BS 8007 - 1987 Concrete

British Standard
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BRITISH STANDARD BS 8007:1987
Code of practice for
Design of concrete
structures for retaining
aqueous liquids
UDC 624.953:621.642.3.031:691.32:614.8
BS 8007:1987
Committees responsible for this

British Standard
The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Civil

Engineering and Building Structures Standards Committee (CSB/-) to
Technical Committee CSB/60, upon which the following bodies were
represented:
Department of the Environment (Property Services Agency)

Health and Safety Executive
Institution of Civil Engineers
Institution of Structural Engineers
Water Authorities Association
This British Standard, having

been prepared under the
direction of the Civil
Engineering and Building
Structures Standards
Committee, was published
under the authority of the
Board of BSI and comes
into effect on Amendments issued since publication
30 October 1987.
Amd. No. Date of issue Comments
© BSI 11-1998
The following BSI references

relate to the work on this
standard:
Committee reference CSB/60
Draft for comment 86/12222 DC
ISBN 0 580 16134 X

BS 8007:1987
Contents
Page
Committees responsible Inside front cover
Foreword iii
Section 1. General
1.1 Scope 1
1.2 Field of application 1
1.3 Symbols 1
1.4 Operational safety 1
1.5 Statutory requirements 1
Section 2. Design: objectives and general recommendations
2.1 Design objectives 2
2.2 Structural design 2

2.3 Loads 3
2.4 Analysis of walls and junctions 3
2.5 Site conditions 4
2.6 Causes and control of cracking 4
2.7 Design life and serviceability 5
2.8 Specification 7
2.9 Operational safety considerations 7
Section 3. Design and detailing: reinforced concrete
3.1 General 8
3.2 Design 8
Section 4. Design and detailing: prestressed concrete
4.1 General 10
4.2 Basis of design 10
4.3 Cylindrical prestressed concrete structures 10
4.4 Other prestressed concrete structures 10
Section 5. Design, detailing and workmanship of joints
5.1 General 11
5.2 Types of joint 11
5.3 Movement joints 11
5.4 Construction joints 13
5.5 Temporary open sections 14
5.6 Joints in ground slabs 14
5.7 Joints in walls 14
5.8 Joints in roofs 14
Section 6. Concrete: specification and materials
6.1 General 16
6.2 Materials 16
6.3 Mix proportions 16
6.4 Workability 16
6.5 Surface finish of concrete 16
6.6 Blinding layer 16
6.7 Pneumatically applied mortar 16
Section 7. Specification and workmanship: reinforcement
7.1 General 17
7.2 Special reinforcement 17
© BSI 11-1998 i
BS 8007:1987
Page
Section 8. Specification and workmanship: prestressing tendons
8.1 General 18
Section 9. Inspection and testing of the structure
9.1 General 19
9.2 Testing of structures 19
9.3 Testing of roofs 19
Appendix A Calculation of minimum reinforcement, crack spacing and
crack widths in relation to temperature and moisture effects 20
Appendix B Calculation of crack widths in mature concrete 26
Appendix C Jointing materials 27

Appendix D Bibliography 30
Figure 5.1 — Examples of movement joints 15
Figure A.1 — Surface zones: walls and suspended slabs 21
Figure A.2 — Surface zones: ground slabs 22
Figure A.3 — Restraint factor R for various wall and floor slab placing
sequences 25
Table 3.1 — Allowable steel stresses in direct or flexural tension for
serviceability limit states 9
Table 5.1 — Design options for control of thermal contraction and
restrained shrinkage 13
Table A.1 — Factors for the calculation of minimum reinforcement for
crack distribution and crack spacing 21
Table A.2 — Typical values of T1 for OPC concretes, where more
particular information is not available 24
Table A.3 — Influence of slab proportions on the centreline
restraint factor 26
Publications referred to Inside back cover
ii © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
Foreword
This British Standard has been prepared under the direction of the Civil
Engineering and Building Structures Standards Committee. It replaces BS 5337,
which is withdrawn.
Following the withdrawal of CP 114 the alternative method of design allowed in
BS 5337 has been omitted in this British Standard. Secondly, the withdrawal of
CP 110 and its replacement by BS 8110 have led to the updating of this code to
align with BS 8110. One important change is that the crack width equations have
been modified to align with the recommendations of BS 8110 and now include a
crack width equation for direct tension. Other changes include a more logical
arrangement of objectives and general recommendations for design, the
introduction of a restraint factor, the introduction of recommendations for
partially prestressed concrete structures, improved recommendations for joints,

updating of guidance on jointing materials, an elaboration of the
recommendations for concrete and reinforcement (including special
reinforcement), and a revision of the inspection and testing recommendations for
the structure.
For the first time in a British Standard civil engineering design code the designer
is recommended to consider operational safety and to provide appropriately at the
design stage.
It has been assumed in the drafting of this code that the design of liquid-retaining
reinforced and prestressed concrete structures is entrusted to chartered civil or
structural engineers experienced in the use of reinforced or prestressed concrete,
and that site construction is carried out under the direction of a competent
person.
This code, which is a type 11) design code, has been prepared by a Technical
Committee consisting of chartered engineers nominated by the organizations
represented (see the back cover). The members of the Drafting Panel, convened
by the Institution of Structural Engineers, were as follows.
Mr R D Anchor B Sc, C Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E Chairman

Mr A H Allen M A (Cantab), B Sc, C Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E
Professor B P Hughes B Sc(Eng), D Sc, Ph D, C Eng, F I Struct E,
MICE
Mr D W Quinion B Sc(Eng), C Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E
Mr E H Thorpe C Eng, M I Struct E
Mr R J W Milne B Sc Secretary
The work of the Drafting Panel was overseen by the Steering Group from the
Technical Committee, whose members included the following.
Mr C J Evans M A(Cantab), F Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E, F I W E S Chairman
Mr H B Gould C Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E
Mr I T Millar B Sc, C Eng, M I C E
Mr E M O’Leary B E, C Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E, M I H T
Mr K Rowe C Eng, M I C E, F B I M, M I W E S
NOTE The numbers in square brackets used throughout the text of this standard relate to the
bibliographic references given in appendix D.
1)
Type 1 codes are defined in PD 6501-1 as “those detailing professional knowledge or practices”.
© BSI 11-1998 iii

BS 8007:1987
A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a
contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application.
Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity
from legal obligations.
Summary of pages
This document comprises a front cover, an inside front cover, pages i to iv
pages 1 to 30, an inside back cover and a back cover.
This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had
amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on
the inside front cover.
iv © BSI 11-1998
Section 1 BS 8007:1987
Section 1. General
1.1 Scope Recommendations are given for structures in

aggressive soils and for structures in areas liable to
This British Standard provides recommendations
settlement and subsidence. No recommendations
for the design and construction of normal reinforced
have been made for the effect of any dynamic forces
and prestressed concrete structures used for the
nor for the effect of ice formation on the structure,
containment or exclusion of aqueous liquids. The
and the designer should refer to specialist literature
term “liquid” in this code includes any contained or
for information.
excluded aqueous liquids but excludes aggressive
liquids. The code does not cover dams, pipes,
pipelines, lined structures, or the damp-proofing of
1.3 Symbols
basements. The term “structure” is used herein for For the purposes of this British Standard the
the vessel that contains or excludes the liquid, and symbols given in BS 8110-1:1985 apply.
includes tanks, reservoirs, and other vessels.
NOTE 1 The design of structures of special form or in unusual 1.4 Operational safety
circumstances is a matter for the judgement of the designer. The code includes recommendations for design to
NOTE 2 The titles of the publications referred to in this
standard are listed on the inside back cover.
provide for operational safety.
1.2 Field of application 1.5 Statutory requirements

This British Standard applies particularly to UK Designers should check compliance with any
conditions, and although the principles are statutory requirements.2)
applicable to design in other parts of the world, the
designer should take account of local conditions,
particularly variations in climate and the possibility
of earthquakes, which have not been considered for
UK conditions. Consideration has been given to the
storage of liquids at ambient temperatures or at
temperatures up to approximately 35 °C such as are
found in swimming pools and industrial structures.
2)
Reference should be made to the Reservoirs Act 1975 for structures that have a capacity of more than 25 000 m3.
© BSI 11-1998 1
BS 8007:1987 Section 2
Section 2. Design: objectives and general

recommendations
2.1 Design objectives b) providing pressure relief devices discharging
into the vessel (where the entry of external
The purpose of design is the achievement of
groundwater is acceptable).
acceptable probabilities that the structure being
designed will not become unfit in any way for the 2.2.3.3 Cracking. For the purpose of defining the
use for which it is intended. This code provides for a serviceability crack width limit state, the maximum
method of design based on limit state philosophy design surface crack widths for the exposure
that is generally in accordance with the methods conditions defined in 2.7.3 should be taken to be the
employed in BS 8110. Structural elements that are following.
not part of the liquid-retaining structure should be a) Reinforced concrete. The maximum design
designed in accordance with BS 8110. surface crack widths for direct tension and
flexure or restrained temperature and moisture
2.2 Structural design effects are:
2.2.1 Limit state recommendations 1) severe or very severe exposure: 0.2 mm;
The design of the whole structure and all individual 2) critical aesthetic appearance: 0.1 mm.
members should be in accordance with the b) Prestressed concrete. Except for the special
recommendations given in BS 8110 as modified by recommendations for the design of cylindrical
the recommendations of this code. When all relevant prestressed structures (see 4.3), the tensile stress
limit states are considered, the design should lead to in the concrete should be limited for prestressed
an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. concrete structures in accordance with the
It is recommended that the size of the elements and recommendations of 2.2.3.4.2 of BS 8110-1:1985.
the amounts of reinforcement are assessed on the A statically determinate member nominally
basis of the serviceability crack width limit state, subjected to axial prestressing should be
and that other limit states, including the ultimate assumed to have a minimum eccentricity of
limit states, are checked. prestressing of 20 mm or 0.05 times the overall
2.2.2 Ultimate limit states (ULS) thickness in the plane of bending, whichever is
less. For statically indeterminate structures,
The partial safety factor, g f, for retained liquid loads
including cylindrical prestressed structures, this
should be taken as 1.4 (as given in Table 2.1 of
minimum eccentricity recommendation can be
BS 8110-1:1985) for load combinations 1 and 2 and
ignored.
as 1.2 for load combination 3, as appropriate.3)
The required exposure conditions for the surfaces of
2.2.3 Serviceability limit states (SLS) all members should be clearly defined at the outset
2.2.3.1 General. The partial safety factor, g f, for all of the design process and each member designed in
loads should be taken as unity as implied in 3.3 of accordance with the crack width limit state
BS 8110-2:1985. recommendations in this section.
2.2.3.2 Flotation. A structure subject to Guidance on assumptions and methods that may be
groundwater pressure should be designed to resist used for calculating crack widths are given in 2.6
flotation. The deadweight of the empty structure and appendices A and B.
with any anchoring devices should provide a safety
factor of not less than 1.1 against uplift pressures
during construction and in service. A factor of 1.1
should be used only where the maximum
groundwater level can be assessed accurately;
otherwise the factor should be assessed by the
designer. The uplift may be reduced by:
a) providing effective drainage to prevent a
build-up of external water as far as local
conditions permit;
3)
In exceptional circumstances where it is envisaged that the height of the liquid can greatly exceed the height of the wall,
factors derived from 2.2.2 of BS 8110-2:1985 should be considered.
2 © BSI 11-1998
2.2.3.4 Deflections. The recommendations for Allowance should be made for the effects of any
span/effective depth ratios given in BS 8110-1:1985 adverse soil pressures on walls, according to the
apply to horizontal members carrying uniformly compaction and/or surcharge of the soil and the
distributed loads. For a cantilever wall which tapers condition of the structure during construction and
uniformly away from the support and which is in service. No relief should be given for beneficial
loaded with a triangular pressure, a net reduction soil pressure effects on the walls of containment
factor should be applied to the above ratios if the structures in the full condition. Thermal expansion
thickness at the top is less than 0.6 times the of a roof should be minimized by reflective gravel or
thickness at the base. This reduction factor can be other protection against solar radiation. An example
assumed to vary linearly between 1.0 and 0.78 of a critical adverse loading effect occurs when
where the thickness at the top varies thermal expansion of a roof forces the walls of an
between 0.6 and 0.3 times the thickness at the empty structure into the surrounding backfill. In
bottom. In addition, allowance should be made for this case the passive soil pressure on the walls may
the significant additional deflection which occurs at be limited by insertion of a thickness of

the top of the wall due to rotation, if the pressure compressible and durable material and/or by
distribution under the base is triangular or very providing a sliding joint between the top of the wall
asymmetrically trapezoidal. Limits for deflections and the underside of the roof. This can be either a
will normally be those for non-liquid-retaining temporary free sliding joint that is not cast into a
structures since only in exceptional circumstances fixed or pinned connection until reflective gravel or
will deflections be more critical with regard to other solar protective material is placed on the roof,
freeboard, drainage or redistribution of load. or a permanently sliding joint of assessed limiting
Retaining walls should be backfilled in even layers friction. Movement of a roof may occur also where
around the structure, the thickness of the layers there are substantial variations in the temperature
being specified by the designer. Overcompaction of the contained liquid. Where a roof is rigidly
adjacent to the wall should be avoided otherwise connected to a wall this may lead to additional
large differential deflections (and sliding) of the wall loading in the wall that should be considered in the
may occur. design. Earth covering on reservoir roofs may be
At least 75 % of the liquid load should be considered taken as dead load, but due account should be taken
as permanent when calculating deflections. of construction loads from plant and heaped earth,
which may exceed the intended design load.
2.3 Loads
2.4 Analysis of walls and junctions
All structures required to retain liquids should be
designed for both the full and empty conditions, and The liquid pressure on plane walls may be resisted
the assumptions regarding the arrangement of by a combination of horizontal and vertical bending
loading should be such as to cause the most critical moments. An assessment should be made of the
effects. Particular attention should be paid to proportions of the pressure to be resisted by bending
possible sliding and overturning. moments in the vertical and horizontal planes.
Allowance should also be made for the effects of
Liquid loads should allow for the actual density of
direct tension in walls induced by flexural action in
the contained liquid and possible transient
adjacent walls. Reinforcement should be provided to
conditions, e.g. suspended or deposited silt or grit
resist horizontal bending moments at all corners
where appropriate. For ultimate limit state
where walls are rigidly joined.
conditions, liquid levels should be taken to the tops
of walls assuming that the liquid outlets are Cylindrical structures may be constructed with a
blocked. For serviceability limit state conditions the fixed, pinned or sliding joint between the walls and
liquid level should be taken to the working top the foundation slab. Allowance should be made for
liquid level or the overflow level as appropriate to the calculated flexural actions and hoop tensions.
working conditions. Sections should be checked for shear resistance.
© BSI 11-1998 3
2.5 Site conditions 2.6 Causes and control of cracking

2.5.1 Ground movement 2.6.1 Applied loading effects
Ground movement leading to displacement and Direct or flexural tension in the concrete arising
cracking of liquid-retaining structures may cause from applied external service loads, from
severe leakage. The designer should therefore temperature gradients due to solar radiation, or
consider the possibility of geological faults, mining from the containment of liquids at temperatures
and other conditions giving rise to foundation above ambient, may cause cracking in the concrete.
conditions where the bearing strata have varying The limitation of cracking from applied loading is
degrees of compressibility. When it is not possible to dealt with in 2.2.3.3 and in the appropriate design
avoid sites where such conditions occur, the sections. Crack widths arising from flexure and
designer should consider adopting one or more of the direct tension in mature concrete may be calculated
following measures: as indicated in appendix B.
a) dividing the whole structure into smaller 2.6.2 Temperature and moisture effects
compartments in order to reduce the likely
2.6.2.1 Origins. Changes in the temperature of the
differential movement in each compartment;
concrete and reinforcement and in the moisture
b) providing specially designed joints in the content of the concrete cause dimensional changes
structure to facilitate movement; which, if resisted internally or externally, may crack
c) using prestressing techniques to act as a the concrete. The distribution and width of such
safeguard against cracking; cracks can be controlled by reinforcement, together
d) providing flexible sections in service pipes; with the provision of movement joints. In this
clause, i.e 2.6.2, temperature and moisture changes
e) in mining areas, providing a form of foundation and methods for their control in relation to the
that will reduce any horizontal forces from particular problems of liquid-retaining structures
ground movement; are considered; it supplements information given
f) providing underfloor drainage to prevent in BS 8110-2:1985.
possible uplift pressures on floors and wall bases Heat is evolved as cement hydrates, and the
where groundwater is not considered in the temperature will rise for a day or more after casting
design, for example, where only one compartment and then fall towards ambient. Cracking usually
of a two-compartment structure is filled and occurs at this time while the concrete is still weak.
leakage occurs. Subsequent lower ambient temperatures and loss of
Other measures may also be necessary depending moisture when the concrete is mature will open
on the predicted degree of subsidence. these cracks, although the loss of moisture at the
2.5.2 Aggressive soils and chemical surface under external drying conditions is usually
deterioration low. A structure built in the summer but not filled or
an external structure standing empty will usually
Chemical analyses of the soil and groundwater are be subjected to greater drops in temperature than
essential where aggressive substances are the same structure filled. Structures constantly full
suspected. Some waters containing dissolved free
and protected from climatic effects (e.g. by earth
carbon dioxide, natural acids or salts may be
cover, shading or reflective treatment) will have a
aggressive, and it will be necessary to take special
temperature near that of the liquid stored.
precautions. Dissolved salts may cause serious
deterioration in the concrete and corrosion of the The designer should allow for both the greatest drop
steel. Reference should be made to 6.2 of in temperature below the peak temperature arising
BS 8110-1:1985 concerning concrete exposed to from the heat of hydration and the maximum drying
sulphate or other attack or susceptible to that can be expected, bearing in mind the effects of
alkali-silica reaction, and for the use of special delays in construction and of conditions that may
cements to resist the action of certain aggressive occur when structures are emptied for maintenance
substances. In other and more serious conditions, an or repair.
impermeable protective coating of a suitable
bituminous or other composition may be used on the
surface of the concrete.
4 © BSI 11-1998
2.6.2.2 Methods of control. Cracking arising from 2.6.2.3 Reinforcement to control restrained
temperature and moisture changes in concrete shrinkage and thermal movement cracking. The
structures can be controlled by reinforcement, by reinforcement referred to in 2.6.2.2 to control
prestress, by movement joints, by temporary open cracking arising from restrained shrinkage and
sections closed with subsequent short infill strips, or thermal movement should be placed in all slabs
by a combination of these methods. Cracking arising (floors, walls, roofs) as near to the surface of the
from minor uneven settlement may also be concrete as is consistent with the requirement for
controlled by the provision of movement joints and cover. Prestressed slabs should be provided with
by reinforcement or prestress (see 2.5.1). reinforcement in any lateral direction in which
In order to minimize and control cracking that may there is no significant prestress.
result from temperature and moisture changes in The reinforcement should be calculated in
the structure it is desirable to limit the following accordance with 5.3.3 and appendix A. Except as
factors: provided for in option 3 in Table 5.1 and 5.3.3, the

a) the maximum temperature and moisture amount of reinforcement in each of two directions at
changes during construction by: right angles within each surface zone should be not
less than 0.35 % of the surface zone cross section, as
1) using aggregates having low or medium
defined in Figure A.1 and Figure A.2 for deformed
coefficients of thermal expansion and avoiding
grade 460 reinforcement4) and not less than 0.64 %
the use of shrinkable aggregates,
for plain grade 250 reinforcement. In wall slabs less
2) using the minimum cement content than 200 mm in thickness the calculated amount of
consistent with the requirements for reinforcement may all be placed in one face. For
durability and, when necessary, for sulphate ground slabs less than 300 mm thick (see A.2), the
resistance, calculated reinforcement should be placed as near to
3) using cements with lower rates of heat the upper surface as possible consistent with the
evolution, nominal cover. Bar spacings should generally not
4) keeping concrete from drying out until the exceed 300 mm or the thickness of the section,
structure is filled or enclosed, whichever is the lesser. Where welded fabric4 only is
used bar spacings should not exceed 1.5 times the
5) avoiding thermal shock or over-rapid cooling
thickness of the section.
of a concrete surface;
b) restraints to expansion and contraction by the 2.7 Design life and serviceability
provision of movement joints (see 5.3);
2.7.1 General
c) restraints from adjacent sections of the work by
using a planned sequence of construction or The life of a completed structure depends on the
temporary open sections (see 5.5); durability of its components. For a correctly
designed structure and good-quality materials and
d) localized cracking within a particular member workmanship, the design life of the structure should
between movement joints by using reinforcement be between 40 years and 60 years. Some
or prestress; components of the structure (such as jointing
e) rate of first filling with liquid (see 9.2); materials) have a shorter life than the structural
f) thermal shock caused by filling a cold structure concrete and may require renewal during the life of
with a warm liquid or vice versa. the structure.
4)
Deformed grade 460 bars complying with BS 4449 or BS 4461 and high-yield wire fabric complying with BS 4483 having a
guaranteed yield or proof stress and guaranteed weld strength.
© BSI 11-1998 5
2.7.2 Maintenance and operation 2.7.4 Durability

The completed structure should be inspected The recommendations in this code for cover,
regularly. The designer should provide the user concrete grade, cement content, maximum free
with a statement listing the items requiring water/cement ratio and the means of ensuring a low
examination during such maintenance inspections, permeability of the concrete are intended to meet
and stating the recommended frequency of such the durability recommendations that correspond
inspections. The inspection should include generally with the recommendations in Table 3.4 of
examination of the concrete for cracking, leakage, BS 8110-1:1985 for severe exposure (see 6.3).
surface deterioration and settlement. Particular Consideration should be given to the effect of the
attention should be paid to any rust stains that liquid to be stored on the durability of all the
might indicate corrosion of the reinforcement. Any materials of construction, e.g. concrete,
defects should then be corrected. Movement joints reinforcement or prestressing steel and jointing
should be cleaned and the joint materials replaced if materials: this is especially pertinent to process
necessary. liquids and some sewage effluents, although the
The designer should also prepare a schedule of latter are usually deficient in oxygen and not
precautions to be taken by the user in order to particularly aggressive. Similar considerations
prevent the structure being damaged or the design apply to groundwaters (see 2.5.2). Attention is also
life shortened during use. The schedule should be drawn to the possibility of biological attack,
included in the commissioning documentation. especially on the jointing materials.
2.7.3 Exposure and appearance The protection afforded by the specified cover and a
correctly designed and fully compacted concrete mix
For the purposes of this code, both faces of a is satisfactory for the majority of constructions, but
liquid-containing or liquid-excluding structural where extended design life is required for a
member, together with any internal walls and structure, consideration may be given to increasing
columns of a containment structure, are to be the cement content (see the next paragraph),
considered as subject to severe exposure as defined increasing the cover (see 2.7.6) or using special
in 3.3.4 of BS 8110-1:1985. reinforcement (see 7.2).
Surfaces subjected to very severe exposure as A concrete mix with an increased cement content
defined in 3.3.4 of BS 8110-1:1985 should be will provide extra protection for the reinforcement,
designed for a maximum design crack width but a higher cement content will cause more heat of
of 0.2 mm (see 2.2.3.3) and concrete cover and mix hydration and require extra reinforcement in
complying with the recommendations of accordance with appendix A.
BS 8110-1:1985, as well as 2.7.6 and 6.3.
2.7.5 Impermeability of the concrete
Where significant efflorescence and staining of the
surface of the structure would be considered to be The concrete should have low permeability. This is
unacceptable, the recommendations for critical important not only for its direct effect on leakage
aesthetic appearance should be satisfied but also because it is one of the main factors
(see 2.2.3.3). influencing durability, resistance to leaching,
chemical attack, erosion, abrasion, frost damage
and the protection from corrosion of embedded steel.
The recommendations in this code for concrete
mixes, aggregates, minimum cement content and
strength, curing and admixtures generally ensure
an adequately impermeable concrete, but it is
essential that complete compaction without
segregation is obtained on site. In some cases an
increased cement and water content may be
required in order to obtain adequate workability to
ensure complete compaction without increasing the
water/cement ratio, but in no case should the
maximum cement content be exceeded.
Alternatively, adequate workability may be
achieved by using a lower water/cement ratio for the
same cement content: for this a water-reducing
agent is employed.
6 © BSI 11-1998
2.7.6 Cover 2.9 Operational safety considerations

The nominal cover of concrete for all steel, including 2.9.1 Statutory safety requirements
stirrups, links, sheathing, and spacers should be not
The designer should take account of the safety
less than 40 mm. A greater cover may be necessary
requirements appropriate to the construction and
at a face in contact with aggressive soils (see 2.5.2)
operation of the structure issued by the Health and
or subject to erosion or abrasion. If the nominal
Safety Executive [1]. The requirements are
cover is increased, crack widths will increase,
available on request from the Health and Safety
especially flexural and direct tension cracks in
Executive.
sections less than 300 mm thick.
2.9.2 Provision for access
In thin sections where it is not possible to
achieve 40 mm cover, a higher cement content In enclosed structures the provision of access for
(see 2.7.4) or special reinforcement (see 7.2) may be personnel is required for inspection, cleaning and
used to give a normal design life. testing. At least two access hatches should be
provided at opposite ends of the structure and at
2.8 Specification least one in each compartment. The hatches should
The designer should consider the following items be of sufficient size to enable personnel wearing
when preparing the specification for the structure to breathing apparatus to enter
(e.g. 600 mm × 900 mm), and it should be possible
ensure that the design assumptions for both
to lock the hatches in both the open and closed
materials and workmanship are realized during
positions. The designer should also consider
construction:
providing concrete stairs where access is required
a) dimensional tolerances for concrete; into large liquid compartments that are deeper
b) dimensional tolerances for placing than 2.5 m. It is preferable to provide a platform
reinforcement and prestressing tendons; under an access hatch. Metal ladders, where
c) a scheme for ensuring the quality of the provided, should be in accordance with class A of
concrete in the structure in terms both of BS 4211 and walkways should be in accordance
constituent materials and of batching, mixing, with BS 5395-3. Step irons in accordance with
etc.; BS 3572 should be provided where appropriate.
d) a scheme for ensuring the quality of the steel 2.9.3 Ventilation
reinforcement and prestressing tendons; Harmful and/or explosive gases may collect in
e) the positions and details of all construction and enclosed structures, and provision should be made
movement joints; for adequate ventilation to limit any possible
f) the requirements for the test for liquid dangerous accumulations to acceptable levels.
retention or exclusion, and any period during 2.9.4 Toxic materials
which autogenous healing is permissible. Toxic materials should not be used, except where
For the purposes of this code, this clause their toxicity exists only for a short period prior to
replaces 2.3 of BS 8110-1:1985. commissioning.
© BSI 11-1998 7
Section 3. Design and detailing: reinforced concrete
3.1 General 3.2.2 Crack widths

This section gives methods of analysis and design Methods of calculating crack widths are given in
that will in general ensure that the appendix A (which covers the calculation of
recommendations in section 2 for reinforced minimum reinforcement, crack spacing and crack
concrete structures are met. widths in relation to temperature and moisture
effects) and appendix B (which describes the
3.2 Design calculation of crack widths in mature concrete). The
calculated crack width is that crack width that has
3.2.1 Basis of design
an acceptable probability of not being exceeded. An
Design and detailing in reinforced concrete should occasional wider crack in a completed structure
be in accordance with the recommendations given should not necessarily be regarded as evidence of
in section 3 of BS 8110-1:1985, except that: excessive local damage unless other factors, such as
a) references to section 2 therein should be read leakage or appearance, contribute to its

in conjunction with section 2 of this code, which unacceptability.
takes precedence; Compliance with the recommendations for
b) the design ultimate anchorage bond stresses maximum design surface crack width for each class
for horizontal bars in sections in direct tension of exposure given in 2.2.3.3 may be achieved by
should not be greater than 0.7 times the values providing adequate reinforcement at suitable
obtained from 3.12.8.4 of BS 8110-1:1985; spacings to resist the appropriate stresses. The
c) maximum design crack widths should be reinforcement provided to control cracking arising
calculated in accordance with 3.2.2 of this code, from direct tension in the immature concrete may be
for the exposure conditions described in 2.7.3 and regarded as forming the whole or a part of the
to the limits given in 2.2.3.3; reinforcement required to control cracking arising
from direct and flexural tension in the mature
d) 3.1.2 (basis of design for reinforced concrete) of concrete. Calculations for the different cases should
BS 8110-1:1985 does not apply; be carried out as follows.
e) for the design of flat slab roofs, the coefficients a) Direct tension in immature concrete. The crack
for the simplified method given in 3.7.2.7 of widths arising from restrained shrinkage and
BS 8110-1:1985 may also be used for analysis at heat of hydration movement should be assessed
the serviceability limit state, provided that the in accordance with appendix A.
effective column head diameters are of the
maximum size permitted, based on the shortest b) Direct tension in mature concrete. The crack
span framing into the column; widths for reinforced concrete members in
externally applied direct tension should be
f) 3.12.2 (joints) of BS 8110-1:1985 is replaced by assessed in accordance with appendix B or they
section 5 of this code; may be deemed to be satisfactory if the steel
g) 3.3.1 (nominal cover), including Table 3.4, of stress in service conditions does not exceed the
BS 8110-1:1985 is replaced by 2.7.6; appropriate value in Table 3.1. Tension resulting
h) 3.3.4.1 (exposure conditions: general) of from seasonal movement of mature concrete
BS 8110-1:1985 is replaced by 2.7.3; should be assessed in accordance with
i) 3.12.5 (minimum areas of reinforcement in appendix A.
members) of BS 8110-1:1985 is to be read in
conjunction with 2.6.2.3 and appendix A.
8 © BSI 11-1998
c) Flexural tension in mature concrete. The crack Table 3.1 — Allowable steel stresses in
widths should be assessed in accordance with direct or flexural tension for
appendix B or they may be deemed to be serviceability limit states
satisfactory if the steel stress in service Allowable stress
Design crack
conditions does not exceed the appropriate value width
in Table 3.1. The equations in appendix B apply Plain barsa Deformed barsb
specifically to members in pure flexure and direct mm N/mm2 N/mm2
tension. When a column or other member is 0.1 85 100
subjected to combined flexural and compressive
stresses, or combined flexural and tensile 0.2 115 130
stresses, the calculated flexural strain should be a
Plain grade 250 bars complying with BS 4449.
modified to allow for the direct strain before b Deformed grade 460 bars complying with BS 4449 or BS 4461
estimating the crack width.
and high-yield wire fabric complying with BS 4483 having a

guaranteed yield or proof stress and guaranteed weld strength.
© BSI 11-1998 9
Section 4. Design and detailing: prestressed

concrete
4.1 General e) The bending moments in the vertical direction
should be assessed on the basis of a restraint
This section gives methods of analysis and design
equal to one-half of that provided by a pinned
that will in general ensure that for prestressed
foot, when the foot of the wall is free to slide. In
concrete structures the recommendations in
other cases where sliding at the foot of the wall is
section 2 are met.
prevented, the moments in the vertical direction
should be assessed for the actual degree of
4.2 Basis of design
restraint at the wall foot. The tensile stress
Design should be in accordance with the arising from vertical moments should not
recommendations given in section 4 of exceed 1.0 N/mm2.
BS 8110-1:1985 except where these are at variance
f) Where the structure is to be emptied and filled
with the specific recommendations of this code. In at frequent intervals, or perhaps left empty for a
general the design of prestressed concrete members
prolonged period, the structure should be

in exposure conditions as defined in 2.7.3 is
designed so that there is no residual tension in
controlled by the concrete tension limitations for
the concrete at any point when the structure is
service load conditions, but the ultimate limit state
full or empty.
should be checked.
Prestressing wire may be placed outside the walls,
4.3 Cylindrical prestressed concrete provided that it is protected with pneumatic mortar.
structures However in industrial areas or near the sea, where
there is a possibility of corrosive penetration of the
The special recommendations for the design of covering concrete, the cables should preferably be
cylindrical concrete structures prestressed placed within the walls and grouted. Non-bonded
vertically and circumferentially are as follows. tendons may be used provided that they and their
a) The jacking force in the circumferential anchorages are adequately protected against
tendons should not exceed 75 % of the corrosion.
characteristic strength. Cylindrical concrete structures which are
b) The principal compressive stress in the prestressed circumferentially and reinforced
concrete should not exceed 0.33 fcu. vertically should comply generally with the
c) The temporary vertical moment induced by the recommendations of this clause, except that 4.3 f)
circumferential prestressing operation in the may be relaxed to allow tensile stresses not
partially stressed condition should also be exceeding 1 N/mm2. The design for the vertical
considered. The maximum value of the flexural reinforcement should be in accordance with
stress in the vertical direction from this cause section 3.
may be assumed to be numerically equal
to 0.3 times the circumferential compressive 4.4 Other prestressed concrete
stress. Where the tensile stress would structures
exceed 1.0 N/mm2, either the vertical prestress Class 3 prestressed concrete structures as defined
should be increased or the circumferential in 2.2.3.4.2 of BS 8110-1:1985 should be designed in
prestress should be built up in stages, with each accordance with 4.2 and 4.3. In addition, the
stage involving a progressive application of nominal cover should satisfy the “very severe”
prestress from one end of the cylinder. exposure conditions given in Table 4.8 of
d) When the structure is full there should be no BS 8110-1:1985, and should be not less than 40 mm.
resultant tension in the concrete in the
circumferential direction, after allowance for all
losses of prestress and on the assumption that the
top and bottom edges of the wall are free of all
restraint.
10 © BSI 11-1998
Section 5. Design, detailing and workmanship of

joints
5.1 General The risk of cracking because of overall temperature
and shrinkage effects may be reduced by limiting
Joints in liquid-retaining structures are temporary
the changes in temperature to which the structure
or permanent discontinuities at sections, and may
is subjected, as discussed in 2.6.2.
be formed or induced.
The storage of warm liquids may affect the provision
This section describes the types of joint that may be
of expansion joints, as may an uninsulated roof slab.
required and gives recommendations for their
design and construction. The types of joint are Restraints on free contraction or expansion of the
illustrated in Figure 5.1 and are intended to be structure should be reduced as far as possible. With
diagrammatic. Jointing materials are considered in long wall bases or slabs founded at or below ground
appendix C. level, restraints can be reduced by the provision of a
sliding layer. This can be provided by founding the
Joints may be used, in conjunction with a
structure on a flat and smooth layer of site concrete
corresponding proportion of reinforcement, to
with interposition of some material to break the

control the concrete crack widths arising from
bond and facilitate movement, provided that friction
shrinkage and thermal changes to within acceptable
is not assumed in the design to resist sliding.
limits.
Structures on piled foundations should be designed
to have a sliding layer between the foundations and
5.2 Types of joints
the superstructure, or the restraint provided by the
A movement joint (see 5.3) is intended to piles should be considered in the design.
accommodate relative movement between adjoining
An order of casting slabs that gives temporary free
parts of a structure, special provision being made to
edges in two directions at right angles will help
maintain the water-tightness of the joint.
reduce the restraint to free contraction of the
Movement joints may be of the following types.
immature concrete.
a) Expansion joint. This has no restraint to
5.3.2 Design and detailing of movement joints
movement and is intended to accommodate either
expansion or contraction of the concrete. 5.3.2.1 General. All movement joints should be
b) Complete contraction joint. This also has no designed to accommodate repeated movement of the
restraint to movement, but is intended to structure without loss of liquid. The joint should be
accommodate only contraction of the concrete. designed to suit the characteristics of the material
available (see appendix C) and should also provide
c) Partial contraction joint. This provides some for the exclusion of grit and debris that would
restraint, but is intended to accommodate some prevent the closing of the joint. Liquid pressure on
contraction of the concrete. the joint should be adequately resisted. Detailing at
d) Hinged joint. This allows two structural places where the joint changes direction or
members to rotate relative to one another with intersects with another joint should be
minimal restraint. uncomplicated.
e) Sliding joint. This allows two structural 5.3.2.2 Expansion joint. At an expansion joint there
members to slide relative to one another with is complete discontinuity in both reinforcement and
minimal restraint. concrete. An initial gap should be provided between
A construction joint (see 5.4) is a joint in the adjoining parts of the structure to accommodate the
concrete introduced for convenience in construction. expansion or contraction of the structure.
Measures are taken to achieve subsequent Waterstops, joint fillers and joint sealing
continuity with no provision for further relative compounds are essential.
movement. Design of the joint so as to incorporate sliding
surfaces is not precluded and may sometimes be
5.3 Movement joints advantageous.
5.3.1 Need for movement joints 5.3.2.3 Complete contraction joint. At a complete
Structures should be provided with movement joints contraction joint there is complete discontinuity in
if effective and economic means cannot otherwise be both reinforcement and concrete. Cracking in the
taken to avoid unacceptable cracking. Regard adjoining parts of the structure is controlled by the
should be paid to the conditions of structures in spacing of the joints and the corresponding amount
service. In elevated structures where restraint is of reinforcement required to transmit movements to
small, movement joints may not be required. the adjacent joints.
© BSI 11-1998 11
A joint may be formed either by using stop ends with The three main options for the designer are
no initial gap between the concrete or by using a summarized in Table 5.1 as follows.
crack inducer (or other means) to reduce the depth a) In option 1 (design for full restraint) no
of the concrete section by at least 25 %. In the latter contraction joints are provided within the area
case, the restraint to initial contraction of the designed for continuity, and crack widths and
concrete exerted by the reduced cross section of the spacing are controlled by the reinforcement.
concrete at the joint is small and may be neglected. Construction joints become part of the crack
Waterstops are essential, as are joint sealing pattern and have similar crack widths.
compounds, where debris may enter the joints.
b) In option 2 (design for partial restraint)
Transfer of shear across the joint can be achieved by
cracking is controlled by the reinforcement, but
the use of dowel bars with one end of the dowel free
the joint spacing is such that some of the daily
to slide.
and seasonal movements in the mature slab or
5.3.2.4 Partial contraction joint. A distinction is structural member are accommodated at the
made between a complete contraction joint and a joints, so reducing the amount of movement to be
partial contraction joint in that, while both types accommodated at the cracks between the joints.
have discontinuity in the concrete, a partial
c) In option 3 (design for freedom of movement)
contraction joint has a proportion of the
cracking is controlled by the proximity of the
reinforcement continuing through the joint.
joints, with a moderate amount of reinforcement
5.3.2.5 Hinged joint. A hinged joint is a joint that provided, sufficient to transmit movement at any
transmits thrust and shearing force, but permits cracked section to the adjacent movement joints.
rotation with minimal restraint. A hinged joint may Significant cracking between the adjacent
be formed either by completely separating the two movement joints should not occur.
elements, placing one element in a groove in the
The options given in Table 5.1 are considered in
other, or by crossing the reinforcement at the
terms of horizontal movement, but vertical
junction of the two elements. In either case the
movement in walls should also be considered. Two
rotation of one element will not transfer moment to
cases are as follows.
the other.
1) It is possible for horizontal cracks to occur at
5.3.2.6 Sliding joint. A sliding joint has complete
any free-standing vertical end because of the
discontinuity in both reinforcement and concrete
change in horizontal restraint with respect to
and allows relative movement in the plane of the
height. For bays of any height the vertical strain
joint. The surface of the concrete on the lower
arising from this warping effect may be taken as
component should be flat and smooth so that
approximately half the horizontal strain, and the
movement is not restricted. In order to prevent
vertical steel ratio should not be less than the
bonding between the two faces, a separating layer or
critical ratio, rcrit.
layers of a suitable material should be provided to
allow movement to take place. 2) The vertical restraint exerted on a newly cast
bay at a vertical construction joint may be
5.3.3 Spacing of movement joints assumed to develop at a depth of 2.4 m from the
The provision of movement joints and their spacing free top surface. Thus design for freedom of
are dependent on the design philosophy adopted, movement (option 3) may be used for the vertical
i.e. whether to allow for or restrain shrinkage and reinforcement in the top 2.4 m of a lift. Design for
thermal contraction in walls and slabs. At one partial restraint (option 2) is appropriate for
extreme, the designer may exercise control by vertical steel below this depth.
providing a substantial amount of reinforcement in The choice of design imposes a discipline on
the form of small diameter bars at close spacing construction. It is desirable to achieve minimum
with no movement joints. At the other extreme, the restraint to early thermal contraction of the
designer may provide closely spaced movement immature concrete in walls and slabs even though
joints in conjunction with a moderate proportion of the finished structure may be designed for full
reinforcement. Between these extremes, control continuity. Cracks arising from thermal contraction
may be exercised by varying the reinforcement and in a roof supported on columns may be minimized or
joint spacing, an increase in spacing being even prevented if the roof slab is not tied rigidly to
compensated for by an increase in the proportion of the walls during construction.
reinforcement required.
12 © BSI 11-1998
5.4 Construction joints The concrete at the joint should be bonded with that
subsequently placed against it, without provision
The positions of construction joints should be
for relative movement between the two. Concrete
specified by the designer and indicated on the
should not be allowed to run to a feather-edge, and
drawings. If there is a need on-site to revise any
vertical joints should be formed against a stop end.
specified position or to have additional joints the
Particular care should be taken when forming the
proposed positions should be agreed with the
joints.
designer.
The surface of the first pour should be roughened to
Full structural continuity is assumed in design at a
increase the bond strength and to provide aggregate
construction joint. Reinforcement is fully
interlock. With horizontal joints, the joint surface
continuous across the joint and the concrete is taken
should be roughened, without disturbing the coarse
to be as nearly monolithic as possible. Cracking in
aggregate particles, by spraying the joint surface,
the concrete member arising from all thermal and
approximately 2 h to 4 h after the concrete is placed,

load effects is controlled by the use of reinforcement.
with a fine spray of water and/or brushing with a
The designer should specify the following. stiff brush. Vertical joints can be treated similarly,
if the use of a retarder on the stop end is authorized,
to enable the joint surface to be treated after the
stop end has been removed.
Table 5.1 — Design options for control of thermal contraction and restrained shrinkage
Option Type of Movement joint spacing Steel ratio Comments
construction and (see note 2)
method of control
1 Continuous: for No joints, but expansion joints at wide Minimum of Use small size
full restraint spacings may be desirable in walls and rcrit bars at close
roofs that are not protected from solar heat spacing to
gain or where the contained liquid is avoid high steel
subjected to a substantial temperature ratios well in
range excess of rcrit
2 Semicontinuous: a) Complete joints, <15 m Minimum of Use small size
for partial b) Alternate partial and complete joints rcrit bars but less
restraint (by interpolation), < 11.25 m steel than in
option 1
c) Partial joints, < 7.5 m
3 Close movement a) Complete joints, in metres 2/3 rcrit Restrict the
joint spacing: for joint spacing
w
freedom of < 4.8 + ---- for options 3 b)
e
movement and 3 c)
b) Alternate partial and complete joints,
in metres
w-
< 0.5s max + 2.4 + -----
e
c) Partial joints
w
< s max + ----
e
NOTE 1 References should be made to appendix A for the description of the symbols used in this table and for calculating rcrit,
smax and e.
NOTE 2 In options 1 and 2 the steel ratio will generally exceed rcrit to restrict the crack widths to acceptable values. In option 3
the steel ratio of 2/3 rcrit will be adequate.
© BSI 11-1998 13
If the joint surface is not roughened until the Frequently, in large structures, the floor is designed
concrete has hardened, the larger aggregate as a series of continuous strips with transverse
particles near the surface should be exposed by induced complete contraction joints provided to
sandblasting or by applying a scaling hammer or ensure that cracking occurs in predetermined
other mechanical device. Powerful hammers should positions. Longitudinal joints between the strips
not be used as they may damage or dislodge should form complete contraction joints.
aggregate particles so reducing, rather than
increasing, the capacity of the joint to transfer 5.7 Joints in walls
stresses. Care should be taken that the joint surface Walls may be designed as fully restrained against
is clean immediately before the fresh concrete is thermal contraction and shrinkage, or the
placed against it. It may need to be dampened prior restraints may be reduced by providing movement
to the new concrete being placed, to prevent joints in accordance with Table 5.1.
excessive loss of mix water into it by absorption.
Particular care should be taken in the placing of Where the wall is designed to be monolithic with the
new concrete close to the joint to ensure that it has base slab, a kicker should be cast at the same time
an adequate fines content and is fully compacted as, and integrally with, the slab. The height of the
and dense. It is not necessary to incorporate kicker should be at least 75 mm to enable the next
waterstops in properly constructed construction lift of formwork to fit tightly and to avoid leakage of
joints. cement grout from the newly deposited concrete.
The joint in this position will be a construction joint,
5.5 Temporary open sections and although it is recommended that wall panels
are cast in one lift, any necessary extra horizontal
Where structural continuity is required in the final joints will be construction joints.
structure (e.g. the wall of a rectangular tank) the
In walls to circular structures, one of the
amount of reinforcement required to control early
predominant forces from the liquid pressure is
thermal effects may be reduced by the use of
horizontal hoop tension.
temporary open sections.
For structural design purposes the horizontal
The width of the open section between adjacent
reinforcement should be completely continuous at
panels should be not greater than 1 000 mm.
vertical joints. A central waterstop should be used
Properly formed construction joints should be
together with sealing compounds on both faces,
provided at each end of the temporary open section
whether or not any attempt is made to achieve
with the longitudinal reinforcement from each
concrete continuity.
adjacent panel lapping in this area.
Provided that the isolated panels satisfy the criteria 5.8 Joints in roofs
for option 3 a) of Table 5.1, only the effects of T2, the
temperature fall due to seasonal variations Roof slabs are generally designed as flat slabs, in
(see A.3), need be considered when designing the which case all interior joints should be construction
complete continuous structure. joints so that the slab is structurally monolithic.
Early thermal effects and subsequent temperature
Sufficient time should be allowed for all the early effects should be considered. Roofs, even those
thermal movement to take place before the open covered by soil, may be subjected to a larger thermal
section is infilled. change than the walls and floor, but if the roof is not
connected monolithically to the wall the subsequent
5.6 Joints in ground slabs temperature effects may be disregarded
The floor of a structure may be designed to permit (i.e. reinforcement to control cracking is based only
thermal contraction and shrinkage by minimizing on T1, the fall in temperature between the hydration
restraints to movement. A separating layer peak and ambient (see A.3)).
of 1 000 g/m2 polyethylene should be provided Where roofs and walls are monolithic, movement
between the floor slab and the blinding concrete. joints in roofs should correspond with those in the
Panels may be cast in single bays or in larger areas walls to avoid the possibility of sympathetic
with induced joints. cracking. The final connection between the roof and
Alternatively, the floor may be designed as fully walls should not be made until the roof is insulated.
restrained against shrinkage and thermal If, however, provision is made by means of a sliding
contraction and should be cast directly onto the joint for movement between the roof and walls,
blinding concrete. correspondence of the joints is less important.
14 © BSI 11-1998
Section 5
© BSI 11-1998
Figure 5.1 — Examples of movement joints
15
BS 8007:1987
Section 6. Concrete: specification and materials
6.1 General 6.4 Workability

This section gives methods of specifying, producing The workability of the concrete should be specified
and assessing concrete for compliance that will in in relation to the equipment and methods of
general ensure that the strength, durability and handling and compaction, so that the concrete is
impermeability will be adequate for liquid-retaining placed without segregation, fully compacted,
structures. The recommendations in section 6 of surrounds all reinforcement, tendons and ducts and
BS 8110-1:1985 apply except where these are completely fills the formwork. It is particularly
amended by this code. important to ensure that full compaction is obtained
in the vicinity of construction and movement joints,
6.2 Materials embedded water bars, tendon anchorages, pipes,
6.2.1 Cements, ground granulated etc.
blastfurnace slags (g.g.b.s) and
pulverized-fuel ashes (p.f.a.) 6.5 Surface finish of concrete

These are to be used as specified in 6.1.2 of The type of surface finish to be given to any member
BS 8110-1:1985 except that for normal use the will depend on its position in the structure, its
target mean proportion of g.g.b.s. should not exposure, whether or not it is to receive an applied
exceed 50 %. This applies to blended finish and the properties of the liquid to be stored.
cements (6.1.2.1 b)) and combinations made at the The recommendations in 6.10 of BS 8110-1:1985
mixer (6.1.2.1 d)). The target mean proportion of apply.
p.f.a. should not exceed 35 % as stated in BS 8110-1. It is not possible to ensure that a reinforced concrete
NOTE In this code the term “cement” means Portland cement member will remain uncracked. It is recommended,
or a combination of Portland cement and g.g.b.s. in accordance therefore, that any member that is to be
with BS 6699 or p.f.a. in accordance with BS 3892-1, unless permanently exposed to view is provided with a
otherwise stated.
profile and type of finish that tend to minimize the
6.2.2 Aggregates effects of any surface marking.
Aggregates to be used should comply with either
BS 882 or BS 1047 and have an absorption, as 6.6 Blinding layer
measured in accordance with BS 812-2:1975, Where walls or floors are founded on the ground a
generally not greater than 3 %. screeded layer of plain concrete not less than 75 mm
NOTE Coarse aggregates with a low coefficient of thermal thick should be placed over the ground.
expansion are preferred (see BS 8110-2:1985).
In normal circumstances this concrete should have
6.3 Mix proportions proportions weaker than that used in the remainder
of the structure, but not weaker than grade C20 as
The minimum cement content should be 325 kg/m3. given in Table 6.2 of BS 8110-1:1985. Where
A maximum water/cement ratio of 0.55 should be aggressive soil or aggressive groundwater is
used except when Portland pulverized-fuel ash expected, the concrete should not be weaker than
cement or a combination of ordinary Portland grade C25, and if necessary, a sulphate-resisting or
cement and p.f.a. is used, when the water/cement other special cement should be specified.
ratio should be 0.50. The 28-day characteristic cube
strength should not be less than 35 N/mm2, and the 6.7 Pneumatically applied mortar
concrete should be classed as grade C35A.
The pneumatic application of mortar is a specialist
It should be noted that this classification is not in operation and should be carried out only by
accordance with BS 8110, as higher 28-day experienced operators. The designer should agree a
strengths may, with some types and proportions of full specification with the contractor for materials,
constituent materials, lead to undesirably high mix proportions, mixing, placing, equipment and
cement contents. A reduction in the water/cement curing before any work commences.
ratio may be achieved by the use of plasticizers.
For reinforced concrete the cement content should
not exceed either 400 kg/m3 of ordinary Portland
cement or cements containing g.g.b.s. or 450 kg/m3
where cements containing p.f.a. are used. For
prestressed concrete the maximum cement content
may be increased to 500 kg/m3 or 550 kg/m3
respectively.
16 © BSI 11-1998
Section 7. Specification and workmanship:

reinforcement
7.1 General 7.2.3 Stainless steel reinforcement
The provisions of section 7 of BS 8110-1:1985 apply. Bar reinforcement in accordance with the preferred
range of sizes given in BS 6744 should be used.
7.2 Special reinforcement 7.2.4 Bond strength
7.2.1 Galvanized reinforcement It may be assumed for the design that the bond
Normal bar and fabric reinforcement may be hot-dip strength of deformed bar types 1 and 2 is not
zinc coated in accordance with BS 729. The affected by hot-dip zinc coating or epoxy coating.
minimum coating thickness should be 85 µm. NOTE No guidance can be given for coated plain surface bars.
7.2.2 Epoxy coated reinforcement
Reinforcement may be epoxy powder coated with
the coating bonded by an electrostatic fusion
process. It is essential that the coating process is

undertaken in factory conditions, and as there is no
British Standard, ASTM A775/A775M-84 should be
complied with as a minimum, in respect of the
coating.
© BSI 11-1998 17
Section 8. Specification and workmanship:

prestressing tendons
8.1 General
Prestressing tendons should comply with the
recommendations in section 8 of BS 8110-1:1985.
18 © BSI 11-1998
Section 9. Inspection and testing of the structure
9.1 General Should the structure not satisfy the 7-day test, then
after the completion of the remedial work it should
Inspection and testing of structures should be
be refilled and if necessary left for a further
carried out in accordance with 2.8. Testing for liquid
stabilizing period; a further test of 7 days’ duration
tightness should be in accordance with 9.2 and 9.3.
should then be undertaken in accordance with
this clause.
9.2 Testing of structures
For a test of liquid retention, the structure should be 9.3 Testing of roofs
cleaned and initially filled to the normal maximum
The roofs of liquid-retaining structures should be
level with the specified liquid (usually water) at a
watertight and should, where practicable, be tested
uniform rate of not greater than 2 m in 24 h.
on completion by flooding the roof with water to a
When first filled, the liquid level should be minimum depth of 25 mm for 24 h or longer if so
maintained by the addition of further liquid for a
specified. Where it is impracticable, because of roof

stabilizing period while absorption and autogenous falls or otherwise, to contain a 25 mm depth of
healing take place. The stabilizing period may water, the roof should have water applied by a
be 7 days for a maximum design crack width continuous hose or sprinkler system to provide a
of 0.1 mm or 21 days for 0.2 mm or greater. After the sheet flow of water over the entire area of the roof
stabilizing period the level of the liquid surface for not less than 6 h. In either case the roof should
should be recorded at 24 h intervals for a test period be considered satisfactory if no leaks or damp
of 7 days. During this 7-day test period the total patches show on the soffit. Should the structure not
permissible drop in level, after allowing for satisfy either of these tests, then after the
evaporation and rainfall, should not exceed 1/500th completion of the remedial work it should be
of the average water depth of the full tank, 10 mm retested in accordance with this clause. The roof
or another specified amount. insulation and covering should be completed as soon
Notwithstanding the satisfactory completion of the as possible after satisfactory testing.
test, any evidence of seepage of the liquid to the
outside faces of the liquid-retaining walls should be
assessed against the requirements of the
specification. Any necessary remedial treatment of
the concrete, cracks, or joints should, where
practicable, be carried out from the liquid face.
When a remedial lining is applied to inhibit leakage
at a crack it should have adequate flexibility and
have no reaction with the stored liquid.
© BSI 11-1998 19
BS 8007:1987
Appendix A Calculation of minimum fy is the characteristic strength of the

reinforcement,5) crack spacing and reinforcement as given in Table 3.1 of
crack widths in relation to BS 8110-1:1985.
temperature and moisture effects
A.3 Crack spacing
A.1 General When sufficient reinforcement is provided to
The design procedures given in A.2 and A.3 are distribute cracking the likely maximum spacing of
appropriate to long continuous wall or floor or roof cracks, smax, is given by the equation:
slabs of “thin” cross section. Reference should be
made to 5.3.3 for modifications that are necessary
when considering the introduction of movement
joints. A.4 considers “thick” sections. A.5 considers
external restraint factors and their application to where
thin sections subject to varying degrees of external

restraint. Finally, A.6 refers to specialist literature f ct is the ratio of the tensile strength of the
regarding factors other than design that have a ------ concrete (fct) to the average bond strength
fb
significant influence on the degree of thermal and (fb) between concrete and steel
moisture effects.
(see Table A.1);
A.2 Minimum reinforcement5) f is the size of each reinforcing bar;
Direct tension cracking from thermal movement is r is the steel ratio based on the areas of
not the same mechanism as that of flexural surface zones (see Figure A.1 and
cracking. After the formation of an initial crack, all Figure A.2).
the other cracks are influenced by the
reinforcement. Provided that the reinforcement For square-mesh fabric reinforcement in which the
across these primary cracks does not yield, the cross-wires are not smaller than the main wires, it
contraction of the concrete at both sides of the crack may be assumed that 20 % of the maximum force in
becomes restrained by the reinforcement. Once this the main wires is taken at each welded intersection
restrained contraction reaches the tensile strain within the bond development length.
capacity of the concrete, a further crack may be Thus:
induced. Therefore, the effect of the reinforcement
on the cracking pattern is to increase the number of
cracks above those given in the primary cracking
pattern, but all of the cracks, both primary and
secondary, are of a controlled width.
where
To be effective in distributing cracking the amount
of reinforcement provided needs to be at least as nw is the number of welded intersections
great as that given by the equation: within the length smin and is normally 1
rcrit = fct/fy or 2;
where smax = 2smin.
rcrit is the critical steel ratio, i.e. the For immature concrete [2], the value of fct/fb may be
minimum ratio, of steel to the gross area taken as unity for plain round bars and two-thirds
of the concrete section, required to for deformed (type 2) bars, as shown in Table A.1.
distribute the cracking, “concrete section”
being the surface zones given in Figure
A.1 and Figure A.2;
fct is the direct tensile strength of the
immature concrete (usually taken at the
age of 3 days as 1.6 N/mm2 for
grade C35A);
5)
Although the expression “minimum reinforcement” is used it is possible to have 2/3 rcrit under option 3 of Table 5.1.
20 © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
Table A.1 — Factors for the calculation of minimum reinforcementa for crack distribution
and crack spacing (in immature concrete: thermal movement dominant)
Concrete grade rcrit fct/fb
Grade 250 Grade 460 Plain round bars, Deformed bars, type 2,
fb = 1.6 N/mm2 fb = 2.4 N/mm2
C35A 0.0064 0.0035 1.0 0.67

When calculating the area of thermal crack control steel:
As = Ac rcrit to distribute the cracking (A.2); or
As = Acr for specified maximum crack widths (see A.3).
a
Although the expression “minimum reinforcement” is used it is possible to have 2/3 rcrit under option 3 of Table 5.1.
Figure A.1 — Surface zones: walls and

suspended slabs
© BSI 11-1998 21
BS 8007:1987
Figure A.2 — Surface zones: ground slabs
The width of a fully developed crack arising from For walls and slabs exposed to normal UK climatic
drying shrinkage and thermal movement conditions, the shrinkage strain less its associated
contraction in restrained walls and slabs may be creep strain is generally less than 100 × 10–6
obtained from: (i.e. about one-half of the ultimate concrete tensile
wmax = smax e strain) unless high shrinkage aggregates are used
(see 2.6.2). Hence the value of wmax for cooling to
where
ambient from the peak hydration temperature may
wmax is the estimated maximum crack width; be assumed to be:
smax is the estimated likely maximum crack
spacing; a- T
w max = s max ----
2 1
e is the effective strain and is obtained
from: where
e = [e cs + e te – (100 × 10–6)] a is the coefficient of thermal expansion of
mature concrete;
where
T1 is the fall in temperature between the
ecs is the estimated shrinkage strain;
hydration peak and ambient.
ete is the estimated total thermal contraction
Alternatively, the above may be expressed as:
after peak temperature arising from
thermal effects. wmax = smax R a T1
For immature concrete the coefficient of thermal
contraction, less its associated creep strain (which is
very high in immature concrete), may be taken as
one-half of the value for mature concrete.
22 © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
where In addition to the temperature fall T1 there can be a

R is the restraint factor, being the restrained further fall in temperature, T2, because of seasonal
proportion of the theoretical linear thermal variations. The consequent thermal contractions
or shrinkage movement, taken as 0.5 for occur in the mature concrete for which the factors
immature concrete with rigid end restraints, controlling cracking behaviour are substantially
after allowing for the internal creep of the modified. The ratio of the tensile strength of the
concrete. concrete to the average bond strength, fct/fb, is
appreciably lower for mature concrete. In addition,
A low a significantly reduces the percentage of
the restraint along the base of the member tends to
thermal crack control reinforcement required to
be much more uniform and less susceptible to stress
restrict crack widths (see Table 7.3 of
raisers, since a considerable shear resistance can be
BS 8110-2:1985 for typical values).
developed along the entire length of the
Typical values of T1 for UK concreting using OPC construction joint.
are given in Table A.2. For design purposes T1
Although precise data are not available for these
should be assumed to be not less than 20 °C for
effects, a reasonable estimate is to assume that the

walls and not less than 15 °C for slabs. In Table A.2
combined effect of these factors, in conjunction with
values of T1 below these are marked with an
creep, is to reduce the estimated contraction by half.
asterisk.
Hence the value of wmax when taking an additional
NOTE For guidance on appropriate values of T1 when using seasonal temperature fall into account is given by:
other types of concrete, see sections 2.4 and 2.5 of
CIRIA report no. 91 [3].
a
Admixtures have little direct effect on the w max = s max ----- ( T 1 + T 2 )
2
temperature rise, other than to alter the time-scale
of the temperature rise. or
Provided that durability is not impaired,
w max = s max R a ( T 1 + T 2 )
workability aids and cementitious materials other
than OPC may be used to reduce the OPC content
Thus, in terms of restraint factor, the value of R for
and early-age thermal cracking (see section 2.5 of
mature concrete with rigid external restraint can
CIRIA report no. 91 [3]).
also be taken as 0.5. If movement joints as indicated
A concrete placing temperature higher than that in option 2 and 3 of Table 5.1 are provided, then the
assumed in Table A.2 can be expected in the UK on subsequent temperature fall T2 need not be
at least a few days each year, but because of the considered (see also A.5), provided that the steel has
lower total heat evolved with higher placing been reduced by 50 % at partial contraction joints.
temperatures, massive sections are unlikely to show
more than a 15 % increase over that given in A.4 Internal restraint in thick sections
Table A.2. In thin sections, where the rate of heat
For thick sections, major causes of cracking are the
evolution is controlling the temperature rise, higher
differences in temperature that develop between the
placing temperatures, coupled with high daily
surface zones and the core of the section
temperatures, can substantially increase the
(see 3.8.4.1 a) of BS 8110-2:1985). The thickness of
temperature rise over that given in Table A.2, but
concrete that can be considered within the
these temperature rises cannot be greater than
“surface zone” is somewhat arbitrary. However, site
those for massive sections.
observations have indicated that the zone
The designer should consider whether it is thicknesses for h > 500 mm in Figure A.1 and
necessary to assume a maximum concrete placing Figure A.2 are appropriate for thick sections, and
temperature of 25 °C for special UK conditions, such the procedure for calculating thermal crack control
as hot weather and long-haul distances, to ensure reinforcement in thick sections is then the same as
that design assumptions are not significantly for thin sections.
exceeded.
The minimum and maximum cement content
should be specified, and the design should be based
on the specified maximum permitted content,
unless the actual maximum is known.
© BSI 11-1998 23
BS 8007:1987
Table A.2 — Typical values of T1 for OPC concretes, where more particular
information is not available
1 2 3 4
Section Walls Ground slabs: OPC
thickness content, kg/m3
Steel formwork: OPC content, 18 mm plywood formwork: OPC content,
kg/m3 kg/m3
325 350 400 325 350 400 325 350 400
mm °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C
300 11 *
13 *
15 * 23 25 31 15 17 21
500 20 22 27 32 35 43 25 28 34
700 28 32 39 38 42 49 — — —
1 000 38 42 49 42 47 56 — — —
NOTE 1 For suspended slabs cast on flat steel formwork, use the data in column 2.
NOTE 2 For suspended slabs cast on plywood formwork, use the data in column 4.
The table assumes the following:
a) that the formwork is left in position until the peak temperature has passed;
b) that the concrete placing temperature is 20 °C;
c) that the mean daily temperature is 15 °C;
d) that an allowance has not been made for solar heat gain in slabs.
A.5 External restraint factors The restraint within a wall or floor panel depends
Effective external restraint may be taken as 50 % of not only on the location within the slab but also on
the proportions of the slab. Table A.3 shows how the
the total external restraint because of internal
restraint factors vary between opposite edges, one
creep. Reference was made in A.3 to movement
free and one fixed (e.g. for a wall slab the base
joints that greatly reduce the rigid external
section is the fixed edge and the top section is the
restraint assumed for continuous walls. However,
free edge).
there are other situations where the assumed
external restraint factor R can be less than 0.5.
Some typical situations for thin sections subjected
to external restraint are illustrated in Figure A.3
and allow for any beneficial internal restraints.
Note that no thermal cracking is likely to occur
within 2.4 m of a free edge since experience has
shown that this is the length of wall or floor slab
over which the tensile strain capacity of the concrete
exceeds the increasing restrained contraction, the
restraint factor varying between zero at the free
edge to a maximum of 0.5 at 2.4 m from the free
edge. Note that cracking can occur near the ends if
stress inducers such as pipes occur within this 2.4 m
length of wall or slab. However, if not less
than 2/3 rcrit, based on the surface zones, is provided
and there are no obvious stress raisers, it may be
assumed that the free ends of the members will
move inwards without cracking up to where R = 0.5.
Where this is only a temporary free edge and a
subsequent bay is cast against the edge, the larger
restraint factor for the subsequent bay is shown in
parentheses in Figure A.3 and should be
assumed [4].
24 © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
Figure A.3 — Restraint factor R for various wall and floor slab placing sequences
© BSI 11-1998 25
BS 8007:1987
Table A.3 — Influence of slab proportions e2 strain due to the stiffening effect of
on the centreline restraint factor concrete between cracks
L/H ratioa Design centreline horizontal
restraint factors B.2 Assessment of crack widths in flexure
Base of panel Top of panel Provided that the strain in the tension
1 0.5b 0 reinforcement is limited to 0.8fy/Es and the stress in
the concrete is limited to 0.45fcu, the design surface
2 0.5b 0 crack width should not exceed the appropriate value
•3 0.5b 0.05b given in 2.2.3.3 and may be calculated from
equation (1).
4 0.5b 0.3b
>8 0.5b 0.5b
aH
(1)
is the height or width to a free edge;
L is the distance between full contraction joints.
b These values can be less if L < 4.8 m.
where em is assessed in accordance with B.3.
The effective external restraint in ground slabs cast B.3 Average strain in flexure
on smooth6) blinding concrete for the seasonal
temperature variation T2 may be taken as being the The average strain at the level where cracking is
design restraint factor R = 0.5 at the mid-length, being considered is assessed by calculating the
for 30 m lengths and over, and it may be assumed to apparent strain using characteristic loads and
vary uniformly from 0.5 to zero at the ends. normal elastic theory. Where flexure is predominant
but some tension exists at the section, the depth of
A.6 Specialist literature the neutral axis should be adjusted. The calculated
apparent strain e1 is then adjusted to take into
A summary of the factors that help prevent or account the stiffening effect of the concrete between
control early-age thermal cracking, many of which cracks e2. The value of the stiffening effect may be
are not within the control of the designer and which assessed from B.4, and
should be taken into account in the specification, is
given in Table 10 of CIRIA report no. 91 [3]. em = e1 – e2
Appendix B. Calculation of crack B.4 Stiffening effect of concrete in flexure

widths in mature concrete The stiffening effect of the concrete may be assessed
by deducting from the apparent strain a value
B.1 Symbols obtained from equation (2) or (3).
For the purposes of this appendix the following For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm:
symbols apply.
a´ distance from the compression face to the (2)
point at which the crack width is being
calculated
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.1 mm:
acr distance from the point considered to the
surface of the nearest longitudinal bar
(3)
As area of tension reinforcement
bt width of the section at the centroid of the
tension steel The stiffening effect factors should not be
cmin minimum cover to the tension steel interpolated or extrapolated and apply only for the
crack widths stated.
d effective depth
Es modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement B.5 Assessment of crack widths in direct
h overall depth of the member tension
w design surface crack width Provided that the strain in the reinforcement is
x depth of the neutral axis limited to 0.8fy/Es,the design crack width should not
exceed the appropriate value given in 2.2.3.3 and
em average strain at the level where the
may be calculated from equation (4)
cracking is being considered
w = 3 acr e m
e1 strain at the level considered7)
6)
Power floated and/or use of sheet membrane to break bond.
7)
Calculated ignoring the stiffening effect of the concrete in the tension zone.
26 © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
where em is assessed in accordance with B.6. When proprietary materials or products are used,
the recommendations of the manufacturer should be
B.6 Average strain in direct tension followed.
The average strain is assessed by calculating the Jointing materials should be capable of
apparent strain using characteristic loads and accommodating repeated movement without
normal elastic theory. The calculated apparent permanent distortion or extrusion, and they should
strain is then adjusted to take into account the not be displaced by fluid pressure. The materials
stiffening effect of the concrete between cracks. The should remain effective over the whole range of
value of the stiffening effect may be assessed temperature and humidities considered. For
from B.7. example, they should not slump unduly in hot
weather neither should they become brittle when
B.7 Stiffening effect of concrete in direct cold. The materials should be insoluble and durable
tension and not change unduly by evaporation of solvent or
The stiffening effect of the concrete may be assessed plasticizers, nor, in exposed portions, should they be
by deducting from the apparent strain a value altered by exposure to light. Depending on the
obtained from equation (5) or (6). application, they may need to be non-toxic and
For a limiting design surface crack width of 0.2 mm; taintless and resistant to chemical and biological
attack. Ease of handling and of application or
installation are important, and the use of jointing
2b ht
e 2 = ----------------
- (5) materials should not prevent the proper compaction
3E s As of the concrete next to the joint. Detailing at places
For a limiting design surface crack width where the joint changes direction or intersects
of 0.1 mm; another joint should not be unduly complicated.
Sealants, unless otherwise specified in this code,
bht should comply with BS 6213.
e 2 = ------------
- (6)
Es As
C.2 Joint fillers
The stiffening effect factors should not be
Joint fillers are used in expansion joints as
interpolated or extrapolated and apply only for the
illustrated in section 5. They consist of compressible
crack widths stated.
sheet or strip material fixed to the face of the
first-placed concrete and against which the
Appendix C. Jointing materials
second-placed concrete is cast. They provide the
initial separation between the faces of the concrete
C.1 General
and compress under the predetermined expansion
The joints described in section 5 require the use of from each face of the concrete. It is important that
combinations of jointing materials, which may be the joint filler accommodates the compression
classified as: without transferring appreciable load across the
a) joint fillers; expansion joint and recovers so that the joint
b) waterstops; remains filled when the concrete faces subsequently
move apart. Since the percentage expansion or
c) joint sealing compounds (including primers contraction of the filler is inversely proportional to
where required). the initial width of the joint, there is an advantage
These materials are inaccessible once the in using a wide joint.
liquid-retaining structure has been commissioned The usefulness of a joint filler is increased if the
until the structure is taken out of use. The design material remains in contact with both faces of the
uses for these materials in joints should take into joint throughout joint movements. This is important
account their performance characteristics, both since the joint filler is used as a support to the joint
individually and in combination, and the sealing compound which is usually resisting liquid
restrictions and difficulties of access to them should pressure.
the joints not perform as designed. One of the
principal problems with joints is obtaining Only non-rotting and non-absorbent materials
continuously satisfactory adhesion between joint should be used as joint fillers.
sealing compounds and the concrete surfaces
between which they are to provide a liquid-tight
seal. Joint sealing compounds cannot be expected to
provide a liquid-tight seal for more than a
proportion of the life of the structure, and
waterstops should always be provided in movement
joints.
© BSI 11-1998 27
BS 8007:1987
C.3 Waterstops The design of the structure should generally provide

for the continuity of the waterstop system across all
Waterstops are preformed strips of durable
impermeable material that are wholly or partially joints and particularly junctions between floor and
embedded in the concrete during construction. They wall systems. The correct procedure for making the
running joints on site using heat fused butt welds
are located across joints in the structure to provide
for PVC, vulcanized or pocketed sleeve joints for
a permanent liquid-tight seal during the whole
rubber and brazed or welded lap joints for copper or
range of joint movements. Waterstops are usually
steel needs to be adopted. Intersections and special
proprietary items with determined performance
characteristics in accordance with BS 6213. When junctions such as those that arise between rubber
specified, waterstops should be appropriate to the and PVC should be prefabricated.
required design performance. Metal waterstops can be lapped instead of welded,
provided that the gap between them is 5 mm greater
The different applications of waterstops are
than the specified size of the coarse aggregate.
described in section 5 and illustrated in
Figure 5.1. It is essential that the concrete placed Surface waterstops should be used only in situations
around the waterstop is well compacted and that the where there is sufficient pressure from the outside
waterstop be fixed and maintained firmly in to ensure that the waterstop remains in position.
position until the concrete placing is completed and
the concrete has set. C.4 Joint sealing compound
Waterstops may be divided into four categories. The These materials (or sealants) are impermeable
first category, known as the central-bulb type, is ductile materials that are required to provide a
used in walls to form expansion, contraction and liquid-tight seal by adhesion to the concrete
partial contraction joints. The central bulb is throughout the range of joint movements. The
positioned across the joint, and the main waterstop sealing performance is obtained by permanent
is set parallel to the water-surface of the concrete adhesion of the sealing compound to the concrete
wall. There is a solid bulb or wing at each end of this each side of the joint only, and most sealants should
type of waterstop, which is made of rubber or be applied in conditions of complete dryness and
flexible plastics such as PVC. The distance of the cleanliness. There are joint sealing compounds that
waterstop from the nearest exposed concrete face are produced for application to surfaces that are not
should not be less than half the width of the dry. The recommendations of the manufacturer
waterstop. The second category is similar to the first should be followed to ensure that the sealing
category but has no central bulb. It is set in a similar compounds are applied correctly to adequately
manner to category one, but should be used only in prepared surfaces. It is necessary that the corners of
contraction, partial contraction and construction the concrete each side of the joint are accurately cast
joints. The third category, consisting of surface as detailed with impermeable concrete to avoid
types of waterstop, is mainly used on the undersides water by-passing the sealant through the concrete.
of concrete slabs, and sometimes on the outer face of BS 6213:1982 provides guidance on types of
walls that are backfilled. These waterstops are set constructional sealant and on their selection and
into the surface of the concrete each side of correct application, so enabling the specifier to
contraction or partial contraction joints that are select appropriately from Table 4 of that standard.
formed. They are also used with a central This table lists the main types of sealants, their
crack-inducing tongue for induced contraction suitability for the different types of joints in a
joints. To secure good compaction of the concrete variety of liquid-retaining structures. Table 4 and
against the water-stop it should be fixed to a base of sections 6 and 7 of BS 6213:1982 give guidance on
blinding concrete or formwork. The use of a surface the method of application of the sealants. Table 2
waterstop is sometimes specified at construction provides an expected service life for the various
joints. This type of waterstop is usually formed from types, with an indication that 20 years is a
rubber or flexible plastics such as PVC. The fourth reasonable maximum, although in favourable
category of waterstop is a rigid type and is specified conditions a longer service life may be obtained.
when, as in construction joints, no movement is
expected at the joint but a positive waterstop is
required because of the pressure of the contained
liquid as in a pressure pipeline. Such waterstops are
usually formed from copper or steel strip.
28 © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
In floor joints, the sealing compound is usually Vertical joints in walls should be primed where
applied in a chase formed in the surface of the necessary and then sealed on the liquid-face with a
concrete along the line of the joint. The actual sealant that is usually pressured by gun or knife
minimum width will depend on the known into the preformed chase. The sealants should have
characteristics of the material. In floor joints of the non-slumping properties and great extensibility.
expansion type, the sealant is supported by the joint The long-term performance of a joint sealing
filler. In floor joints, retention of the sealant is compound depends on its formulation, the
assisted by gravity, and in many cases sealing can workmanship with which it is prepared and applied
be delayed until just before the structure is put into as well as the circumstances of the structure. It
service, so that the amount of joint opening would be unwise to depend on the sealing compound
subsequently to be accommodated is small. The for liquid-tightness in the long term and that should
chase should be neither too narrow nor too deep to be provided by the waterstop. The sealing compound
hinder complete filling and should be primed before should maintain stability at the face of the joint and
the sealing compound is applied. Here again, a preclude the ingress of any hard objects that could
wider joint demands a smaller percentage distortion impair joint movements.

in the material.
© BSI 11-1998 29
BS 8007:1987
Appendix D. Bibliography
1. HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE. Articles and substances for use at work, Guidance note GS 8,
August 1977.
HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE. Entry into confined spaces, Guidance note GS 5, June 1980.
HEALTH AND SAFETY EXECUTIVE. Occupational exposure limits, Guidance note EH 40/85, April 1985.
2. HUGHES, B.P. Control of thermal and shrinkage cracking in restrained reinforced concrete walls,
Technical note 21, CIRIA, London 1976.
3. HARRISON, T.A. Early-age thermal crack control in concrete, Report no. 91, CIRIA, London 1981.
4. HUGHES, B.P. Elimination of shrinkage and cracking in a water-retaining structure, Technical note 36,
CIRIA, London 1971.
Further reading
5. WATER AUTHORITIES ASSOCIATION. Civil engineering specification for the water
industry, 2nd edition, 1984.
6. ANCHOR, R.D. and HUGHES, B.P. Guide to BS 8007, Institution of Structural Engineers, London (to
be published).
7. ANCHOR, R.D. Design of liquid retaining concrete structures, Surrey University Press, Glasgow 1981.
30 © BSI 11-1998
BS 8007:1987
Publications referred to
BS 729, Specification for hot dip galvanized coatings on iron and steel articles.
BS 812, Testing aggregates.
BS 812-2, Methods for determination of physical properties.
BS 882, Specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete.
BS 1047, Specification for air-cooled blastfurnace slag aggregate for use in construction.
BS 3572, Specification for access fittings for chimneys and other high structures in concrete or brickwork.
BS 3892, Pulverized-fuel ash.
BS 3892-1, Specification for pulverized-fuel ash for use as a cementitious component in structural concrete.
BS 4211, Specification for ladders for permanent access to chimneys, other high structures, silos and bins.
BS 4449, Specification for hot rolled steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
BS 4461, Specification for cold worked steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
BS 4483, Specification for steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete.
BS 5395, Stairs, ladders and walkways.
BS 5395-3, Code of practice for the design of industrial type stairs, permanent ladders and walkways.
BS 6213, Guide to selection of constructional sealants.
BS 6699, Specification for ground granulated blastfurnace slag for use with Portland cement.
BS 6744, Specification for austenitic stainless steel bars for the reinforcement of concrete.
BS 8110, Structural use of concrete.
BS 8110-1, Code of practice for design and construction.
BS 8110-2, Code of practice for special circumstances.
PD 6501, The preparation of British Standards for building and civil engineering
PD 6501-1, Guide to the types of British Standard, their aims, relationship, content and application.8)
ASTM A775/A775M-84 Specification for epoxy coated reinforcing steel bars, 01.04, American Society for
Testing and Materials Philadelphia 1984
NOTE See also bibliography.
8) Referred to in the foreword only.
© BSI 11-1998
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Committees responsible for this

The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted by the Civil

Department of the Environment (Property Services Agency)

This British Standard, having

The following BSI references

ISBN 0 580 16134 X

2.2 Structural design 2

Appendix C Jointing materials 27

partially prestressed concrete structures, improved recommendations for joints,

Mr R D Anchor B Sc, C Eng, F I Struct E, F I C E Chairman

© BSI 11-1998 iii

1.1 Scope Recommendations are given for structures in

1.2 Field of application 1.5 Statutory requirements

Section 2. Design: objectives and general

the significant additional deflection which occurs at be limited by insertion of a thickness of

2.5 Site conditions 2.6 Causes and control of cracking

factors: provided for in option 3 in Table 5.1 and 5.3.3, the

2.7.2 Maintenance and operation 2.7.4 Durability

2.7.6 Cover 2.9 Operational safety considerations

Section 3. Design and detailing: reinforced concrete

3.1 General 3.2.2 Crack widths

a) references to section 2 therein should be read leakage or appearance, contribute to its

and high-yield wire fabric complying with BS 4483 having a

Section 4. Design and detailing: prestressed

prolonged period, the structure should be

Section 5. Design, detailing and workmanship of

with interposition of some material to break the

approximately 2 h to 4 h after the concrete is placed,

Section 6. Concrete: specification and materials

6.1 General 6.4 Workability

pulverized-fuel ashes (p.f.a.) 6.5 Surface finish of concrete

Section 7. Specification and workmanship:

process. It is essential that the coating process is

Section 8. Specification and workmanship:

Section 9. Inspection and testing of the structure

specified. Where it is impracticable, because of roof

Appendix A Calculation of minimum fy is the characteristic strength of the

thin sections subject to varying degrees of external

C35A 0.0064 0.0035 1.0 0.67

Figure A.1 — Surface zones: walls and

Figure A.2 — Surface zones: ground slabs

where In addition to the temperature fall T1 there can be a

effects, a reasonable estimate is to assume that the

Appendix B. Calculation of crack B.4 Stiffening effect of concrete in flexure

C.3 Waterstops The design of the structure should generally provide

wider joint demands a smaller percentage distortion impair joint movements.

8) Referred to in the foreword only.

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