Spiritual Leadership Fry

The Leadership Quarterly 16 (2005) 835 – 862
Spiritual leadership and army transformation: Theory,

measurement, and establishing a baseline
Louis W. Fry T, Steve Vitucci, Marie Cedillo
Tarleton State University, Central Texas, 1901 South Clear Creek Rd., Killeen, TX 76549, United States
Abstract
Spiritual leadership theory (SLT) is a causal leadership theory for organizational transformation designed to
create an intrinsically motivated, learning organization. Spiritual leadership comprises the values, attitudes, and
behaviors required to intrinsically motivate one’s self and others in order to have a sense of spiritual survival
through calling and membership—i.e., they experience meaning in their lives, have a sense of making a
difference, and feel understood and appreciated. The effect of spiritual leadership in establishing this sense of
leader and follower spiritual survival is to create value congruence across the strategic, empowered team, and
individual levels to, ultimately, foster higher levels of organizational commitment, productivity, and employee
well-being.
The primary purpose of this research is to test the SLT causal model that hypothesizes positive relationships
among the qualities of spiritual leadership, spiritual survival, and organizational productivity and commitment
using longitudinal data from a newly formed Apache Longbow helicopter attack squadron at Ft. Hood, Texas. The
results provide strong initial support for SLT and its measures. A methodology was developed for establishing a
baseline for future organizational development interventions as well as an action agenda for future research on
spiritual leadership in general and Army training and development in particular. We conclude that spiritual
leadership theory offers promise as a springboard for a new paradigm for leadership theory, research, and practice
given that it (1) incorporates and extends transformational and charismatic theories as well as ethics- and values-
based theories (e.g., authentic and servant leadership) and (2) avoids the pitfalls of measurement model
misspecification.
D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Spiritual leadership; Military leadership; Leadership theory
T Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 254 519 5476; fax: +1 254 519 5476.
E-mail address: [email protected] (L.W. Fry).
1048-9843/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.07.012
836 L.W. Fry et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 16 (2005) 835–862
1. Introduction
In the new bArmy of OneQ leaders must address the well-being (i.e. the physical, material, mental, and
spiritual states) of soldiers, Army civilians, and their families, since well-being contributes to their ability
to perform and support the Army’s mission. Army leaders must inspire soldiers to a higher sense of
calling and membership, while providing the organizational and leadership environment of a learning
organization. The Army has developed numerous programs in the last few years, including the new
Army vision and values, (Office of the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, Special Actions Branch, 2004; Plans
And Policy Directorate, Army G-3, DAMO-SS (Attention: SSP), 2002), Caring QMB (Quality
Management Board), and the Army’s Well-Being Strategic Plan, that are intended to change the overall
culture of the Army to stress the critical nature of force well-being and to achieve a complete
transformation of the United States Army (Morris, 2001). Critical to the leadership of the Army
transformation effort is a requirement to institutionalize a learning organizational paradigm with intrinsic
motivation through spiritual leadership (Fry, 2003).
Spiritual leadership is a causal leadership theory for organizational transformation designed to create
an intrinsically motivated, learning organization. The purpose of spiritual leadership is to create vision
and value congruence across the strategic, empowered team and individual levels and, ultimately, to
foster higher levels of organizational commitment and productivity. Spiritual leadership comprises the
values, attitudes, and behaviors that one must adopt in intrinsically motivating one’s self and others so
that both have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership—i.e. they experience
meaning in their lives, have a sense of making a difference, and feel understood and appreciated.
Moreover, the Spiritual leadership paradigm provides an integrating framework for the Army’s
transformation effort, especially as it relates to increasing levels of intrinsic motivation, commitment,
productivity, and well-being.
The purpose of this research is to utilize a newly formed Longbow helicopter attack squadron at Ft.
Hood, Texas to test and validate the hypothesized causal model hypothesizing positive relationships
between the qualities of spiritual leadership, organizational productivity, and organizational commit-
ment. In addition, a methodology is developed for establishing a baseline for future organizational
development interventions as well as an action agenda for future research on spiritual leadership, in
general, and Army training and development, in particular.
2. Organizational transformation through spiritual leadership
Organization transformation (OT), a recent extension of organizational development, seeks to create

massive changes in an organization’s orientation to its environment, vision, goals and strategies,
structures, processes, and organizational culture. Its purpose is to affect large-scale paradigm shifting
change. bAn organizational transformation usually results in new paradigms or models for organizing
and performing work. The overall goal of OT is to simultaneously improve organizational effectiveness
and individual well-beingQ (French, Bell, & Zawacki, 2000, p. vii).
Leaders attempting to initiate and implement organizational transformations face daunting challenges,
especially in gaining wide-spread acceptance of a new and challenging vision and the need for often
drastic and abrupt change of the organization’s culture (Cummins & Worley, 2005; Harvey & Brown,
2001). Although leadership has been a topic of interest for thousands of years, scientific research in this
L.W. Fry et al. / The Leadership Quarterly 16 (2005) 835–862 837
area only began in the twentieth century. While space limitations in this article preclude a detailed review
of the leadership literature, most definitions of leadership share the common view that it involves
influence among people who desire significant changes. These changes reflect purposes shared by
leaders and followers (Daft, 2001).
This study uses the definition and generic process of leadership developed by Kouzes & Pozner
(1987, 1993, 1999)—Leadership is the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared aspirations.
From their perspective leadership entails motivating followers by creating a vision of a long-term
challenging, desirable, compelling, and different future. This vision, when combined with a sense of
mission of who we are and what we do, establishes the organization’s culture with its fundamental
ethical system and core values. The ethical system then establishes a moral imperative for right and
wrong behavior which, when combined with organizational goals and strategies, acts as a substitute
(Kerr & Jermier, 1977) for traditional bureaucratic structure (centralization, standardization and
formalization). When coupled with a powerful vision, this substitute provides the roadmap for the
cultural change to the learning organizational paradigm needed for organizational effectiveness in
today’s chaotic organizational environments. Thus, for the learning organization, leadership is about
vision and values; it is the act of creating a context and culture that influences followers to ardently
desire, mobilize, and struggle for a shared vision that defines the essence of motivating through
leadership.
2.1. The army transformation challenge
To lead soldiers, a leader must have certain attributes such as courage, technical skill, the ability to
provide vision, a sense of purpose, and inspiration. This establishes a higher sense of calling to fight for
something larger than themselves with the knowledge that they are members to a winning team and are
understood and appreciated in bAn Army of OneQ (Hunt, Dodge, & Wong, 1999; Mitchell, 2001; Morris,
2001; Yukl, 1999).
Military organizations evolve over time, mostly to overcome changes in the complex environment in
which they exist, and to accommodate new technologies and tactics to achieve their ultimate mission:
win their country’s wars. Military leaders must constantly initiate and adapt to change, while at the same
time provide a clear vision and sense of direction (mission) for their organizations. Today’s Army
leadership is dealing with 9/11, the war on terrorism, and the aftermath of war in Iraq. Additionally, it is
dealing with smarter, more technologically competent, and differently motivated soldiers, as well as
industry/businesses seeking their services (Britt, Davison, & Bliese, 2004; Collins, Ulmer, & Walter,
2000; Dvir, Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002; Griffith, 2002; Kane & Tremble, 2000).
2.2. Spiritual leadership
Our purpose is to sharpen the focus on these issues through the lens of Fry’s (2003, 2005) recent work
on spiritual leadership theory to gain further insight into the nature, process, and development of Army
transformation. Spiritual leadership is a causal leadership theory for organizational transformation
designed to create an intrinsically motivated, learning organization. The theory of spiritual leadership is
developed within an intrinsic motivation model that incorporates vision, hope/faith, and altruistic love,
theories of workplace spirituality, and spiritual survival. The purpose of spiritual leadership is to tap into
the fundamental needs of both leader and follower for spiritual survival through calling and membership,
Calling
Performance
Make a Difference
(Vision)
Life Has Meaning
Organizational Commitment
Productivity
Employee Well-Being
Effort Reward Membership

(Hope/Faith) (Altruistic Be Understood
Works Love) Be Appreciated
Leader Values, Attitudes & Follower Needs for

Behaviors Spiritual Survival Organizational Outcomes
Fig. 1. Causal model of spiritual leadership theory.
to create vision and value congruence across the individual, empowered team, and organization levels
and, ultimately, to foster higher levels of organizational commitment and productivity. Operationally,
spiritual leadership comprises the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are necessary to intrinsically
motivate one’s self and others so they have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership
(See Fig. 1 and Table 1). This entails (Fry, 2003):
1. Creating a vision wherein leaders and followers experience a sense of calling in that life has meaning
and makes a difference.
2. Establishing a social/organizational culture based on the values of altruistic love whereby leaders and
followers have a sense of membership, feel understood and appreciated, and have genuine care,
concern, and appreciation for both self and others.
Fry (2005) extended spiritual leadership theory by exploring the concept of positive human health and
well-being through recent developments in workplace spirituality, character ethics, positive psychology
and spiritual leadership. He then argued that these areas provide a consensus on the values, attitudes, and
behaviors necessary for positive human health and well-being (See Table 1). Ethical well-being is
defined as authentically living one’s values, attitudes, and behavior from the inside out in creating a
Table 1
Qualities of spiritual leadership
Vision Altruistic love Hope/faith
Broad appeal to key stakeholders Trust/loyalty Endurance
Defines the destination and journey Forgiveness/acceptance/gratitude Perseverance
Reflects high ideals Integrity Do what it takes
Encourages hope/faith Honesty Stretch goals
Establishes standard of excellence Courage Expectation of reward/victory
Humility Excellence
Kindness
Compassion
Patience/meekness/endurance
principled-center congruent with the universal, consensus values inherent in spiritual leadership theory
(Cashman, 1998; Covey, 1990; Fry, 2003). Ethical well-being is then seen as necessary but not sufficient
for spiritual well-being which, in addition to ethical well-being, incorporates transcendence of self in
pursuit of a vision/ purpose/mission in service to key stakeholders to satisfy one’s need for spiritual
survival through calling and membership. Fry hypothesized that those practicing spiritual leadership at
the personal level will score high on both life satisfaction in terms of joy, peace and serenity and the Ryff
& Singer (2001) dimensions of well-being. In other words, they will:
1. Experience greater psychological well-being.

2. Have fewer problems related to physical health in terms of allostatic load (cardiovascular disease,
cognitive impairment, declines in physical functioning, and mortality).
More specifically, those practicing spiritual leadership and their followers would have a high regard
for one’s self and one’s past life, along with good-quality relationship with others. This in turn helps to
create the sense that life is purposeful and meaningful, the capacity to effectively manage one’s
surrounding world, the ability to follow inner convictions, and a sense of continuing growth and self-
realization.
To summarize the hypothesized relationships among the variables of the causal model of spiritual
leadership (see Fig. 1), bdoing what it takesQ through faith in a clear, compelling vision produces a sense
of calling—that part of spiritual survival that gives one a sense of making a difference and therefore that
one’s life has meaning. Vision, hope/faith adds belief, conviction, trust, and action for performance of
the work to achieve the vision. Thus, spiritual leadership proposes that hope/faith in the organization’s
vision keeps followers looking forward to the future and provides the desire and positive expectation that
fuels effort through intrinsic motivation.
According to the spiritual leadership theory, altruistic love is also given from the organization and is
received in turn from followers in pursuit of a common vision that drives out and removes fears associated
with worry, anger, jealousy, selfishness, failure and guilt and gives one a sense of membership—that part
of spiritual survival that gives one an awareness of being understood and appreciated.
Thus, this intrinsic motivation cycle based on vision (performance), altruistic love (reward) and hope/
faith (effort) results in an increase in ones sense of spiritual survival (e.g. calling and membership) and
ultimately positive organizational outcomes such as increased:
1. Organizational commitment—People with a sense of calling and membership will become attached,
loyal to, and want to stay in organizations that have cultures based on the values of altruistic love; and
2. Productivity and continuous improvement (Fairholm, 1998)—People who have hope/faith in the
organization’s vision and who experience calling and membership will bDo what it takesQ in pursuit
of the vision to continuously improve and be more productive.
2.3. Spiritual leadership and the learning organization
A learning organization creates a vision of what might be possible, however, it is not brought about
simply by training individuals; it can only happen as a result of learning at all organization levels.
Another factor of a learning organization is that it is an organization that facilitates the learning of all its
members and continuously transforms itself (Senge, 1994). In learning organizations employees are
empowered to achieve a clearly articulated organizational vision. Quality products and services that
exceed expectations also characterize learning organizations. This new networked or learning
organizational paradigm is radically different from what has gone before: it is customer/client-obsessed,
team-based, flat (in structure), flexible (in capabilities), diverse (in personnel make-up) and networked
(working with many other organizations in a symbiotic relationship) in alliances with suppliers,
customers/clients and even competitors (Ancona, Kochan, Scully, Van Maanen, & Westney, 2004;
McGill & Slocum, 1992).
According to Peter Senge (1994, p3.), learning organizations:
. . .are where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where
new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free, and
where people are continually learning to learn together.
The employees of learning organizations are characterized by being open, generous, capable of
thinking in group teams, and risk-takers with an innate ability to motivate others. Furthermore, they must
be able to abandon old alliances and establish new ones, view honest mistakes as necessary to learning
and bcelebrate the noble effortQ, and exhibit a bdo what it takesQ attitude versus a bnot my jobQ attitude.
People are empowered with committed leaders at all levels that act as coaches in a blearning
organizationQ who constantly strive to listen, experiment, improve, innovate, and create new leaders. The
major challenge for the learning organization is developing, leading, motivating, organizing, and
retaining people to be committed to the organization’s vision, goals, and culture (Ancona et al., 2004).
This is especially true for the new bArmy of OneQ whose recruiting campaign promotes the following:
1. Each individual can make a difference.

2. The Army and the individual soldier cannot be separated.
3. Soldiers who are strong in mind, body and soul.
4. The Army’s greatest strength is the united, physical, moral and mental character of America’s
soldiers—teamwork in bAn Army of one.Q
5. Personal growth, opportunity, and pride.
Recently, there has been increasing criticism about worrisome signs of deterioration and decay of
morale and commitment throughout the U.S. armed forces (Morris, 2001). Especially alarming is the
growing difficulty the services face in filling their annual quota of new recruits and the mass exodus of
its mid-career Captains. The solutions to these problems go beyond issues of extrinsic motivation such as
pay and benefits. The primary challenge for Army leadership is to establish throughout the ranks the
vision and values inherent in the role of intrinsically motivating professional warrior soldiers inspired to
serve and esteemed for defending their country. By definition, professionals believe their chosen
profession is valuable, even essential to society, and they are proud to be a member of it (Filley, House,
& Kerr, 1976).
A major challenge for the army is to create a learning organizational paradigm within which the
soldier’s professional commitment is also translated into organizational commitment and productivity.
This means that soldiers must believe in their call of duty, instead of viewing their job as a temporary
contract to be fulfilled. As independent professionals, soldiers may experience high levels of calling and
low levels of membership. They may feel rewarded by community appreciation, yet, lack internal
relationships and appreciation within their own organization or unit. Ideally, individuals/soldiers in
organizations should strive to feel part of a spiritually fit organization (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000;
Duchon & Plowman, 2005). This type of organization contains both high calling and high membership
with a sense of ethical and spiritual well-being that is experienced throughout all levels (Fry, 2005;
Morris, 2001).
Our fundamental proposition is that the Spiritual leadership theory OT interventions, derived from our
base line measures, will significantly increase the strength of the relationships among the model’s
variables, thereby, increasing value congruence across the strategic, empowered team, and individual
levels through stronger linkages among the theory variables (i.e. increase SLT variable relationships to
significantly increase average SLT levels, while also acting to reduce the variance in organizational
commitment and productivity). The starting point for testing this proposition, which is the purpose of
this paper, is to test and validate the SLT causal model as well as establish a baseline of SLT measures to
set the stage for further organizational development and transformation change efforts.
3. Method
3.1. Sample and procedures
We report the initial results of establishing a baseline for research that focused on a newly formed
Apache Longbow helicopter attack squadron of Army soldiers at Ft. Hood Texas. All troops in the
squadron were surveyed in the beginning of the squadron development and then five months later at the
end of their training before deployment. Thus, our sample period is representative of the critical
formative stage for this unit before deployment for active duty.
The mission of this squadron is (Williams, 2001):
At its core, the success of the Squadron lives and dies on every soldier’s ability to think and to take
decisive action—to lead themselves and others. Fundamentally, the Squadron will protect all that
the U.S. Constitution stands for. Each soldier will defend this to his/her last breath with Loyalty,
Duty, Respect, Selfless Service, Honor, Integrity and Personal Courage.
Initially 200 individuals located in the aviation squadron were to be surveyed. A total of 181
individuals surveyed, representing 91% of the target population, actually responded to the survey and
provided the database for this study and responded to the initial baseline anonymous survey that was
administered. Non-respondents were personnel that were TDY (temporary duty) or on leave.
A second survey was administered approximately 5 months later and combined with the first survey
to test the SLT structural equation causal model. There were 189 respondents in the second survey. The
second survey also focused on the qualities of vision/mission, altruistic love, hope/faith, meaning/
calling, and membership as key components of spiritual survival to examine their impact on
organizational commitment and productivity. A detailed description the initial (LB1) and final (LB2)
demographic sample group researched is provided in Table 2.
3.2. Measures
The three dimensions of spiritual leadership, two dimensions of spiritual survival, and organizational
commitment and productivity were measured using survey questions developed especially for SLT
Table 2
Sample demographics
n Percentage
Profile of initial Longbow sample
Gender
Male 168 92.8
Female 13 7.2
Section
Staff 34 18.8
Ground maint. 18 9.9
3/5 section 33 18.2
Flights/crews 49 27.1
Air maint. 14 13.3
Armament/shop 23 12.7
Age
20 or under 38 21
21 to 30 97 53.6
31 to 40 40 22.1
41 to 50 6 3.3
Years in
2 yrs or less 72 39.8
3 to 5 years 34 18.8
6 to 10 years 38 21
11 to 15 years 25 13.8
Above 15 years 12 6.6
Rank
E1 to E4 100 55.2
E-5 to E6 42 23.2
E7 to E9 9 5
WO1, WO2 or O1, O2 17 9.4
WO3, WO4 or O3, O4 13 7.2
Profile of final Longbow sample

Gender
Male 160 84.7
Female 15 7.9
Section
Staff 64 33.9
Ground maint. 14 7.4
Flights/crews 39 20.6
Air maint. 59 31.2
Age
20 or under 36 19
21 to 30 100 52.9
31 to 40 43 22.8
41 to 50 7 3.7
Years in
2 yrs or less 97 51.3
3 to 5 years 49 25.9
6 to 10 years 13 6.9
11 to 15 years 18 9.5
Table 2 (continued)
n Percentage
Years in
Above 15 years 9 4.8
Other 3 1.6
Rank
E1 to E4 2 1.1
E-5 to E6 76 40.2
E7 to E9 82 43.4
WO1, WO2 or O1, O2 23 12.2
W3, W4 or O3, O4 4 2.1
No response 2 1.1
research (see Table 3). The items were discussed with practitioners concerning their face validity, and
have been pretested and validated in other studies and samples (Malone & Fry, 2003). The items
measuring affective organizational commitment and productivity were also developed and validated in
earlier research (Nyhan, 2000). In addition, the survey contained space for open-end comments to the
question bPlease identify one or more issues you feel need more attention.Q These were content analyzed
to validate the survey findings and to identify issues for future intervention. The questionnaire utilized a
1–5 (from strongly disagree to strongly agree) response set. Scale scores were calculated by computing
the average of the scale items. The seven scales exhibited adequate coefficient alpha reliabilities between
.83 and .93. Table 4 displays the means, standard deviations, correlations of the variables, and coefficient
alphas for the scales and the means and standard deviations for the questions in each scale.
4. Results
4.1. Test of spiritual leadership causal model
The AMOS 4.0 SEM SPSS program was used with maximum likelihood estimation to test the
Spiritual leadership theory causal model (Arbuckle & Wothe, 1999). One of the most rigorous
methodological approaches in testing the validity of factor structures is the use of confirmatory (i.e.
theory driven) factor analysis (CFA) within the framework of structural equation modeling (Byrne,
2001). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is particularly valuable in inferential data analysis and
hypothesis testing. It differs from common and components (exploratory) factor analysis in that SEM
takes a confirmatory approach to multivariate data analysis; that is the pattern of interrelationships
among the spiritual leadership constructs is specified a priori and grounded in theory.
SEM is more versatile than most other multivariate techniques because it allows for simultaneous,
multiple dependent relationships between dependent and independent variables. That is, initially
dependent variables can be used as independent variables in subsequent analyses. For example, in the
SLT model calling is a dependent variable for vision but is an independent variable in its defined
relationship with organizational commitment and productivity. SEM uses two types of variables: latent
and manifest. Latent variables are vision, Altruistic love, hope/faith, calling, membership, organizational
commitment and productivity. The manifest variables are measured by the survey questions associated
Table 3
SLT survey questions
Vision—describes the organization’s journey and why we are taking it; defines who we are and what we do.
1. I understand and am committed to my organization’s vision. ____
2. My workgroup has a vision statement that brings out the best in me. ____
3. My organization’s vision inspires my best performance. ____
4. I have faith in my organization’s vision for its employees. ____
5. My organization’s vision is clear and compelling to me. ____
Hope/faith—the assurance of things hoped for, the conviction that the organization’s vision/purpose/mission will be fulfilled.
1. I have faith in my organization and I am willing to bdo whatever it takesQ to
insure that it accomplishes its mission. ____
2. I persevere and exert extra effort to help my organization succeed because I have faith in what it stands for. ____
3. I always do my best in my work because I have faith in my organization and
its leaders. ____
4. I set challenging goals for my work because I have faith in my organization and want us to succeed. ____
5. I demonstrate my faith in my organization and its mission by doing everything I can to help us succeed. ____
Altruistic love—a sense of wholeness, harmony, and well-being produced through care, concern, and appreciation for both self
and others.
1. My organization really cares about its people. ____
2. My organization is kind and considerate toward its workers, and when they are suffering, wants to do something
about it. ____
3. The leaders in my organization bwalk the walkQ as well as btalk the talkQ. ____
4. My organization is trustworthy and loyal to its employees. ____
5. My organization does not punish honest mistakes. ____
6. The leaders in my organization are honest and without false pride. ____
7. The leaders in my organization have the courage to stand up
for their people. ____
Meaning/calling—a sense that one’s life has meaning and makes a difference.
1. The work I do is very important to me. ____
2. My job activities are personally meaningful to me. ____
3. The work I do is meaningful to me. ____
4. The work I do makes a difference in people’s lives. ____
Membership—a sense that one is understood and appreciated.
1. I feel my organization understands my concerns. ____
2. I feel my organization appreciates me, and my work. ____
3. I feel highly regarded by my leadership. ____
4. I feel I am valued as a person in my job. ____
5. I feel my organization demonstrates respect for me, and my work. ____
Organizational commitment—the degree of loyalty or attachment to the organization.
1. I do not feel like bpart of the familyQ in this organization. ____
2. I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization. ____
3. I talk up this organization to my friends as a great place to work for. ____
4. I really feel as if my organization’s problems are my own. ____
Productivity—efficiency in producing results, benefits, or profits.
1. Everyone is busy in my department/grade; there is little idle time. ____
2. In my department, work quality is a high priority for all workers. ____
3. In my department, everyone gives his/her best efforts. ____
Table 4
Means, standard deviations, and correlations among Fort Hood Longbow attack squadron study variablesa
Variable Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Vision 3.66 0.72 .86
2. Altruistic love 3.53 0.84 .80 .93
3. Hope/faith 4.02 0.61 .77 .73 .86
4. Meaning/calling 4.13 0.56 .64 .58 .65 .87
5. Membership 3.63 0.90 .76 .84 .71 .61 .93
6. Organizational commitment 3.45 0.58 .80 .83 .78 .60 .83 .84
7. Productivity 3.55 0.82 .67 .65 .56 .56 .63 .63 .83
a
n = 369; All correlations are significant at p b .001. Scale reliabilities are on the diagonal in boldface.
with each latent variable (see Table 3). The structural model depicts the linkages between the manifest
and latent constructs. In AMOS 4.0 these relationships are depicted graphically as path diagrams and
then converted into structural equations.
Fig. 2 shows the hypothesized causal model for this study. This model is a nonrecursive model in that
intrinsic motivation theory has feedback loops (between vision and altruistic love and from vision to
altruistic love to hope/faith and back to vision). For this model to be identified (Bollen, 1989b) we must
specify one of the loop parameters and a path common to both loops. A multiple regression analysis was
performed on altruistic love with hope/faith and vision as predictors. The beta weight for the vision to
altruistic love path was .77. This value was then used to gain model identification.
0, 0, 0,
0, 0,
e3 e4 0, e28 0,
e30 0,
1 1 e7 e9 0, e31
1 1
1 1 e29 e35
HF2 HF4 1 0, 1
VIS2 VIS4 MC1 1 MC3
0,1 0, 0, e34 OC2
0, 1 0, 0, 0,
e2 e20 e5 e6 e8 e10 1 e36
1 MC2 MC4
1 1 1 1 1 1 0,
1
HF1 HF3 HF5 VIS1 VIS3 VIS5 e37
OC1
1 1 OC3 1
1
hope/faith vision meaning/
1 OC4
0, 1 0 calling
0 0, 1 org 1 0,
e1 0 e32
e11 0, commitment
0
0.77 e21
0, 0, 0 1 e38
e27 0,
e12 productivity
1 1
1 0
0 PRO3
altruistic membership PRO5
1
1
love 1 PRO4 0,
0, 1 e41
AL1
e39 0,
AL7 1
1 MEM2 MEM5 e40
AL2
AL4 1
0, 0, MEM1 1 1
1 1 0, MEM4 0,
e13 AL3 e19
0, 0, AL5 1 e23 1 e26
1 e16 1 0,
e14 AL6 MEM3 0,
0, 0, e22
1 1 e25
e15 e17
0, 0,
e18 e24
Fig. 2. Structural equation model for Fort Hood Longbow attack squadron data.
In addition, for our model to be identified the regression weight for one path leading away from each
unobserved variable was fixed at unity as were all paths connecting the (unique) error components.
Arbuckle & Wothe (1999, p.118) note that bevery unobserved variable presents this identifiability
problem, which must be resolved by imposing some constraint that will determine its unit of
measurement.Q Arbuckle & Wothe (1999) also state that the value of the regression weight when using
this procedure is arbitrary and that changing the scale unit of the unobserved variable (say to1/2 or 2)
does not change the overall model fit.
Fig. 3 gives the result of the causal analysis using combined data from both the initial and final
samples. The overall chi-square for the hypothesized model using the maximum likelihood estimation
method is 1633.29 with 488 degrees of freedom and a p value less than .001. The goodness of fit was
measured using three commonly used fit indices: The Bentler & Bonet (1980) normed fit index (NFI),
the Bollen (1989a,b) incremental fit index (IFI), and the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1990) to
compare the chi-square values of the null and hypothesized models using the degrees of freedom from
both to take into account the impact of sample size. A value greater than .90 is considered acceptable
(Bentler & Hu, 1995). For this model, the NFI is .959; the IFI is .971; and the CFI is .971 thereby
providing support that the SLT causal model fit the data well.
Parameter estimates reflect the extent of the relationship between manifest and latent variables. Table
5 displays the individual parameter estimates. All parameter estimates are large and statistically
significant. For ease of presentation, Fig. 3 shows a simplified structural model (parameters have been
omitted for clarity) with path coefficients and squared multiple correlations giving the proportion of each
variables variance that is accounted for by its predictors. Our results provide strong initial support for
spiritual leadership theory’s causal model and its measures. The goodness of fit test and indices were all
highly significant giving empirical support that, overall, the model fitted the data well.
As shown in Fig. 3, all standardized path coefficients in the hypothesized causal model with the
exception of the Calling Y Org. Commitment beta are, as hypothesized by SLT, positive and significant.
The model’s variable squared multiple correlations, which give the proportion of its variance that is
accounted for by its predictors, range from .52 to .93. Interestingly, for this sample, nearly all of the
variance for organization commitment is accounted for by membership. Membership also accounted for
over twice as much variance for unit productivity as did meaning/calling.
Chi-Square = 1633.29 (486 df)

p=.000
NFI=.959
IFI=971
CFI=.971
.5 2 .9 3 .5 4 .9 3
. 5 6 *** .7 3 *** Meaning/
Hope/Faith Vision .0 4 Org
Calling Commit
.7 1 ***
.4 0 *** .3 9 *** .9 4 *** .3 0 *** .7 4
.8 2 .8 3 Productivity
Altruistic Love Membership
.6 4 ***
.9 1 ***
Fig. 3. Results of AMOS analysisa for Fort Hood Longbow attack squadron. aParameters of each latent variable are omitted for
clarity. ***P b.001.
Table 5
Standardized maximum likelihood error and parameter estimates
Parameter estimate Z value for parameter estimate Error estimate
Vision
Q18 0.924 18.309 0.319
Q26 1 0.426
Q28 0.847 10.327 1.519
Q30 0.958 18.26 0.347
Q34 0.974 17.538 0.424
Altruistic love
Q1 0.939 18.328 0.463
Q6 0.993 20.781 0.324
Q10 1 0.347
Q12 0.954 19.895 0.356
Q22 0.927 18.019 0.478
Q24 0.984 15.217 0.893
Q31 1.03 20.236 0.389
Hope/faith
Q8 0.924 16.853 0.379
Q15 1 0.3
Q16 0.822 13.728 0.57
Q27 0.994 17.871 0.351
Q36 0.835 11.916 0.857
Meaning/calling
Q2 0.764 12.624 0.568
Q14 1.068 19.863 0.226
Q17 1 0.273
Q23 1.087 19.969 0.226
Membership
Q3 0.955 24.453 0.32
Q9 1 0.229
Q13 0.943 24.614 0.305
Q21 0.915 21.076 0.466
Q32 0.866 21.719 0.382
Org. commitment
Q4 1 0.439
Q7 0.688 11.784 0.825
Q11 1.088 18.448 0.512
Q37 0.829 11.121 1.385
Productivity
Q19 1 0.83
Q29 1.143 8.374 0.688
Q33 1.06 8.616 0.518
4.2. Common method variance issues
Common method variance (CMV) may be an issue for studies where data for the independent and
dependent variable are obtained from a single source. In order to determine if the statistical and practical
significance of any predictor variables have been influenced by CMV, Lindell & Whitney (2001)
advocate the introduction of a marker variable analysis that allows for adjustment of observed variable
correlations for CMV contamination by a single unmeasured factor that has an equal effect on all
variables. However, marker variable analysis is most appropriate for research on simple independent–
dependent variable relationships. It also is subject to a number of conceptual and empirical problems
(Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Lee, 2003a).
SEM is more flexible than marker variable analysis because it is capable of testing unrestricted
method variance (UMV) causal models since SEM allows the error terms to be intercorrelated without
being fixed or constrained as in CMV. The AMOS 4.0 program has a modification indices (MI) option
that allows one to examine all potential error term correlations and determine the changes in parameter
and chi-square values. MI analysis for our data revealed the parameter changes due to latent variable
error correlation to be less than .10. In addition a survey administration process was used that protected
respondent anonymity (thereby reducing evaluation apprehension) and the order of the items were
counterbalanced to control for priming effects, item-context-induced mood states, and other biases
related to the question context or item embeddedness (Podsakoff et al., 2003a). Finally, Crampton &
Wagner (1994) demonstrate that CMV effects seem to have been overstated, especially for studies such
as this one that use self assessment of group performance with role, leader, and organizational
characteristics and qualities. We therefore believe the effects of common method variance to be minimal
for these measures.
4.3. Comparison of initial and final survey results
Table 6 gives the summary of the longitudinal survey results in the presentation format used to
provide feedback to the squadron commander (a lieutenant colonel). The scale averages and standard
deviations for the initial and final survey for the SLT variables are displayed in the lower right hand
corner. An asterisk denotes a significant difference between the initial and final survey average for that
variable. The bar graphs depict the dispersion for the seven spiritual leadership variables (SLT) for the
Squadron’s initial and final study. For ease of client interpretation but to still be able to depict not only
the mean but also the dispersion, percentage of average scale responses between 1.00 and 2.99 are
represented by the Disagree category. The Neither category gives the percentage of respondents with an
average scale value between 3 and 3.99. The Agree percentage represents the percentage of scale values
between 4.00 and 5.00. Ideally, organizations would want all their employees to agree (have scale scores
above 4) or report high to moderately high (above 60%) levels for all SLT variables. Moderate or low
levels (below 60%) of agreement on the theory variables indicate areas for possible organizational
development intervention.
Referencing Table 6, the squadron as a whole initially reported final average values above 4 for hope/
faith and meaning/calling as well as small percentages in the disagree category. The other model
variables had averages between 3 and 4.
Results for the Longbow’s initial study also revealed moderately high (60% to 79%) levels of agree
responses for hope/faith, and meaning/calling. There were moderate (40% to 59%) levels of agree
Table 6
Spiritual leadership variables
Vision Altruistic Love
60 50
43.1 45.9
51
37.1
50 40.9. 40 32.8 30.1
37.3 36.9
% 40 % 30
30 22.2 20
20 11
11.7 10
10
0
0 Disagree Neither Agree
Avg. Avg.
Disagree Neither Agree
3.78/3.55* 3.75/3.32*
INITIAL FINAL
INITIAL FINAL S.D. S.D.
.81/.99 .82/.99
Hope/Faith
80 72.8
70 56.66
% 60
50
40 33.9
30 20.4
20 6.8 9.5
10
0
Disagree Neither Agree Avg.
4.12/3.90*
INITIAL FINAL S.D.
.69/.79
Spiritual survival variables

Meaning/Calling Membership
71.8 74
60
80 52.5
70 50 43.5
%
60
% 50
40
33.7 31.7
40 30 24.8
30 21.5 16.4 20
20 13.8
6.7 9.6
10 10
0
Disagree Neither Agree Avg. 0
Avg.
4.15/4.10 Disagree Neither Agree
INITIAL FINAL 3.79/3.48*
S.D.
.73/.88
INITIAL FINAL S./D.
.88/1.05
Organizational outcomes
Organizational Commitment Organizational Productivity
45.8
45 40.8 50
43.1
38.6 39.2 36.2
40
32.3 40 36
%
35
30
29.1 % 30
25 20 20.7
20 18.2
20
15
10 10
5
0 0
3.54/3.39
3.62/3.55
INITIAL FINAL S.D. INITIAL FINAL
S.D.
.88/.99
.90/.90
responses for Vision, Altruistic love, Membership, and Organization Productivity. Organizational
Commitment percentage of agree responses, however, was moderately low (20% to 39%).
Results from the Final Longbow study revealed that the mean levels for vision, altruistic love,
hope/faith, and membership all significantly declined. The percentage of agree levels also dropped
for all SLT variables except meaning/calling. While the soldiers in the final survey reported
moderately high levels of meaning/calling (60% to 80%), the most problematic areas are the moderate
percentage of agree results (40% to 60%) for vision, hope/faith, and membership, to moderately low
(20% to 40%) percentage agreement for altruistic love, organizational commitment, and productivity.
These findings are reinforced in the issues that surfaced from the open-ended comments summarized
below.
4.4. Survey comments
An actual vision or goal was not visible to some soldiers and the need for involvement of enlisted
soldiers in creating a mission was noted. Morale, respect, and attention to the needs of individuals
striving for a common squadron goal were lacking as was recognizing soldiers for their hard work and
dedication. Certain soldiers did not feel that there was any team building. Instead, they felt as though
they were merely numbers that could be easily replaced. Planning and scheduling needed to be enhanced
since some felt as though they were given little direction. Some commented that there could be more
individual training. Some commented on the need for soldiers to realize the importance of their
responsibility and obligation in completing tasks in a timely manner. Rules, regulations, standards, and
training likewise needed improvement. Others appeared to have issues with needing more resources,
distribution of information, and troop activities.
Soldiers also felt that they were not treated equally. When higher ranking enlisted noncommissioned
officers (NCOs) made mistakes, they were seen as not being punished the same as lower ranking enlisted
soldiers (rank E-4 and below), and lower level enlisted soldiers were punished for honest mistakes. Too
many written counseling statements were seen as being given as formal reprimand when less formal
verbal counseling would be more appropriate. Instead of giving soldiers Article 15s, the need to help
them first was mentioned. Article 15’s for little things were viewed as unnecessary. Soldiers’ problems
needed to be addressed, not used as an excuse for punishment.
In addition, soldiers felt that their leaders were too quick to punish them when they were trying to do
their jobs as well as possible, without regard for the soldiers’ and their families. There seemed to be a
need for greater emphasis on a family atmosphere with more attention to family problems such as family
support groups. Several soldiers commented on distribution of information to families and lack of family
time.
The moderate levels of altruistic love and membership found in the study are supported by soldiers’
survey and interview comments concerning low morale and little recognition. Family day, organization
days, evening unit outings, and sponsored breakfasts and lunches were viewed as things that could
improve troop and family morale. Some felt that soldiers needed to listen more to other soldiers while
showing more care and consideration. Other soldiers felt that there was a need for more interaction
between officers and enlisted soldiers. Certain soldiers felt that the dissemination of information needed
to be improved along the chain of command. This included having top-level leaders working on their
people skills instead of micromanaging their soldiers. Organization days were suggested as a way to
build teamwork along with squadron activities for single soldiers.
The moderately low percentage of agree respondents for Organizational Productivity (36.2%) and
Commitment (32.3%) may be due to some soldiers reporting that their leaders did not lead by example
and were not technically qualified for their positions. The soldiers also felt that instead of showing
recognition for hard work or outstanding efforts, leaders focused more on faults and mistakes. Instead of
talking behind soldier’s backs, NCOs needed to become more involved in planning processes for
training that was to be conducted. Such planning included ensuring any changes were implemented
quickly in order to be perceived as being proactive instead of reactive. Certain NCOs needed to be more
considerate of individual problems versus only caring about pleasing someone else and getting
promotions. There was a fear noted by soldiers that this unit was too obsessed with doing everything
bigger and better than others, which could result in accidents.
Communication down the chain from the top was an issue that warranted more attention. For
example, issues were seen as being handled at high levels when they could be solved at lower levels.
Commanders were involved with too many issues that NCOs could handle. At the same time, leaders
needed to respect and focus enlisted troops on work precision and pride instead of using threats as a
means to make soldiers perform. These threats lowered morale instead of helping soldiers in their work.
NCOs, according to comments, needed to provide soldiers with something to come to work for. Rank
was seen as not being given when earned.
5. Discussion
This longitudinal research examining a newly formed Longbow helicopter attack squadron at Ft.
Hood, Texas provides initial support for the causal model hypothesizing positive relationships between
the qualities of spiritual leadership, spiritual survival, and organizational productivity and commitment.
Moreover, the model and measures establish a baseline that can provide input for an action agenda for
future research and Army training and development to increase Army soldier intrinsic motivation,
organizational commitment, and productivity, and soldier well-being.
5.1. Spiritual leadership as appreciative inquiry
The vision/stakeholder effectiveness process that is central to spiritual leadership is based on

appreciative inquiry which focuses on identifying and addressing key stakeholder issues, discovering
what works well, why it works well, and how success can be extended throughout the organization
(Malone & Fry, 2003). Hence, it is both the vision and the process for developing this vision that create
the energy to drive change throughout the organization (Bushe, 1999; Johnson & Leavitt, 2001).
Appreciative inquiry is premised on three basic assumptions. The first critical assumption is that
organizations are responsive to positive thought and positive knowledge. Second, both the image of the
future, and the process for creating that image produce the energy to drive change throughout the
organization. By engaging employees in a dialogue about what works well based on their own
experiences, employees recognize that there is much that works reasonably well already and, therefore,
change is possible. Lastly, appreciative inquiry is based on a belief in the power of affirmations; if people
can envision what they want, there is a better chance of it happening. This approach is suited to
organizations that seek to be collaborative, inclusive, and genuinely caring for both the people within the
organization and those they serve. By using an appreciative inquiry approach, organizations can
discover, understand, and learn from success, while creating new images for the future (Johnson &
Leavitt, 2001).
This approach is most tenable when the organization has strategic leaders that are predisposed to
embrace this approach. Traditional approaches to management are based in the command and control
bureaucratic organizational paradigm which, by definition, focus on the negative and see the world as a
glass half empty. Appreciative inquiry is an alternative process to bring about organizational change by
looking at the glass as half full. Appreciative inquiry begins with the assumption that people have a
choice and can consciously choose what they see and act upon. It is a generative process that gives us a
way to bring possibilities to life and develop our capacities and allows individuals to have access to the
kind of energy that can be transformative. Appreciative inquiry and change are not sequential, but
simultaneous processes since change begins to happen with the very first question we ask (Appreciative
Inquiry and the Quest, 2004). A process that has been adapted into appreciative inquiry is the realm of
philanthropy, also known as blove of humanity.Q This type of altruistic love allows for reflection of
personal development in the workplace and enables individuals to create an ideal process for personal
development, organization development, and social change. By placing more value on oneTs capabilities
and potential in an unselfish manner, individuals may become more effective and incorporate growth
that is positive for themselves and those stakeholders around them (Appreciative Inquiry and the Quest,
2004).
An Organizational Development (OD) strategy is defined as the plan for relating and integrating the
different organizational improvement activities engaged in over a period of time to accomplish
objectives (Harvey & Brown, 2001). Of particular interest in the baseline findings are the bAgreeQ and
bNeitherQ categories. If OD interventions are to be successful, units with the highest agree percentages
should become the initial targets for the visioning intervention discussed later. The bNeitherQ responses
can be viewed as being on the fence as they have the potential of being more easily moved to the
bAgreeQ category (than the respondents in the bDisagreeQ categories). When based on appreciative
inquiry, target OD strategies for improvement should be identified for these groups, rather than the more
problematic high percentage bDisagreeQ units. These units are more likely to have performance
challenges and/or be so disaffected that change is difficult.
5.2. Implications for military leadership
The basic process for the Army transformation through spiritual leadership activities for the Longbow
squadron would include a visioning process to foster a strong vision with a bmental modelQ focused on
selfless service (calling). Further, team building activities with an emphasis on managing conflict,
collaborative decision making (especially during training phases for the military), and managing and
overcoming resistance to change should be targeted to change the Longbow’s culture to one more
centered in Army values to create higher morale and esprit d’ corps or membership (Also see Malone &
Fry, 2003 for an example of this intervention).
As described earlier, spiritual leadership taps into the fundamental needs of both leader and follower
for spiritual survival through calling and membership so both become more organizationally committed
and productive. Following Fry (2003, 2005) and Fig. 4 spiritual leadership would utilize an appreciative
inquiry process. Beginning with high percentage bAgreeQ units, it would be initiated by the squadron
commander and the executive team developing a vision/mission. This vision must vividly portray a
journey which, when undertaken, will give one a sense of calling, of one’s life having meaning and
Fig. 4. Spiritual leadership as intrinsic motivation through hope/faith, and altruistic love.
making a difference. This visioning process, by engaging other squadron leaders and soldiers, then forms
the basis for the social construction of the organization’s culture as a learning organization and the
ethical system and values underlying it.
In spiritual leadership these values are prescribed and form the basis for altruistic love. Strategic
leaders and followers, having acquired key conflict, decision making, and change management skills,
then embody and abide in these values through their everyday attitudes and actions. In doing so, they
create empowered teams where participants are challenged to persevere, be tenacious and pursue
excellence by doing their best in achieving challenging goals through hope/faith in the vision, their
leaders, and themselves. Through participating in these teams, soldiers through recognition and
celebration experience a sense of membership and feel understood and appreciated.
During this experience soldiers also begin to develop, refine and practice their own personal
leadership that will embody a vision for their own lives that has meaning, makes a difference and that
incorporates the values and attitudes of altruistic love in social interaction with others to positively
impact the final work product. It is through this process that individual, team, and organizational vision
and values are integrated and become one.
5.2.1. Army transformation through spiritual leadership

The United States Army already has many of the attributes of the spiritual leadership model. To use
the metaphor of a picture frame, current Army initiatives such as its vision (An Army of One), the Army
values, summarized by LDRSHIP and carried by all Army soldiers (Loyalty, Dedication, Respect,
Selfless Service, Honesty, Integrity, Personal Courage), and its Strategic Well-being Plan (which
includes four dimensions: physical, mental, material, and spiritual well-being) are like unconnected
pieces in a puzzle. Fig. 5 illustrates how the SLT Model provides a frame for these pieces that allows one
to fit them together holistically to provide focus and direction for the Army’s transformation effort
(Mitchell, 2001; Morris, 2001; Williams, 2001).
The military is closer than most businesses in achieving the positive results of the spiritual leadership
model. To see the results of spiritual leadership theory in action in the form of organizational
commitment, all one must do is study the military. The military is a human laboratory for testing
different methods of leadership, and one that has adopted the majority of the spiritual leadership model
components but under different terms.
What are some of the things that the United States Army could do to further facilitate its
transformation efforts in light of the spiritual leadership model? Many of the ideas require decisions that
high-level Army leadership would have to make in order to be successful in its transformation effort. We
offer some possible approaches to the Army issues, as they exist today, in maintaining a bgo to warQ
mentality, which could be researched for possible implementation through the spiritual leadership
paradigm.
Our extensive experience with the Fort Hood environment gives the authors a unique perspective to
further support the recommendations which follow. Two of the three authors primarily teach graduate
business courses at the Soldier Development Center at Fort Hood. The third researcher has worked with
education for two years at the Soldier Development Center at Fort Hood testing soldiers for different
colleges and universities, and, likewise, is an instructor for undergraduate courses at Tarleton State
University and Central Texas College. Additionally, one researcher worked for the Army as a systems
VISION/MISSION SELFLESS SERVICE
(An Army of One) Make a difference
Strategic Leaders Life’
Life’s Meaning
Culture/Esprit D’Corps
MISSION ACCOMPLISHMENT (Learning Organization)
(Effort/Works) (Not a Zero Defect Army)
Endurance
Perseverance SPIRITUAL FORCE
Do what it takes Values/Ethical System SURVIVAL READINESS
Stretch Goals
Excellence
TEAM ARMY VALUES
Empowered (Reward)
Groups Members Loyalty (Trust)
(Power down leadership approach (Personal Leadership) Dedication
Selfless Service
to Divisions, Branches, Facilities, Honesty MORALE & ESPRIT D’D’CORPS
Empowered Teams, etc.) Integrity Understood &
Appreciated
(No Micro-
Micro-management) Respect
- Forgiveness/Acceptance
- Gratitude
- Patience/Meekness/Endurance
- Kindness
- Humility
Professional
4C’
4C’s
Courage
Candor
Commitment
Caring (Compassion)
Fig. 5. Army transformation through spiritual leadership (Morris, 2001, p.12).

engineer for several years and another, a graduate of the United States Military Academy, spent twenty
years as a commissioned officer serving in Divisional and Non-divisional units.
The backgrounds of all three authors enable them to contribute unique insights and perspectives. Also,
nearly a third of the students are Army mid-level officers and senior NCOs. Every semester these
students do projects that focus on problems with their military experience and offer potential solutions
based on the theories and concepts covered in their classes on ethics and leadership, organizational
behavior, organization design, and organizational change and development. Exposure to these projects
and our initial base line work at Fort Hood offer several general potential research issues that could be
addressed by the spiritual leadership organizational transformation paradigm.
One of the serious shortcomings of the military is its hierarchical nature due to an extended chain of
command (the major obstacle to overcome in becoming a learning organization). Decisions need to be
made at the squadron (battalion), troop (company), platoon, and section level. Operation Iraqi Freedom
has shown that combat requirements of the 21st century will dictate that units must be able to respond
quickly to intelligence and that tactical and strategic decisions must be made quickly at the lowest
possible level. Small units will have to be capable of operating on their own, quite often deep within
enemy territory.
The Army has downsized considerably yet like most nonprofit organizations, it is probably too top-
heavy for a learning organization. What would a learner command structure look like? A cultural
revolution in the military would emphasize transformation to a learning organization through a further
downsized, leaner command structure coupled with the increased importance of committed, empowered
units (lack of micromanagement), and selfless service (Morris, 2001).
Although flattening the structure of the military is to some degree an option, there are some things that
are done in other countries and have been discussed by some of the revolutionary thinkers in the United
States Army today, such as modifying its three-year rotation system. For instance, the British use a
regimental system in which soldiers sign up for a unit and stay with that unit for the duration of their
time in the Army. Consideration needs to be given to moving the Army to a regimental system. This
system allows the soldiers to remain in one culture without changing units every three years as the
United States Army does. Although the United States Army has a set of values that is known Army
wide, the constant change in culture from unit to unit due to its rotation system takes away from the
United States Army’s ability to create a strong unit culture that fosters organizational commitment and
productivity.
Army families are an integral part of the Army team. They must be made to feel like they are part of
this team. Taking care of their families and health, as well as recognizing the need for personal time
away from any work organization, are important to most individuals and will foster commitment and
maximum productivity. Moving every few years dramatically affects the well-being of soldiers and their
families and creates much turbulence in their lives. This is an important factor in decreasing retention
and recruitment rates. If the United States Army allowed soldiers to enlist in a particular unit and stay
with that unit longer, it would greatly affect the commitment of soldiers to their parent unit and allow
them to clearly internalize the values, customs, and culture of a unit which would enhance esprit d’
corps, organizational commitment, meaning, calling, and membership, resulting in an overall increased
productivity for the unit (Morris, 2001).
A mentoring or sponsorship program for soldiers entering their first duty station would insure that
the new (often foreign) Army values obtained during initial training would be reinforced. Army units
with strong cultures based on Army values would then become a self-policing empowered unit that
promotes those who have truly internalized the unit’s vision, mission, and values, and dismisses those
who do not. Through this empowerment process, we propose that a much stronger bond between Army
leaders, soldiers, and their families would be created thereby facilitating the Army in its transformation
efforts.
Although these longitudinal results may seem to cast a negative light on the squadron’s initial
formation effort, it must be noted that having a squadron commander with all new personnel that would
handle the initial training only to then turn the unit over to the commander that would then take the
squadron into active duty is by its very nature highly stressful. The unit was faced with the assembling of
soldiers and new apache longbow helicopters as well as the challenge of establishing organizational
standards with an emphasis on building team cohesion and unit confidence. In addition, the initial survey
was conducted when the squadron was less than 20 days old before much equipment had arrived and
operations actually began. One possible explanation of the initial survey results is that soldier
anticipation and expectations were high due to the normally high esprit d’ corps inherent in forming new
combat units. While not made available for this study, the actual performance data of the unit during this
training phase were judged by the squadron’s chain of command to be acceptable and, despite the tone of
the survey comments, this unit was certified as combat ready and deployed for duty in Germany on
schedule. It has since then gone on to serve as a key combat unit in the war on Iraq.
5.3. Implications for leadership theory and research
Fry (2003) argued that spiritual leadership theory is not only inclusive of major extant theories of
leadership (e.g., transformational, charismatic, servant, authentic, path-goal), but that it is also more
conceptually distinct, parsimonious, and less confounded. Recent work by Podsakoff, MacKenzie,
Podsakoff, & Lee (2003b) and these findings provide evidence that this is also true empirically.
Podsakoff et al. (2003b) examined the potential problems caused by measurement model misspecifica-
tion of theories in the field of leadership. In particular they note the distinction between exploratory and
confirmative factor measurement models (discussed earlier) and in whether the measures are viewed as
reflections of an underlying latent factor or determinants of it. Reflective indicator models are considered
to be breflections ofQ or beffectsQ of the underlying latent construct. The latter are called formative
indicator models because the measures are viewed as coming together to bcauseQ or bform the construct.Q
For reflective indicators:
1. The direction of causality for the construct is viewed as the cause of changes in the measures.
2. Each of the indicators is assumed to be sampled from a pool of interchangeable items that are all
equally valid measures of an underlying unidimensional construct.
3. The underlying construct is viewed as the independent variable that should covary with the indicators,
which are viewed as independent variables.
4. All indicators reflect the same underlying construct, are assumed to be interchangeable, and all have
the same antecedents and consequences.
For formative indicators:
1. The indicators are considered the causes or defining characteristics of the latent variable and,
therefore, the direction of causality flows from the measures to the construct.
2. The items need not be interchangeable, each of the indicators may represent a unique part of one of
the aspects or facets of the construct, and dropping an indicator from the measurement model may
alter the conceptual meaning of the latent variable.
3. Since the latent construct is the dependent variable and the indicators are the independent variables, it
is not necessary or even implied that they covary.
4. There is no reason to expect the indicators to have the same antecedents and consequences because
the measures do not necessarily capture the same aspects of the construct’s domain and are therefore
not necessarily interchangeable.
bThis is an important theoretical distinction that has major implications for the estimation,
interpretation, and psychometric assessment of the construct (Podsakoff et al., 2003b, p. 617).Q
Measurement model misspecification can significantly bias effects on structural parameter estimates—
perhaps by as much as 90% when the focal construct is endogenous, as much 300% to 500% when in the
exogenous position, and as much as of 300% to 500% of the effects of the misspecified construct on
other constructs (Jarvis, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2003). Spiritual leadership theory was formulated as a
confirmatory as a confirmatory factor model with reflective indicators. As such it avoids the theoretical
and measurement model misspecification problems of formative models such as the widely accepted and
extensively researched theories of charismatic and transformational leadership.
Most significant from a theoretical perspective for formative theories is the nature of the theoretical
construct. Transformational leadership, for example, is really conceptualized as a second-order construct
comprised of a first-order subdimensions (charisma, idealized influence, inspirational leadership or
motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration) that should be modeled using
formative indicators (Podsakoff et al., 2003b). To date, there is no agreement on how these indicators
should combine to create this second-order construct. Nor is there agreement on how all the first-order
subdimensions and second-order constructs combine to positively influence important organizational
effectiveness criteria, such as organizational commitment and productivity. This is a classic example of
bunrationalized categorizationQ—a state of confusion which is caused by the tendency to assume
homogeneity within definitions of categories of variables while failing to elaborate explicitly the
relationships between them (Fry & Smith, 1987; Stanfield, 1976). Add to this the measurement model
misspecification problems with current research and there are significant challenges for future research
on transformational and charismatic leadership. The results of the present study provide support that
spiritual leadership offers an avenue that avoids these thorny issues.
5.4. Implications for workplace spirituality theory and research
This special issue, as well as a growing body of research, is testimony to the increasing evidence that
leader emphasis on spiritual needs in the workplace produces beneficial personal and organizational
outcomes (Eisler & Montouri, 2003; Giacalone & Jurkiewicz, 2003a; Malone & Fry, 2003; Mitroff &
Denton, 1999; Zinnbauer, Pargament, & Scott, 1999). Spiritual leadership theory was built upon
Giacalone & Jurkiewicz’s (2003a,b p. 13) definition of workplace spirituality:
A framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’

experience of transcendence through the work process, facilitating their sense of being connected
in a way that provides feelings of compassion and joy.
This sense of transcendence—of having a sense of calling through one’s work—and the need for
membership or social connection are central to the causal model of spiritual leadership and provide the
necessary foundation for any theory of workplace spirituality and spiritual leadership.
Furthermore, Giacalone & Jurkiewicz (2003a,b) posit that the greater the value congruence across
levels, the more individuals will experience transcendence through their work. Thus, if we are to gain a
systemic understanding of how workplace spirituality—through transcendence and value congruence
among organizational, team, and individual values—impacts organizational effectiveness, a focus on the
interconnectedness and interplay across these levels is required. Spiritual leadership theory explicitly
incorporates this focus (Fry, 2003, 2005).
The results of this study also provide strong initial support for spiritual leadership theory and
evidence that those followers who have hope/faith in a transcendent vision within a context of the
values of altruistic love have a higher sense of calling and membership, are more committed to their
organization, and describe their work units as more productive. Of particular interest is the finding that
the meaning/calling and organization commitment relationship was negligible and that membership
accounted for over twice as much variance for unit productivity as did meaning/calling. These findings
for meaning/calling and membership are similar to those of Malone & Fry (2003) who, in a
longitudinal field experiment of elementary schools, found similar support for the causal model and
roughly similar differences in the variance accounted for by these two spiritual survival variables on
commitment and unit productivity. However, the percentages of agreement on the study variables (See
Table 6) in that study were much higher and the meaning/calling relationship was significant, although
small at .24.
This differential impact of calling and membership on organizational commitment and productivity is
noteworthy and warrants further investigation. Much emphasis has been put on the importance of vision
in current leadership research. However, it is argued that employee commitment is a central variable for
quality and continuous improvement, customer satisfaction, and, ultimately, financial performance
(Matherly, Fry & Ouimet, 2005; Kaplan & Norton, 1992, 1996, 2004). If membership is indeed a
primary driver of organizational commitment, then a culture of altruistic love (where there is care,
concern and appreciation for both organizational and employee needs) will satisfy followers’ needs for
membership. Current theories of leadership have not addressed these membership linkages, yet, they are
central to spiritual leadership theory.
6. Summary and conclusion
Spiritual leadership theory (SLT) offers promise as a springboard for a new paradigm for leadership
theory, research, and practice given that it (1) incorporates and extends transformational and charismatic
theories as well as ethics- and values-based theories that have little empirical research to date, e.g.,
authentic and servant leadership and (2) avoids the pitfalls of measurement model misspecification.
The results of this study, plus those of Malone & Fry (2003), provide strong initial support for the
reliability and validity of the SLT measures and the causal model of spiritual leadership. In one sense we
have come full circle and returned to the beginnings of initial theorizing on leadership as motivation
(Fry, 2003). Almost thirty years ago House & Mitchell (1974) initiated this area of leadership research
with path-goal theory. Shortly thereafter House (1977) moved on to become the founder of charismatic
leadership theory that was followed by Burns’ (1978) work that set the stage for Bass’s (1985) and
Conger & Kanungo’s (1988) theoretical and empirical work on transactional, transformational, and
charismatic leadership. Yet, they did not build on path-goal theory’s use of motivation theory (House,
1996). Nor did they incorporate specific follower and organizational outcomes as fundamental to their
theories. The lack of clearly defined follower and task characteristics, such as those identified in path-
goal theory, has also led to a haphazard search for relevant intervening, moderator, and organizational
effectiveness variables within a correlation rather than causal framework and serious measurement
model misspecification.
Regarding workplace spirituality, Giacalone & Jurkiewicz (2003a,b) identify four major weaknesses
that must be addressed if this newly emerging paradigm is to achieve acceptance within the scientific
community: (1) the lack of an accepted, conceptual definition; (2) inadequate measurement tools; (3)
limited theoretical development; and (4) legal concerns. To address these weaknesses and to advance as a
workplace spirituality paradigm rooted in science, three critical issues will need to be addressed: levels
of conceptual analysis; conceptual distinctions and measurement foci; and clarification of the
relationship between criterion variables (Giacalone, Jurkiewicz, & Fry, 2004).
One area that seems to have been effectively addressed in the Army but is still problematic in most
other organizations is the role of religion in the workplace and its relationship to spirituality (Fry, 2003).
Viewing workplace spirituality through the lens of religious traditions and practice can be divisive in
that, to the extent that religion views itself as the only path to God and salvation, it excludes those who
do not share in the denominational tradition and often conflicts with the social, legal, and ethical
foundations of business and public administration. Thus, religion can lead to arrogance that a company,
faith, or society is bbetterQ, morally superior, or worthier than another (Nash, 1994). Translating religion
of this nature into workplace spirituality can foster zealotry at the expense of organizational goals, offend
constituents and customers, and decrease morale and employee well-being (Giacalone & Jurkiewicz,
2003a).
Research on several fronts must be conducted for spiritual leadership theory to establish that it is
indeed inclusive of other widely accepted leadership theories, and that it extends this basic work through
a valid causal model that incorporates relevant spiritual, cultural, follower, and organizational
effectiveness variables. First, the conceptual distinction between spiritual leadership theory variables
and other leadership theories, constructs, and their relationship to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation must
be refined. Based on these results, a natural beginning point would be to conduct research on the role of
organizational culture in creating a sense of employee membership and its ultimate effect on important
organizational and personal outcomes. Second, more longitudinal studies are needed to test for changes
in key variables over time. Last, studies are needed that incorporate more objective performance
measures from multiple sources Podsakoff et al. (2003a).
Spiritual leadership theory is an model of organizational/professional development that fosters
systemic organizational transformation from the bureaucratic to the learning organizational paradigm
that seems to be required for organizations to be successful in today’s chaotic, global, Internet age
environment. Past research has clearly shown that increased organizational commitment strengthens
motivation and reduces absenteeism and turnover (Meyer & Allen, 1997; Mowday, Porter, & Steers,
1982) and that continuous improvement, which is at the heart of the total quality movement (TQM), is
related to firm productivity, customer satisfaction, and profitability (Baldrige National Quality Program,
2004; Matherly et al., 2005; Kaplan & Norton, 2004). The causal model of spiritual leadership and its
relationship to spiritual survival and other individual and organizational outcomes for these and other
effectiveness variables (e.g., customer satisfaction and objective measures of performance) in
production/service organizations should be researched and validated before this approach is widely
applied. Also, outcomes across organizational, team, and individual levels hypothesized to be affected
by spiritual leadership (e.g., positive human health, ethical and spiritual well-being, and corporate social
responsibility) need to be validated for spiritual leadership theory (Fry, 2005).
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The Leadership Quarterly 16 (2005) 835 – 862

Spiritual leadership and army transformation: Theory,

Keywords: Spiritual leadership; Military leadership; Leadership theory

2. Organizational transformation through spiritual leadership

Organization transformation (OT), a recent extension of organizational development, seeks to create

2.1. The army transformation challenge

2.2. Spiritual leadership

Effort Reward Membership

Leader Values, Attitudes & Follower Needs for

Fig. 1. Causal model of spiritual leadership theory.

1. Experience greater psychological well-being.

2.3. Spiritual leadership and the learning organization

1. Each individual can make a difference.

3.1. Sample and procedures

Profile of final Longbow sample

4.1. Test of spiritual leadership causal model

Chi-Square = 1633.29 (486 df)

4.2. Common method variance issues

4.3. Comparison of initial and final survey results

Spiritual survival variables

4.4. Survey comments

5.1. Spiritual leadership as appreciative inquiry

The vision/stakeholder effectiveness process that is central to spiritual leadership is based on

5.2. Implications for military leadership

5.2.1. Army transformation through spiritual leadership

Fig. 5. Army transformation through spiritual leadership (Morris, 2001, p.12).

5.3. Implications for leadership theory and research

For formative indicators:

5.4. Implications for workplace spirituality theory and research

A framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that promotes employees’

6. Summary and conclusion

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