and disease set up a vicious spiral with
work, the first step is to strengthen the negative economic and human consequences. And
commitment to achieving an economic and social all forms of violence—collective, interpersonal and
minimum, below which no one should fall, by: self-directed—are public health problems, revealing
• Promoting, through social dialogue among all other links between health and human security.
actors, investments in minimum economic and Action to address these emergencies is needed at all
social protection measures that address the needs levels—community, national and global.
of the working poor (in the formal and
informal sectors), those who provide unskilled Universal access to basic health care. Health for All
migrant labour, those who live in situations of has not been realized—unfortunately. The reasons
conflict and those working to provide care, for the failure range from weak political will to
especially women. economic incapacity. Public systems have not been
• Recognizing that human security entails assigning adequately developed, and private markets in
equal importance to social and economic health care have catered to those with money.
objectives. This means that safety nets and social Progress on universal access to basic health care
protection systems and programmes need to be will require renewed political commitment,
in place so that when downturns strike, the translated into sustained investments in the people
negative social impacts are prevented or and infrastructure needed for universal prevention
mitigated. and care. Where possible, civil society and the
• Developing the capacity of governments to raise information media could demand and support
resources and revenues to finance social programmes political commitments to basic health care.

138
There is an urgent need for
institutional arrangements to
make inexpensive and
8
affordable generic drugs
available to the developing
countries that need them most

Ways to advance the security of people

Community-based health initiatives. Community- (WTO). In November 2001, the WTO’s Doha
based health care and self-insurance schemes are Ministerial Declaration recognized the challenges
fundamental to this progress. Although not all facing developing countries. A number of
sickness can be prevented or treated, all people— important drugs do not have patent limitations.
including those affected by conflict—should have But for those that do, current international rules
access to core primary health care services. And all governing intellectual property leave many of the
should be protected from the downside risks of poorest people in the world unable to use the
devastating illness and catastrophic economic loss. drugs. Because so many lives are at stake, there is
Risk-sharing arrangements that pool membership an urgent need for institutional arrangements to
funds have proven successful, as demonstrated by make inexpensive and affordable generic drugs
the pioneering innovation of non-governmental available to the developing countries that need
organizations (NGOs), such as the Bangladesh them most.
Rural Advancement Committee and Grameen Developing countries that currently export
Bank in Bangladesh and the Self Employed generic medicines—such as Brazil, China and
Women’s Association in India. National and global India—must fully comply by January 2005 with
resources should back community-based insurance the WTO requirements that generic medicines be
systems, financially and organizationally. used domestically only. They cannot be exported,
even to other countries with similar emergencies
Surveillance systems. The world urgently needs that may not be able to produce medicines on their
primary health services and national disease own. If a country has insufficient manufacturing
surveillance systems—formally networked into a capacity to produce medicines domestically, it will
global system. Information, data and analysis can have to rely on expensive patented medicines for
help to identify disease outbreaks and strengthen health needs—unless, of course, the rules are
efforts to control their spread. So every country changed.
should have primary health services and disease On the positive side, the WTO now
surveillance capacities. Where low incomes preclude recognizes public health emergencies as requiring
adequate local or national systems, international special provisions. The Doha Round affirmed the
cost-sharing mechanisms should be developed to rights of governments to grant “compulsory
support a global minimum of health care capacity. licences” allowing the domestic production of
These national systems should be linked through essential medicines, even when they are covered by
networks in a truly global system, to allow for rapid patent, and to purchase “parallel imports” from
knowledge sharing and rapid responses. legitimate international sources during national
emergencies, including the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
8. Developing an efficient and equitable global Further, the ministers at Doha agreed that the least
system for patent rights developed countries would not be required to offer
Global flows of knowledge and technology are patent protection on pharmaceutical products until
increasing under the World Trade Organization 2016. Because many poor countries do not have

139
 A balance must be crafted to
provide incentives for research
and development for both
profitable products and
technologies to fight diseases
of the poor

sufficient manufacturing capacity, their exercise of large public investments in basic research that
compulsory licensing and parallel imports depends underlie product development by all
on international sources. If other developing manufacturers, including private ones.
countries cannot export essential emergency
medicines and vaccines under the WTO, the 9. Empowering all people with universal basic
exercise of emergency measures will be nominal, education, through much stronger global and
not real. national efforts
Three issues need to be resolved. First is Basic education and literacy are vital not only for
clarifying the definition of “insufficient productivity and job skills but also for empowering
manufacturing capacity”. Second is allowing students, keeping them safe and giving them a
companies in one country to export inexpensive broader world view. Universal primary education,
generic drugs still under patent to other countries. as well as being a fundamental human right, is a
Third is deciding on the measures necessary to tremendously important investment for human
prevent the re-export of drugs manufactured under security. A basic education contributes to good
compulsory licences back to the developed world. health and to HIV/AIDS prevention—sometimes
Addressing these issues and meeting the challenges even more than health education alone. People
that the current intellectual property rights regime who are equipped with information, habits of
poses to health security will require new inquiry and reasoned argument are better equipped
approaches and new thinking about the ownership to lend their voice to protect human security. And
of knowledge, about health as a human right and yet schools are sometimes places of human
about effective market and institutional structures insecurity—when students lack food or suffer
to protect both lives and incentives. violence at school.
A major objective will be to have intellectual Much stronger and sustained global and
property rights systems that advance human national commitments are needed for providing
security through the efficient development of universal primary education and eliminating
appropriate drugs and the facilitation of their gender disparities in education. That would require
extensive use. Any resolution of the current action by parents, teachers, education committees,
impasse should favour flexibility and overcome NGOs and social movements, education ministries
import and export controls on the drugs and and political parties, donor governments and such
vaccines needed for emergencies. A balance must international institutions as the United Nations
be crafted to provide incentives for research and Children’s Fund and the United Nations
development for both profitable products and Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
technologies to fight diseases of the poor. That Some of the most important steps towards
balance should also provide equitable access to life- achieving universal primary education are well-
saving essential drugs and vaccines for people known: supporting girls’ education and making
unable to purchase technologies from the global schools adaptable to the needs of girls, committing
marketplace. The balance should recognize the very significant resources to schooling and supporting

140
Education should promote
understanding of people’s
multiple identities and of the
8
interlinkages within the
common global pool of learning

Ways to advance the security of people

school feeding programmes. To these should be most effective way to nurture a future generation
added four additional priorities: of educated, empowered and responsible decision-
• Expanding the “emergency education” makers—who avert conflict and promote peace
programmes of NGOs and international and growth—may be to develop methods of
organizations so that all displaced and crisis- teaching that respect diversity.
affected children have a basic education. Schools and their teachers, whether in
• Empowering parents and community developed or developing countries, in primary
committees and social movements to hold schools or adult literacy classes, can teach mutual
schools accountable for providing a safe learning respect and solidarity. They can also perpetuate
environment and a quality education, and prejudice. Curricula should cultivate respect for
urging the information media to fulfil their role other races, faiths, cultures and viewpoints, as well
as public advocate by focusing attention on as respect for women. They should also teach
improving education systems. students to reason, to consider ethical claims and
• Encouraging states and school authorities to to understand and work with such fundamental
ensure a safe and secure learning environment ideas as human rights, human diversity and
for all children, free of discrimination, health interdependence.
hazards and violence. At the national level, states that champion
• Advancing innovative uses of curricula and human security should check that their own
media (including radio, television, the arts, curricula cultivate mutual respect and emphasize
newspapers and the Internet) to make widely the multiplicity of identities that people hold.
accessible the knowledge and skills needed to Teacher training institutions and supervision
improve human security. systems should instil the desire to produce open-
minded graduates who respect diversity. Particular
10. Clarifying the need for a global human care should be given to eradicating inflammatory
identity messages in private, religious, and informal
The formation of compassionate attitudes and education facilities.
ethical outlooks is central to empowering The international development institutions
communities and furthering human security and that support education—especially those
deserves far more attention than it generally supporting the Education for All campaign—
receives. In a world replete with divisive messages, should make additional resources available to
children and adults will not always adopt the governments that wish to undertake such reforms.
mindset of global citizens in an interdependent Promoting education in the short term can avoid
world. undermining human security in the longer term.
To achieve long-term human security, Cultivating respect for human rights and
education should promote understanding of diversity also merits special attention among
people’s multiple identities and of the interlinkages security forces, police, military and others with
within the common global pool of learning. The access to coercive force. More and more these

141
 Alliances of key actors should
be supported—networks of
public, private and civil actors
who can develop norms,
embark on integrated activities
and monitor progress and
performance
groups are called on to protect human security. security. The success of the international campaign
Educating them to respect human rights and resist to ban landmines shows the power that such
discrimination and prejudice will make the electronic networks can have. It is clear that huge
civilians they are expected to protect more secure new bureaucracies are not the answer.
and reduce the threat of violence to all. The international community should invest
more in civil society, including NGOs, reaffirming
Linking the many initiatives in a global the role of individuals, corporations, foundations
alliance and faith-based organizations in transferring
For each of these agenda items, alliances of key resources to communities and people in need. The
actors should be supported—networks of public, international community should also re-examine
private and civil actors who can develop norms, the compartmentalization of resources as either
embark on integrated activities and monitor development assistance or humanitarian relief—
progress and performance (see the feature on and consider integrated investments in human
Outreach for human security on page 152). security.
Numerous loose networks, involving a wide range Two examples of resources specifically targeted
of actors, are already formulating and implementing to promoting human security are the UN Trust
human security agendas. The Human Security Fund for Human Security and the bilateral
Network links 13 governments. The Canadian Grassroots Human Security Grants, both
Consortium on Human Security brings together established by the government of Japan. Japan has
academic and activist groups. And tens of contributed more than $200 million to the UN
thousands of groups are working for peace, trust fund, with plans for more, and all UN
governance, human rights, humanitarian assistance, agencies are eligible to submit projects for funding.
development, poverty reduction and other freedoms Japan is also providing about $120 million for the
that pertain to human security. Specific initiatives, bilateral grants in fiscal 2003 to further human
such as the creation of a ministry for human security, mainly to local communities and NGOs
security in Thailand, should be encouraged. working in developing countries. To mainstream
To overcome persistent inequality and human security in the UN system—and to
insecurities, the efforts, practices and successes of all integrate fragmented efforts to protect and
these groups should be linked in national, regional empower people exposed to severe threats to their
and global alliances. The goal of these alliances survival, livelihoods and dignity—the Commission
could be to create a kind of horizontal, cross-border on Human Security suggests that the donor base of
source of legitimacy that complements that of the trust fund be broadened. It also proposes the
traditional vertical and compartmentalized establishment of an advisory board to guide the
structures of institutions and states. Much of the trust fund—and more generally to follow up and
work of these alliances could be managed over the promote the Commission’s conclusions.
Internet.7 These initiatives could begin to give voice A critical initiative—in which a small input of
to international public opinion on issues of human resources might leverage great impact—would be

142
 8

Ways to advance the security of people

to create a core group that would link disparate Notes
human security actors in a strong global alliance 1. Gillian-Borg 2002, pp. 2–6, 407 and table 8A.2.
around the United Nations and the Bretton Woods 2. UNDP 1994, p. 54.
organizations. That alliance could in time embrace 3. United Nations 2001.
other networks, especially within the security 4. United Nations, General Assembly 2002.
community, working on related issues. It might 5. United Nations 2000.
also support individuals who champion human 6. World Bank 2003.
security, as well as states that incorporate it into 7. Rischard 2002.
national and foreign policy.
All actors should endeavor to ensure adequate References
resources for human security. To counter the Gillian-Borg, Jetta, ed. 2002. SIPRI Yearbook 2002:
decline in official development assistance, addi- Armaments, Disarmament and International Security.
tional resources and qualitative improvements in Oxford: Oxford University Press.
the provision of international assistance should be Rischard, Jean-Francois. 2002. High Noon: 20 Global
sought. Donors and developing countries should Problems, 20 Years to Solve Them. New York: Basic.
reorient and reallocate their resources to promote Sen, Amartya. 2002. “Global Inequality and Persistent
human security. Bilateral and multilateral assistance, Conflicts.” Paper presented at the Nobel Awards
both humanitarian and development-oriented, Conference, Oslo.
should target the protection and empowerment of UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). 1994.
people. Human Development Report 1994. New York: Oxford
The Commission concludes its work by University Press.
calling for integrated action—weaving many United Nations. 2000. Report of the Panel on United
threads of work in more comprehensive approaches Nations Peace Operations. A/55/305–S/2000/809.
with wider coverage. It envisions a world that has New York.
the capacity to deal with interdependence in a rule- ———. 2001. Report of the United Nations Conference
based framework, involving communities and on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons
institutions at every level. Multilateralism, far from in All Its Aspects. A/Conf.192/15. New York.
being an empty vessel, is fundamental to the future United Nations, General Assembly. 2002. Strengthening
of humanity. With a consistent focus on human of the United Nations: An Agenda for Further
security, more integrated social arrangements and Change: Report of the Secretary-General, A/57/387.
more integrated global efforts can address the big [www.un.org/peace/reports/peace_operations/].
threats and make people more secure. World Bank. 2003. Global Development Prospects and the
Developing Countries 2003. Washington, D.C.

143
Outreach for
human security
 Outreach for human security
The Commission on Human Security works workshop on Human Rights and Human Security
through collaborative arrangements, in San José, Costa Rica, on 1 December 2001. The
consultations and outreach. It has supported and meeting was attended by leading human rights
initiated processes for wide-ranging engagement activists from Latin America. Bertrand Ramcharan,
with civil society, governments and regional and United Nations Deputy High Commissioner for
international organizations. Commissioners and Human Rights, prepared a background paper for
members of its Secretariat have organized, hosted the meeting.
and attended public hearings, consultations, Discussion focused on the relationships
symposiums, seminars and roundtable meetings between human rights and human security and
that reached hundreds of people across the their importance in conflict and post-conflict
world. situations. The situation in Colombia received
The following sections summarize the activities particular attention. The workshop concluded with
of several of these meetings and present an overview the adoption of a declaration. Some of its key
of people’s views on human security: elements:
• A symposium on Human Rights and Human • We applaud the initiative to generate efforts to
Security, convened in San José, Costa Rica, on 1 determine the meaning and scope of human
December 2001. security and we commit our wholehearted
• A roundtable on Transition and Human Security support to the work undertaken by the
in Central Asia, convened in Ashgabat, Commission and to its action mechanisms.
Turkmenistan, on 22–24 April 2002 and • We reaffirm the conviction that human rights
attended by representatives of non-governmental and the attributes stemming from human
organizations, governments in Central Asia and dignity constitute a normative framework and a
international organizations. conceptual reference point which must
• A symposium on Economic Insecurity in Africa necessarily be applied to the construction and
held in Cotonou, Benin, on 24–25 May 2002 putting into practice of the notion of human
and attended by non-governmental and security. In the same manner, without prejudice
government representatives from West Africa. to considering the norms and principles of
• Public hearings at the Global Civic Society international humanitarian law as essential
Forum in Johannesburg on 27 August 2002 and components for the construction of human
a meeting on African Civil Society in Pretoria security, we emphasize that the latter cannot be
on 15–16 October 2002. restricted to situations of current or past armed
conflict, but rather is a generally applicable
San José Workshop on Human Rights and instrument.
Human Security • We recall that the 1993 Vienna Declaration,
Sonia Picado S., President of the Inter-American adopted at the Second World Conference on
Human Rights Institute and a commissioner of the Human Rights, laid out an unavoidable course
Commission on Human Security, organized a when it stipulated the universal and

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 comprehensive nature of an interdependence • We recall the existence of the right to
among human rights, and when it underlined development stated in the international
that the effective exercise of all such rights— instruments of the universal system, and we
civil, political, economic, social and cultural, highlight the links among development,
individually or collectively considered—is a effective exercise of human rights, and human
condition for the development of people and security. We underline the importance of
for legitimacy of systems of government. This globalization taking place under conditions that
universal, comprehensive nature and facilitate the growth of international trade but
interdependence must enrich the concept and that also ensure that there is a balance between
practice of human security. the interests of producers and those of
• We call for necessary progress towards ways to consumers, between workers and employers,
promote the enforceability of all human between large and small economies, between
rights, through actions by national investment and job creation, between growth
institutions, the system of justice, and and income distribution. The search for fair
international protection mechanisms, both terms of trade and the existence of real
universal and regional. opportunities for countries’ development are
• We maintain that human rights and the significant components of human security at an
effective application of mechanisms for their international level.
exercise and protection play a key role in • We express our concern over the current scale
preventing and resolving conflicts. of growth of poverty and of the phenomenon
• We renew our certainty that democracy is an of migration throughout the word and in the
indispensable condition for the effective Americas, and especially over the scope of
exercise of human rights and to establish the forced internal displacement, and we
foundations for harmonious social relations recognize the importance of the Guiding
which foster human security. In this regard, Principles on Internal Displacement that have
we salute, in the Americas, the recent resulted from the work of the Special
approval of the Inter-American Democratic Representative of the Secretary-General of the
Charter. United Nations.
• We affirm that protection of individual and • We affirm that non-discrimination and respect
collective security in the face of crime and for diversity are an essential and first-order
violence is an essential component of the condition for the effective exercise of human
concept of human security, and it stems from rights and for the achievement of human
the responsibilities of the state as guarantor of security. Therefore, overcoming de facto
the rights of those who are in its territory. In inequalities based on, shielded by, or derived
this same way, we affirm that human security from gender, ethnic identity, religion, language
demands public policies that tend to eliminate or any other social condition, must be a high
all forms of exclusion. priority.

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 Outreach for human security
Roundtable on Transition and Human Security history, geography and spatial distribution; the
in Central Asia nature of rural and traditional societies and the
Ten years of independence and the transition to transformation processes that the countries
market economies and democratic political underwent as part of the Soviet Union. Inherited
systems, against a backdrop of intense geopolitical problems included their landlocked position,
change, have had deep impacts on the political, isolation and lack of access to global markets,
economic, social and cultural aspects of people’s economic dependency, lagging technologies and
lives in the five new countries of Central Asia— ecological problems resulting from natural causes
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and from poor policy choices.
Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Participants The past decade of transition in Central Asia
deliberated on these impacts during a roundtable created multi-dimensional structural changes in
meeting organized by the Commission on Human society, the economy and the political system.
Security in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, 22–24 April Social and economic policies were exacerbated by
2002. the shrinking role of the state in economic
The region has experienced some of the most activities and social welfare responsibilities.
dramatic increases in human insecurities: sudden Emerging markets lacked institutional capacity,
impoverishment; falling wages; rising inequality, and civil society organizations failed to effectively
unemployment and under-employment; declining fill the vacuum.
health care and education opportunities; and Economic insecurity increased, with rising
worsening environmental degradation. The unemployment and under-employment, wage gaps
challenge for countries in Central Asia is to regain and arrears, high inflation and catastrophic loss of
their former relatively high human development savings. At the state level, economic insecurity was
indicators, overcome emerging poverty and reflected in economic crimes, gray and black
maintain social cohesion. This calls for a renewed economy and corruption. Sudden poverty,
role for the state and a revision in the inequality and polarization of income appeared,
responsibilities of civil society and the international and social safety nets were weakened during a time
aid community. Otherwise, a failed transition in of massive unemployment and shrinking output.
Central Asia will have produced greater human Human resource development declined
insecurity, rather than security. dramatically, due to declines in the quality of
Roundtable participants identified a variety of education and health care, infrastructure
internal and external human insecurities stemming breakdown, shrinking budgets, poor and outdated
from three sources: chronic threats inherited from technologies and personnel flight. An increase in
the past, new insecurities that appeared during the drug abuse and crime fostered violence in
transition, and threats from geopolitical changes in households, mafia structures, criminality in business
the region and in the world. and politics, and trafficking in goods and people.
The countries of Central Asia inherited In addition, incomplete political changes and
chronic human security threats arising from their democratization led to other problems as countries

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sought the right balance among democratic collection. As one participant noted, human
pluralism, the sharing of power across political security in the region would be greatly improved if
parties and regions, stability, and rights and expenditures on the military and weapons were
freedoms for the population. Political reforms redirected to human development. Finally, there is
suffer from corruption, lack of transparency and a need for coordination of extra-regional and
lack of capacity to implement the rule of law. global efforts to create environments that guarantee
Extremism seems to be growing as a reaction to the security and stability. This point is especially
vacuum left in the wake of the collapse of socialist relevant to the situation in Afghanistan and the
ideology and in response to repression and coordination of efforts on both sides of the border
violations of human rights in the name of stability. in order to stop the smuggling of weapons, drugs
The changing dynamics within Central Asia and people. Ultimately, the coordination of the
and the impacts of conflicts in Afghanistan have humanitarian, development and political mandates
further aggravated traditional insecurities, raising of the United Nations and multilaterals in the
fears of an escalation in instability. Uncontrolled region would support an integrated human security
borders permit the proliferation of arms, threats of approach.
terrorism and extremism, the creation of networks
of mafia structures and organized trafficking in Cotonou symposium on Economic Insecurity
arms and drugs, destabilizing states and markets in Africa
and reducing economic security for people. The onslaught of communicable diseases,
Patterns of migration in the region and large-scale economic hardship, and the negative effects of
displacements of populations within the region are globalization, combined with legacies of past
manifestations of both traditional and new mistakes, make it difficult for a vast majority of
insecurities. people in Africa to feel secure.
Addressing human insecurities in Central Asia Economic insecurity alone, even in the
requires an integrated approach to the absence of other threats, significantly undermines
identification of the causes and consequences of human security. Precarious economic conditions,
insecurity—including the threat to national and fluctuating markets over which producers have no
regional security. Participants called for awareness control, chronic unemployment or under-
building through dialogue, for political employment and the impact of HIV/AIDS are
commitment on behalf of states in conjunction manifestations of this insecurity. Together they
with civil society and for the monitoring of disrupt fragile social services and often threaten
changes through the collection and analysis of efforts at democratization. Some 80% of countries
qualitative and quantitative data. Ultimately, policy with low human development indexes are in
choices must balance short-term needs and long- Africa, and 45% of the population subsists on less
term preventive policies to avoid negative than $1 a day. In many parts of Africa, open or
consequences. Proper financing is needed through simmering conflicts place further hardship on
prioritization and budgeting and efficient revenue people.

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 Outreach for human security
In light of these continuing crises, participants through better health, education and social
at the symposium articulated a vision for an infrastructure can build the capabilities of
alternative future. Voicing Africans’ concerns, individuals and communities alike.
participants indicated that the first step towards an To ensure that markets promote pro-poor
alternative vision that promotes human security and growth and access for poor countries, Africa needs
enables people to regain some control over their regional cooperation—despite mixed experience with
lives is to confront the humiliation of the past. economic integration. Regional and international
Africa’s history, and the internal and external forces cooperation is also needed to harness technical and
that determine its development, are at the root of human resources, to prevent or mitigate conflict, and
the continent’s structural handicaps. This fight for to address cross-border issues such as migration,
dignity seeks to promote individual and collective forced displacement and the spread of communicable
trust in governance processes, crucial for dealing diseases. Development aid is essential to complement
with economic deprivation and human insecurity. internal resource mobilization in reducing human
Poverty is not a fatal or immutable fact of life for and economic insecurity. Innovative institutional
millions, but the result of bad policy choices and arrangements, such as the New Partnership for
practices. That means that people can take actions Africa’s Development, provide opportunities for
to alter the conditions that lead to poverty. mainstreaming human security and give Africa
While states bear a heavy responsibility for the greater responsibility for determining its own future.
current situation, they also hold the key to Investment and wider access to markets benefit
redressing it. But if governments are to resolutely mainly countries that are able to meet international
address persistent poverty and growing inequities, standards. Countries in which human insecurity is
they need more and better civil society most prevalent are not in this position, and thus may
participation in the political, economic and social miss new opportunities and sink further into poverty.
sectors. The continuing alienation and exclusion of The challenge of promoting investment and
people from processes of governance must be wider access to markets, dealing with debt and the
replaced by conditions that build the capacity and impacts of structural adjustment, and the complex
resilience of both the state and the people to connections between conflict and poverty require
protect people in downturns, conflict and in renewed political commitment. Transcending the
situations of chronic poverty. The precarious legacy of humiliation, people and states must forge
situation of women and children in conflict and in a new vision of human security.
chronic poverty is a matter for urgent attention.
Emphasis must be placed on the promotion of Public hearings at the Global Civic Society
responsible governance at all levels, from village to Forum in Johannesburg and a meeting on
nation. As shared during the meeting, there is no African Civil Society in Pretoria
substitute for democracy and participation for Concerns about state security and ongoing conflict
freeing the creativity of large sectors of the cannot be separated from development and
population. The development of human resources poverty.1 The greatest threat to human security is

149
widespread and endemic poverty and social Society in Pretoria. Both events were led by
inequality. Poverty eradication, reconstruction and Commissioners Frene Ginwala and Albert
development, in countries undergoing political and Tevoedjre, with support by the Africa Institute of
economic transitions as well as in countries South Africa.
experiencing chronic conflict, are long-term Participants called attention to the huge
processes. They require a multi-faceted and income gaps in many countries, noting that the
complex range of responses and initiatives to the inability to control access to resources is a primary
many and diverse problems that make and keep cause of human insecurity. This is true not only for
people insecure. Problems such as poverty, those precariously balanced on the threshold of
HIV/AIDS, lack of food, unemployment and destitution, but for most people living in a
economic resources are systemic. People often view demand-driven, capital-based society. Participants
the inability to respond to such problems as called on the Commission and the world
reflecting bad governance, an absence of political community to make human security a reality by
will, a lack of democracy and respect for human addressing poor people’s rights to land, to decent
rights, and fragmented communities fuelled by work, to health care and to other resources for
ethnic hatred, gender discrimination and disabled people, women and other excluded
inequality. Overwhelmingly, the most marginalized members of society. For many of those who shared
of the poor are African women and children living their views with the Commission, human security
in rural areas without access to basic services. was understood in relation to “the basic needs of
The problems confronting Africa, such as life—paid work, housing, health, education, food,
poverty, ongoing conflict and violence, increasing water— … that is the primary concern of the
numbers of displaced people, infectious diseases, security of an average person in the developing
lack of water and natural resource management, world”.4 In addition, environmental security and
and environmental destruction are problems that sustainable development were seen as inextricably
threaten human existence itself.2 “The search for linked to human survival, and community
human security in a debilitating African reality management of natural resources was understood
must also be a struggle for the socio-economic to be critical.
transformation of African states. A struggle that The crisis of poverty and unemployment was
overcomes—within the global village—our basic considered to be one of the most significant sources
poverty and underdevelopment, and lays the of insecurity, especially in Africa. Compelling views
material basis for enduring and stable multi- on the many types of poverty and strategies to deal
national commonalities”.3 These were among some with them were presented. Many participants
of the views of people who participated in the illustrated how poverty, through a lack of access to
Commission on Human Security’s public hearings essential services such as health and education, can
at the Global Civil Society Forum of the World create untold misery for people. “Insecurity is
Summit on Sustainable Development in rooted in a denial of a person’s control over access
Johannesburg and a meeting on African Civil to resources, and in particular, to fundamental

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 Outreach for human security
necessities including food and basic services. Lack tax-funded basic income grant in South Africa and
of such control means that people’s immediate daily internationally. They view such a grant as a means
existence is at best precarious.”5 Poverty was also of assisting people to engage in economic activity,
seen as the lack of income generating assets, raising the standards of communities and
resulting in an absence of economic and political eradicating the most severe forms of poverty. Set at
power. Special emphasis was placed on income a minimal amount and designed as an incentive for
poverty and its multiple impacts on poor people, work and household survival, it would not create
trapping them in a vicious cycle of deprivation and dependency but be a “leg up” out of poverty. Being
eroding their dignity. Poverty locks people out of universal, such grants would prevent people from
the economy, making them vulnerable and placing falling through the social security net and mitigate
them at risk of disability, ill health, violence and a the worst effects of economic and political crises,
range of problems that affect their life and their especially during downturns.
opportunities to advance. Social activism by women, human rights
Weak national economies also contribute to advocates, workers and environmentalists have
human insecurity. In a weak economy, individuals succeeded in placing some of the most critical and
have low wages, meagre job opportunities, and pervasive human problems on the global agenda.
little access to credit. With few life choices, they But such efforts have yet to lead to concrete
must calculate the opportunity cost of meeting change in the lives of the most vulnerable and at
basic needs such as nutrition, education and health risk. For example, despite international human
for themselves and their families.6 Strategies for rights instruments, women’s rights are violated
responding to these problems, linked to regional daily. Without effective protection of women,
and global economic processes, and to the social human security will remain unattainable.
dimensions of globalization are being debated. All these aspects highlight the many
Central to the debate is the need to respond to dimensions to human security and the need for a
ongoing mass unemployment with some form of comprehensive and integrated approach with
universal non-means tested income grant in the many actors at all levels. Voicing the sentiments
absence of other forms of earnings replacement. of many, another participant stated: “Human
Called a basic income grant in South Africa and a security cannot be achieved unless democratic
guaranteed income by the international labour governments or systems abide by rules and
movement, it reflects the need for minimal living regulations set out in international agreements,
standards to be promoted everywhere.7 conventions and domestic laws observe human
Having grappled with insecurity for many rights … to secure health, to secure education, to
years, people are now coming together to create secure people’s lives and to secure the necessities
political space and design ways to resolve their of life … It is our duty as civil society … to
problems.8 Coalitions of poor people, human protect these rights to see that there is adequate
rights activists, workers and policy advocates, legislation which complies with human rights
among others, are promoting the adoption of a conventions and agreements”.9

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Notes Society Forum of the World Summit on Sustainable
1. David Malcolmson, statement made on behalf of the Development, Johannesburg, 27 August 2002.
Secretariat of the New Partnership for Africa’s 6. Mansah Prah, Dept. of Sociology, University of Cape
Development at the Commission on Human Security Town, statement made at the Commission on Human
public hearings on human security held at the Global Security Africa-wide civil society consultative meeting
Civil Society Forum of the World Summit on on human security held in Pretoria, 15–16 October
Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 27 August 2002.
2002. 7. Detailed oral and written statements on economic
2. These views were reinforced at the Commission on insecurity and the Basic Income Grant were made by a
Human Security Africa-wide civil society consultative number of people including Neil Coleman from
meeting on human security held in Pretoria, 15–16 Congress of South African Trade Union and Ravi
October 2002. Naidoo from the National Labour and Economic
3. K. David Mafabi, Pan African Movement, October Development Institute of South Africa.
2002, Pretoria. 8. Reverend Edward Limo, statement made at the
4. Nigerian participant, name unknown at the Commission on Human Security Africa-wide civil
Commission on Human Security public hearings on society consultative meeting on human security held in
human security held at the Global Civil Society Forum Pretoria, 15–16 October 2002.
of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, 9. Halisman, Sudanese Consumer Protection Society at
Johannesburg, 27 August 2002. the Commission on Human Security public hearings on
5. Isobel Frye, statement made on behalf of the Black human security held at the Global Civil Society Forum
Sash, at the Commission on Human Security public of the World Summit on Sustainable Development,
hearings on human security held at the Global Civil Johannesburg, 27 August 2002.

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About the Commission on Human Security

About the Commission on Human Security

The Commission on Human Security was United Nations Office for Project Services
established in response to the UN Secretary- (UNOPS). The UNHCR provided ongoing
General’s call at the Millennium Summit in guidance with research and other services through
September 2000 to achieve the twin goals of Cynthia Burns, Jeff Crisp, Bela Hovy and Kamel
“freedom from fear” and “freedom from want”. Morjane. The HDRO, under the leadership of
Launched in January 2001 and beginning Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, provided assistance through
operations in June 2001, the Commission seeks to the services of Tanni Mukhopadhyay, Richard
fulfil three objectives under its two-year mandate: Ponzio, Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh and others.The
• Promoting public understanding, engagement UNOPS provided assistance and support through
and support of human security and its the services of Daniela Costantino and Maria
underlying imperatives. Hemsy.
• Developing the concept of human security as an Two broad areas of research and related
operational tool for policy formulation and consultative processes inform the Commission’s
implementation. deliberations. One area deals with human
• Proposing a concrete programme of action to insecurities resulting from conflict and violence,
address critical and pervasive threats to human and the other with the links between human
security. security and development. Together, the two areas
The Commission receives financial support address the need for providing effective protection
from the Government of Japan, with the in critical situations.
continuing assistance of foreign ministers Yoriko The project on conflict focuses on individuals
Kawaguchi and Makiko Tanaka, and from the or communities facing extreme situations like
Rockefeller Foundation, the World Bank (Africa displacement, discrimination and persecution. It
Region), the Greentree Foundation, the Govern- addresses the special security needs of people and
ment of Sweden and the Japan Center for the protection of victims, refugees and internally
International Exchange. displaced people. It also addresses the interrelations
The Commission works through collaborative between insecurity and the need to ensure that
arrangements, consultations and outreach. developmental activities proceed alongside conflict
resolution. The project commissioned research,
Collaborative arrangements undertook field-based assessments of specific
To advance an integrated approach for themes and organized a series of events in
collaborative action, the Commission has drawn collaboration with the UNHCR and other
widely on other initiatives and endeavours. Its partners.
work has benefited greatly from the support of the The project on the developmental aspects of
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees human security focuses on insecurities related to
(UNHCR); the United Nations Development poverty, health, education, gender disparities and
Programme (UNDP), particularly the Human other types of inequality. It also works on problems
Development Report Office (HDRO); and the that cut across these themes, including institutional

153
arrangements for reducing insecurities and the new 2002, with the support of the Government of
vulnerabilities associated with the current global Sweden. Following that meeting, a roundtable
situation. Research papers were commissioned to dialogue, sponsored by the International Institute
examine the relationships among these factors and for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, provided
the substantive policy implications of human for an exchange of views with the commissioners
security. The project convened workshops and on the relationships among human security,
hosted monthly seminars to promote policy debate human rights and democracy. The fourth
on human security. The Global Equity Initiative, meeting was convened in Bangkok on 8–10
under the leadership of Commissioner Lincoln December 2002 with the support of Com-
Chen, provided research support for the missioner Surin Pitsuwan. The Commission also
Commission through the work of Sudhir Anand, participated in an outreach event organized by
Prea Gulati, Juan Carlos Hincapie, Paula Johnson, Chulalongkorn University. At the fifth meeting
Chris Linnane, Sarah Michael, Vasant Narasimhan, in Tokyo on 22–24 February 2003, com-
Barbara Perlo, Paul Segal, Ellen Seidensticker, missioners discussed and finalized this report and
Patricia Tyler, Jonathan Welch and Florence agreed on the next steps. The meeting was
Werthmuller. followed by a symposium organized by the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Consultations and outreach Public hearings on human security were also
The Commission has supported and initiated convened around the world (see Outreach on page
processes for wide-ranging engagement with civil 144). A symposium on Human Rights and Human
society, governments and regional and Security was convened in San José, Costa Rica on
international organizations. Commissioners and 1 December 2001. The meeting was co-organized
members of the Secretariat have organized, hosted by the Inter-American Institute for Human Rights,
and attended public hearings, consultations, the University for Peace and the Commission’s
symposiums, seminars and roundtable meetings Secretariat.
that reached hundreds of people across the world. A roundtable meeting on Transition and
The Commission has held five general Human Security in Central Asia was convened in
meetings, with associated outreach activities. At Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, on 22–24 April 2002 and
the first meeting in New York on 8–10 June attended by representatives of non-governmental
2001, commissioners shared their views on organizations, governments in Central Asia and
human security and agreed on a plan of work. international organizations. The UNDP Regional
The second meeting, on 15-17 December 2001 Bureau for Europe and the CIS assisted the
in Tokyo, was convened at the invitation of the Commission in organizing the meeting.
Government of Japan, which organized a one-day A workshop on Rethinking Peace,
symposium before the meeting. The third Coexistence and Human Security in the Great
meeting, facilitated by Commissioner Carl Lakes was held in Kigali, Rwanda, on 16–19
Tham, was convened in Stockholm on 8–10 June April 2002. It was organized by the Commission,

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 About the Commission on Human Security
the UNHCR, the Centre for Conflict The Secretariat
Management of the National University of The Secretariat works under the direction of
Rwanda and the Center for International François Fouinat (Executive Director) and
Development and Conflict Management of the Viviene Taylor (Deputy Director and project
University of Maryland. coordinator for development) and included
Non-governmental and government Sabina Alkire (researcher and writer), Johan Cels
representatives from West Africa participated in a (project coordinator for conflict), Sumana
symposium on Economic Insecurity in Africa in Raychaudhuri (associate editor), Kazuo Tase
Cotonou, Benin, on 24–25 May 2002. The (liaison officer from the Government of Japan)
UNDP and the Centre PanAfricain de Prospective and administrative assistants Bonna Mpama,
Sociale assisted in organizing the symposium. Eucaris Perez-Valero and Karima Zerrou.
Public hearings on human security were Research support was provided by Ann Barham,
convened at the Global Civil Society Forum of the Christine Cheng, Marijke Cortebeeck, Frank
World Summit on Sustainable Development in Fountain, Julia Gohsing, Ayako Kimura,
Johannesburg on 27 August 2002. The hearings Ludovica Piacentini and Florence Poli.
and related activities were organized by the Africa
Institute of South Africa for the Commission and General acknowledgements
cosponsored by the World Bank (Africa Region). The work of the Commission was supported by a
Participants from more than 25 countries and five number of individuals, institutions and
regions made oral and written submissions to the organizations representing a wide range of
Commission. interests and concerns. To all those who provided
An Africa-wide civil society consultative insights, support and commitment to the
meeting on human security was held in Pretoria on promotion of human security, the Commission
15–16 October 2002, organized by the Africa expresses its gratitude and thanks. The
Institute of South Africa and sponsored by the Commission is especially appreciative of the
World Bank (Africa Region). Participants, efforts made by the many people representing
representing key sectors of civil society, business, women, workers, refugees, the landless, the
trade unions, development, humanitarian and disabled, poor people, young people, and
security fields, shared their perceptions and displaced communities, and of the many others
experiences on human security issues in Africa. who shared their experiences, concerns and
The findings and outcomes of these events aspirations with the Commission.
have significantly informed the work of the While many governments recognize the
Commission. Reports on the events were prepared importance of human security, special mention
and shared. The Commission has made every effort must go to the Japanese. Significant support was
to ensure that this report reflects the many rich provided by Keizo Takemi (Japanese Diet Member)
insights and experiences shared by the people who and Tadashi Yamamoto (President of the Japan
attended these meetings. Center for International Exchange), and by the

155
Government of Japan: Yukio Sato, Koichi Institute (South Africa), The Ford Foundation,
Haraguchi, Yukio Takasu, Koichi Takahashi, Kaoru Human Security Network, ICRC, Institut des
Ishikawa, Kunio Umeda, Eiichi Oshima, Masaharu Hautes Études Internationales (Geneva), Institute
Yoshida, Hideki Ito, Jun Shimmi, Naoki Ito, for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA),
Takeshi Akamatsu, Hiroyuki Uchida, Ryo Inter-American Institute of Human Rights, Inter-
Nakamura and Akiko Noda. Parliamentary Union International Migration
For the Commission’s Stockholm meeting in Policy Programme, International Labour
June 2002, generous support was given by the Organization (ILO), International Organization
Swedish government: Jan O. Karlsson, Gun-Britt for Migration, International Peace Academy, Legal
Andersson, Ingrid Wetterqvist, Karin Snellman, Resources Centre (South Africa), National Labour
Sara Bertilsson. The Commission especially Economic and Development Institute (NALEDI-
appreciated the participation of HRH Princess South Africa), OAS, OCHA, OSCE, Pratichi Trust
Maha Chakri Sirindhorn of Thailand and Anand (India), Save the Children Fund, Stockholm
Panyarachun at its meeting in Bangkok. International Peace Research Institute, Swiss Peace
Peter Geithner also contributed advice and Foundation (Afghan Civil Society Forum),
guidance to the work of the Commission Trilateral Commission, UN High Commissioner
throughout the process. for Human Rights, UN Intellectual History
Project, UNAIDS, UNESCO, UNICEF, United
Organizations Nations Secretariat, United Nations University
Numerous international agencies and civil society (Japan), UNRWA, World Bank, World Economic
actors provided assistance. The Commission Forum, World Food Progamme and the World
appreciates their interest in human security and Health Organization.
counts on them to translate it into concrete
activities improving the plight of people. They Individuals
include Africa Humanitarian Action, African Alayne Adams (Columbia University), Mahnaz
Union, Amnesty International, Black Sash (South Afkhami (Women’s Learning Partnership for
Africa), Brookings Institute, Canadian Consortium Rights, Development and Peace), Nazaré
for Human Security, Carnegie Endowment for Albuquerque (Catholic Relief Services), Mely
Peace, Center for Conflict Management (National Anthony (Nanyang Technological Institute), Peggy
University of Rwanda), Center for International Antrobus (DAWN Caribbean), Bertrand Badie
Development and Conflict Management (Institut d’Études Politiques, France), Frederick D.
(University of Maryland), Chulalongkorn Barton (Center for Strategic and International
University, Community Law Centre (University of Studies), Linda Basch (National Council for
the Western Cape), Congress of South African Research on Women, USA), Alaka Basu (Cornell
Trade Unions, Council on Foreign Relations University), Kazem Behbehani (World Health
(USA), Development Alternatives with Women for Organization), Susan Beresford (Ford Foundation),
a New Era (DAWN), Economic Policy Research Giovanni Berlinguer (Università La Sapienza),

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 About the Commission on Human Security
Douglas Bettcher (WHO), Jacqueline Bhabha Laczko (IOM), Melissa Lane (Cambridge
(Harvard University), Derek Bok (Harvard University), Jennifer Leaning (Harvard University),
University), Sissela Bok (Harvard University), Walter Lichem (Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Sugata Bose (Harvard University), Claude Austria), Frances Lund (University of Natal),
Bruderlein (Harvard University), Alexander Andrew Mack (University of British Columbia),
Butchart (WHO), Maria Calivis (UNICEF), Bene Madunagu (DAWN Africa), Eddy Maloka
Richard Cash (Harvard University), Ewa (Africa Institute, South Africa), David Malone
Charkiewicz (DAWN), Mirai Chaterjee (Self (International Peace Academy), Maria Helena
Employed Women’s Association, India), Martha Martinez (Inter-American Institute of Human
Chen (Harvard University), Mushtaque Rights), David Meddings (ICRC), Martha Minow
Chowdhury (BRAC), Michele Clark (Johns (Harvard University), Abram L. Mogilevsky
Hopkins University), William Clark (Harvard (Turkmen National Institute, Turkmenistan),
University), Sonia Correa (DAWN Latin America), Vanita Muckherjee (DAWN Asia), Christopher
Robert Curvin (Greentree Foundation), Norman Murray (WHO), Izumi Nakamitsu-Lennartsson
Daniels (Harvard University), Susan Davids (ILO), (IDEA), Kathleen Newland (Migration Policy
Robert DeVecchi (Council on Foreign Relations), Institute), Edward Newman (UNU), Pedro Nikken
Michael Doyle (UN Secretariat), Jean Drèze (Delhi (Inter-American Institute of Human Rights),
School of Economics), Paul Evans (University of Herbert S. Okun (USA), Khaled Philby (UNDP),
British Columbia), Timothy Evans (Rockefeller Rajeev Pillay (Abacus International Management),
Foundation), Marika Fahlen (UNAIDS), Roya Anne-Marie Pitsch (University of Maryland), Dana
Ghafele (Vienna University), Raimundo Gonzalez- Firas Raad (Harvard University), Kent Ransom
Aninat (Chile), Stephanie Griffith-Jones (University (Self Employed Women’s Association, India),
of Sussex), Claudio Grossman (Inter-American Elisabeth Rasmusson (Internally Displaced Persons
Commission of Human Rights), Thomas Project, Norwegian Refugee Council), Paul Révay
Hammerberg (Olof Palme Centre), Fen Hampson (Trilateral Commission), Iqbal Riza (UN
(Carleton University), Daniel Helle (ICRC), Arthur Secretariat), Santiago Romero-Perez (Inter-
Helton (Council on Foreign Relations), David Parliamentary Union), Emma Rothschild
Heymann (WHO), Michael Ignatieff (Harvard (Cambridge University), Barnett Rubin (New York
University), Rolf Jenny (IMP, Geneve), Soren University), Gita Sen (Indian Institute of
Jessen-Petersen (Stability Pact for South Eastern Management), Kenji Shibuya (WHO), Olive
Europe), Anders Johnsson (Inter-Parliamentary Shisana (Human Sciences Research Council), Noala
Union), Mats Karlsson (World Bank), Hideko Skinner (UNICEF), Claire Slatter (DAWN), Fatou
Katsumata (JCIE), Inge Kaul (UNDP), Sanjeev Sow (DAWN Africa), Rodolfo Stavenhagen (Inter-
Khagram (Harvard University), Jenny Kimmins American Institute of Human Rights), Thorvald
(University of Sussex), Gary King (Harvard Stoltenberg (IDEA), Jonas Store (ECON, Oslo),
University), Margaret Kowalsky (Harvard Wun’ Gaeo Surichai (Chulalongkorn University),
University), K. Shiva Kumar (UNICEF), Frank Simon Szreter (Cambridge University), Rosemary

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Taylor (Tufts University), Antonio Augusto Bach, Robert. “Global Mobility, Inequality and
Cançado Trindade (Inter-American Court of Security.”
Human Rights), Mio Uchida (JCIE), Peter Uvin Barton, Frederick D.; John Hefferman and Andrea
(Tufts University), Hans van Ginkel (UNU), Armstrong. 2002. “Being Recognized as Citizens: A
Anthony van Niewoukerk (Africa Institute, South Human Security Dilemma in Sub-Saharan Africa,
Africa), Thomas Weiss (New York University), South, Central, and Southeast Asia, the Caucasus
Mary Wilson (Harvard University), Kelly Wong and Central and Eastern Europe: Lessons Learned
(University of Maryland), and Mark Zacher and Policy Recommendations.”
(University of British Columbia). Berlinguer, Giovanni. “Bioethics, Human Security, and
Special thanks to the assistants who supported Global Health.”
the Co-chairs: Claudia Fletcher, Ruth Easthope, Bettcher, Douglas, David Meddings and Roya Ghafele.
Rosanne Flynn. “Human Security, Public Health, and Violence.”
Caballero-Anthony, Mely. “Health and Human Security
Editing and production in Asia: Realities and Challenges.”
Communications Development Incorporated Chatterjee, Mirai, and M. Kent Ranson. “Exploring the
provided overall design direction, editing and Quality and Coverage of Community-based Health
layout, led by Bruce Ross-Larson and Meta de Insurance Among the Poor: The SEWA
Coquereaumont. The editing and production team Experience.”
consisted of Joseph Costello, Wendy Guyette, Chen, Lincoln and Vasant Narasimhan. “Human
Elizabeth McCrocklin and Elaine Wilson. Security: Opportunities for Global Health.”
Choduba, Johannes. 2002. “Being Recognized as
Selected background papers contributed to the Citizens: A Human Security Dilemma in Central
Commission and Eastern Europe.”
Note: The background papers represent the authors’ Clark, Michele Anne “Trafficking in Persons: An Issue of
views and do not necessarily represent the views of the Human Security.”
Commission or its members. Coletta, Nat J. “Human Security, Poverty and Conflict:
Adams, Alayne M., and Mushtaq Chowdhury. Implications for IFI Reform.”
“Harnessing Social Capital to Increase Health and Collins, Kathleen. 2002. “Human Security in Central
Human Security: The Social Action Agenda of an Asia: Challenges Posed by a Decade of
NGO in Bangladesh.” Transition.”
Albuquerque, Nazare. 2002. “The Transition from Relief Faubert, Carrol. 2002. “Refugee Security in Africa.”
to Development: A Human Security Gap” May. Gahr Store, Jonas. “Politics, Policies, and Global
Alkire, Sabina. “Conceptual Framework for Human Institutions.”
Security.” Garcia-Moreno, Claudia, and Sonali Johnson. “Gender
Armstrong, Andrea C. 2002. “Being Recognized as Insecurity and Health.”
Citizens: A Human Security Dilemma in Central Griffith-Jones, Stephanie and Jenny Kimmis. “Inter-
Asia and the Caucasus.” national Financial Volatility.”

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 About the Commission on Human Security
Hampson, Fen and Mark Zacher “Human Security and Ramcharan, Bertrand. 2001. “Human Rights and
International Collaboration: Some Lessons from Human Security.”
Public Goods Theory.” Schmeidl, Susanne and others. 2002. “The Transition
Heymann, David L. “The Evolving Infectious Disease from Relief to Development from a Human
Threat: Implications for National and Global Security Perspective: Afghanistan.”
Security.” Schoettle, Enid. “Three Additional Threats to Human
Hefferman, John. 2002. “Being Recognized as Citizens: Security: Transnational Organized Crime,
A Human Security Dilemma in South and Terrorism, and Weapons of Mass Destruction.”
Southeast Asia.” Shibuya, Kenji. “Global Health Risks to Human
Instituto Interamericano de Derechos Humanos. 2001. Security: Implications from the Global Burden of
“Relacion entreDerechos Humanos y Seguridad Disease 2000 Study.”
Humana.” Shisana, Olive, Nompumelelo Zungu-Dirwayi and
Khagram, Sanjeev, William C. Clark and Dana Firas William Shisana. “AIDS: A Threat to Human
Raad. “From the Environment and Human Security.”
Security to Sustainable Development and Szreter, Simon. “Health and Human Security in an
Comprehensive Security.” Historical Perspective.”
Kirby, Kay. “Displacement as Policy.” Prepared in Tadjbakhsh, Shahrbanou. 2002. “A Review of National
cooperation with the Internally Displaced Persons Human Development Report and Implications for
Project, Norwegian Refugee Council. Human Security.”
Lane, Melissa. “Human Rights and the Private Sector.” Thouez, Colleen. 2002. “Migration and Human
Leaning, Jennifer, Sam Arie and Gilbert Holleufer. Security.” Prepared by the International Migration
“Conflict and Human Security.” Policy Programme.
Michael, Sarah. “The Potential Contribution of NGOs Vaux, Tony and Frances Lund. “Overcoming Crisis:
to Achieving Human Security.” Working Women and Security—Experiences of the
Ntegaye, Gloria. 2002. “Being Recognized as Citizens: Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA),
A Human Security Dilemma in Sub-Saharan Gujarat, India.”
Africa.” Wilson, Mary E. “Globalization of Infectious Diseases.”

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