Roof Drainage Design

Stephen L. Patterson, RRC, PE

Roof Technical Services, Inc.

Fort Worth, Texas

Doorways to the Future

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Patterson ­ 123

 ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper/presentation is to provide the reader with an overview of

roof drainage design requirements. This will include an historical overview of roof
drainage design, a discussion of the evolution of the various national codes, and an
overview of the current International Building and Plumbing Code requirements with
a comparison to the Uniform and National Standard Plumbing Codes. Also included
will be a discussion of the critical life safety issues involved with roof drainage design,
a case history of various roof collapses with a discussion of the causes, and an
overview of the roof design requirements involving roof drainage design requirements
for today’s roofs.

SPEAKER

STEPHEN L. PATTERSON is a licensed professional engineer and a Registered Roof

Consultant with over 33 years of experience in the roofing industry. Mr. Patterson’s
experience includes working as a roofing contractor, director of engineering for a roof­
ing manufacturer, and consulting engineer specializing in roofing for the past 23
years.
Stephen co­authored Roof Design and Practice, a roof design manual published by
Prentice Hall, and Wind Pressures on Low Sloped Roofs and Roof Drainage, published
by the Roof Consultants Institute Foundation. Mr. Patterson has designed numerous
roof drainage systems and investigated more than 30 major roof collapses involving
roof drainage issues.

Patterson ­ 124 Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention

 Roof Drainage Design

INTRODUCTION

Every year, roofs collapse pri­

marily as a result of improper roof
drainage design and other related
issues. Roof collapses are cata­
strophic roof failures that cause
the loss of millions of dollars in
property damage. More impor­
tantly, many times roof collapses
result in the loss of life. On May 5,
1995, a series of severe thunder­
storms passed over the Dallas/
Fort Worth area, causing more
than $2 billion in property dam­
age from large hail. Softball size
hail injured hundreds of people
who were caught outside at an
outdoor festival. However, the
only fatalities were the result of a
roof collapse due to heavy rains.
A correctly designed roof
drainage system provides for a
roof that slopes properly without
resulting in ponding water and New Amsterdam (New York). The of the Uniform Building Code
similarly provides for a properly ordinances were the result of per­ (UBC) published in 1927. Issues
designed primary and secondary formance issues and fire hazards of slope, drainage, and overflow
drainage system to prevent an associated with thatch roofing. were addressed simply but rather
excessive build­up of water on the Roofing problems were a promi­ eloquently in Section 3206 of the
roof. This build­up of water is nent issue in the late 19th Code, which stated the following.
almost always the key factor in Century. Major fires devastated
many cities in the last half of the Roof Drainage, Section 3206.
roof collapses. This paper dis­
19th and early 20th Centuries. Roofs of all buildings shall be
cusses the evolution of the codes
Fire losses were estimated at $1.2 sloped so that they will drain
and industry design standards
billion between 1860 and 1915. to gutters and downspouts
and the issues related to roof
The famous Chicago fire of 1871 which shall be connected with
drainage design.
resulted in the loss of 17,450 conductors to carry the water
buildings alone. These fires led to down from the roof under­
HISTORICAL VIEW OF THE BUILD
-

research by the forerunner of neath the sidewalk to and

INGS CODES

Underwriters Laboratories. This through the curb. Overflows

The Early Codes research provided the basis for shall be installed at each low
point of the roof to which the
Roofing problems and build­ the first modern building codes water drains.
ing codes have been linked toge­ dealing with roofing issues. Roof
ther since the first building ordi­ drainage was also included. From 1927, the evolution was
nances in America. The first gradual. It was not until the 1964
building ordinances in America Roof Drainage Edition of the UBC that roof
dated back to the late 17th in the Building Codes drains are specifically mentioned
Century and involved restrictions Roof drainage requirements in the code. Section 3206 of the
on thatch roofing in Boston and were included in the first edition 1964 UBC stated:

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Patterson ­ 125

 Roof drains shall be installed ing Code has been universally ac­ stops raining.” Water standing for
when required at each low cepted for the most part, but there 48 hours does not constitute good
point of the roof to which the are still three national plumbing drainage, but this 48­hour stan­
water drains, and shall be codes, which include the Uniform dard found its way into the roof­
adequate in size to drain the Plumbing Code, the National ing literature and became part of
roof. Overflow drains shall be Standard Plumbing Code, and the the first International Building
installed with the inlet flow International Plumbing Code, Code in 2000.
line located two inches (2") each with slightly different philo­
above the low point of the roof, sophies. The 2006 International Build­
or overflow scuppers may be ing Code defines positive drainage
installed in parapet walls at Key Drainage Issues in the Codes as:
each low point of the roof with The key design issues ad­ The drainage condition in
the flow line not more than two dressed in the codes include roof which consideration has been
inches (2") above the adjacent slope and the structural issues made for all loading deflec­
roof. related to ponding, the design of tions of the roof deck, and the
the primary roof drainage system, additional slope has been pro­
There is no reference to a spe­ and the design of the overflow or vided to ensure drainage of
cific plumbing code in the Uni­ secondary drainage systems. the roof within 48 hours of pre­
form Building Code until 1967. From the beginning, Building cipitation.
However, it should be noted that Codes have stated the obvious –
the National Bureau of Standards roofs should drain, there needs to The Code further requires low­
published the first national be a backup drainage system in sloped roofs to slope a minimum
plumbing code in 1928 (Publica­ case something happens to the of 1/4:12 except for coal tar pitch
tion BH 13). This publication was primary drainage system, and the built­up roofs, which can be
commonly referred to as the structures should be designed to sloped 1/8:12. It is important,
Hoover Code. The National As­ support all the anticipated loads however, to understand that there
sociation of Master Plumbers so they do not collapse. Those are can be serious problems with
published its Standard Plumbing pretty simple concepts, but it is roofs having slopes of less than
Code in 1933. The American alarming how many roof drainage 1/4:12. These issues are ad­
Standards Association published problems persist and how many dressed in the structural require­
a preliminary Plumbing Code A40 roofs collapse every year. ments in the codes for ponding
in 1942. The Western Plumbing instability.
Code drafted its first Uniform
Plumbing Code in 1938. After ROOF SLOPE AND

Structural Issues
World War II, a joint committee,
Roof slope is not only impor­
STRUCTURAL ISSUES

the Uniform Plumbing Code Com­ Roof Slope Defined tant for roof performance, but roof
mittee, was formed and extensive The need for sloping roofs slope is extremely important in
research was performed at the should be obvious. Roofs that the structural design of a roof.
National Bureau of Standards and drain well last longer than roofs Roof structures with slopes less
several universities, which ulti­ that do not drain well, and roofs than 1/4:12 must be evaluated
mately culminated in the Amer­ that do not accumulate water are for ponding instability. The con­
ican Standard National Plumbing not likely to collapse. Clearly, cept of ponding instability is not
Code, ASA A40.8­1955. however, there are still misunder­ new. The requirement to specifi­
Clearly, roofing and the build­ standings regarding the issues cally design roofs for ponding
ing codes have been intertwined related to roof slope. In 1927, the water first appeared in the
from the beginning, generally as a UBC stated, “Roofs of all building Uniform Building Code in 1967 in
result of increased problems in shall be sloped so that they will Section 2305.(f).
the industry. Today’s Interna­ drain.” How could it be any clear­
tional Building Code represents er? The NRCA published its first
2305.(f) Water Accumula-
the merging of the three national Manual of Roofing Practice and
tion. All roofs shall be de­
building codes – the BOCA Build­ stated, “enough slope should be
signed with sufficient slope or
ing Code, the Uniform Building built­in so that water does not col­
camber to assure adequate
Code, and the Standard Building lect in the low areas between the
drainage after the long­time
Code – into one unified building roof­framing members.” Unfor­
deflection from dead load or
code. The goal was to have a sin­ tunately, the NRCA finished the
shall be designed to support
gle national building and plumb­ sentence with “… so that the roof
maximum loads including pos­
ing code. The International Build­ is completely dry 48 hours after it

Patterson ­ 126 Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention

 sible ponding of water due to can have enough deflection to time there is less than a 1/4:12
defection. See Section 2307 for restrict the drainage and allow for slope, the roof should have been
deflection criteria. water build­up. evaluated for ponding instability.

Ponding instability is critical Below are illustrations that The illustration on the next
in roof drainage design, because show how slope and deflection are page from Roof Drainage shows
one of the typical factors in many interrelated and can result in the the importance of slope and the
roof collapses involves the failure build­up of water on roofs. The depth of water that can accumu­
of the structure due to progressive illustration at the top shows a roof late. The lower the slope, the
deflection under water loads. As deck with a slope of 1/8­inch per greater the load caused by the
water builds up on a roof, the roof foot and a deflection equal to head (depth) of water at the
structure deflects, and if the slope L/240 (the length of span divided perimeter. Decreasing the slope
is inadequate to permit free by 240). The deflection is equal to from 1/4:12 to 1/8:12 doubles
drainage, accumulation of water 2.5 inches at the mid­span, which the load on the structure.
will result. Water continues to results in no slope from the mid­
span to the eave (2.5 inches in The more slope on a roof, the
build up deeper and deeper as the less likely that significant water
structure deflects. This progres­ deflection and 2.5 inches in fall).
The illustration that shows that accumulations will occur, and the
sive build­up of water is one of the less likely a roof is to collapse as a
key factors in many collapses. roof with the 1/4­inch slope still
has a slope of 1/8­inch from the result of rainwater loads. The
Below is the section from the manner in which water builds up
2006 IBC dealing with ponding mid­span to the eave, which elim­
inates any ponding. This is an on a roof is discussed below, in
instability, which is a new revi­ the section on “Controlling Water
sion. important reason for having a
minimum slope of 1/4­inch per Depth of Roofs (Overflow Drainage
1622.2 Ponding instability. foot. Systems).” Suffice it to say that
For roofs with a slope less water does build up on roofs, and
than 1/4­inch per foot [1.19 The International Building the lack of slope can result in cat­
degrees (0.0208 rad)], the de­ Code that allows roof slopes to be astrophic consequences unless
sign calculations shall include reduced to 1/8­inch per foot for the structure is designed for those
verification of adequate stiff­ coal tar pitch roofs ignores the loads.
ness to preclude progressive importance of positive drainage.
deflection in accordance with Also, the code requires that any­
Section 8.4 of ASCE 7.

Water weighs 62.4 pounds per

cubic foot (pcf), and therefore
each inch of water weighs approx­
imately 5.2 pounds per square
foot (psf). It is precisely this
weight of water that provides the
live load on most roofs that leads
to roof collapses. The codes have
long provided for live­load reduc­
tions, which commonly allow the
reduction in the live load on bar
joists and other roof framing
members to be as low a 16 psf,
which equals slightly more than 3
inches of water uniformly distrib­
uted across the roof.
A standard deflection criteria
allows for a deflection equal to
1/240th of the length of the span
of the structural element, which is
2 inches of deflection in a 40­foot
span. Potentially, roof slopes of
less than 1/4­inch in 12 inches

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Patterson ­ 127

 had to be analyzed and the drain­
age corrected.
It is a mistake to assume that
because a building has been
around for a long time that the
drainage system is adequate. One
of the first collapses investigated
by this author involved a 50­year­
old building that never had a
drainage problem – that is, until
someone tossed a Sunday Fort
Worth Star Telegram newspaper
up on the roof. That paper was the
perfect size to block the scupper
drains on this building. And
unfortunately for the owner of the
building, there were no overflow
drains or scuppers.
Slope is one of the three criti­
cal elements of roof drainage
design. It is essential that the roof
have adequate slope to drain the
roof without accumulating water
on the roof. The depth of water
that can accumulate on the roof is
critical, and the next section deals
with the concept of overflow
design in order to prevent exces­
sive water build up.

The building codes have taken mulation of water. Where

CONTROLLING WATER DEPTH OF

a step backwards in their require­ extensive ponding of water is

ROOFS (OVERFLOW DRAINAGE

ments relating to slope, particu­ apparent, an analysis of the

SYSTEMS)

larly as it relates to reroofing. The roof structure for compliance The Need for an Overflow
1988 Uniform Building Code with Section 3207 shall be Drainage System
addressed the issues related to made and corrective mea­ Probably the most important
roof slope and reroofing better sures, such as relocation of element of roof drainage design is
than any other code before or roof drains or scuppers, controlling the depth of water that
after. Below is an excerpt from resloping of the roof or struc­ can accumulate on the roof.
Chapter 32 in the Appendix to the tural chances, shall be made. Controlling this depth is a func­
1988 UBC. An inspection covering the tion of the overflow drainage sys­
above­listed topics prepared tem or, as it is sometimes referred
Inspections
by a special inspector may be to, the secondary drainage sys­
Sec. 3210. New roof cover­ accepted in lieu of the pre­ tem. Overflow scuppers are prom­
ings shall not be applied with­ inspection by the building offi­ inently mentioned in the 1929
out first obtaining an inspec­ cial. Standard Practice in Sheet Metal
tion by the building official Work, which is the forerunner to
and written approval from the the Architectural Sheet Metal
Further, the 1988 UBC
building official. A final inspec­ Manual published by the Sheet
required that the new roof meet
tion and approval shall be ob­ Metal and Air Conditioning Con­
the requirements of Chapter 32 in
tained from the building offi­ tractors National Association, bet­
this building code, which required
cial when the re­roofing is ter known as SMACNA. Also, over­
the roof to have a slope of 1/4:12.
complete. The pre­roofing flow was one of the requirements
Essentially, the roof had to be
inspection shall pay special in the first Uniform Building
inspected and if there were drain­
attention to evidence of accu­ Code. Why, then, is it that so
age problems, the roof structure

Patterson ­ 128 Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention

many existing buildings have no 8.2 Blocked Drains. Each ever, in 1991, the Standard Build­
overflow drainage system? portion of a roof shall be ing and Plumbing Code changed
designed to sustain the load of the requirements for overflow
Most of the collapses investi­ all rainwater that could accu­ design. The 1991 Standard
gated by this author have been mulate on it if the primary Plumbing Code adopted the 15­
caused, in part or completely, by drainage system for that por­ minute duration rainfall rate for
the lack of an overflow drainage tion is blocked. Ponding insta­ design overflow drainage systems,
system. At some point it is likely bility shall be considered in which is the amount of rainfall
that a roof drain is going to this situation. If the overflow that can be expected to fall in 15
become blocked. It may take 50 drainage provisions contain minutes once every 100 years. To
years before someone throws a drain lines, such lines shall be put it in perspective, the 15­
Sunday newspaper on the roof or independent of any primary minute, 100­year rainfall rate is
a hailstorm occurs severe enough drain lines. approximately twice the 1­hour,
to block the drains or blowing 100­year rainfall rate.
debris in a hurricane blocks the
drains. At some point, the prima­ Overflow Drainage 1507.3 Maximum Rainfall
ry drainage system will likely Requirements Rate for Secondary Drains.
become blocked. Water flowing to There have been revisions of Secondary (emergency) roof
the drains will carry debris and ASCE 7, but the issues related to drain systems or scuppers
deposit it at the low point of the overflow have remained the stan­ shall be sized based on the
roof, which is where the primary dard in ASCE 7 since its inception flow rate caused by the 100­
drains are located. Some drains in 1988 and the International year, 15­minute precipitation
are more likely to become blocked Building Code since its inception as indicated on Figure 1507.3.
than others. Drainage scuppers in 2000. The structural engineer The flow through the primary
are more susceptible to blockage must assume the primary drains system shall not be considered
than roof drains. Below is an are blocked, calculate the depth of when sizing the secondary
illustration from Roof Drainage. water that could accumulate on roof drain system.
As can be seen, the roof drain the roof, and design the structure
with a proper strainer can still to support those loads. Again, The National Standard Plumb­
function, even with debris accu­ these are pretty simple, common­ ing Code has also adopted this
mulated around the perimeter of sense concepts, which have been criterion. The rationale for using
the strainer, whereas the scupper universally accepted in today’s the 15­minute duration, 100­year
is virtually blocked by the same design standards. rainfall is based on the concept
debris. that roof drains may become
blocked during extreme storms
like hailstorms and hurricanes.
The Standard Plumbing Code was
formerly the Southern Building
Code, which was adopted primar­
ily throughout the Southeast part
of the United States, including the
hurricane­prone Gulf and Atlantic
Coast states. Blowing debris dur­
ing hurricanes commonly block
roof drains, and hurricanes often
produce extraordinary rainfall.
The combination of blowing debris
and extraordinary rainfall can be
The American Society of Civil However, there are variations
catastrophic for roof drainage sys­
Engineers recognized the impor­ in overflow drainage design theo­
tems. The first International
tance of blocked drains and pro­ ry. Historically, most primary and
Plumbing Code (1997) also adopt­
vided the following recommenda­ secondary roof drainage systems
ed this 15­minute, 100­year rain­
tions for structural engineers in were designed based upon the
fall rate, but reverted to using the
the first ASCE Standard entitled 1­hour duration, 100­year rainfall
1­hour, 100­year rainfall rate for
ANSI/ASCE 7­88, Minimum De­ rate. This 1­hour duration, 100­
overflow systems in 2000.
sign Loads for Buildings and year rainfall rate is the amount of
Structures, which replaced ANSI rain that is likely to fall in one Also gone is the old Uniform
A58.1­1982. hour once every 100 years. How­ Building Code standard of using

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Patterson ­ 129

overflow scuppers three times the 8.4 inches to achieve the In 1991, the Standard Plumb­
area of the roof drains. The Uni­ flow rate required. ing Code introduced a require­
form Building Code first provided ment to determine the depth of
the overflow scupper option in the The net result would be a water that can accumulate on the
1967 Edition, which follows: depth of water of 10.4 inch­ roof and to notify the structural
es at the scupper, as the engineer to design the structure
(c) Overflow Drains and overflow scupper is located based upon this depth of water,
Scuppers. Where roof drains 2 inches (10.4 + 2) above the assuming the primary drains are
are required, overflow drains roof. This depth of water blocked, which is today's stan­
having the same size as the could easily cause a col­ dard. The excerpt from the 1991
roof drains shall be installed lapse in many circum­ Standard Plumbing Code (above)
with the inlet flow line located stances. Based upon the old shows the chart used to deter­
two inches (2") above the low UBC, it was possible to col­ mine the depth of water that can
point of the roof, or overflow lapse a roof using overflow accumulate at a scupper.
scuppers having three times
the size of the roof drains may
be installed in adjacent para­
pet walls with the inlet flow
line located two inches (2")
above the low point of the
adjacent roof and having a
minimum opening height of
four inches (4").
Overflow drains shall be
connected to drain lines inde­
pendent from the roof drains.

There is a major flaw in this

drainage criterion. This criterion
does not take into account the
depth of water that develops at
the scupper based upon the
geometry of the scupper. The fun­
damental function of the scupper
is to control the depth of water, so
as to limit the load on the roof
structure and prevent a collapse.
scuppers three times the The 1991 Standard Plumbing
The geometry of a scupper is crit­
area of the roof drains. Code began requiring designers to
ical.
assume that the primary drains
Roof drains are roughly are blocked and to calculate the
For example, a 6­inch
three times more efficient depth of water that could accu­
drain has an opening of
than scuppers in terms of mulate over the secondary or
approximately 28 inches.
flow. The 8­inch­wide by overflow drainage system. This is
Using the old Uniform Build­
10.5­inch­high scupper has the basis of the design require­
ing Code’s standard of pro­
the flow capacity of almost ments provided in the initial
viding an overflow scupper
790 gallons per minute, ASCE 7 in 1988 and the initial
three times the area of the
which is slightly more than International Building Code in
roof drain, the overflow
a 6­inch drain. Unfortunate­ 2000. This is the most logical
scupper size would be 84
ly, the head of water re­ approach and simply reinforces
square inches. The problem
quired to achieve that flow the concept that the structural
with this standard was that
through the scupper is 8.4 engineer should design the struc­
a designer could select an 8­
inches, while the head of ture to support the loads that
inch­wide by 10.5­inch­high
water required to achieve could be expected to occur on a
scupper and meet the code
approximately the same building.
requirements. However, the
flow is only about 3.6 inch­
head (depth) of water at the
es. ASCE/SEI 7­05 provides a
scupper would have to be
basis for calculating the head of

Patterson ­ 130 Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention

water over drains and
scuppers. There are also
methods for calculating
the head of water over
scuppers and drains
provided in Roof Drain­
age. There are methods
for determining the
head of water (depth) in
scuppers and over
drains. At the right is
the chart from data
included in ASCE/SEI 7­05. above the low point of the roof overflow drainage system, and the
reduces the likelihood that debris primary drainage system. How­
The overflow drainage system will flow into the overflow system ever, it is important that roofs
controls the depth of water that and become blocked. Additionally, drain freely, and the primary
can accumulate on a roof and is overflow drain outlets should be drainage system is designed to
the most critical part of the located in a prominent location so remove water efficiently. This
drainage system. The roof struc­ that maintenance personnel can author has investigated roof
ture should be designed to sup­ readily observe water flowing out drainage systems that were
port all the loads anticipated on of the overflow. This is an indica­ under­designed, resulting in
the roof, and water build­up is tion that the primary drains may water depths deep enough to
one of the most important sources be blocked and maintenance cause leaks at low curbs and
of loads on a roof. The require­ needs to be performed. expansion joints.
ment for overflow systems goes
back to the beginning of the mod­ Sometimes it is difficult to The primary drainage system
ern national codes, and these place overflow scuppers 2 inches generally consists of either roof
requirements have been refined above the low point of the roof, drains or scupper drains. Most
over the years. Today, the codes due to the location of the drains. roof drains today are manufac­
are pretty simple and straightfor­ Today, there is no specific re­ tured by companies like Josam,
ward. Calculate the depth of water quirement to locate the overflow Zurn, and J.R. Smith and have
that can accumulate on the roof drain or scupper 2 inches above standard flow rates, which are
assuming the primary drainage the low point of the roof. The reflected in the various plumbing
system is blocked, and design the requirement is to find out how codes. These drains are designed
structure to support those loads. much water can accumulate a­ with sumps and strainers that
The structure must be evaluated bove the overflow system and conform to the codes. Strainers
for ponding instability any time design the structure accordingly. are important, as they block the
the slope is less than 1/4:12. However, the overflow drain or debris from getting into the drain­
These are basic concepts that scupper should be located ap­ s’ lines. Also, strainers can actu­
have been articulated in codes proximately 2 inches above the ally improve the flow into drains
and standards for years. low point to prevent debris from by breaking up the vortex of the
blocking the overflow, but the water flowing into the drain.
Location of Overflow scupper can be located at a high­
Drains and Scuppers er elevation, provided the struc­ Scupper drains, on the other
ture is adequate to support the hand, are generally shop­ or field­
Overflow drains and scuppers fabricated, and generally, flow
should be located above the low load.
rates must be calculated. There
point of the roof to help prevent are no standard strainers
the overflow drains and scuppers designed to promote water flow
from becoming blocked. Debris is
PRIMARY DRAINAGE DESIGN

General Requirements and function with debris.

carried by the flow of water on the Scuppers also generally require a
roof, which is to the low point. The The primary drainage system
greater depth of water to achieve
primary drains are located at the is an important element in
the designed flow, so the depth of
low point, which is what makes drainage designs, but it is the
water at scuppers can be signifi­
them susceptible to becoming least important of the three ele­
cant. Scupper drains and overflow
blocked by debris. ments of drainage design. These
drains should be separate and
elements include the slope of the
Placing the overflow drain or should not be connected.
roof and ponding instability, the
scupper approximately 2 inches

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Patterson ­ 131

Drainage Rates for Roof Drains
The various plumbing codes
generally agree on the design cri­
teria in principle. However, there
are variations in the flow rates
between the rates provided in the
International Plumbing Code and
the other two national plumbing
codes – the National Standard
Plumbing Code and the Uniform
Plumbing Code. It should be
noted, however, that the flow rates
in the International Plumbing
Code are the same as the old
BOCA Plumbing Code, old Stan­
dard Plumbing Code, and old
Uniform Plumbing Code (prior to
1997). Adjacent is a comparison
of the flow rates.
The National Standard and
Uniform Plumbing Codes (after
1994) are more conservative. All known as the Francis Formula, design guidelines.
these flow rates are based upon which is Q = 3.33LH1.5 where Q is
Manning’s equations, but there the flow rate, L is the length of the
are slightly different assumptions weir (scupper), and H is the head
DRAINAGE DESIGNS FOR ROOF

regarding the amount of open of water. Because experiments

REPLACEMENTS

area in the pipe, which results in have shown there is a contraction Requirements to Modify
the differences in the charts. Roof in the water flowing through the Drainage for Reroofing
drain manufacturers also publish weir, the equation has been modi­ The 1967 Uniform Building
drainage design literature, and fied to adjust for this reduction. Code added Chapter 32 to the
most of these manufacturers use The modified form is Q = 3.33(L­ appendix of the code, which was
the same drainage design as­ 0.2H)H1.5. Below is a chart derived titled Re­Roofing, and the first
sumptions as the International from this equation. section (3209) in that chapter
Plumbing Code’s standards. stated that all re­roofing had to
The design of the primary
comply with Section 32 in the
drainage system is relatively
Drainage Rates for Scuppers Building Code. This was a signif­
straightforward. There are varia­
Scupper drains must be icant change in the code. How­
tions in flow rates of drains and
designed, and there are also vari­ ever, the most significant change
scuppers, and further research
ations in the formulas used for came in 1988 with the addition of
into these variables would be
calculating the flow through a the statement that roof systems
helpful in establishing consistent
scupper. It is important to under­ shall be sloped a minimum 1/4­
stand that water has to build up
to a relatively high elevation in
order to achieve the design flow
rate through the scupper. The
depth of water that develops is
primarily an issue of the width of
the scupper. The wider the scup­
per, the lower the head of water
that will develop at the scupper,
which is desirable even if the
structure is designed to support
the loads from a large head of water.
The flow rate of water through
scuppers is generally determined
by the derivation of an equation

Patterson ­ 132 Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention

inch in 12 inches for drainage. apparent, an analysis of the ous, enforcement is difficult.
This requirement to provide a roof structure for compliance Some building officials have ruled
minimum slope in Chapter 32 of with Section 3207 shall be that the design professional is
the 1988 UBC in combination made and corrective mea­ responsible for making the deter­
with the changes made to Chapter sures, such as relocation of mination of what constitutes pos­
32 in the appendix for Reroofing roof drains or scuppers, re­ itive drainage, but often there is
had major implications for reroof­ sloping of the roof, or structur­ no design professional in the case
ing design. Chapter 32 in the ap­ al changes shall be made. of reroofing. Certainly, positive
pendix required a re­roof to con­ An inspection covering the drainage is a benefit in terms of
form to Chapter 32 of the code, above­listed topics prepared roofing longevity and perfor­
which required the roof be sloped by a special inspector may be mance, and providing 1/4­inch
a minimum 1/4 in 12 inches. accepted in lieu of the pre­ per 12­inch eliminates many
inspection by the building offi­ structural concerns. In those
There was no reference to cases where achieving 1/4­inch
draining within 48 hours or allow­ cial.
per 12­inch is not practical, care
ing 1/8­inch per 12 inches for should be taken to help limit the
These changes in 1988 were
coal tar pitch. From a fundamen­ amount of water that can accu­
met with less than an enthusias­
tal design perspective, this was mulate on the roof and involving a
tic response from elements of the
the most appropriate code dealing structural engineer should be
roofing community. In fact, this
with roof drainage and roof slope. considered.
change was a mind­altering event
A minimum slope of 1/4­inch in
for many in the roofing industry.
12 inches has long been recog­ It is important to understand
A great number of existing build­
nized as the most appropriate that simply re­sloping a roof
ings did not have a minimum 1/4­
minimum slope for low­sloped with tapered insulation may
inch per 12­inch slope. In some
roofs. A minimum 1/4­inch per not be adequate. It is impera­
cases, it was not only impractical
12 inches is also important from a tive that the drainage system
but it was virtually impossible to
structural design perspective, as function properly after the ta­
provide the minimum slope. Then
any roof with less than this slope pered insulation is installed.
there were the issues from the
has to be designed for ponding Often, increases in insulation
coal tar pitch industry, where
instability. Deflections in struc­ thickness can restrict drains
1/4­inch per 12­inch slope could
tural elements with less than 1/4­ and overflow systems.
be too much slope for the system.
inch per 12­inch slope can result
The result of these issues and One of the most important
in a progressive collapse due to
others was a watering down of the requirements for reroofing is to
deflection. In other words, the roof
requirements. make sure there is a proper over­
deflects, allowing more water to
accumulate until the roof collaps­ flow system. This is a code re­
Current Design Standards
es. Clearly the authors of the quirement that is often overlooked
1988 UBC were addressing the Today’s International Building by many in the roofing industry,
issues that cause roof collapses. Code is relatively ambiguous but the overflow system is critical
Below is Section 3210 from regarding positive drainage. As in terms of limiting the amount of
Chapter 32 in the appendix to the defined, “positive drainage” is water that can accumulate on a
1988 UBC. based upon ensuring drainage roof and in preventing roof col­
within 48 hours of precipitation. lapses. As a rule of thumb, some
Inspections As previously stated, water stand­ try to limit the depth of water to a
Sec. 3210. New roof cov­ ing for 48 hours does not consti­ maximum of 4 inches, which pre­
erings shall not be applied tute good drainage. What does “48 vents the load from water build­
without first obtaining an hours from precipitation” mean? up from exceeding the minimum
inspection by the building offi­ Does it mean 48 hours in sum­ 20­psf live load used throughout
cial and written approval from mertime conditions or wintertime much of the southern regions of
the building official. A final conditions? A properly sloped roof the country. It is also important to
inspection and approval shall should drain freely. Other than understand that even though
be obtained from the building anomalies in the roof created there is a minimum 20­psf live
official when the re­roofing is around penetrations or crickets load requirements in the code,
complete. The pre­roofing and valleys, there should be no there are live­load reductions that
inspection shall pay particular water ponding after a rain. are allowed by code, which can
attention to evidence of accu­ Clearly, the code requires re­ reduce live loads on certain struc­
mulation of water. Where roofs to have positive drainage, tural elements to 16 psf and even
extensive ponding of water is but since the definition is ambigu­ 12 psf in some cases.

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Patterson ­ 133

 pers to catch debris. The during a heavy rain. The
screens worked efficiently roof was flat, and the addi­
CASE HISTORIES

Drainage design problems

come in all types, from poor and soon became blocked tion of all the roofs over
drainage deteriorating a roof to with debris. One eyewit­ the years reduced the live
causing major roof collapses. ness reported water lap­ load capacity to zero.
Most of the roof collapses investi­ ping over the top of the 12­ Unfortunately, the owner
gated by this author have involved inch parapet wall just waited, and the roof col­
defects in drainage design, usual­ before the roof collapsed. lapsed several months
ly in combination with other fac­ • Another large collapse in after the inspection.
tors. The build­up of rainwater is volved the irregular spac­
nature’s way of load­testing struc­ ing of the roof drains and a This sampling of collapses
ture, and sometime structural de­ defective joist girder. There illustrates some of the issues
sign or construction deficiencies were enough drains if the related to collapses involving roof
are identified. Realize that most drains had been spaced drainage design. Lack of overflow
drainage systems are designed evenly, but the end bays is a common problem, along with
based upon the 100­year rainfall were 50% larger than the inadequate drainage and too
occurrences, so it may take a long typical bays, resulting in much weight from the roof(s)
time before the structure really 50% more water. Addition­ installed. Sometimes the weight of
gets tested by one of these rain­ ally, there were no provi­ the water simply finds the weak
storms. Below are some examples sions for overflow. The head link in the structure.
of some of the collapses investi­ of water over the drain was
gated by this author. high enough to cause the
defective joist girder to fail.
FINAL COMMENTS

• The first roof collapse in­ The basic concepts of proper

vestigated was a simple • One of the most dramatic roof drainage design have been
case of the contractor roof­ collapses involved a con­ around for many years, and there
ing over the scuppers dur­ crete structure. The roof are extensive data and design
ing construction. Unfor­ was designed to drain to guides available. Roof Drainage,
tunately, that roof received an outside wall through published by the RCI Foundation,
its first load test before the drainage scuppers, but provides a much more complete
contractor had time to cut the roof had deflected as a discussion of roof drainage, and
in and flash the scuppers. result of long­term plastic every roof consultant should have
deformation. The roof a copy in his or her library. There
• One of the first really large sagged in the middle, are still issues that need clarifica­
losses involved a computer resulting in ponding. The tion and additional research is
assembly facility. A loose­ roofer decided to install needed, particularly in the area of
laid, ballasted, single­ply drains in the center and water accumulation on roofs and
had been installed over an add slope from the outside the appropriate flow rates of
existing built­up roof with­ walls to the center of the drains and scuppers.
out evaluating the struc­ roof. The drains were too
ture. The extra dead load small, and the drain lines The roof consultant can play
for the roof dramatically were not sloped, restrict­ an important role in preventing
reduced the live­load ing drainage. There were roof collapses. It is essential that
capacity of the structure, no overflow scuppers or there is a properly functioning
resulting in deflection drains, and the roof col­ overflow system on a building.
between the drains. This lapsed during a heavy Checking roofs for an appropriate
structure failed as a result rain. overflow system and recommend­
of a progressive deflection ing corrective action to add or
of the joists as the water • One collapse was actually enlarge overflow drains and/or
depth kept increasing be­ predicted by this author scuppers should be a standard
tween the drains. after a routine roof inspec­ part of the roof investigation
tion. The core sample indi­ process. Further, improving the
• One of the most expensive cated that there were mul­
collapses occurred in a drainage and the design and
tiple roofs, one on top of installation of overflow systems
building that had no over­ the other, weighing more ­
flow scuppers. Instead of a should be part of a reroofing pro­
than 20 psf. The recom­ ject where these systems are
conventional strainer, mendation was to remove
screens were installed in inadequate.
the roofs immediately, as
front of the drainage scup­ the roof could collapse

Patterson ­ 134 Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention

 How to Inspect a Rooftop for Safety

Robert Pringle, CHST, CECM, CSE, NYSCSC

Evans Roofing Company

Elmira, New York

Doorways to the Future

Proceedings of the RCI 22nd International Convention Pringle ­ 135