The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design/

plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary. The primary data are
those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have
to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he
will have to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of collecting primary
and secondary data differ since primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of
secondary data the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation. We describe the
different methods of data collection, with the pros and cons of each method.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in
case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census
surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.* This, in
other words, means

* An experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable under test is isolated and its
effect(s) measured.

In an experiment the investigator measures the effects of an experiment which he conducts

intentionally. Survey refers to the method of securing information concerning a phenomena under
study from all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe. In a survey, the
investigator examines those phenomena which exist in the universe independent of his action. The
difference between an experiment and a survey can be depicted as under:

Surveys
Experiments
can be studied through
determine
Possible relationships between the data and the unknowns in the universe
Economic
Psychological
Others

Research Methodology

that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. Important ones are: (i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through
questionnaires, (iv) through schedules, and (v) other methods which include (a) warranty cards; (b)
distributor audits; (c) pantry audits; (d) consumer panels; (e) using mechanical devices; (f) through
projective techniques; (g) depth interviews, and (h) content analysis. We briefly take up each method
separately.

Observation Method

The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected
to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is
sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For
instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist
watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is
that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information obtained
under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past
behaviour or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’
willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of
respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is
particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of
giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other

However, observation method has various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly,
the information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may
interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to
direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.

While using this method, the researcher should keep in mind things like: What should be observed?
How the observations should be recorded? Or how the accuracy of observation can be ensured? In case
the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the style of recording
the observed information, standardised conditions of observation and the selection of pertinent data of
observation, then the observation is called as structured observation. But when observation is to take
place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termeda s

unstructured observation. Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies,

whereas in an exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured.

We often talk about participant and non-participant types of observation in the context of studies,
particularly of social sciences. This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing
the life of the group he is observing. If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a
member of the group he is observing so that he can experience what the members of the group
experience, the observation is called as the participant observation. But when the observer observes
as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part to experience through participation what
others feel, the observation of this type is often termed as non-participant observation. (When the
observer is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is
observing, such an observation is described as disguised observation.)

Methods of Data Collection

There are several merits of the participant type of observation: (i) The researcher is enabled to
record the natural behaviour of the group. (ii) The researcher can even gather information which
could not easily be obtained if he observes in a disinterested fashion. (iii) The researcher can even
verify the truth of statements made by informants in the context of a questionnaire or a schedule.
But there are also certain demerits of this type of observation viz., the observer may lose the
objectivity to the extent he participates emotionally; the problem of observation-control is not
solved; and it may narrow-down the researcher’s range of experience.

Sometimes we talk ofc o n t ro l l e d and uncontrolled observation. If the observation takes place in
the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation, but when observation takes place
according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed
controlled observation. In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to use precision
instruments. The major aim of this type of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life and
persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient
time for observing it. But in controlled observation, we use mechanical (or precision) instruments as
aids to accuracy and standardisation. Such observation has a tendency to supply formalised data
upon which generalisations can be built with some degree of assurance. The main pitfall of non-
controlled observation is that of subjective interpretation. There is also the danger of having the
feeling that we know more about the observed phenomena than we actually do. Generally, controlled
observation takes place in various experiments that are carried out in a laboratory or under controlled
conditions, whereas uncontrolled observation is resorted to in case of exploratory researches.

Interview Method

The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.

(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times the
interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but usually the
interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of interview may be in the
form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct
personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected.
This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations. But in certain cases it may not be
possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive
scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used. In such cases an
indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other
persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the
information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees appointed by
government to carry on investigations make use of this method.

The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured interviews. Such interviews involve
the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardised techniques of recording.
Thus,

(b) Telephone interviews: This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents
on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial
surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are:

1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.

2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response
is generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one
reason or the other.
9. No field staff is required.
10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
But this system of collecting information is not free from demerits. Some of these may be
highlighted.
1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to

exceed five minutes in most cases.

2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.

4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various
questions.
5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It is being
adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations and even by
governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of
questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed
to respondents who are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in
the space meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the
questions on their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this method
are as follows:

1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.

2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.

3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and

reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain
questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for testing
the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt very much. Pilot survey
is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such a survey, being conducted by experts,
brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the questionnaires and also of the survey techniques.
From the experience gained in this way, improvement can be effected.

Main aspects of a questionnaire:Quite often questionnaire is considered as the heart of a

survey operation. Hence it should be very carefully constructed. If it is not properly set up, then the
survey is bound to fail. This fact requires us to study the main aspects of a questionnaire viz., the
general form, question sequence and question formulation and wording. Researcher should note the
following with regard to these three main aspects of a questionnaire:

1. General form: So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured
or unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are
definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same
wording and in the same order to all respondents. Resort is taken to this sort of standardisation to ensure
that all respondents reply to the same set of questions. The form of the question may be either closed
(i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and
not constructed during questioning. Structured questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions
in which responses of the informants are limited to the stated alternatives. Thus a highly structured
questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondent’s
own words are held to the minimum. When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it
can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically, we can say that in an
unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of information
to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to
be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible; in some situations tape recorders
may be used to achieve this goal.

Structured questionnaires are simple to administer and relatively inexpensive to analyse. The provision
of alternative replies, at times, helps to understand the meaning of the question clearly. But such
questionnaires have limitations too. For instance, wide range of data and that too in respondent’s own
words cannot be obtained with structured questionnaires. They are usually considered inappropriate in
investigations where the aim happens to be to probe for attitudes and reasons for certain actions or
feelings. They are equally not suitable when a problem is being first explored and working hypotheses
sought. In such situations, unstructured questionnaires may be used effectively. Then on the basis of the
results obtained in pretest (testing before final use) operations from the use of unstructured
questionnaires, one can construct a structured questionnaire for use in the main study.

2. Question sequence: In order to make the questionnaire effective and to ensure quality to the replies
received, a researcher should pay attention to the question-sequence in preparing the questionnaire. A
proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being
misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the
relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are
easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The first few questions are particularly important because
they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation. The
opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest. The following type of questions should
generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire:

1. questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent;
2. questions of a personal character;
3. questions related to personal wealth, etc.

Following the opening questions, we should have questions that are really vital to the research
problem and a connecting thread should run through successive questions. Ideally, the question-
sequence should conform to the respondent’s way of thinking. Knowing what information is desired,
the researcher can rearrange the order of the questions (this is possible in case of unstructured
questionnaire) to fit the discussion in each particular case. But in a structured questionnaire the best
that can be done is to determine the question-sequence with the help of a Pilot Survey which is likely
to produce good rapport with most respondents. Relatively difficult questions must be relegated
towards the end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable
information would have already been obtained. Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the
general to the more specific and the researcher must always remember that the answer to a given
question is a function not only of the question itself, but of all previous questions as well. For
instance, if one question deals with the price usually paid for coffee and the next with reason for
preferring that particular brand, the answer to this latter question may be couched largely in terms of
price- differences.

3. Question formulation and wording: With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher
should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable
harm to a survey. Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true
state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well
thought out tabulation plan. In general, all questions should meet the following standards—(a)
should be easily understood; (b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time; (c)
should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking.
(For instance, instead of asking. “How many razor blades do you use annually?” The more realistic
question would be to ask, “How many razor blades did you use last week?

Concerning the form of questions, we can talk about two principal forms, viz., multiple choice
question and the open-end question. In the former the respondent selects one of the alternative
possible answers put to him, whereas in the latter he has to supply the answer in his own words. The
question with only two possible answers (usually ‘Yes’ or ‘No’) can be taken as a special case of the
multiple choice question, or can be named as a ‘closed question.’ There are some advantages and
disadvantages of each possible form of question. Multiple choice or closed questions have the
advantages of easy handling, simple to answer, quick and relatively inexpensive to analyse. They are
most amenable to statistical analysis. Sometimes, the provision of alternative replies helps to make
clear the meaning of the question. But the main drawback of fixed alternative questions is that of
“putting answers in people’s mouths” i.e., they may force a statement of opinion on an issue about
which the respondent does not infact have any opinion. They are not appropriate when the issue
under consideration happens to be a complex one and also when the interest of the researcher is in
the exploration of a process. In such situations, open-ended questions which are designed to permit a
free response from the respondent rather than one limited to certain stated alternatives are considered
appropriate. Such questions give the respondent considerable latitude in phrasing a reply. Getting the
replies in respondent’s own words is, thus, the major advantage of open-ended questions. But one
should not forget that, from an analytical point of view, open-ended questions are more difficult to
handle, raising problems of interpretation, comparability and interviewer bias.*

In practice, one rarely comes across a case when one questionnaire relies on one form of
questions alone. The various forms complement each other. As such questions of different forms
are included in one single questionnaire. For instance, multiple-choice questions constitute the
basis of a structured questionnaire, particularly in a mail survey. But even there, various open-
ended questions are generally inserted to provide a more complete picture of the respondent’s
feelings and attitudes.

Researcher must pay proper attention to the wordings of questions since reliable and
meaningful returns depend on it to a large extent. Since words are likely to affect responses, they
should be properly chosen. Simple words, which are familiar to all respondents should be
employed. Words with ambiguous meanings must be avoided. Similarly, danger words, catch-
words or words with emotional connotations should be avoided. Caution must also be exercised in
the use of phrases which reflect upon the prestige of the respondent. Question wording, in no case,
should bias the answer. In fact, question wording and formulation is an art and can only be learnt
by practice.

Essentials of a good questionnaire: To be successful, questionnaire should be comparatively

Short and simple i.e., the size of the questionnaire should be kept to the minimum. Questions should
proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more difficult questions. Personal and intimate
questions should be left to the end. Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different
interpretations should be avoided in a questionnaire. Questions may be dichotomous (yes or no
answers), multiple choice (alternative answers listed) or open-ended. The latter type of questions are
often difficult to analyse and hence should be avoided in a questionnaire to the extent possible. There
should be some control questions in the questionnaire which indicate the reliability of the
respondent. For instance, a question designed to determine the consumption of particular material
may be asked first in terms of financial expenditure and later in terms of weight. The control questions,
thus, introduce a cross-check to see whether the information collected is correct or not. Questions
affecting the sentiments of respondents should be avoided. Adequate space for answers should be
provided in the questionnaire to help editing and tabulation. There should always be provision for
indications of uncertainty, e.g., “do not know,” “no preference” and so on. Brief directions with regard
to filling up the questionnaire should invariably be given in the questionnaire itself. Finally, the physical
appearance of the questionnaire affects the cooperation the researcher receives from the recipients and
as such an attractive looking questionnaire, particularly in mail surveys, is a plus point for enlisting
cooperation. The quality of the paper, along with its colour, must be good so that it may attract the
attention of recipients.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES

This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with
little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators
along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the
questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma. In certain
situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in
recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules. Enumerators explain the aims and
objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult
terms.
This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to
fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The enumerators should
be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained
to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in
the schedule. Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross- examination
in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have
patience and perseverance.

This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable
results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted
through this method.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES

Both questionnaire and schedule are popularly used methods of collecting data in research surveys.
There is much resemblance in the nature of these two methods and this fact has made many people
to remark that from a practical point of view, the two methods can be taken to be the same. But
from the technical point of view there is difference between the two. The important points of
difference are as under:

1. The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified

in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule
is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions
when necessary.

2. To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend
money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field
staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable
amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing training to them.
Money is also spent in preparing schedules.

3. Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many
return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains
indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because
these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the
danger of interviewer bias and cheating.

4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the
identity of respondent is known.

5. The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the
questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected
well in time as they are filled in by enumerators.
6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires
are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules
direct personal contact is established with respondents.

7. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case
of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate.

8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire
method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators
over a relatively wider area.

9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire
method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules,
the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties,
if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a result, the information
collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires.

10. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but
in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators.

11. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must
be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by
enumerators and not by respondents.

12. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible
while collecting data through questionnaires.

SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Let us consider some other methods of data collection, particularly used by big business houses in
modern times.
1. Warranty cards:Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of

consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is
printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along
with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

2. Distributor or store audits:Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as

manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited
through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing
pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation. For
instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of stores is visited periodically and data are recorded
on inventories on hand either by observation or copying from store records. Store audits are invariably
panel operations, for the derivation of sales estimates and compilation of sales trends by stores are their
principal ‘raison detre’. The principal advantage of this method is that it offers the most efficient way
of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store promotion.

3. Pantry audits:Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at

the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities
and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the examination
of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out what types of consumers
buy certain products and certain brands, the assumption being that the contents of the pantry
accurately portray consumer’s preferences. Quite often, pantry audits are supplemented by direct
questioning relating to reasons and circumstances under which particular products were purchased
in an attempt to relate these factors to purchasing habits. A pantry audit may or may not be set up
as a panel operation, since a single visit is often considered sufficient to yield an accurate picture of
consumers’ preferences. An important limitation of pantry audit approach is that, at times, it may
not be possible to identify consumers’ preferences from the audit data alone, particularly when
promotion devices produce a marked rise in sales.

4. Consumer panels:An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as

‘consumer panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain
detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on demands.
In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are interviewed repeatedly
over a period of time. Mostly consume panels are of two types viz., the transitory consumer panel and
the continuing consumer panel. A transitory consumer panel is set up to measure the effect of a
particular phenomenon. Usually such a panel is conducted on a before-and-after-basis. Initial interviews
are conducted before the phenomenon takes place to record the attitude of the consumer. A second set
of interviews is carried out after the phenomenon has taken place to find out the consequent changes
that might have occurred in the consumer’s attitude. It is a favourite tool of advertising and of social
research. A continuing consumer panel is often set up for an indefinite period with a view to collect
data on a particular aspect of consumer behaviour over time, generally at periodic intervals or may be
meant to serve as a general purpose panel for researchers on a variety of subjects. Such panels have
been used in the area of consumer expenditure, public opinion and radio and TV listenership

brand names possessing one or more of these. This technique is quick and easy to use, but yields
reliable results when applied to words that are widely known and which possess essentially one
type of meaning. This technique is frequently used in advertising research.

(ii) Sentence completion tests: These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word
association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a sentence (such as: persons who wear
Khadi are...) to find association of Khadi clothes with certain personality characteristics. Several
sentences of this type might be put to the informant on the same subject. Analysis of replies from the
same informant reveals his attitude toward that subject, and the combination of these attitudes of all the
sample members is then taken to reflect the views of the population. This technique permits the testing
not only of words (as in case of word association tests), but of ideas as well and thus, helps in developing
hypotheses and in the construction of questionnaires. This technique is also quick and easy to use, but it
often leads to analytical problems, particularly when the response happens to be multidimensional.

(iii) Story completion tests: Such tests are a step further wherein the researcher may contrive stories
instead of sentences and ask the informants to complete them. The respondent is given just enough
of story to focus his attention on a given subject and he is asked to supply a conclusion to the story.

(iv) Verbal projection tests: These are the tests wherein the respondent is asked to comment on or
to explain what other people do. For example, why do people smoke? Answers may reveal the
respondent’s own motivations.

(v) Pictorial techniques: There are several pictorial techniques. The important ones are as follows:

(a)Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.): The TAT consists of a set of pictures (some of the pictures
deal with the ordinary day-to-day events while others may be ambiguous pictures of unusual situations)
that are shown to respondents who are asked to describe what they think the pictures represent. The
replies of respondents constitute the basis for the investigator to draw inferences about their
personality structure, attitudes, etc.

(b)Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format wherein we have a series of cartoons with
words inserted in ‘balloons’ above. The respondent is asked to put his own words in an empty
balloon space provided for the purpose in the picture. From what the respondents write in this
fashion, the study of their attitudes can be made.

(c)Rorschach test: This test consists of ten cards having prints of inkblots. The design happens to be
symmetrical but meaningless. The respondents are asked to describe what they perceive in such
symmetrical inkblots and the responses are interpreted on the basis of some pre-determined
psychological framework. This test is frequently used but the problem of validity still remains a
major problem of this test.

(d)Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT): This test from W.H. Holtzman is a modification of the Rorschach
Test explained above. This test consists of 45 inkblot cards (and not 10 inkblots as we find in case of
Rorschach Test) which are based on colour, movement, shading and other factors involved in inkblot
perception. Only one response per card is obtained from the subject (or the respondent) and the
responses of a subject are interpreted at three levels of form appropriateness. Form responses are
interpreted for knowing the accuracy (F) or inaccuracy (F–) of respondent’s percepts; shading and
colour for ascertaining his affectional and emotional needs; and movement responses for assessing the
dynamic aspects of his life.

Holtzman Inkblot Test or H.I.T. has several special features or advantages. For example, it elicits
relatively constant number of responses per respondent. Secondly, it facilitates studying the
responses of a respondent to different cards in the light of norms of each card instead of lumping
them together. Thirdly, it elicits much more information from the respondent then is possible with
merely 10 cards in Rorschach test; the 45 cards used in this test provide a variety of stimuli to the
respondent and as such the range of responses elicited by the test is comparatively wider.

There are some limitations of this test as well. One difficulty that remains in using this test is that
most of the respondents do not know the determinants of their perceptions, but for the researcher,
who has to interpret the protocols of a subject and understand his personality (or attitude) through
them, knowing the determinant of each of his response is a must. This fact emphasises that the test
must be administered individually and a post-test inquiry must as well be conducted for knowing
the nature and sources of responses and this limits the scope of HIT as a group test of personality.
Not only this, “the usefulness of HIT for purposes of personal selection, vocational guidance, etc.
is still to be established.”1

In view of these limitations, some people have made certain changes in applying this test. For
instance, Fisher and Cleveland in their approach for obtaining Barrier score of an individual’s
personality have developed a series of multiple choice items for 40 of HIT cards. Each of these
cards is presented to the subject along with three acceptable choices [such as ‘Knight in armour’
(Barrier response), ‘X-Ray’ (Penetrating response) and ‘Flower’ (Neutral response)]. Subject
taking the test is to check the choice he likes most, make a different mark against the one he likes
least and leave the third choice blank. The number of barrier responses checked by him determines
his barrier score on the test.

(e)Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement test: This test is designed for group administration. It
consists of twenty-five plates, each containing three sketches that may be arranged in different
ways to portray sequence of events. The respondent is asked to arrange them in a sequence which
he considers as reasonable. The responses are interpreted as providing evidence confirming certain
norms, respondent’s attitudes, etc.

(vi) Play techniques: Under play techniques subjects are asked to improvise or act out a situation in
which they have been assigned various roles. The researcher may observe such traits as hostility,
dominance, sympathy, prejudice or the absence of such traits. These techniques have been used for
knowing the attitudes of younger ones through manipulation of dolls. Dolls representing different racial
groups are usually given to children who are allowed to play with them freely. The manner in which
children organise dolls would indicate their attitude towards the class of persons represented by dolls.
This is also known as doll-play test, and is used frequently in studies pertaining to sociology. The
choice of colour, form, words, the sense of orderliness and other reactions may provide opportunities to
infer deep-seated feelings.

(vii)Quizzes, tests and examinations: This is also a technique of extracting information regarding
specific ability of candidates indirectly. In this procedure both long and short questions are framed
to test through them the memorising and analytical ability of candidates.

(viii)Sociometry: Sociometry is a technique for describing the social relationships among individuals
in a group. In an indirect way, sociometry attempts to describe attractions or repulsions between
1 S.L. Dass, “Personality Assessment Through Projective Movie Pictures”, p. 17.
individuals by asking them to indicate whom they would choose or reject in various situations. Thus,
sociometry is a new technique of studying the underlying motives of respondents. “Under this an
attempt is made to trace the flow of information amongst groups and then examine the ways in
which new ideas are diffused. Sociograms are constructed to identify leaders and
followers.”2Sociograms are charts that depict the sociometric choices. There are many versions of
the sociogram pattern and the reader is suggested to consult specialised references on sociometry for
the purpose. This approach has been applied to the diffusion of ideas on drugs amongst medical
practitioners.

7. Depth interviews:Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying

motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to
explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious
as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and motivations. As
such, depth interviews require great skill on the part of the interviewer and at the same time
involve considerable time. Unless the researcher has specialised training, depth interviewing
should not be attempted.

Depth interview may be projective in nature or it may be a non-projective interview. The difference lies
in the nature of the questions asked. Indirect questions on seemingly irrelevant subjects provide
information that can be related to the informant’s behaviour or attitude towards the subject under study.
Thus, for instance, the informant may be asked on his frequency of air travel and he might again be
asked at a later stage to narrate his opinion concerning the feelings of relatives of some other man who
gets killed in an airplane accident. Reluctance to fly can then be related to replies to questions of the
latter nature. If the depth interview involves questions of such type, the same may be treated as
projective depth interview. But in order to be useful, depth interviews do not necessarily have to be
projective in nature; even non-projective depth interviews can reveal important aspects of psycho-
social situation for understanding the attitudes of people.

8. Content-analysis:Content-analysis consists of analysing the contents of documentary materials

such as books, magazines, newspapers and the contents of all other verbal materials which can be
either spoken or printed. Content-analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly quantitative analysis of
documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can be identified and counted. But
since 1950’s content-analysis is mostly qualitative analysis concerning the general import or
message of the existing documents. “The difference is somewhat like that between a casual interview
and depth interviewing.”3 Bernard Berelson’s name is often associated with. the latter type of
content- analysis. “Content-analysis is measurement through proportion…. Content analysis
measures pervasiveness and that is sometimes an index of the intensity of the force.”4

The analysis of content is a central activity whenever one is concerned with the study of the nature
of the verbal materials. A review of research in any area, for instance, involves the analysis of the
contents of research articles that have been published. The analysis may be at a relatively simple
level or may be a subtle one. It is at a simple level when we pursue it on the basis of certain
characteristics of the document or verbal materials that can be identified and counted (such as on
the basis of major scientific concepts in a book). It is at a subtle level when researcher makes a
study of the attitude, say of the press towards education by feature writers.

COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he
has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not
confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.
Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually published data are
available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local governments; (b) various
publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary organisations; (c)
technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers; (e) reports and publications of
various associations connected with business and industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports
prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and (g) public records
and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information. The sources of
unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations,
labour bureaus and other public/ private individuals and organisations.

Researcher must be very careful in using secondary data. He must make a minute scrutiny because
it is just possible that the secondary data may be unsuitable or may be inadequate in the context of
the problem which the researcher wants to study. In this connection Dr. A.L. Bowley very aptly
observes that it is never safe to take published statistics at their face value without knowing their
meaning and limitations and it is always necessary to criticise arguments that can be based on
them.

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess
following characteristics:
1. Reliability of data:The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said data:

(a) Who collected the data? (b) What were the sources of data? (c) Were they collected by using
proper methods (d) At what time were they collected?(e) Was there any bias of the compiler? (t)
What level of accuracy was desired? Was it achieved ?

2. Suitability of data:The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not necessarily be found

suitable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they should not
be used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinise the
definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the
primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also
be studied. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the
present enquiry and should not be used.

3. Adequacy of data:If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the purpose

of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by the
researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an area which may be
either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.

From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The already available
data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and adequate. But
he should not blindly discard the use of such data if they are readily available from authentic
sources and are also suitable and adequate for in that case it will not be economical to spend time
and energy in field surveys for collecting information. At times, there may be wealth of usable
information in the already available data which must be used by an intelligent researcher but with
due precaution.

SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR DATA COLLECTION

Thus, there are various methods of data collection. As such the researcher must judiciously select
the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the following factors:
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry:This constitutes the most important factor affecting the

choice of a particular method. The method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry
that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding whether the data
already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to
be collected.

2. Availability of funds:Availability of funds for the research project determines to a large extent

the method to be used for the collection of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are
very limited, he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient
and effective as some other costly method. Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice and the
researcher has to act within this limitation.

3. Time factor:Availability of time has also to be taken into account in deciding a particular method

of data collection. Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be
collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus,
affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.

4. Precision required:Precision required is yet another important factor to be considered at the

time of selecting the method of collection of data.

But one must always remember that each method of data collection has its uses and none is superior in
all situations. For instance, telephone interview method may be considered appropriate (assuming
telephone population) if funds are restricted, time is also restricted and the data is to be collected in
respect of few items with or without a certain degree of precision. In case funds permit and more
information is desired, personal interview method may be said to be relatively better. In case time is
ample, funds are limited and much information is to be gathered with no precision, then mail-
questionnaire method can be regarded more reasonable. When funds are ample, time is also ample and
much information with no precision is to be collected, then either personal interview or the mail-
questionnaire or the joint use of these two methods may be taken as an appropriate method of collecting
data. Where a wide geographic area is to be covered, the use of mail-questionnaires supplemented by
personal interviews will yield more reliable results per rupee spent than either method alone. The
secondary data may be used in case the researcher finds them reliable, adequate and appropriate for his
research. While studying motivating influences in market researches or studying people’s attitudes in
psychological/social surveys, we can resort to the use of one or more of the projective techniques stated
earlier. Such techniques are of immense value in case the reason is obtainable from the respondent who
knows the reason but does not want to admit it or the reason relates to some underlying psychological
attitude and the respondent is not aware of it. But when the respondent knows the reason and can tell
the same if asked, than a non-projective questionnaire, using direct questions, may yield satisfactory
results even in case of attitude surveys. Since projective techniques are as yet in an early stage of
development and with the validity of many of them remaining an open question, it is usually
considered better to rely on the straight forward statistical methods with only supplementary use of
projective techniques. Nevertheless, in pre-testing and in searching for hypotheses they can be
highly valuable.

Thus, the most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method depends on the nature
of the particular problem and on the time and resources (money and personnel) available along
with the desired degree of accuracy. But, over and above all this, much depends upon the ability
and experience of the researcher. Dr. A.L. Bowley’s remark in this context is very appropriate
when he says that “in collection of statistical data common sense is the chief requisite and
experience the chief teacher.”

CASE STUDY METHOD

Meaning: The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a

careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a
cultural group or even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.
The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions and their interrelations. The case study deals with the processes that take place and their
interrelationship. Thus, case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit
under consideration. The object of the case study method is to locate the factors that account for
the behaviour-patterns of the given unit as an integrated totality.

According to H. Odum, “The case study method is a technique by which individual factor whether it
be an institution or just an episode in the life of an individual or a group is analysed in its relationship
to any other in the group.”5 Thus, a fairly exhaustive study of a person (as to what he does and has
done, what he thinks he does and had done and what he expects to do and says he ought to do) or
group is called a life or case history. Burgess has used the words “the social microscope” for the case
study method.”6 Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit
be that unit a person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.”7 In brief, we can say
that case study method is a form of qualitative analysis where in careful and complete observation of
an individual or a situation or an institution is done; efforts are made to study each and every aspect
of the concerning unit in minute details and then from case data generalisations and inferences are
drawn.

Characteristics:The important characteristics of the case study method are as under:

1. Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such units for
his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same comprehensively.

2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details. Generally, the study
extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough
information for drawing correct inferences.

5 H. Odum, An Introduction to Social Research, p. 229.

6 Burgess, Research Methods in Sociology, p. 26 in Georges Gurvitch and W.E. Moore (Eds.)
Twentieth Century
Sociology.
7 Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys and Research, p. 247.