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PART II
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION COMPONENT

Part 2 of the Licensure Examination for Teachers covers the professional education
which consists of Facilitating Learning and Child and Adolescent Development, The
Teaching Profession, Curriculum Development, Social Dimensions of Education
Principles, Methods and Strategies of Teaching, Field Study, Educational Technology
and Assesment of Learning.

FACILITATING LEARNING, CHILD AND

ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

This subject deals with the nature of the learner as the basis of the teaching-
learning process. It tackles the growth and development of the child in a life spam
approach.

COMPONENTS OF THE EDUCATIVE PROCESS

1. Learner

2 Teacher (involved in the learning process)

3. School (the learning situation)

THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

The Beginning of Life

Life begins at the moment of conception – the time when a reproductive cell of
the female (ovum, plural ova) is fertilized by a male reproductive cell the spermatozoon
(spermatozoa, plural).This is approximately 280 days before birth.

Within each sex cell (sperm/egg) there are 23 chromosomes. They are threadlike
particles which contain between 40,000 and 60,000 genes. The genes contain the DNA
and RNA which are considered as blueprint of life and transmitters of hereditary
characteristics traits from the parents to the offsprings.

Sex Determination
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All the female gametes carry X chromosomes, while half of the male gametes
carry the X chromosomes and the other half carry the Y chromosomes.

If the X bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XX

combination and the sex of the child is female.

And if the Y bearing spermatozoon unites with the ovum, it will result to XY combination
and the sex of the child is male.

Multiple Birth/Twins

The term multiple birth refers to the birth of two or more babies within a few hours
or days. There are two types of twin births – the identical and fraternal twins.

The identical or uniovular twins come from a single ovum fertilized by a single sperm
cell.

Some times, it happens that at the time of the first division of the cell the new cell
separates instead of remaining together. Why the speration occurs, no one knows for
certain, but there are evidence that it is a result of hormonal disturbances.

Non-identical, biovular or fraternal twins on the other hand, are the products of
two ova fertilized simultaneously by two separate sperm cells.

FACTORS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The factors affecting the growth and development of the individual are:

Heredity – the process by which the new organism is endowed with certain
potentials (inherited from the parents) for his later development. Maturation on the other
hand is the process by which heredity exerts influence long after birth.

Environmental influence – interaction between an individual’s inherited traits

his surroundings and his nurture.

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT
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Phylogenetic principle – states that development follows an orderly sequence

which is predictable and is true to all members of certain race.

Predictable trends of development

Cephalocaudal trend – development proceed from head to foot direction

Proximodistal trend – the parts of the body nearest the center (i.e.) are the
parts which develop earlier.

Ex. The baby can see first before he can walk.

Ontogenetic principle – the rate of development is unique to every individual. It is
brought about by one’s heredity as well as environmental influences.

Ex. Though both children are of the same age, one might talk earlier than the
other.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Hereunder are the stages of development that an individual passes through in his
lifetime:

1. Pre-natal Stage – from conception (when the ovum is fertilized by the

spermatozoon producing a zygote or fertilized egg) to the time of birth.

2. Infancy/babyhood (birth to two years)

It is the foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and
many ontogenetic skills emerge.

3. Earcly Childhood (two to six years)

It is characterized as pre-gang, exploratory and questioning age. Language

and elementary reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced.

4. Late Childhood (six to twelve years)

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Gang age, age of creativity, development of social, self help, play and school
skill.
5. Adolescence (thirteen to nineteen years)

Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid
physical development occurs resulting to changes in ways of feeling, thinking and
acting.

6. Early adulthood (nineteen to forty years)

Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse, parent
and bread winner.

7. Middle age (forty to retirement)

Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are
experienced.

8. Old age (retirement to death)

Increasing rapid physical and mental decline. Psychological as well as physical

illnesses are experienced.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

The following are the major theories of development:

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (psycho-sexual development)

This was advocated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), an Austrian psychiatrist

who believed that a person’s behavior can be motivated by strong unconscious drive or
urges toward self-satisfaction.

Stages of Development Based on the Psychoanalytic Theory

A. Oral stage (birth to two years)

- Mouth is the center of pleasure

- Failure to satisfy this stage will result later to smoking and other vices
involving the mouth.
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B. Anal stage (two to four years old)

-anal region is the center of pleasure

-gains pleasure in the elimination of bowel

-failure to satisfy this will result to:

1. Frugality (stinginess)

2. Greediness

3. Obstinate/stubborn character

C. Phallic stage (four to six years old)

This is derived from the Greek work “PHALLUS” which means male sex organ (symbol
of strength and power) derives pleasure from the manipulation of sex organs

Oedipus complex – rivalry between the son and the father to get the
mother’s attention

Electra complex – rivalry between the daughter and the mother to get the
father’s attention

D. Latency stage (six to twelve years old)

-Calm stage

- Conflicting feelings are confined in the sub-conscious mind

- Energies are diverted to school and peer activities

E. Genital Stage (twelve years old and above

-Starts with the onset of puberty

- The individual is now attracted to the opposite sex

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

This is based on Lev Vygotsky’s ideas. Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896 and
is responsible for the social development theory of learning.

He proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive development.

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He belIeved that this life long process of development was dependent on social
interaction and that social learning actually leads to cognitive development.

- Cognitive development and language are shaped by a person’s interaction with

other.
- Children’s knowledge, values and attitudes develop through interaction with
other.
- Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child’s level of thinking.

- Students will learn best through activity.

- Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with self and with

teacher.

PSYCHO-SOCIAL THEORY
This theory was advocated by Erik Erikson, who identified eight basic
developmental stages that the individual has to pass through in his life.

Each of these stage has a specific psychosocial crisis that affects the development of
the child.

A. Stage 1 (0-18 months)

- Trust vs. mistrust

- The child trust those who care for her and mistrust a stranger

B. Stage II (18 months to 3years old)

-Learns to walk and use his hands

- If encouraged, develops autonomy

- If discouraged and punished harshly and excessively the child develops

dependence and shame, doubt, self pity

C. Stage III (3 to 6 years old)

- begins to explore his social and physical world, discovering what he can
accomplish aware of various social roles imitates adult’s behavior

- When punished develops sense of guilt

- The family is responsible for the child’s behavior and action

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D. Stage IV (6 to 12 years old)

- Child’s world broadens – neighborhood/school

- Technical skills are learned

- Peer group influence

- Identification and/or separation with sexes

- Play age

- When the child cannot accomplish the expectations from him, he develops a
sense of inferiority

E. Stage V (12 to 18 years old)

- Identity crisis –always asking who am I?

-Struggles with society’s demands and physical changes in his body

-Peer group becomes an essential source of rules of behavior

F. Stage VI (18-24 years old)

- Age of intimacy

- Develops warm intimate relation with anither person and failure to develop
such a relationship results to isolation

G. Stage VII (24 to 54 years old)

- The most productive years of adulthood

- The individual’s worth is dependent on his contribution to family and society

H. Stage VIII (54 to death)

- The individual comes to the temporal limits of his life

- The period of achievement and sense of integrity

-Failure to achieve one’s goals results to regret and despair

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- Fear of the end of life

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (intellectual development)

This theory was advocated by Jean Piaget, who believed that a child enters the
world lacking virtually all the basic cognitive competencies of the adult, and gradually
develops these competencies by passing through a series of stages of development
discussed hereunder.

Cognitive Development Process

Assimilation – (Latin “ad” - to + “similes”– like) absorb as part of itself.

The individual acquires information or knowledge by which experiences

are integrated into existing schemes
Accomodation – a process of creating a new scheme by modifying an existing
scheme after an individual’s interaction with the environment.

Stages of Development Based on Piagaet’s Theory

1. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (birh to 2yeas) – learning is based on sense

perception

- The child is unaware of his environment

This stage is also characterized by the following events that happen to the child

A. Primary circular reaction – repeated actions centered on the infant’s body.

Ex. thumb sucking

B. Intentional Behavior – the child repeats actions so as to prolong

interesting/pleasant events

Ex. Crying to attract attention

C. Object Permanence – knowledge of the existence of objects in his

environment, independent of the child’s actions emerges such that the child start to
search for missing objects like toy’s etc.

D. Representation – allows the child to seek necessary solution through

manipulating of internal symbols instead of physical objects.
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Ex. trial and error to solve the problem, manipulation of toys

2. PRE-OPERATIONS STAGE (2 to 7 years)

- Emergence of language skills

- Interprets experiences

- Words become symbols for objects

The child thinking is ecgocentric – centered on himself.

Ex. The child is fond of telling tall tales to get the attention of everyone

The child’s thinking is irreversible – inability to rethink

Ex. Coins are preferred than a 100 peso bill. The child is incapable of logical
thinking

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONS (7- 11 years old)

-Elementary school years

-The child begins to learn symbol and concepts, time, space, shape, size etc.

- The child’s thinking becomes more logical and systematic

Major Events

Conservation – is the ability of the child to conceptualize the retention and

preservation of the same quantity under various transformations

Ex. four .50 coins – Php2.00

1kg. nail = 1kg. Cotton

Reversibility- is the ability of the child to understand the completion of certain

operations in reverse order but ending up the same.

Ex. Ability to understand that ice and water vapor are the diferent states of water

4. FORMAL OPERATION (11 to 16 years old – high school years)

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-develops logical reasoning skill

- decreases egocentricity

THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

This theory was advocated by Laurence Kohlberg, who believed that as

Children grow they pass through several levels of moral development consisting of
different stages which setve as the bases of their behavior as adults.

LEVEL ONE (Pre-Conventional Morality)

- Childrens judgements are based on external criteria

- Right and wrong are according to standards set by authorities

Stage one
- Behavior is based on reward and punishment

- Wrong behavior results to punishment

- Right behavior results to reward and praises

LEVEL TWO (Conventional Morality)

- Childrens judgement is based on Groups expectations

Stage two

- Actions are based on self-satistfaction

- Helps those who help him

Stage three

- Desirable behavior pleases others

- Conform to rules of the group to remain accepted

Stage four
- What is right is what is accepted

- Conforms to the rules to avoid disapproval

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LEVEL THREE (Post-Conventional Morality)

- The individual recognizes arbitrariness (absoluteness) of social and legal

conventions

- The individual develops concept of moral values

Stage five
- Laws are obligatory (dura lex sed lex)

- The concept of right and wrong is governed by reasons

Stage six
- Morality is based on mutual respect

- The individual conforms to the rules to avoid self condemnation

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Refers to the idea that no two individuals are exactly the same or alike, as such,
the teacher should make it a point tutelage.

Factors Affecting Individual Differences

Although it is said that all men are created equal, yet individuals do vary and differ
from one another in terms of:

1. Age differences and personal adjustments

An infant cannot perform the tasks of elementary school pupils though the child is
intelligent.

2. Sex differences

- Boys are given roles in the society defferent from the girls

- Boys are characterized by fearlessness, aggreesiveness and are expected to

perform burdensome activities

- Girls on the other hand are characterized by neatness, simplicity and for being
affectionate

3. Family and community back groud

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4. Physical condtions Physical ailment/defects affect the learning process

5. Emotional response and attitudes (E.Q.)

6. Mental abilities and specific aptitudes (I.Q.)

Mental Age (determined by a test)

I.Q. = -------------------------------------------------------------- x 10
Chronological age (actual age)

Lewis Terman of England is considered as the father of Modern IQ Test.

I.Q. Descriptions Persons

140+ Genius .25% more males than females

130-139 Very Superior .75%

120-129 Superior 6.00%

110 – 119 A bove Average 13.00%

90-109 Average (Normal) 60.00%

80-89 Below Average 13.00%

70-79 Dull (borderline) 6.00%

50-69 Moron .75%

49 below Imbecile/Idiot .25% more males than females (

(Feebleminded)

Moron – capable of caring for his own needs

- has mentality of a 12 year old child

Idiot – has a mental capacity of a 4 years old child

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- has a short life span

Imbecile – can be taught concerning his personal needs

- has a mental capacity of an eight year old child

THE LEARNING PROCESS

Learning is a mental activity wherein knowledge, skills, habits, attitudes and

ideals are acquired, retained and utilized, resulting in the progressive adaptation and
modification of conduct and behavior (Bugelskie, 1956).

In so far as the behaviorists are concerned, learning is any change in the behavior of
the organism.

TYPES OF LEARNING

Learning is classified into:

Sensory-motor – understanding of the external world through sense perception.

Development of movements as a reaction to stimuli.

1. Cognitive – rational/mental/intellectual development

Association learning – acquisition and retention of facts and information

Establishing relationships among ideas and experiences

Problem-solving – overcoming difficulties that appear to interfere with the

attainment of a goal.

2. Affective (Appreciative) involves acquisition of attitudes and interest as well

as experiences that will lift the individual above the tangible values associated with
everyday life.

Aesthetic appreciative experiences – obtained in the field of music, art and

literature

Intellectual appreciative experiences – based on the premise that all learning

has emotional correlates

THEORIES OF LEARNING

The following are the major theories of learning (Morris L. Bigge, 1964):
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1. STIMULUS-RESPONSE (S-R) OR ASSOCIATION THEORY – states that for every

stimulus there is a corresponding response.

Connectionism is the theory under S-R, formulated by Edward Lee Thorndike

in 1900.

It assumes that human activities are based on the association or connection between
stimulus and response.

It is the belief that all mental processes consist of the functioning of native and acquired
connections between the situations and response.

It includes the three fundamental laws of learning:

a. Law of Readiness – when an individual is prepared to respond or act,

allowing him to do so is satisfying, whereas preventing him would be annoying.

b. Law Exercise – constant repetition of a response strengthens its connection

with the stimulus, while disuse of a response weakens it.

c. Law of Effect – learning is strengthened if it results in satisfaction, but it iis

weakened if it leads to vexation or annoyance.

2. THEORY OF CONDITIONING states that the process of learning consists of the

acquisition of new ways of reacting to stimuli developed through attaching new stimuli to
established modes of behavior.

There are two types of conditioning theory:

Classical Conditioning is based on the experiment on the reaction of the dog

conducted by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, who postulated that conditioning
consist of eliciting a response by means of a previously neutral or inadequate stimulus.

Principles under Classical Conditioning

a. Adhesive principle – a response is attached to every stimulus. For every

stimulus, there is always a corresponding response.
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b. Excitation – also known as the law of acquisition. It occurs when a preciously

neutral stimulus gain the ability of eliciting the response.

c. Extinction – also known as unlearning and occurs when the conditioned

response is no longer elicited by the conditioned stimulus because the conditioned
stimulus is frequently presented without the paired stimulus.

d. Stimulus generalization – happens when the conditional response is also

elicited by other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

e. Spontaneous recovery – happens when a conditioned response which does

not appear for sometime but re-occurs without need of further conditioning.

Operant Conditioning is a theory based on the experiment conducted by Burrhus

Frederick Skinner on a hungry rat.

He believed that since an organism tends in the future to do what it was doing at the
time of reinforcement, one can train that organism either by presenting him a reward or
punishment as a consequence of his action.

Feedback Principle – states that an organism’s responses maybe reinforced by

presentation or removal. In other words, rewards and punishments.

3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY is based on the studies of Richard Wallace and

Albert Bandura concerning a group of children who were exposed to three models in
films.

The first model was rewarded, the second was punished while nothing was done to the
third model.

Children were then asked to choose among these models.

The children chose the first model, then the no consequence/model and the last choice
was the model who was punished.

Based on this experiment, it was viewed that children’s learning process involves
observation and imitation.

4. COGNITIVE FIELD THEORY – otherwise known as Field Theory describes how a

person gain understanding of himself and his world in a situation where his self and his
environment compose a totality of mutually interdependent, coexisting events. This
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theory defines learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new

insights and changes the old ones.

Types of Cognitive Field Theory

a. Insight Leaning – a basic sense of, or feeling for relationships. It is used to

denote the meaning of a matter, idea or point.

The Insights of a person are not equated with his consciousness or awareness of his
ability to describe them verbally; their essence is a sense of, or feeling for pattern in a
life situation.

This theory is based on the experiment conducted by Wolfgang Kohler on the

chimpanzee.
Kohler postulated that the more intelligent the organism and the more experiences he
has the more capable he is of gaining higher insight.

B .Vector and Topological Theory. Basically, this is derived from the terms vector
which means a quantity that has magnitude and direction and topology which is
concerned with properties of geometric configuration which are unaltered by elastic
deformation.

As a learning theory, it was advance by Kurt Lewin and states that individuals exist on a
field of forces within his environment that move, change and give him a degree of
stability and substance or define his behavior.

The behavior of an individual is a result of forces operating simultaneously within his

environment and life space.

C .Gestalt Learning. The word gestalt is a German term which means a structure,
configuration or pattern of physical, biological, or psychological phenomena so
integrated as to constitute a functional unit with properties not derivable by summation
of its parts.

It claims that the whole is more that the sum of its parts and the whole gets its meaning
from its parts. Gestalt view learning as a change in knowledge, skills, attitudes, values
or beliefs and may or may not have anything to do with the change in overt behavior.

It further claims that one does not learn by doing; for learning to occur, doing must be
accompanied by realization of consequences. Thus, learning occurs as a result of or
through experiences.
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Learning, therefore, involves the catching, and generalization of insights which often
are acquired first on a nonverbal level or the level of feeling and may be verbalized later
or may not be verbalized at all.

D .Instrumental Conceptualism is the term applied to the theory of learning as

advocated by Jerome Bruner, who believed that the acquisition of whatever form of
knowledge is always a dynamic and interactive process because the learner purposively
participates in the process of knowledge acquisition who selects, structures, retains and
transform information.

Bruner argued that learning is thinking and thinking is the process whereby one makes
sense out of the various and somehow unrelated facts through a process called
conceptualization or categorization. (Bigge, 1980)

Subsumption Theory
This theory is based on the works of David Paul Ausubel (1918- 2008), an
American psychologist born in New York and an ardent follower of Jean Piaget
Ausubel’s theory is concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in a school setting.

According to Ausubel, learning is based upon the kinds of superordinate,

representational, and combinatorial processes that occur during the reception of
information.

He considered that a primary process in learning is subsumption in which new

material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure on a substantive
non-verbatim basis.

Cognitive structure represent the residue of all learning experiences; forgetting occurs
because certain details get integrated and lose their individuality identity.

A major instructional mechanism proposed by Ausubel is the use of advance

organizers; “These organizers are introduced in advance of learning itself, and are also
presented at a higher level of abstraction, generality, and inclusiveness; and since the
substantive content of a given organizer or series of organizers is selected on the basis
of its suitability for explaining, integrating and interrelating the material they precede,
this strategy simultaneously satisfies the substantive as well as the programming criteria
for enhancing the organization strength of cognitive structure.

Ausubel emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and
summaries which simply emphasizer key ideas and are presented at the same level of
abstraction and generality as the rest of the material. Organizers act as a subsuming
bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas.
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Ausubel emphasizes that subsumption involves reorganization of existing

cognitive structure not the development of new structures as constructivist theories
suggest. Ausubel was apparently influenced by the work of Piaget on cognitive
development. (www.wikipedia.org)

Conditions of Leaning

This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning.

The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different
types of instruction.

This theory of learnings is based on the work of Robert Mills Gagñe (1916 – 2002), an
American educational psychologist best known for his “Condition of Learning “Gagñe
pioneered the science of instruction during WWII for the air force with pilot training.
Later he went on to develop a series of studies and works that helped codify what is
now considered to be good instruction. He also was involved in applying concepts of
instructional theory to the design of computer based training and multimedia based
learning.

Gagñe work is sometimes summarized as the Gagñe Assumption. The

assumption is that different types of learning exist, and that different instructional
conditions are most likely to bring about these different types of learning

Gagñe identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information,

intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal
and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning.

For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice
developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to
a credible role model or persuasive arguments.

Gagñe suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a
hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure
following, use of terminology, descriminations, concept formation, rule application, and
problem solving.

The primay significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisities that should be

completed to facilitate learning at each level.

Prerequisities are indetified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning

hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
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In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding

cognitive processes:

1. Gaining attention (reception) – Example – show variety of geometric shapes

generated triangles

2. Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) – Example – pose question:

“What is a rectangle?”

3. Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) - Example – review definitions of

rectangle

4. Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) – Example – give definition of

rectangle

5. Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) – example – show example

of how to create a rectangle

6. Eliciting performance (responding) – Example – ask students to create 5

different examples

7. Providing feedback (reinforcement) - check all examples as correct/incorrect

8. Assessing performance (retrieval) – Example – check all examples as

correct/incorrect

9. Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) – show pictures of objects

and ask students to identify equilaterals. http://tip.psychology.org/gagne.html)

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Transfer of learning occurs when a person’s learning in one situation influences

his learning and performance in other situations

THEORIES ABOUT TRANSFER OF LEARNING

The following are the major theories concerning transfer of learning:

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Mental discip discipline. This theory asserts that education is largely a matter
of training or discipling the mind with vigorous mental exercises in the classics,
grammar, logic mathematics, and science on the assumption that such training makes a
person equally effective in all areas where a given faculty is employed.

Apperception is a process of relating new ideas or mental states to a store of

old ones. Memories stored in the subconscious and brought into the conscious enable
one to interpret a given experience.

New ideas are learned through their being related to what is already in the apperceptive
mass. Apperception, therefore, consists of becoming consciously aware of an idea and
assimilating it with other ideas which are already acquired.

In so far as this theory is concerned, transfer of learning is completely a matter of

mechanistic storage of ideas in aninert mind.
Identical elements is the theory of transfer of learning that is advocated by
connectionism. It states that transfer of learning is facilitated in a second situation to the
extent that it contains identical elements or factors which occurred in an earlier learning
situation.

Among these identical elements of practical importance are associations including ideas
about aims and methods of general principles and associations involving basic factual
experiences which involve length, color and number which are repeated in different
combination (Thorndike, 1913.)

Identical elements may take the form of content, procedures, facts, actions, attitudes,
techniques or principles. This theory implies that a school should list the aspects of
situations that are important to the child even out of the school or in later courses and
teach the pupils to cope ith different indetical experiences or situations in real life.

Generalization. This theory was advocated by Charles Judd who said that there
are two levels or kinds of knowledge – wrote learning or memorization without any
meaning and generalized knowledge with many intellectual associations.

He believed that it should always be in the form which makes generalizations possible.
Basically, generalization is a statement or understanding of relationshipps, a principle, a
rule or a law.

Generalization is another name for relating experiences in such a manner that what is
gained at one point will redound to the advantage of the individual in many spheres of
thoughts and actions (Judd, 1939).
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Furthermore, for this theory, transfer of learning is the sensed relationship between the
elements of the situations and it is automatic. Generalization is expected to spring into
action whenever the environment sets the stage for its occurrence.

Gestalt theory of transfer. The Gestaltist advanced the idea of transposition or

the belief that when transfer of learning occurs it is in the form of generalizations,
concepts, or insights which are developed in one learning situation and employed in
other situations.

For them, transfer of learning is best achieved when a person is in the best frame of
mind and he is aware of the meaning of the situations and experiences as well as their
practical application to his daily life activities.

MOTIVATION
Motivation is derived from the Latin word “movere” which means to move. It is the
stimulation of action toward a particular objective where previously there was little or no
attraction toward that goal. It is the process of arousing, maintaining and controlling
interest. This could eplain why the individual always takes what he perceives to be the
shortest route to his goals.

TYPES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is either intrinsic or extrinsic.

Intrinsic motivation refers to the inherent or internal stimulus of the individual to

learn. It is based on the natural desire of the individual to satisfy his drives and motives
without the need for reward and punishment.

Extrinsic motivation is based on incentives which are artificial devices which

are employed to evoke attitude conductive to learning. Rewards and praises like
medals, good grades, prizes, scholarships and the like as well as punishments are good
examples of this form of motivation
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SOCIOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

SOCIOLOGY is the systematic study of the development, structure, interaction and
collective behavior of organized groups of human beings.

SOCIETY is derived from the latin word“socios” or “socials”– meaning fellow,

companion or associate.

It is a group of individuals with well defined limits which persists in time, thus enabling
them to develop a set of common ideas, attitudes, interact and of techniques for living
and fitting together.

The members think of themselves as a social unit. The society is formed based on
man’s gregariousness or the tendency or desire of people to be with other people.

CONCEPT OF GROUPS

GROUP is a unit of interacting personalities with independence of roles and

status existing between them.

KINDS OF GROUPS

1. Primary group is characterized by intimate, face to face, informal, personal

relationship among members. It is also characterized by the so called “we feeling.”

EX. family

2. Secondary group is characterized by impersonal, formal, contractual business-like,

and casul relationship. Large in size, of short duration, the members are physically and
spatially distant from one another.

Ex. Religion, school

3. In group is the group where the individual identifies himself and is given a sense of
belongingness. It can be as small as the family or as big as a nation.

This group is further characterized by ethnocentrism or the belief that one’s group is
superior over the other chauvinism – excessive ethnocentrism.
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4. Out-Group is a group in which one has a feeling of indifference, avoidance,

stangeness, dislike, antagonism and even hatred.
Ex. Religious groups

5. Peer group is the group where the members are of the same age and socio-
economic status.

Types of Peer Groups

Play-group is characterized by spontaneity, and informality and with

minimum or no adult supervision at all. It is common among children.

Gang has a recognized leader, pass word, rules of behavior, definite place and
time of meeting and planeed activities. It is also characterized by deviant, anti-social
behavior.

Clique is composed of persons with the same interest or line of thinking.

6. Reference group – a group to which the individual refers and with whom he
identifies himself either consciously or unconsciously. It is more of identification rather
than actual membership.

7. Voluntary associations – members joined together due to their common decisions

or needs.

Personal interest group – caters to people with the same interest

Ex. Ball clubs

Social service groups – for community services

Ex. NGO’s, Rotary, Lions, etc.

Political action group – for the promotion of a political agenda or candidacy of a

political leader

Ex. Aksyon Demokratiko

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SOCIAL STRATIFICATION is the system or process of assigning men their respective

ranks in a society based on income or wealth, education, occupation and lifestyle.

SOCIAL MOBILITY is the process of moving from one social stratum to another, may
either be horizontal, vertical or lateral.

SOCIALIZATION is the prcess by which the individual acquires the social and cultural
heritage of his society. Through this, the individual learns his social position in the
society.

LEVELS OF SOCIALIZATION PROCESS

1. VEgtative Level – the stage characterized by the preoccupation with food.

The desire is primarily for survival.

2. Sentient Level – geared towards the satisfaction of sensual passions and desires.

3. Rational Level – a persn has already acquired morality and a sense of justice.

LANGUAGE plays a vital role in the socialization of the individual and without this, man
would not be able to integrate the values of his society. Language is also considered as
the basic difference between man and animals.

STATUS AND ROLE

STATUS is the position a person occupies in a society by virtue of his age, birth,
sex, marriage, occupation, achievement.

Types of Status

1. Ascribed – position assigned to an individual without reference to his innate

differences and abilities. This is assigned at birth.

Ex. sex, race, age, etc.

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2. Achieved – it is not assigned to an individual from birth, but is left open for
competition and individual effort.

Ex. One’s proffesion

ROLE is the part that the individual is expected to play in his social group. It is the sum
of the culture patterns associated with a particular status.

SOCIAL DEVIATIONS refer to the failure of the individual to play the role
expected from him by the society.

INTERNALIZATION is the process of making an attitude or a practice a part of

one’s automatic and unthinking responses.

SOCIAL ORDER is the way the individual is expected to behave in a society

where he belongs in order to preserve and maintain the tranquility of his social milieu.

SOCIAL CONTROL is the means by whch people are led to fill their expected
roles in the society even against their will just to achieve social order.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

ANTHROPOLOGY is derived from the Greek words anthropos which means man and
logos meaning the study of. It is the study of human difference, cultural and biological
against the background of the nature all humans share. Anthropologist study human
social life and culture including the origin of the human race.

CULTURE is defined by Edward B. Taylor as that complex whole which includes

knowledge, belief, art, law , morals, customs and other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of a society.

KINDS OF CULTURE

1. Non-Material culture (intangible) includes beliefs, moral, laws, customs,

traditions, folk ways and mores etc.

2. Material culture (tangible) includes man’s technologies, etc.

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CHARATERISTICS OF CULTURE

1. Culture is learned – man is not born with culture, but he is born with the
capacity to acquire and learn the culture of his group.

2. All people have varied culture – every society has its cultural values that are
entirely different from the others.

3. Culture is a group product – man cannot develop a culture of his own if he is

alone.

4. Culture is transmitted – the learned culture of the past generation are

transmitted to posterity through education.

What we are today is the product of what they were before.

IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE

1. Through the development of culture man can set aside certain laws of nature
to conform to his needs.

2. Through the development of culture man can overcome his physical

handicaps.

FOLKWAYS – customary ways of behaving which have become habitual

repetitive to an individual or group.

Ex. Caring for the elders and saying po and opo

MORES occurs when folkways become compulsive for the welfare of the society
and it has acquired moral significance.

Failure to observe or conform to this will result to ostracism or condemnation.

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CULTURE CHANGE may oocur either by accident or direction. It is brought

about by the passage of time, migration and other factors.

SUB-CULTURE refers to the attitude of a certain group to deviate from the

habitual practices of themajority.

This is apparent in the new styles of dressing, language and other practices of a group
of people which are different from the majority.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM refers to the practices considered immoral or taboo to

a certain group of people, yet moral to other societies.

Ex. Polygamy, pre-marital sex, etc.

CULTURE SHOCK is the term used to denote the feeling of depression, often
expressed as homesickness, cause by living in a foreign environment.

Faced with an unknown or poorly understood foreign language and confused by

different codes of conduct, unfamiliar food and even unfamiliar physical surrounding, the
traveler or new resident may look upon the people and the unaccustomed behavior with
distaste and sometimes with fear.

CULTURAL VALUES refer to the collective ethical, aesthetics and religious values of
the community including artistic inclination, poetry, music , painting, literature and such
other practices which the entire society consider as bital elements of their existence.

Test of Robin Williams to determine which practices are included in one’s culture

1. Extensiveness – number of percentage of the population practicing the value.

2. Duration – time element. How long has the value been practiced.

3. Intensity – the total impact of the value upon the populace. The severity or
gravity of punishment or condemnation for violation.

4. Prestige of the value carrier- refers to the people practicing such value.

FILIPINO CULTURAL VALUES

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The Filipino people are known for their various cultural values. Whether
beneficial or not, these cultural values make the Filipinos unique and distinct from other
peoples of the world.

Some of the important Filipino cultural values are the following:

Non-rationalism is the tendency to perceive thoughts, objects, events and persons as

sacred. This includes:

Aminism – the belief in supernatural spirits who are presumably interferin with
man’s daily affairs.

Fatalism – belief in luck, fortune telling,”Bahala Na” “suwerte” or malas,

horoscope etc.

Social Acceptance – the desire to be always accepted by the group

Pakikisama – yielding to the decisions of the majority

Euphenism – stating an unpleasant truth, opinion, or request as pleasantly as
possible.

Go-between – the use of a third party to be exact favor or request from another
person. This includes hiya and amor propio

Emotional closeness and security of the family means the mutual dependence
among relative. This could also mean granting special favors or privileges among the
immediate or even distant relatives.

Authority refers to the emphasis on the power and importance of authority

figure.

Economic and social improvement is the desire to improve the standard of

living of his family and his hometown.

Utang Na loob means sense of gratitude

Personalism emphasizes the importance of the person with whom one has
immediate face to face contact and contact and connection.