Applications of Xanthan Gum

George R. Sanderson,

Xanthan gum, the extracellular polysaccharide from Xantkornonas campestris, provides

aqueous solutions with properties that are extremely useful in a large number of industrial
applications, both food and non-food. These properties, a consequence of xanthan gum’s
particular molecular shape, are: high at-rest or low-shear viscosity even at low grim concen-
trations, yield value, high pseudoplasticity, increased viscosity in the presence of added
salt depending on gum concentration, stable viscosity over a wide range of temperature
and pH in the presence of added salt, synergistic increase in viscosity in the presence of
guar gum and locust bean gum, thermoreversible gelation with locust bean gum a t appro-
priate gum concentrations, a n d gelation with di- a n d trivalent metal ions and borates under
specific conditions. Xanthan gum is thus an excellent stabiliser for a wide variety of
suspensions, emulsions, and foams and is highly effective over a range of temperature,
pH and ionic strength. In addition, its pseudoplasticity allows the formulation of
products which require not only high at-rest viscosity but also low viscosity under high-
shear application conditions.

-
1 INTRODUCTION foams gas dispersions. In all of these systems there is a
tendency for the dispersed phase to destabilise or separate.
Polysaccharides find widespread use in today’s industrial Addition of the appropriate polysaccharides‘to provide
world as thickeners, stabilisers, gelling agents and, in some viscosity to the aqueous phase can minimise this tendency.
cases, emulsifiers. Their function is t o provide end products Stabilisation is favoured not only by high solution viscosity
with enhanced stability or superior characteristics when but also by the existence of a solution yield value, defined
used and/or to increase processing efficiency. Applications as the shear stress or applied force below which the solution
are normally divided into those related to food and those will not flow. Clearly, if the suspended particles do not
pertaining to non-food systems, often referred to as indus- exert a force in excess of the yield value they cannot separ-
trial applications. An obvious reason for this division is the ate and remain effectively dispersed. Many products, for
fact that many polysaccharides which can be used freely in example paints, cleaners, and abrasives, require not only
the latter are not permitted by law as food additives. Clearly, effective stabilisation of their active ingredients but also
this consideration is fundamental to the food technologist’s low viscosity during application. In these cases, polysacc-
choice of polysaccharide for a specific application. Before harides which impart high at rest viscosity and a yield value
proceeding, a brief description of the basic concepts but thin under high shear are ideal.
associated with polysaccharide application, namely thicken-
ing, stabilisation, gelation and emulsification, is appropriate. Gelation
Although all water-soluble polysaccharides provide viscosity
Thickening, which is implied in the often used terms body,
to a greater or lesser extent, only a few have the ability to
mouthfeel and texture, refers to viscosity. Viscosity is the
resistance to flow of a liquid and is defined as the ratio of form gels. Gelation results from intermolecular associations
shear stress to shear rate, where shear stress is the applied which give rise to a macroscopic three-dimensional network
force and shear rate is the rate at which the liquid is being within which the aqueous system is bound. Association may
deformed, Only in a small number of liquid systems is the involve the same or different molecular species * and is
shear stress proportional to shear rate. These are referred to brought about by alteration of temperature or chemically by
as Newtonian liquids and are characterised by viscosities the addition of an appropriate reagent. Gels can be consider-
kdependent of shear rate. ed intermediates between solids and liquids and possess
properties of both. For instance, the entrapped water retains
Most polysaccharide solutsions exhibit non-Newtonian flow many characteristics of liquid water. Gelling systems are
and increasing shear rate can result in either a decrease or utilised in a range of products and processes.
increase in viscosity. In other words, the solutions are shear
thinning or shear thickening. They are respectively describ- Emulsions
ed as being pseudoplastic or dilatant if, on removal of the In the preparation of emulsions, an emulsifier is required to
shearing force, they immediately revert to their original reduce interfacial surface tension so that extremely fine
state. Thixotropic and rheopectic solutions, respectively, droplets of dispersed liquid can be formed. In most cases,
are related to pseudoplastic and dilatant systems but require polysaccharides do not function as emulsifiers but are used
an interval of time to recover viscosity after removal of to provide emulsion stability.
the shearing force. In considering viscosity it is therefore From the preceding, it is apparent that the suitability of a
essential also t o consider application shear rate. particular polysaccharide for any application, food or other-
Stabilisation with polysaccharides applies to aqueous dis- wise, is determined by its functional properties in solution.
persions where the continuous phase is water and the dis- Solution properties are a direct consequence of molecular
persed phase can be either solid, liquid or gas. Suspensions shape and since polysaccharides can have vastly different
are solid dispersions, emulsions liquid dispersions, and shapes they also can provide vastly different solution pro-
perties. It follows, therefore, that an ‘all purpose’ poly-
saccharide does not exist, and that some polysaccharides
Kelco, 8355 Aero Drive, San Diego. Californk 92123, USA. are more versatile than others. A particularly versatile

THE BRITISH POLYMER JOURNAL, VOLUME 13, JUNE 1981 71

material, which is being used in ever-increasing quantity
in a wide range of both food and non-food systems, is
xanthan gum, the extracellular polysaccharide from
Xanthomonas campestris. Xanthan gum often is referred
to as Keltrol CD or Kelzan @, the marketed tradenames
RIGID ROD
adopted by Kelco for the food and industrial grades of
xanthan gum respectively. RANDOM COIL

Fig.2 Molecular shape of xanthan gum in solution.

2. MOLECULAR SHAPE AND SOLUTION PROPERTIES high. This increase, which levels off at approximately 0.08
per cent added salt, is attributed to further stabilisation of
Tn recent years, xanthan gum has been studied extensively the ordered conformation in the presence of salt. This
at the molecular level by a number of investigators. The salt-stabilised conformation is also responsible for the main-
primary or covalent structure is now well e ~ t a b l i s h e d , ~ * ~ tenance of viscosity of xanthan solutions at elevated tem-
and use of techniques such as X-ray ~rystallography,~ peratures and over a wide pH range. Again this is in con-
electron microscopy,5 nuclear magnetic resonance (n.m.r.), trast to other polysaccharides which normally show a
optical rotation, circular dichroism 6*7 and rheological reduction in viscosity as the temperature is raised or at high
evaluations 6-8 has enabled the unique solution properties and low pH, if the polysaccharide is charged.
to be rationalised on a molecular basis. These unique
properties give rise to the diverse applications of xanthan A further consequence of the unique structure of the xanthan
gum. molecule is the synergistic interaction with galactomannans,
notably locust bean (or carob) gum and guar gum. The
The primary structure is shown in Fig. 1. The molecule has former gives the more pronounced effect and xanthan gum/
a backbone identical to cellulose, namely a linear chain of locust bean gum blends are excellent thermoreversible gelling
/3-1,4-linked D-glucose units. Attached at the C-3 systems. The latter does not gel with xanthan gum but
position of every second of these units is a three-unit side gives a very useful synergistic increase in viscosity. Viscosity
chain consisting of two D -mannose residues and one D - enhancement or gels also can be obtained with di- and
glucuronic acid residue. The exact structure of the side trivalent cations and borates, depending on their concentra.
chain is as follows: D-mannose 1 1 4 D-glucuronic acid tion and solution pH.
1 2 2 D-mannose 1 3 3 backbone. In addition, the
manno nose unit closest to the backbone has an acetyl The key solution properties which are responsible for
group at C-6, and approximately half of the terminal xanthan gum's diverse applications can thus be summarised
D- mannose residues have pyruvic acid ketalically linked as follows:
to the 4- and 6-- positions. As a result of this covalent or high at-rest or low-shear viscosity, even at very low
primary structure, the molecule exists in solution over a gum concentrations (Fig. 3),
wide temperature range as a rigid rod stabilised by non-
yield value,
covalent interactions between the side chains and the
This ordered structure, shown in Fig. 2, high pseudoplasticity, i.e., highly shear thinning (Fig.
permits weak intermolecular associations, which result 41,
in solutions with very high at-rest or low-shear viscosities. increased viscosity in the presence of salt (Fig. 5),
Under the influence of small applied forces these solutions
maintenance of viscosity at elevated temperature, in
may totally resist flow, thus exhibiting a yield value. As the
the presence of low levels of salt (Fig. 6),
shearing force is increased, the molecules progressively align
with the shearing force and viscosity falls dramatically. In stable viscosity over a wide pH range@ the presence
other words, xanthan gum solutions are shear thinning and of low levels of salt. It is noteworthy that optimum
exhibit a high degree of pseudoplasticity. performance of xanthan gum solutions requires the
presence of small amounts of some type of salt.
Unlike most charged polysaccharides which show a reduc- Usually the salts present in tap water are sufficient
tion in viscosity in the presence of salt because of charge to produce the desired effect (Fig. 7),
screening, xanthan gum shows an increase in viscosity with
added salt, provided the gum concentration is sufficiently thermoreversible gelation in the presence of locust
bean gum (Fig. 8),
synergistic viscosity increase in the presence of guar
gum (Fig. 9), and
viscosity increase or gelation with di- and trivalent
metal ions and borates under suitable conditions
(Fig. 10).
Although most of these figures relate to food-grade xanthan
gum, similar behaviour is shown by industrial-grade xanthan
H O W gum. The numerous applications of xanthan gum are readily
envisaged from its solution properties and have been exten-
M = Na,K,MCa sively reviewed, particularly those applications relating to
A-0. /
fo~d.~-lj

3. FOOD APPLICATIONS

Xanthan gum is already a permitted food additive in many

Fig. 1 The primary structure of xanthan gum. countries and its usage is steadily expanding. Its high at-rest

72 THE BRITISH POLYMER JOURNAL, VOLUME 13, JUNE 1981

 IoK 1I
0
0

Salt Concentration, %(NaCI)

Fig.5 Effect of salt concentration on xanthan gum solution viscosity.
0.1 % NaCl
IOK

0.5 1.0 1.5 2

Concentration -
Fig.3 Effect of xanthan gum concentration on solution viscosity.
-
a
V

c
1K
0
2
>
100K
c
3 10K
1
8
52 1K
24 40 73 97
TEMPERATURE ("C)
52
Fig.6 Effect of temperature on xanthan gum solution viscosity.
; 100
dn 10K

a 10

1
I I I I I I I I
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1K 10K 100K
-
c
SHEAR RATE (sec - 1)
21
5 1K
0

Fig.4 Effect of shear rate on viscosity of xanthan gum solutions. 0

5

viscosity and yield value impart excellent emulsion stability

to pourable dressings. In addition, as a result of xanthan
gum's pseudoplasticity, these products pour easily from the
bottle, have very good mouthfeel and flavour release, and
100
show good adhesion or cling to salads. Xanthan gum's
stability at low pH and effectiveness at low concentrations Pn
are significant advantages in such applications. Spoonable Fig.7 Effect of pH on xanthan gum solution viscosity.
dressings are similarly improved by the inclusion of xanthan
gum which also is used as a partial replacement for starch to resulting in savings in time and cast. As well as having ex-
reduce the pasty mouthfeel associated with starch usage. cellent texture, mouthfeel and flavour release, the bakery
Xanthan gum is readily dispersed in hot and cold water to fiuings containing xanthan gum do not soak into the pastry
give rapid viscosity build-up and therefore enables easy pre- because of their high at-rest viscosity. The stable viscosity
paration of dry mix products such as sauces, gravies, milk over a wide temperature range means that these and other
shakes, beverages, dressings and desserts. Bakery fillings products maintain their body at high temperatures and do
and emulsions of superior quality can be prepared cold, not become particularly thick under refrigeration.

THE BRITISH POLYMER JOURNAL; VOLUME 13, JUNE 1981 73

 In the preparation of canned foods, xanthan gum provides
very effective viscosity control during processing and its
shear-thinning properties make pumping and fding oper-
ations easier. Heat penetration is improved by the partial
replacement of starch with xanthan gum, resulting in an end-
product of improved organoleptic quality. Starch/xanthan
gum combinations are currently under active study with a
view to modifying starch functionality without recourse to
chemical deri~atisati0n.l~An established use of xanthan
gum in this context is in starch-based frozen foods, where
addition of small amounts gives improved freeze-thaw
stability. Used alone, the gum also provides freeze-thaw
stability to products such as dressings, sauces and gravies.
The inclusion of low levels of xanthan gum in juice drinks
results in effective suspension of fruit pulp, giving uniformity
Percent of KELTROL of flavour, body and mouthfeel. The pourability of syrups
Fig.8 Gel strength of a 1% xanthan gum/locust bean gum gcl as a and their cling to ice-cream, pancakes, fruit and other pro-
function of colloid ratio. ducts are also improved by the presence of xanthan gum.
Use of xanthan gum in relishes involves no cooking in pre-
paration and hence no loss of liquor during fding. In addi-
tion, the cling of the relish to hotdogs and hamburgers is
enhanced and sogginess in the rolls and buns is minimised
by the use of xanthan gum. Liquid cattle feed supplements
and calf milk replacers represent two important new uses for
xanthan gum. In these products, its function is to provide
effective suspension of the active ingredients and minimise
sedimentation prior to consumption.
As already described, use of locust bean gum or guar gum
with xanthan gum results in a synergistic viscosity increase,
and blends of xanthan gum with guar gum and/or lucust
bean gum are sometimes preferred to xanthan gum alone in
product applications. For example, a xanthan gum/locust
bean gum blend significantly improves product mouthfeel
when used as a partial replacement for starch. Combinations
of xanthan gum, locust bean gum and guar gum enhance the
texture of processed cheese spreads and give uniformity and
stability to cottage cheese dressings. Efficient stabilisation
of ice-cream arid milk shakes can be obtained with this
triple combination. A number of products utilising the
xanthan gum/locust bean gum gelling system also have been
developed. These include pet foods, desserts, pie fillings,
chip dips and tomato aspic.
1c
guar 0 25 50 75 100
xanthan gum 100 75 50 25 0 4. NON-FOOD APPLICATIONS
% Total gum
Xanthan gum/guar gum viscosity synergism.
The widespread non-food or industrial applications of
Fig.9
xanthan gum are again a consequence of its unique solution
properties, notably high at-rest viscosity, yield value, high
level of pseudoplasticity, and tolerance to changes in temper-
ature, pH and ionic strength. Excellent suSpension of
agricultural chemicals such as herbicides, pesticides, fertilisers
and fungicides can be obtained with xanthan gum. More-
over, control of drift during spraying is provided and the
products cling well to the crop, permitting efficient and
economical use of the active compounds. The ingredients in
ceramic glazes and polishes of different types also can be
stabilised by the inclusion of xanthan gum. Similarly, the
reagglomeration of pigments during storage or transport is
reduced markedly with xanthan gum.
As well as imparting high tems,
xanthan gum, because of ity, also
permits these systems to be easily applied under high shear
conditions. Thus,in textile dyeing, effective suspension of
the dye pigments is coupled with controlled and easy applic-
p H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 ation. Xanthan gum's unique rheological profde is very
Fig. 10 Metallic ion-xanthan gum reactivity. effectively used in thiiotropic paints. At rest, the pigments

74 THE BRITISH POLYMER JOURNAL, VOLUME 13, JUNE 1981

remain well dispersed as a result of the high viscosity and xanthan gum and locust bean gum to set by cooling. Con-
yield value. During application, pseudoplasticity comes into trolled release of the active ingredients is obtained. The
play and brushing, which involves high shear, is easy while particular properties of the xanthan gum/locust bean gum
recovery on removal of shear is rapid, preventing sagging but gelling system are used advantageously in explosives and
allowing sufficient time for brush marks to disappear. Other photographic processing. In these two examples, compat-
products in which xanthan gum is used to provide good dis- ibility of the xanthan gum/locust bean gum combination
persion stability at rest and low viscosity under application with inorganic nitrates and photographic processing
shear are abrasives, adhesives, refractories, and toothpaste. chemicals, respectively, is an essential requirement.
Toothpaste formulated with xanthan gum flows readily from Indeed, the diverse applications of xanthan gum, in both
the tube and allows good abrasion during brushing but food and non-food systems, illustrate its high compatibility
remains thick and firm on the brush under shear free with a wide range of materials. These include acids, bases,
conditions. salts, reducing agents, thickeners, solvents, enzymes, sur-
Use of xanthan gum as a processing aid in the mining and factants, preservatives, and latex emulsions.'
petroleum industries is now well established. It controls
the settling rate of ores during sedimentation and acts as a
flocculant during flotation. In the pumping of pulverised References
ore slurries, xanthan gum helps reduce drag by up to 65 per Rees, D. A . & Welsh, E. J., AnRcw. Chcm. Int. Ed. Engl.,
cent under low shear conditions. In the petroleum industry, 1977, 16,214.
xanthan gum imparts the desired viscosity characteristics to Jansson, P. E.,Kenne, L. & Lingberg, B., Carbohyd. Res.,
oil well drilling fluids and also is used in flooding, completion 1975,45,275.
Melton, L. D., Mindt, L., Rees, D. A. & Sanderson, G. R.,
fracturing and workover fluids. Special grades of the poly- Carhohyd. R e x , 1976,46,245.
mer have been developed by Kelco for these petroleum related Moorhouse, R., Walkinshaw, M. D. & Arnott, S., in Extra-
applications. cellular microhial polysaccharidcs, A.C.S. Symposium
Series, Washington D.C., 1977,45,90.
As described earlier, xanthan gum can form gels with di- Holzwarth, G.& Prestridge, E. B., Science, N . Y . , 1977, 197,
and trivalent metal ions when concentration and pH are 757.
suitable. These gels are utilised in the formulation of frac- Morris, E.R., Rees, D. A., Young, G., Walkinshaw, M. D. &
turing fluids to provide high viscosity and suspension of Darke, A., J. Mol. Biol.. 1977, 110, 1.
Morris, E. R., in Extracellular microhial polysaccharides.
propping agents during pumping operations. Other useful A.C.S. Symposium Series, Washington D.C., 1977,45,81.
gelling systems are xanthan gum/borax blends, for explosives, Hsia Chen, C. S. & Sheppard, E. W., J. Macromol. Sci. Chcm.,
and xanthan gum/iron blends, for reducing the usage level of 1979,A13(2), 239.
ureaformaldehyde resins in particle board manufacture. Rocks, J. K., Fd. Technol., 1971,25, 22.
McNeeley, W. 1-1. & Kang, K. S., in Industrial gums, 2nd Edn.,
Combinations of xanthan gum and galactomannans, particu- 1973,p473,New York: Academic Press.
larly locust bean gum, also are important in industrial applic- Andrew, T. R., in Exfraccllular microbial polysaccharides,
ations. Xantham gum/locust bean gum blends can be used A.C.S. Symposium Series, Washington D.C., 1977,45, 231.
Pettitt, D. J., in Polysaccharides in food, 1979,p263,London:
in place of xanthan gum alone in agriculture sprays and Buttenvorths.
provide a highly stable fine bubble structure in agricultural Cottrell, I. W., Kang, K. S. & Kovacs, P., in Handbook of
foams. The high viscosity imparted to fire fighting fluids by water-soluble gums and resins, 1980,p24,New York:
the inclusion of low cencentrations of xanthan gum/locust McCraw-Hill.
bean gum improves their cling to the foliage. The effective- 14 Selected tcchnology for licensing, U.S. Department of
Commerce, Article No. NTN/SP-77/1044.
ness of paper-sizing operations also is increased by use of the 15 Xanthan gum, Keltrol, Kelzan, a natural biopolysaccharide
xanthan gum/locust bean gum system. Deodorant gels are for scientific water control, Kelco Technical Information
easily prepared by allowing hot solutions containing both Booklet.

T H E BRITISH POLYMER JOURNAL, VOLUME 13, JUNE 1981 75