2.

PCM in INGREDIENT

2.1 Understanding taste and flavor:

The way we experience taste and flavor is unique, and it's not as simple as our taste buds doing
all the work. And there's actually a big difference between 'taste' and 'flavor'. If we think of
ingredient, taste is only a part of it. A lot of the information we get from ingredient is actually
smell. This is why it's important to understand the difference between taste and flavor.

When discussing "taste" here, we'll be referring only to the very small set of five sensations our
tongues can detect: salty, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami. There's increasing evidence that we
may also have specific receptors on our tongues for fat, which would make it the sixth—and
arguably most delicious—taste. When we say "flavor," meanwhile, we're referring to the
overall sensory experience, which includes not just those five or six tastes but also the
incredibly complex and varied dimension of aroma.

For a lot of us, the thought of "taste" immediately conjures up one of those old taste bud maps.
You know the ones—drawings of tongues with delineated regions, showing that we taste sour
on the sides, sweet in the front, and bitter at the back. But that's not really how it works.our
tongues are covered in bumps, technically called "papillae," and each papilla has thousands of
taste buds on it. Each taste bud, in turn, contains roughly 100 taste cells. And each of those
taste cells is designed to detect only one of each of the five (or six) tastes.* Despite what those
taste bud maps have always shown us, the truth is that the cells are pretty well distributed all
over the tongue.

Flavor is the overall impression of ingredient, the combination of both aromatics, taste, and
mouth feel. Flavor is how our brains synthesize aromas, taste, and texture into an overall
experience. The difficulty comes when we need to communicate the idea of flavors (i.e. the
wine-y-ness of the wine). Unsurprisingly, the language often used around flavor can be very
confusing, but if you keep these ideas you’ll be able to work your way though any flavor.

2.1.1 WAYS OF PERCEIVING TASTE-

Taste, or gustatory perception, is one of our basic senses. It tells us from early childhood what
is edible and what is not, what is good for our body and what can be potentially dangerous.
Taking into account how important the sense of taste is for us, it is surprising how little we
know about the underlying neurological mechanisms that produce the sensation of taste.

Taste relies on sensing certain molecules in ingredient. Chemical recognition of these

molecules on our tongue generates a signal which is sent to the brain and processed there.
Processed signals give us certain ideas about the kind of ingredient we are dealing with and
allows us to take certain decisions and modify our behavior accordingly. For instance,
sweetness is typically associated with highly caloric, attractive ingredient, while bitterness
might signal danger, since many toxins are associated with this taste.

Taste buds perform the first part of the task: recognition and generation of signal. This part is
relatively well studied. We know that our tongue contains five types of taste receptors that
register sweetness, saltiness, bitterness, sourness and umami (savory or meaty taste).
Chemicals interact with receptors to generate signals which are sent to the brain. Sugars are
recognized by the receptors of sweetness, sodium ions by the receptors of saltiness, acids by
the receptors of sourness. Glutamate, a component of meat and many other protein-rich
ingredients, activates umami receptors. Bitterness is the most sensitive of all tastes and can be
produced by interaction of a variety of “bitter” ligands, such as some peptides, with the specific
receptors.

The second part of the gustatory perception process, signal processing, is significantly less
understood, and lots of research studies these days are aiming to figure out how our brain
generates the huge variety and complexity of tastes using just a few basic taste receptors.

Until recently, two major schools of thoughts dominated the area of neuroscience dealing with
perception of taste. Some researchers believed that signals from different receptors go to
different, although interlinked, parts of the brain. Other neuroscientists believed that all signals
from every taste receptor finish up in the same center, thus facilitating the creation of specific
taste of ingredient which we can recognize.

Current research data has shifted the opinion of scientific community in favor of the first
hypothesis. It turned out that ganglion neurons, connected to the taste receptor cells, have clear
taste preferences, and for every type of receptor there are dedicated cells in the brain that
receive information from taste buds.

This, however, is only a part of the story: the taste we feel is not formed exclusively from the
information received from the taste buds. The smell of ingredient – detected by the olfactory
epithelium in the nose – is another contributing factor which clearly works together with the
taste perceived in the mouth.

In addition, mechanoreceptors help us to sense the texture of ingredient, while chemesthetic

sensations – via the receptors of pain, touch and thermal perception – provide us with the
ability to feel the hotness of chilly pepper or the coolness of menthol. It also appears that the
five basic types of taste receptors are not necessarily the only taste receptors we have. In
experiments on animals, at least, it was shown that there are specific recognition processes for
calcium-rich ingredients and for fats. All these signals have to be somehow integrated by the
brain to obtain the sensation of taste that we feel. The details of this process still remain very
unclear.
At present, scientists are not aware of any mechanisms that would help in restoring the taste
buds. However, if we understand how the neuronal signals from the taste receptors are
processed, we may find a way of enhancing these signals through pharmaceutical interventions
and thus helping people suffering from the loss of taste sensation. On the other hand, reducing
the intensity of taste may help in reducing the appetite and thus keep overweight people from
consuming excessive amounts of ingredient. Future research into the mechanisms of taste
perception might become instrumental in addressing a variety of eating disorders that are
becoming so common these days.

2.1.2 THE FIFTH TASTE: UMAMI

When we were in grade school, many of us learned that there were four basic tastes: sweet,
sour, salty and bitter. Now there's a new taste to learn and it's called umami (pronounced "oo-
mommy"). Actually, while the term is new to us, it's not new to the Japanese, who have used
the term to describe the "fifth taste" since the early 1900s. What exactly is the umami taste?
Well, there's no English word that's synonymous with umami, however it's most often
described as a "savory" or "meaty" taste.

Being able to distinguish the umami taste takes some practice because it's not as obvious as
other tastes, such as sweet or bitter. For example, when tasting a homemade chicken broth
made without salt or seasoning of any kind, you may find it bland and practically tasteless. If
you added a small amount of monosodium glutamate to that same broth, the umami taste it
provides may lead you to describe the "enhanced" broth as tasting "more like chicken" than the
first broth. This taste is not as simple as making something taste more salty (salt alone can do
that). Rather, the umami taste is one of richness, fullness and complexity. Simply put, it just
makes the ingredient taste more delicious.

The umami taste is often described as a meaty, broth-like, or savory taste, and is independent
of the four traditional basic tastes — sweet, sour, salty and bitter. It has been established for
more than 10 years now that umami, which is the taste of monosodium glutamate, is one of the
five recognized basic tastes

2.1.3 NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FLAVORS -

Do you ever read the ingredients list on a bag, box, or can of ingredient and wonder just what
"natural flavors" are and why they're needed? Shouldn't ingredient taste good without anything
added? Maybe, but first it's important to understand what makes up a flavor and why flavor is
necessary to begin with.
* What Makes Something Flavorful?

Flavor is an important characteristic of the ingredients we eat every day—it's difficult to

imagine eating a diet made up of bland flavorless ingredients! Essentially, flavor is the
combination of the taste, aroma, and feel of ingredient.

While some ingredients, such as fresh fruits and berries, taste delicious just as they are, most
dishes we eat are more complex and almost always contain some type of added ingredients to
enhance flavor. Actually, every recipe includes some sort of extra flavor-enhancing
ingredients, such as salt, pepper, herbs, and spices.

Enhancing the flavor of ingredients can make eating a joyful thing for anyone of us. But,
adding flavors to ingredients also helps to stimulate appetite, which is essential for people who
need to gain weight, like older people who may have lost some of their ability to taste
ingredients.

* Flavorings as Ingredient Additives

You know how fresh ingredients taste when you make them at home? Think about fresh bread
right from the oven. Amazing, right? Of course. But, it's also quite time consuming, so many
consumers opt to have processed ingredients on hand that taste almost as good as their
homemade counterpart.

The thing is, in order to be convenient, processed ingredients need to last a long time and the
preservation methods used to accomplish that tend to reduce flavor. Thus, ingredient
manufacturers may turn to adding natural flavors to enhance or maintain the flavor of the
ingredient after it's processed.

* What Exactly Are Natural Flavors?

According to the United States Ingredient and Drug Administration,

"The term natural flavor or natural flavoring means the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or

extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis,
which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or
vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, sea
ingredient, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose significant
function in ingredient is flavoring rather than nutritional."

That said, seeing the words "natural flavor" on an ingredients list doesn't really tell you much
about what those added flavorings actually taste like. While it's easy enough to identify the
flavorings in an actual recipe, it can be more difficult to know what flavorings are added to
processed ingredients on the whole.
On the surface, “natural flavors” sounds pretty straightforward. “For purposes of ingredient
labeling, ‘natural flavors’ means flavor constitutes derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice,
vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material,
meat, seaingredient, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products from these
ingredients,” says FDA press officer Deborah Kotz. In other words, the flavor itself must come
from a plant or animal.

But here’s where things get complicated: A single natural flavor can consist of 50 to 100
different components, according to the Environmental Working
Group. Often, these include solvents, emulsifiers, and preservatives—substances that preserve
the natural ingredients being used or help them mix with each other.

* What Exactly Are Synthetic Flavors?

Synthetic flavors are additives designed to mimic the taste of natural ingredients. They are a
cheap way for manufacturers to make something taste like strawberry, for example, without
actually using any real strawberries.

The FDA’s definition of synthetic flavoring is as follows:

“The term synthetic flavor or synthetic flavoring means any substance, the function of which is
to impart flavor, which is not derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable
juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or similar plant material, meat, fish, poultry, eggs,
dairy products, or fermentation products thereof.”

In other words, ingredients that comprise synthetic flavors are chemicals that were not
originally sourced from nature.

Synthetic flavors are proprietary chemical formulas owned by the flavor companies that create
them. The demand for top-secret recipes made by flavor manufacturers has produced a multi-
billion industry, an industry shrouded in secrecy – and with good reason. Flavor companies
employ a range of experts from chemists to chefs to ‘cook up’ novel flavors from an
assortment of 1,300 FDA-approved ingredients. They don’t want to disclose their recipes, and
consumers don’t like knowing that the delicious chicken flavor in their Stouffer’s dinner comes
from a mix of chemicals rather than the real thing.

Some examples of Synthetic flavors are,

 Artificial grape-flavor is derived from a chemical in concord (purple) grapes - not the
red or green grapes we're used to buying in supermarkets. This is why artificial grape-
flavored things like candy, soft drinks and Dimetapp are purple and why store-bought
grapes taste nothing like this fake stuff.
 Some natural flavors can be more dangerous than the artificial ones. Traces of cyanide
can be found in almond flavor, or Benzaldehyde, when derived from nature. That's why
 in movies, the smell of bitter of almonds on the victim is often linked to cyanide
poisoning.
 Raw soybeans, from which soy sauce is made, are also toxic.
 Industrial soy sauce (the stuff you find in convenient to-go packets) is made from acid-
hydrolyzed vegetable protein, not boiled soybeans.
 Many people worry about "chemicals" like MSG added to their ingredients. The link
between headaches and MSG, called "Chinese restaurant syndrome," is just a myth.
Researchers think that symptoms related to eating Chinese ingredient are caused by high
amounts of salt.
 Cinnamon, which is just the dried inner-bark of specific trees, gets its aroma and flavor
from the compound cinnamaldehyde. There are three types of cinnamon: Indonesian
(common cinnamon sticks), cassia and Ceylon.
 Cassia, which primarily comes from China, is what most ground cinnamon in the United
States is made from. It is dark in color, hard, thick and forms a "double scroll" when it's
in a stick.
 Ceylon, or "real cinnamon," is popular in Latin American countries. It is lighter in color,
thinner and more brittle than cassia. It also has a lower percentage of cinnamaldehyde,
which gives it a more subtle flavor. In the U.S., you can find ceylon in fancy grocery
stores or Hispanic markets.

*Artificial Flavors or Natural Flavors ?

Artificial flavors are typically not harmful. However, I’m not crazy about them, because they
don’t usually reproduce the natural taste of ingredients and are often markers for low-quality
ingredients. Whether natural or artificial, ingredient flavors are made up of molecules that
occur naturally and can be synthesized. In general, natural flavors are much more complex than
artificial ones, which have far fewer component molecules.

Artificial flavors may be more stable than natural ones and certainly are less expensive, so
manufacturers prefer them, and many consumers are satisfied with them. There is even a weak
case to be made that artificial flavors are safer for consumption because they omit components
of natural flavors that may be slightly toxic.

If a ingredient product contains artificial flavors, you should check to make sure that it doesn’t
also contain less desirable additives. Read labels carefully to check for high fructose corn syrup
(HFCS) used to sweeten soft drinks and juices. HFCS contributes to obesity in many people.

Also, watch out for artificial colorings and dyes (look for the terms "artificial color added,"
"U.S. certified color added," "FD & C red no. 3" (or "green" or "blue" or "yellow" followed by
any number), as well as artificial sweeteners and monosodium glutamate (MSG).They are a
group of highly reactive molecules that may interact with DNA and increase mutation or cell
transformation. Read labels and avoid them.
2.2 INGREDIENT CHEMISTRY-

Ingredient chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and
non-biological components of ingredients. The biological substances include such items as
meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, and milk as examples. It is similar to biochemistry in its main
components such as carbohydrates, lipids, and protein, but it also includes areas such as water,
vitamins, minerals, enzymes, ingredient additives, flavors, and colors. This discipline also
encompasses how products change under certain ingredient processing techniques and ways
either to enhance or to prevent them from happening. An example of enhancing a process
would be to encourage fermentation of dairy products with microorganisms that convert
lactose to lactic acid; an example of preventing a process would be stopping the browning on
the surface of freshly cut apples using lemon juice or other acidulated water.

History of ingredient chemistry

The scientific approach to ingredient and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural
chemistry in the works of J. G. Wallerius, Humphry Davy, and others. For example, Davy
published Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lectures for the Board of
Agriculture (1813) in the United Kingdom which would serve as a foundation for the
profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition. Earlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm
Scheele who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785.

In 1874 the Society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical
methods to the benefit of the public. Its early experiments were based on bread, milk and
wine.

It was also out of concern for the quality of the ingredient supply, mainly ingredient
adulteration and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to
later with chemical ingredient additives by the 1950s. The development of colleges and
universities worldwide, most notably in the United States, would expand ingredient chemistry
as well with research of the dietary substances, most notably the Single-grain experiment
during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at the United States Department of
Agriculture during the late 19th century would play a key factor in the creation of the United
States Ingredient and Drug Administration in 1906. The American Chemical Society would
establish their Agricultural and Ingredient Chemistry Division in 1908 while the Institute of
Ingredient Technologists would establish their Ingredient Chemistry Division in 1995.

Ingredient chemistry concepts are often drawn from rheology, theories of transport phenomena,
physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds and interaction forces, quantum
mechanics and reaction kinetics, biopolymer science, colloidal interactions, nucleation, glass
transitions and freezing/disordered or noncrystalline solids, and thus has Ingredient Physical
Chemistry as a foundation area.[4][5]
Water in ingredient systems

A major component of ingredient is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat
products to 95% in lettuce, cabbage, and tomato products. It is also an excellent place for
bacterial growth and ingredient spoilage if it is not properly processed. One way this is
measured in ingredient is by water activity which is very important in the shelf life of many
ingredients during processing. One of the keys to ingredient preservation in most instances is
reduce the amount of water or alter the water's characteristics to enhance shelf-life. Such
methods include dehydration, freezing, and refrigeration[6][7][8][9] This field encompasses the
"physiochemical principles of the reactions and conversions that occur during the
manufacture, handling, and storage of ingredients".[10] .

Carbohydrates

Sucrose: ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate.

Comprising 75% of the biological world and 80% of all ingredient intake for human
consumption, the most common known human carbohydrate is Sucrose[citation needed]. The simplest
version of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in
a 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CnH2nOn where n is a minimum of 3. Glucose is an
example of a monosaccharide as is fructose. Combine them in the picture shown to the right
and you have sucrose, one of the more common sugar products around.

A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides include

pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan.

Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix.

Lipids

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for
relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty
acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids,
glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic
molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are aromatic, while others are not. Some
are flexible, while others are rigid.

Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the
bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ("water-fearing"), meaning that it does not
interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or
hydrophilic ("water-loving") and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This
makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the
case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol).

Lipids in ingredient include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are
parts of many ingredients such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers.

Ingredient proteins

Proteins compose over 50% of the dry weight of an average living cell[citation needed][clarification needed]
and are very complex macromolecules. They also play a fundamental role in the structure and
function of cells.[11] Consisting mainly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some
sulphur, they also may contain iron, copper, phosphorus, or zinc.

In ingredient, proteins are essential for growth and survival, and requirements vary depending
upon a person's age and physiology (e.g., pregnancy). Protein is commonly obtained from
animal sources: eggs, milk, and meat. Nuts, grains and legumes provide vegetable sources of
protein, and protein combining of vegetable sources is used to achieve complete protein
nutritional quotas from vegetables.

Protein sensitivity as ingredient allergy is detected with the ELISA test.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another.
They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a
chemical process. Many aspects of the ingredient industry use catalysts, including baking,
brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread.

Vitamins
Riboflavin (Vitamin B2), water-soluble.

Vitamins are nutrients required in small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body.
These are broken down in nutrition as either water-soluble (Vitamin C) or fat-soluble (Vitamin
E). An adequate supply of vitamins can prevent diseases such as beriberi, anemia, and scurvy
while an overdose of vitamins can produce nausea and vomiting or even death.

Minerals

Dietary minerals in ingredients are large and diverse with many required to function while
other trace elements can be hazardous if consumed in excessive amounts. Bulk minerals with a
Reference Daily Intake (RDI, formerly Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA)) of more than
200 mg/day are calcium, magnesium, and potassium while important trace minerals (RDI less
than 200 mg/day) are copper, iron, and zinc. These are found in many ingredients, but can also
be taken in dietary supplements.
Colour

Ingredient colouring is added to change the colour of any ingredient substance. It is mainly for
sensory analysis purposes. It can be used to simulate the natural colour of a product as
perceived by the customer, such as red dye (like FD&C Red No.40 Allura Red AC) to ketchup
or to add unnatural colours to a product like Kellogg's Froot Loops. Caramel is a natural
ingredient dye; the industrial form, caramel colouring, is the most widely used ingredient
colouring and is found in ingredients from soft drinks to soya sauce, bread, and pickles.

Flavors

Flavor in ingredient is important in how ingredient smells and tastes to the consumer,
especially in sensory analysis. Some of these products occur naturally like salt and sugar, but
flavor chemists (called a "flavorist") develop many of these flavors for ingredient products.
Such artificial flavors include methyl salicylate which creates the wintergreen odor and lactic
acid which gives milk a tart taste.

Ingredient additives

Ingredient additives are substances added to ingredient for preserving flavors, or improving
taste or appearance. The processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier
for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by "E number" in the
European Union or GRAS ("generally recognized as safe") by the United States Ingredient and
Drug Administration.

Techniques, tools and ingredients

 Carbon dioxide source, for adding bubbles and making foams

 Foams can also be made with an immersion blender
 Liquid nitrogen, for flash freezing and shattering
 Ice cream maker, often used to make unusual flavors, including savory
 Anti-griddle, for cooling and freezing
 Thermal immersion circulator for sous-vide (low temperature cooking)
 Food dehydrator
 Centrifuge[54]
 Malt dextrin – can turn a high-fat liquid into a powder
 Sugar substitutes[54]
 Enzymes[54]
 Lecithin – an emulsifier and non-stick agent
 Hydrocolloids such as starch, gelatin, pectin and natural gums – used as thickening
agents, gelling agents, emulsifying agents and stabilizers, sometimes needed for foams
 Transglutaminase – a protein binder, called meat glue
 Specification – a caviar-like effect
 Syringe, for injecting unexpected fillings
  Edible paper made from soybeans and potato starch, for use with edible fruit inks and an
inkjet printer
 Aromatic accompaniment: gases trapped in a bag, a serving device, or the food itself; an
aromatic substance presented as a garnish[55] or creative serve ware; or a smell produced
by burning
 Presentation style is often whimsical or avant-garde, and may include unusual service
ware
 Unusual flavor combinations (food pairings) are favored, such as combining savory and
sweet
 Using ultrasound to achieve more precise cooking time

2.3 BALANCING OF INGREDIENTS -

Cooking at home can be healthy, rewarding and cost-effective. And, according to research,
taste tops nutrition as the main reason why Americans buy one food over another. The foods
you enjoy are likely the ones you eat the most, so make taste a kitchen priority when preparing
healthy, nutritious meals.

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics offers cooking tips to enhance flavor and retain
nutrients without adding extra fat, calories or salt. To maximize food's flavor and nutrition,
start with high-quality ingredients at their peak quality. They don't need to be the most
expensive foods — or served in big portions. It's also important to handle and store foods
properly, because poor storage destroys flavor and quality.

Overcooking can destroy flavor and nutrients. So cook to retain nutrients, flavor, color, texture
and overall appeal. Cooking can't improve poor-quality foods, but it can enhance the flavors of
high-quality foods.

Try these seven simple techniques to enhance, BALANCE flavor and experiment with flavor
combinations.

 Intensify the flavors of meat, poultry and fish with high-heat cooking techniques such as
pan-searing, grilling or broiling, which help to brown meat and add flavor. Just don't
overcook, burn or char meat.
 Grill or roast veggies in a very hot (450°F) oven or grill for a sweet, smoky flavor.
Before popping them into the oven, brush or spray lightly with oil so they don't dry out
and sprinkle with herbs.
 Caramelize sliced onions to bring out their natural sugar flavor by cooking them slowly
over low heat in a small amount of oil. Use them to make a rich, dark sauce for meat or
poultry.
 Pep it up with peppers! Use red, green and yellow peppers of all varieties — sweet, hot
and dried. Or, add a dash of hot pepper sauce.
 Add a tangy taste with citrus juice or grated citrus peel: lemon, lime or orange. Acidic
ingredients help lift and balance flavor.
 Use small amounts of ingredients with bold flavors such as pomegranate seeds, chipotle
pepper or cilantro.
 Give a flavor burst with good-quality condiments such as horseradish, flavored mustard,
chutney, wasabi, bean purees, tapenade and salsas of all kinds.