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                                                         Introduction

Cinematography offers a practical, stage-by-stage guide to the creative and technical

foundations of cinematography. Building from a skills-based approach focused on
professional practice, cinematographer and author Tania Hoser provides a step-by-
step introduction for both cinematographers and camera assistants to the techniques,
processes, and procedures of working with cameras, lenses, and light. She provides
hands-on insight into negotiating with production constraints and understanding the
essentials of the image workflow from shot to distribution, on projects of any scope
and budget.

Richly illustrated, the book incorporates exercises and sample scripts throughout,
exploring light, color, movement, ‘blocking’, and pacing scenes. The principles and
techniques of shaping and controlling light are applied to working with natural light,
film lamps, and, as with all areas of cinematography, to low budget alternatives. This
makes Introduction to Cinematography the perfect newcomer’s guide to learning the
skills of cinematography that enables seamless progression from exercises through
to full feature shoots. Assessment rubrics provide a framework to measure progress
as the  reader’s ability to visually                                                                                                            
  
                                           History  
In the 1830s, three different solutions for moving images were invented on the
concept of revolving drums and disks, the stroboscope by Simon von Stampfer in
Austria, the phenakistoscope by Joseph Plateau in Belgium, and the zoetrope by
William Horner in Britain.

In 1845, Francis Ronalds invented the first successful camera able to make
continuous recordings of the varying indications of meteorological and geomagnetic
instruments over time. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories
around the world and some remained in use until well into the 20th century.

William Lincoln patented a device, in 1867, that showed animated pictures called the
"wheel of life" or "zoopraxiscope". In it, moving drawings or photographs were
watched through a slit.

On 19 June 1878, Eadweard Muybridge successfully photographed a horse named

"Sallie Gardner" in fast motion using a series of 24 stereoscopic cameras. The
cameras were arranged along a track parallel to the horse's, and each camera
shutter was controlled by a trip wire triggered by the horse's hooves. They were 21
inches apart to cover the 20 feet taken by the horse stride, taking pictures at one-
thousandth of a second.At the end of the decade, Muybridge had adapted sequences
of his photographs to a zoopraxiscope for short, primitive projected "movies," which
were sensations on his lecture tours by 1879 or 1880.
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                        First moition picture by  Eadweard Muybridge

Four years later, in 1882, French scientist Étienne-Jules Marey invented a

chronophotographic gun, which was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames a
second, recording all the frames of the same picture.

The late nineteenth to the early twentieth century brought rise to the use of film not
only for entertainment purposes but for scientific exploration as well. French biologist
and filmmaker Jean Painleve lobbied heavily for the use of film in the scientific field,
as the new medium was more efficient in capturing and documenting the behavior,
movement, and environment of microorganisms, cells, and bacteria, than the naked
eye. The introduction of film into scientific fields allowed for not only the viewing "new
images and objects, such as cells and natural objects, but also the viewing of them in
real time",whereas prior to the invention of moving pictures, scientists and doctors
alike had to rely on hand-drawn sketches of human anatomy and its microorganisms.
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This posed a great inconvenience in the science and medical worlds. The
development of film and increased usage of cameras allowed doctors and scientists
to grasp a better understanding and knowledge of their projects.             

                       
 Early Years

The history of cinematography began in the late 1880s, when people began
combining multiple consecutive photos to create the illusion of a motion picture. The
earliest surviving motion picture is the “Roundhay Garden Scene,” which was created
in 1888 and is just 2.11 seconds long. 

However, the invention of cinematography is often credited to Louis and Auguste

Lumière, who created the first motion-picture apparatus—a camera and projector—
which was first used publicly in 1895. 

From there, film evolved rapidly in the early 20th century. The early years of narrative
film were characterized by experimentation and exploration as filmmakers strived to
develop a visual language for storytelling despite technical limitations, like the
absence of sound before 1929. Early innovators like Edwin S. Porter (The Great
Train Robbery, 1902) and George Méliès (A Trip to the Moon, 1903) were among the
first to realize film’s potential but tended to handle most aspects of filmmaking on
their own without the benefit of full creative collaborators

 First silent movie in 20th century

   
 The Studio Era
Cinematography entered the studio era (often referred to as the Golden Age of
Hollywood) after the addition of sound. Five major studios dominated U.S. film
production: Paramount, Warner Bros., RKO, MGM, and 20th Century Fox. Each had
its own aesthetic for which it was known and loved. For example, Warner Bros.
specialized in gangster movies and introduced tough guys like James Cagney and
Humphrey Bogart, while RKO served up elegant musicals starring Ginger Rogers
and Fred Astaire.

Directors and DPs working within the studio system were expected to adhere to each
studio’s established visual style or risk losing their jobs. Their work had to be of the
highest quality without calling attention to itself or distracting audiences from the
story. For all its limitations, this approach resulted in countless studio-era
masterpieces such as Casablanca and The Wizard of Oz
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The Modern Age:

The 1950s and 1960s brought an era of big-screen spectacle as Hollywood
attempted to distinguish itself from the new medium of television. Widespread use of
color and new ultra-widescreen formats, including CinemaScope and Cinerama,
inspired the creation of historical epics like The Ten Commandments and Lawrence
of Arabia. Hollywood’s leading DPs adapted to changing times by mastering new
technologies in pursuit of epic grandeur.

One of the greatest shifts in the history of cinematography arrived as part of the New
Hollywood era of the late 1960s and early 1970s. A wave of young DPs entered the
profession as the old guard retired and union rules were relaxed to allow new
memberships. Their timing was perfect, as a wave of visionary young directors had
also entered the fray to make mind-blowing, era-defining films. 

Evolution of Cinematography:       
The history of cinematography was driven largely by advances in technology,
photography, and production equipment. As new tools and technologies emerged,
cinematographers were able to push the limits and create breakthrough films. Here’s
a look at some of the most notable aqdvances through the years. 

Black and White. 

From the very first motion picture in the 1880s, films were mostly monochrome—
meaning they were shot in a single color or tone. Most times, that meant that the film
was produced in black and white, since colored film bases were more expensive.
 
Color. 
The first movies in color weren’t actually shot in color. Rather, they were shot
monochrome and then colored by hand or machine. Many people think the Wizard of
Oz was the first movie with this type of coloring, but in fact, there were quite a few
others that came before it, including Annabelle Serpentine Dance in 1985. 

The first natural color processes were introduced in the early 1900s. Those motion
picture processes—starting with kinemacolor and evolving to Technicolor,
Kodachrome, and Eastmancolor—allowed cinematographers to shoot films in color
without using post-filming colorization techniques. 

Digital. 
Prior to the 2000s, movies were shot entirely on film. However, as the entertainment
industry began transitioning to digital media and storage, the film industry began to
follow suit. While some forms of digital film production were introduced as early as
the 1980s, digital cinematography didn’t really take off until the early 2000s. Around
2010, digital became the primary medium for filmmaking, and in 2013, Paramount
became the first major movie studio to distribute movies to theaters in a digital format
—eliminating film completely.In computing terminology, black-and-white is
sometimes used to refer to a binary image consisting solely of pure black pixels and
pure white pixels; what would normally be called a black-and-white image, that is, an
image containing shades of gray, is referred to in this context as grayscale.
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Digital cinematography is the process of capturing (recording) a motion picture using
digital image sensors rather than through film stock. As digital technology has
improved in recent years, this practice has become dominant. ... Some filmmakers
still prefer to use analogue picture formats to achieve the desired results.
                                                                  

                                                          Equipments
Camera. 
A camera is an optical instrument that captures a visual image. At a
basic level, cameras are sealed boxes (the camera body) with a small
hole (the aperture) that allows light in to capture an image on a light-
sensitive surface (usually photographic film or a digital sensor).
Cameras have various mechanisms to control how the light falls onto
the light-sensitive surface. Lenses focus the light entering the camera,
and the size of the aperture can be widened or narrowed.
 Rainbow (1996) was the world's first film utilizing extensive digital post
production techniques.Shot entirely with Sony's first Solid State
Electronic Cinematography cameras and featuring over 35 minutes of
digital image processing and visual effects, all post production, sound
effects, editing and scoring were completed digitally. The Digital High
Definition image was transferred to 35mm negative via electron beam
recorder for theatrical release.
Red scarlet -w dragon. Sony Venice. Arriplus. Black magic 
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Tripod
 In photography, a tripod is a portable device used to support, stabilize and elevate a
camera, a flash unit, or other videographic or observational/measuring equipment. All
photographic tripods have three legs and a mounting head to couple with a camera.
The mounting head usually includes a thumbscrew that mates to a female-threaded
receptacle on the camera, as well as a mechanism to be able to rotate and tilt the
camera when it is mounted on the tripod. Tripod legs are usually made to telescope,
in order to save space when not in use. Tripods are usually made from aluminum,
carbon fiber, steel, wood or plastic.

Lenses. 
A camera lens (also known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is an
optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and
mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media
capable of storing an image chemically or electronically.

Different kinds of camera lenses, including wide angle, telephoto and speciality
There is no major difference in principle between a lens used for a still camera, a
video camera, a telescope, a microscope, or other apparatus, but the details of
design and construction are different. A lens might be permanently fixed to a camera,
or it might be interchangeable with lenses of different focal lengths, apertures, and
other properties.

While in principle a simple convex lens will suffice, in practice a compound lens made
up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct (as much as possible)
the many optical aberrations that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens
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system. It is the job of the lens designer to balance these and produce a design that
is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass production  

                     

                                   Composition

Composition refers to how the elements on screen (actors, scenery, props, etc.)
appear in respect to each other and within the frame itself.

In the earliest days of cinema, film composition basically mimicked that of a stage
play. Directors staged all actors and important information to face the audience.
Takes were also much longer, and the camera moved infrequently. The audience
rarely get closer than a wide shot and the blocking was practically two dimensional.

But, as film became more popular and better gear was developed filmmakers began
to realize that, if done well, the audience wouldn’t be confused by a sudden close-up,
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or by the camera changing its position. So, filmmakers gradually moved from a flat,
two-dimensional portrayal of characters to three-dimensional depth. This depth
allowed characters to move about more realistically. As filmmakers and their gear
progressed, they were able to seamlessly move the camera about and rethink how
they could display the information on screen. They began to realize through certain
composition techniques they could not only control the audience’s attention but could
use these techniques to create visually pleasing images and their own unique visual
styles.

The Importance of Film Composition

What Do Filmmakers Mean When They Refer to Composition? — Importance of
Composition
Image via Hard Target (Universal Pictures).
First and foremost film composition is important because it directs the audience’s
attention. Second to that it’s important because through composition we can create
visually appealing images unique to the director and DP’s style. It guides the
audience to pay attention to one single person amidst a crowd of people, or a single
point in a busy frame.

But beyond all of the technical and personal objectives of composition, it allows us to
instantly convey information and subtext. By controlling the angles and the distance
between characters or significant props we can instantly and intuitively clue our
audience in on the deeper meaning of the scene. After all, film is a visual medium,
and in all literature it’s best to show and not tell. What better way to illustrate an
internal power struggle between two characters, or our hero reflecting on the dire
circumstance he’s been faced with, or a woman coming into her own power, than by
showing it in a series of beautifully composed frames?

What Do Filmmakers Mean When They Refer to Composition? — Importance of

Composition
Image via The Post (20th Century Fox).

Basic Tools of Composition

An in-depth course to film composition is beyond the scope of this article. But, here
are a few basics for beginning filmmakers or those needing some review.

Rule of Thirds
The Rule of Thirds is arguably the core of composition techniques. It’s a simple
enough rule to learn and follow and will elevate the quality of your shots. Divide your
frame into three sections vertically and three sections horizontally. Then, simply
place your subject at one of the intersecting points. Simple enough! The Rule of
Thirds works because it creates an asymmetrical image, thus mimicking natural and
organic landscapes and imagery. It feels more natural to the human eye. Strict,
perfect, geometrical shapes and arrangements are man made, but asymmetrical and
uneven designs and layouts are more organic and natural.
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Rule of Thirds

A good rule of thumb is to keep your subject’s eyes on one of the horizontal lines.
This way, even if your subject isn’t strictly in one of the intersecting points, having his
or her eye line off center still creates a natural feeling image. On top of that, humans
are instinctively drawn to look for eyes in an image.

What Do Filmmakers Mean When They Refer to Composition? — Rule of Thirds

Image via Fight Club (20th Century Fox).

Light and Dark

Remember, the first goal of composition is to direct your audience’s attention. An
excellent way to do this is through lighting contrast. By placing your subject in the
brightest spot of the frame, or inversely by silhouetting your subject against the bright
landscape, you isolate him or her and thus guide the audience.

Admittedly, this technique isn’t as universal as the Rule of Thirds. Playing too much
with your lighting might convey a different subtext than intended. Be sure that you
use this technique appropriately and that it fits the theme and emotions you’re
intending to communicate to your audience.

Angles and Perspective

Remember, we live in a three dimensional world. So, film should utilize three
dimensional space as well (I’m not advocating for 3D movies, however). The distance
between two characters in an over-the-shoulder shot, or looking out towards the
horizon or to the light at the end of a tunnel, creates perspective. With perspective,
we create angles. Angles and converging lines in an image naturally guide our eyes
to a single point.

— Angles and PerspectiveImage .

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Creatively we can use this idea to convey several emotions or themes. The distance
between two people can be both literal and metaphorical. An object or goal can seem
perpetually out of reach. We can isolate a character in the center of the frame,
between two other opposing characters, showing that all eyes are on him and the
pressure is mounting.

We can also use the distance of an object or person from the lens to denote power
and importance. As Alfred Hitchcock stated, “the size of an object in the frame should
equal its importance in the story.”

But, we don’t just need to move the camera forwards and backwards. We can raise
or lower it to create different types of angles to make a character look bigger or
smaller. A character seemingly growing or shrinking in size is quite possibly one of
the most primal indicators of power. Think of the way that a cobra stands herself tall
and opens up her hood, or how a dog hides his tail between his legs and lo wers
himself to the ground.

Goal of Composition
Remember, the primary goal of composition is to control your audience’s focus.
Everything else stems from there: the aesthetics, the subtext and underlying themes,
etc.

If you simply make a beautiful shot without structure, your audience’s attention is
going to scatter as they attempt to take everything in. In the end the shot, despite
being filled with beautiful art and images, will just be unorganized and confusing.
Give your shots structure, and use the structure to guide attention and give meaning.
Then, working within that framework, you can add your personal aesthetics, subtext,
and storytelling
 

Digital photography and film photography

: Cinematic lighting is a film lighting technique that goes beyond the standard three-
point lighting setup to add drama, depth, and atmosphere to the story. Cinematic
lighting utilizes lighting tricks like bouncing light, diffusing light, and adjusting color
temperatures. The merits of digital versus film photography were considered by
photographers and filmmakers in the early 21st century after consumer digital
cameras became widely available. Digital photography and digital cinematography
have both advantages and disadvantages relative to still film and motion picture film
photography.In the 21st century, photography came to be predominantly digital, but
traditional photochemical methods continue to serve many users and applications.

Image quality:
Spatial resolution the visual quality of a digital photograph can be evaluated in
several ways. The pixel count of an image is related to its spatial resolution and is
often used as a figure of merit. The quantity of picture elements (pixels) in the image
sensor is usually counted in millions and called "megapixels".Sensor pixel density
sets a limit on the final output resolution of images captured with that sensor. Other
factors, such as the effect of a Bayer pattern or other filter on the digital sensor and
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the image processing algorithm used to interpolate raw sensor data to image pixels.
Most digital sensors are arranged in a rectangular grid pattern, making certain
images (for example of parallel lines) susceptible to moiré pattern artifacts. Film is
not affected by moiré because of the random orientation of the silver salts in its
emulsion, however the pattern of these silver salts may become visible upon
enlargement, creating the patterns called "grain" in the final output.

The resolution of film images depends upon the area of film used to record the image
(35 mm, medium format or large format) and the film speed. Estimates of a
photograph's resolution taken with a 35 mm film camera vary. More information may
be recorded if a fine-grain film is used, while the use of poor-quality optics or coarse-
grained film may yield lower image resolution. A 36 mm × 24 mm frame of ISO 100-
speed film was initially estimated to contain the equivalent of 20 million pixels,[6]: 99 
or approximately 23,000 pixels per square mm.

Many professional-quality film cameras use medium-format or large-format films.

Because of the relatively large size of the imaging area these media provide, they
can record higher resolution images than most consumer digital cameras. Based
upon the above pixel density, a medium-format film image can record an equivalent
resolution of approximately 83 million pixels in the case of a 60 x 60 mm frame, to
125 million pixels in the case of a 60 x 90 mm frame. In the case of large format, 4 x
5 inch films can record approximately 298.7 million pixels, and 1,200 million pixels in
the case of 8 x 10 inch film. However, as with a digital system, poor optical quality of
lenses will decrease the resolving potential of a film emulsion.

Noise and grain:

Shot noise, produced by spontaneous fluctuations in detected photocurrents,
degrades darker areas of electronic images with random variations of pixel color and
brightness. Film grain becomes obvious in areas of even and delicate tone. Grain
and film sensitivity are linked, with more sensitive films having more obvious grain.
Likewise, with digital cameras, images taken at higher sensitivity settings show more
image noise than those taken at lower sensitivities.

However, even if both techniques have inherent noise, it is widely appreciated that
for color, digital photography has much less noise/grain than film at equivalent
sensitivity, leading to an edge in image quality. For black-and-white photography,
grain takes a more positive role in image quality, and such comparisons are less
valid.

Noise in digital cameras can produce color distortion or confetti-like patterns, in

indoor lighting typically occurring most severely on the blue component and least
severely on the red component. Nearly all digital cameras apply noise reduction to
long-exposure photographs to counteract noise due to pixel leakage. For very long
exposures, the image sensor must be operated at low temperatures to prevent noise
affecting the final image. Film grain is not affected by exposure time, although the
marginal sensitivity of the film changes with lengthy exposures, a phenomenon
known as reciprocity failure.

Autofocus and auto exposure systems:

Traditional exposure metering and autofocus systems employ secondary sensors,
whose readings are typically low-fidelity (e.g. a very small number of averaged
readings from various image areas vs. fully resolved image information) and may not
correspond to the actually recorded image, for example due to parallax issues,
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differing sensitivity towards polarization, differing spectral response, differing

amplitude response, optical aberrations of optical elements in the sensing system,
differing sensitivity towards stray light, or misalignment of the focal plane of the
sensor. Most digital cameras allow users to capture and analyze image information
from the same sensor as used for image recording in real-time. Using this information
for exposure and focus determination inherently eliminates most alignment and
calibration issues, while simultaneously eliminating the cost of secondary metering
sensors.

White balance :
Film typically assumes using separate films to account for white balance of scene
(typically in two variants: for sunlight or tungsten lamps), or usage of filters. Many film
cameras had a dial to help user keep track of type of film that was loaded in the
camera.

Dynamic range:
Dynamic range is a significant factor in the quality of both the digital and emulsion
images. Both film and digital[dubious – discuss] sensors exhibit non-linear responses
to the amount of light, and at the edges of the dynamic range, close to
underexposure and overexposure the media will exhibit particularly non-linear
responses. The non-linear dynamic response or saturation qualities of emulsion film
are often considered a desirable effect by photographers, and the distortion of colour,
contrast and brightness varies considerably between film stocks. There is a
continuous but relatively limited range of colour levels on emulsion film, whereas a
digital sensor stores integer numbers, producing a wide range of discrete levels of
colours.Banding may be visible in the unusual case that it is not obscured by noise,
and detail may be lost, particularly in shadow and highlight areas.

Digital camera manufacturers have made consistent improvements in the dynamic

range captured by their products, with modern cameras having over 14 stops of
dynamic range.Some cameras have an automatic exposure bracketing mode, to be
used in conjunction with high-dynamic-range imaging software.[citation needed]
Analog output media also have more limited dynamic range they are able to display
relative to pigment-based inkjet media.

Convenience and flexibility:

Flexibility and convenience are among the reasons for the widespread adoption of
digital cameras. With film cameras, a roll is usually completely exposed before being
processed. When the film is returned, it is possible to see the photograph, but most
digital cameras incorporate a liquid crystal display that allows the image to be viewed
immediately after capture. The photographer may delete undesired or unnecessary
photographs, or reshoot the image if required. A user who wants prints can quickly
and easily print just the required photographs.

Photographic film is made with specific characteristics of colour temperature and

sensitivity (ISO). Lighting conditions often require characteristics different from those
of the film specifications, requiring the use of filters or corrections in processing.
Digital photography allows colour temperature and sensitivity to be adjusted at each
shot, either manually or automatically.
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Digital images may be conveniently stored on a personal computer or in off-line

storage such as small memory cards. Professional-grade digital cameras can store
pictures in a raw image format, which stores the output from the sensor, rather than
processing it immediately to form an image. When edited in suitable software, such
as Adobe Photoshop or the GNU program GIMP (which uses dcraw to read raw
files), the user may manipulate certain parameters, such as contrast, sharpness, or
colour balance before producing an image. JPEG images can be similarly
manipulated, though usually less precisely; software for this purpose may be
provided with consumer-grade cameras. Digital photography allows the quick
collection of a large quantity of archival documents, bringing convenience, lower cost,
and increased flexibility in using the documents.

There are some areas where film may have some advantages. Modern film cameras
are not as power-thirsty as modern digital cameras and can last longer on smaller
batteries. Some film cameras, especially older ones, can operate without batteries:
some will function completely without batteries, while others may lose some
functionality such as metering and some shutter speeds. Batteries that only have to
power light meters are often very small and can last a long time. This can be a boon
for those who may be spending a long time with little or no access to electricity or a
source of batteries.

Film speed:
Compared to film, digital cameras are capable of much higher speed (sensitivity to
light) and can perform better in low light or very short exposures. The effective speed
of a digital camera can be adjusted at any time, while the film must be changed in a
film camera to change the speed.

Cleanliness:
Dust on the image plane is a constant issue for photographers, and especially so in
digital photography. DSLR cameras are especially prone to dust problems because
the sensor remains in place, whereas a film advances through the camera for each
exposure. Debris in the camera, such as dust or sand, may scratch the film; a single
grain of sand can damage a whole roll of film. As film cameras age, they can develop
burs on parts inside the film advance chamber. With a digital SLR, dust is difficult to
avoid but is easy to rectify using a computer with image-editing software. Some
digital SLRs have systems that remove dust from the sensor by vibrating or knocking
it, sometimes in conjunction with software that remembers where dust is located and
removes dust-affected pixels from images.

CAMERA:
Compact digital cameras are fitted with fixed lenses, which makes it harder for dust
to get into the image area. Similar film cameras are often only light-tight and not
environmentally sealed. Some modern DSLRs, like the Olympus E-3, incorporate
extensive dust and weather seals to avoid this problem.
The still image camera is the main instrument in the art of photography and captured
images may be reproduced later as a part of the process of photography, digital
imaging, or photographic printing. Similar artistic fields in the moving image camera
domain are film, videography, and cinematography.
The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means "dark chamber." It is
the Latin name of the original device for projecting an image of external reality onto a
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flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura.
The first permanent photograph was made in 1825 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce.

Basic elements of a modern digital single-lens reflex (SLR) still camera

A camera captures light photons, usually from the visible spectrum for human
viewing, but could also be from other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum

All cameras use the same basic design: light enters an enclosed box through a
converging or convex lens and an image is recorded on a light-sensitive medium.A
shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera

Most cameras also have a viewfinder, which shows the scene to be recorded and the
ability to control focus and exposure.

Aperture: 
 
Different apertures of a lens
The aperture, sometimes called the diaphragm or iris is the opening through which
light enters the camera.Typically located in the lens, this opening can be widened or
narrowed to control the amount of light that strikes the film.The aperture is controlled
by the movements of overlapping plates or blades that rotate together or apart to
shrink or expand the hole(aperture) at the center.The diameter of the aperture can be
set manually, typically by adjusting a dial on the camera body or lens, or
automatically based on calculations influenced by an internal light meter.

The size of the opening is set at standard increments, typically called f-stops (but
also f-numbers, stop numbers, or simply steps or stops), that usually range from f/1.4
to f/32 in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32.[5] As the
numbers increase, each increment halves the amount of light entering the
camera.Conversely, the lower the number, the larger the opening, and so the more
light that is let into the camera.

The wider opening at the lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the background
of an image is blurry when focusing on the foreground, and vice versa. This depth of
field increases as the aperture closes, so that objects that are at differing distances
from the camera can both be in focus; when the aperture is at its narrowest, the
foreground and background are both in sharp focus.

Shutter:
Main article: Shutter (photography)
The shutter, along with the aperture, is one of two ways to control the amount of light
entering the camera. The shutter determines the duration that the light-sensitive
surface is exposed to light. The shutter opens, light enters the camera and exposes
the film or sensor to light, and then the shutter closes.

There are two types of mechanical shutters. The leaf-type uses a circular iris
diaphragm maintained under spring tension inside or just behind the lens that rapidly
opens and closes when the shutter is released.

A focal-plane shutter. In this shutter, the metal shutter blades travel vertically.
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More commonly, a focal-plane shutter is used. This shutter operates close to the film
plane and employs metal plates or cloth curtains with an opening that passes across
the light-sensitive surface. The curtains or plates have an opening that is pulled
across the film plane during exposure. The focal-plane shutter is typically used in
single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, since covering the film rather than blocking the
light passing through the lens allows the photographer to view the image through the
lens at all times except during the exposure itself. Covering the film also facilitates
removing the lens from a loaded camera (many SLRs have interchangeable lenses).

Digital cameras may use one of these types of mechanical shutters or they may use
an electronic shutter, the type used in the cameras of smartphones. Electronic
shutters either record data from the entire sensor at the same time (a global shutter)
or record the data line by line across the sensor (a rolling shutter).

In movie cameras, a rotary shutter opens and closes in sync with the advancing of
each frame of film.

The duration is called the shutter speed or exposure time. The longer the shutter
speed, the slower it is. Typical exposure times can range from one second to 1/1,000
of a second, though durations longer and shorter than this are not uncommon. In the
early stages of photography, exposures were often several minutes long. These long
exposure times often result in blurry images, as a single object is recorded in multiple
places across a single image for the duration of the exposure. To prevent this,
shorter exposure times can be used. Very short exposure times can capture fast-
moving action and eliminate motion blur.

Like aperture settings, exposure times increment in powers of two. The two settings
determine the exposure value (EV), a measure of how much light is recorded during
the exposure. There is a direct relationship between the exposure times and aperture
settings so that if the exposure time is lengthened one step, but the aperture opening
is also narrowed one step, the amount of light exposing the film or sensor is the
same.

Metering:
A handheld digital light meter showing an exposure of 1/200th at an aperture of f/11,
at ISO 100. The light sensor is on top, under the white diffusing hemisphere.
In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using
a built-in light meter or exposure meter.Taken through the lens (called TTL metering),
these readings are taken using a panel of semiconductors that are sensitive to light.
They are used to help calculate the best exposure settings. These settings are
typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's
microprocessor. The reading from the light meter is combined with aperture settings,
exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure. 

Light meters typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More
advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering, weighing the center of the
frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light
 16

across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light
reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).

Lens:
Main articles: Camera lens and Photographic lens design
The lens of a camera captures the light from the subject and brings it to a focus on
the light-sensitive surface. The design and manufacture of the lens are critical to the
quality of the photograph being taken. The technological revolution in camera design
in the 19th century revolutionized optical glass manufacture and lens design with
great benefits for modern lens manufacture in a wide range of optical instruments
from reading glasses to microscopes. Pioneers included Zeiss and Leitz.

Camera lenses are made in a wide range of focal lengths. They range from extreme
wide angle, and standard, medium telephoto. Lenses either have a fixed focal length
(prime lens) or a variable focal length (zoom lens). Each lens is best suited to a
certain type of photography. The extreme wide-angle may be preferred for
architecture because it can capture a wide view of a building. The normal lens,
because it often has a wide aperture, is often used for street and documentary
photography. The telephoto lens is useful for sports and wildlife but it is more
susceptible to camera shake.

Focus:
An image of flowers, with one in focus. The background is out of focus.
The distance range in which objects appear clear and sharp, called depth of field,
can be adjusted by many cameras. This allows for a photographer to control which
objects appear in focus, and which do not.
Due to the optical properties of a photographic lens, only objects within a limited
range of distance from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of
adjusting this range is known as changing the camera's focus. There are various
ways of focusing a camera accurately. The simplest cameras have fixed focus and
use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain
range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 meters (10  ft.) to infinity, is in
reasonable focus. Fixed focus cameras are usually inexpensive types, such as
single-use cameras. The camera can also have a limited focusing range or scale-
 17

focus that is indicated on the camera body. The user will guess or calculate the
distance to the subject and adjust the focus accordingly. On some cameras, this is
indicated by symbols (head-and-shoulders; two people standing upright; one tree;
mountains).

Rangefinder cameras allow the distance to objects to be measured employing a

coupled parallax unit on top of the camera, allowing the focus to be set with
accuracy. Single-lens reflex cameras allow the photographer to determine the focus
and composition visually using the objective lens and a moving mirror to project the
image onto a ground glass or plastic micro-prism screen. Twin-lens reflex cameras
use an objective lens and a focusing lens unit (usually identical to the objective lens.)
in a parallel body for composition and focusing. View cameras use a ground glass
screen which is removed and replaced by either a photographic plate or a reusable
holder containing sheet film before exposure. Modern cameras often offer autofocus
systems to focus the camera automatically by a variety of methods.

Some experimental cameras, for example, the planar Fourier capture array (PFCA),
do not require focusing to allow them to take pictures. In conventional digital
photography, lenses or mirrors map all of the light originating from a single point of
an in-focus object to a single point at the sensor plane. Each pixel thus relates an
independent piece of information about the far-away scene. In contrast, a PFCA does
not have a lens or mirror, but each pixel has an idiosyncratic pair of diffraction
gratings above it, allowing each pixel to likewise relate an independent piece of
information (specifically, one component of the 2D Fourier transform) about the far-
away scene. Together, complete scene information is captured and images can be
reconstructed by computation.

Some cameras have post-focusing. Post focusing means take the pictures first and
then focusing later on the personal computer. The camera uses many tiny lenses on
the sensor to capture light from every camera angle of a scene and is called
plenoptic technology. A current plenoptic camera design has 40,000 lenses working
together to grab the optimal picture.

Image capture on film Edit

Main article: Film formats
Learn more
This section does not cite any sources. (April 2019)
Traditional cameras capture light onto photographic plate or photographic film. Video
and digital cameras use an electronic image sensor, usually a charge-coupled device
(CCD) or a CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in a
memory card or other storage inside the camera for later playback or processing.

A wide range of film and plate formats have been used by cameras. In the early
history plate sizes were often specific for the make and model of cameras although
there quickly developed some standardization for the more popular cameras. The
introduction of roll film drove the standardization process still further so that by the
1950s only a few standard roll films were in use. These included 120 films providing
8, 12 or 16 exposures, 220 films providing 16 or 24 exposures, 127 films providing 8
or 12 exposures (principally in Brownie cameras) and 135 (35mm film) providing 12,
20 or 36 exposures – or up to 72 exposures in the half-frame format or bulk cassettes
for the Leica Camera range.
For cine cameras, film 35 mm wide and perforated with sprocket holes was
established as the standard format in the 1890s. It was used for nearly all film-based
professional motion picture production. For amateur use, several smaller and
 18

therefore less expensive formats were introduced. 17.5 mm film, created by splitting
35 mm film, was one early amateur format, but 9.5 mm film, introduced in Europe in
1922, and 16 mm film, introduced in the US in 1923, soon became the standards for
"home movies" in their respective hemispheres. In 1932, the even more economical
8 mm format was created by doubling the number of perforations in 16  mm film, then
splitting it, usually after exposure and processing. The Super 8 format, still 8  mm
wide but with smaller perforations to make room for substantially larger film frames,
was introduced in 1965.

Film speed (ISO)

Traditionally used to tell the camera the film speed of the selected film on film
cameras, film speed numbers are employed on modern digital cameras as an
indication of the system's gain from light to numerical output and to control the
automatic exposure system. Film speed is usually measured via the ISO 5800
system. The higher the film speed number, the greater the film sensitivity to light,
whereas with a lower number, the film is less sensitive to light.

White balance:
In digital cameras, there is electronic compensation for the color temperature
associated with a given set of lighting conditions, ensuring that white light is
registered as such on the imaging chip and therefore that the colors in the frame will
appear natural. On mechanical, film-based cameras, this function is served by the
operator's choice of film stock or with color correction filters. In addition to using white
balance to register the natural coloration of the image, photographers may employ
white balance to aesthetic end, for example, white balancing to a blue object to
obtain a warm color temperature.

Camera accessories Edit

Flash:
A flash, which provides a short burst of bright light during exposure, is a commonly
used artificial light source in photography. Most modern flash systems use a battery-
powered high-voltage discharge through a gas-filled tube to generate bright light for a
very short time (1/1,000 of a second or less).

Many flash units measure the light reflected from the flash to help determine the
appropriate duration of the flash. When the flash is attached directly to the camera—
typically in a slot at the top of the camera (the flash shoe or hot shoe) or through a
cable—activating the shutter on the camera triggers the flash, and the camera's
internal light meter can help determine the duration of the flash.

Additional flash equipment can include a light diffuser, mount and stand, reflector,
soft box, trigger and cord.
 19

Other accessories
Accessories for cameras are mainly for care, protection, special effects, and
functions.

Lens hood: used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source to
prevent glare and lens flare (see also matte box).
Lens cap: covers and protects the lens during storage.
Lens adapter: allows the use of lenses other than those for which the camera was
designed.
Filters: allow artificial colors or change light density.
Lens extension tubes allow close focus in macro photography.
Care and protection: including camera case and cover, maintenance tools, and
screen protector.
Camera monitor: provides an off-camera view of the composition with a brighter and
more colorful screen, and typically exposes more advanced tools such as framing
guides, focus peaking, zebra stripes, waveform monitors (oftentimes as an "RGB
parade"), vectorscopes and false color to highlight areas of the image critical to the
photographer.
 20

Large format cameras use special equipment which includes magnifier loupe,
viewfinder, angle finder, focusing rail /truck.
Battery and sometimes a charger.
Some professional SLR could be provided with interchangeable finders for eye-level
or waist-level focusing, focusing screens, eye-cup, data backs, motor-drives for film
transportation or external battery packs.
Tripod, primarily used for keeping the camera steady while recording video, doing a
long exposure, and time-lapse photography.
Microscope adapter, an adapter used to connect a camera to a microscope to
photograph what the microscope is examining.
Cable release, a remote shutter button that can be connected to the camera via a
cable to remotely control the shutter, it can be used to lock the shutter open for the
desired period. It is also commonly used to prevent camera shake from pressing the
built-in camera shutter button.
Dew shield – Prevents moisture build-up on the lens.
UV filter, Can protect the front element of a lens from scratches, cracks, smudges,
dirt, dust, and moisture while keeping a minimum impact on image quality.

                                              LIGHTING:
Lighting is much more than just bright- and darkness, it sets the foundation and is a
key
factor to shoot a successful film. It sets the mood and reflects the genre of a film, it
allows viewers to have an understanding of how to feel emotionally. Especially when
shooting on a lower budget it is very important to consider lighting and not just use a
natural setting, weather can constantly change and is, therefore, unreliable. Shooting
in
the summer can lead to overexposure, whereas in the winter there might not be
enough
light. It is crucial to always remember that good lighting is key.

KEY LIGHT:
The key light is also known as the main light of a scene or subject. This means it’s
normally the strongest light in each scene or photo. Even if your lighting crew is going
for a complicated multi-light setup, the key light is usually the first to be set up.
However, just because it’s your “main” light doesn’t mean it always has to be facing
your subject. You can place your key light anywhere, even from the side or behind
your
subject to create a darker mood. Just avoid placing it near or right beside the camera
as
this will create flat and direct lighting for your subject.

FILL LIGHTING:
As the name suggests, this technique is used to “fill in” and remove the dark,
shadowy
 21

areas that your key light creates. It is noticeably less intense and placed in the
opposite
direction of the key light, so you can add more dimension to your scene.
Because the aim of fill lighting is to eliminate shadows, it’s advisable to place it a little
further and/or diffuse it with a reflector (placed around 3/4 opposite to the key light) to
create softer light that spreads out evenly. Many scenes do well with just the key and
fill
studio lighting as they are enough to add noticeable depth and dimension to any
object.

BACK LIGHTING:
Backlighting is used to create a three-dimensional scene, which is why it is also the
last
to be added in a three-point lighting setup. This also faces your subject—a little
higher
from behind so as to separate your subject from the background.
As with fill lighting, you’ll want to also diffuse your backlight so it becomes less
intense
and covers a wider area of your subject. For example, for subject mid-shots, you’ll
want
to also light up the shoulders and base of the person’s neck instead of just the top of
their head. This technique can also be used on its own, without the key and fill lights
ifyou’re aiming for a silhouette.

SIDE LIGHTING:
Needless to say, side lighting is for illuminating your scene from the side, parallel to
your subject. It is often used on its own or with just a faint fill light to give your scene
a
dramatic mood or what’s referred to as “chiaroscuro” lighting. To really achieve this
effect, your side light should be strong so as to create strong contrast and low-key
lighting that reveals the texture and accentuates the contours of your subject.
When used with a fill light, it’s advisable to lessen the fill light’s intensity down to 1/8
of
that of the side light to keep the dramatic look and feel of a scene.
 22

PRACTICAL LIGHTING:
Practical lighting is the use of regular, working light sources like lamps, candles, or
even
the TV. These are usually intentionally added in by the set designer or lighting crew
to
create a cinematic nighttime scene. They may sometimes be used to also give off
subtle
lighting for your subject.
However, practical lights are not always easy to work with, as candles and lamps are
typically not strong enough to light up a subject. A hidden, supplementary motivated
light (more on that later) may be used or dimmers can be installed in lamps so the
light’s
intensity can be adjusted.

BOUNCE LIGHTING:
Bounce lighting is about literally bouncing the light from a strong light source towards
your subject or scene using a reflector or any light-colored surface, such as walls and
ceilings. Doing so creates a bigger area of light that is more evenly spread out.
If executed properly, bounce lights can be used to create a much softer key, fill, top,
side, or backlighting, especially if you don’t have a diffuser or softbox
 23

SOFT LIGHTING:
Soft lighting doesn’t refer to any lighting direction, but it’s a technique nonetheless.
Cinematographers make use of soft lighting (even when creating directional lighting
with
the techniques above) for both aesthetic and situational reasons: to reduce or
eliminate
harsh shadows, create drama, replicate subtle lighting coming from outside, or all of
the
above

HARD LIGHTING
Hard light can be sunlight or a strong light source. It’s usually unwanted, but it
certainly
has cinematic benefits. You can create hard lighting with direct sunlight or a small,
powerful light source.
Despite it creating harsh shadows, hard lighting is great for drawing attention to your
main subject or to an area of the scene, highlighting your subject’s contour, and
creating
a strong silhouette.

HIGH KEY LIGHTING:

High key refers to a style of lighting used to create a very bright scene that’s visually
 24

shadowless, often close to overexposure. Lighting ratios are ignored so all light
sources
would have pretty much the same intensity. This technique is used in many movies,
TV
sitcoms, commercials, and music videos today, but it first became popular during the
classic Hollywood period in the 1930s and 40s.

 KEY LIGHTING:
Being the opposite of high key, low key lighting for a scene would mean a lot of
shadows and possibly just one strong key light source. The focus is on the use of
shadows and how it creates mystery, suspense, or drama for a scene and character
instead of on the use of lighting, which makes it great for horror and thriller films.
MOTIVATED LIGHTING

Motivated lighting is used to imitate a natural light source, such as sunlight,

moonlight,
and street lamps at night. It’s also the kind of lighting that enhances practical lights,

should the director or cinematographer wish to customize the intensity or coverage of

the latter using a separate light source.
To ensure that your motivated lighting looks as natural as possible, several methods
are
used, such as the use of filters to create window shadows and the use of colored
gels to
replicate the warm, bright yellow light coming from the sun or the cool, faint bluish
light
from the moon.

AMBIENT LIGHTING:
Using artificial light sources is still the best way to create a well-lit scene that’s closely
similar to or even better than what we see in real life. However, there’s no reason not
to

make use of ambient or available lights that already exist in your shooting location,
may
it be sunlight, moonlight, street lamps, or even electric store signs.
When shooting during the day, you could always do it outdoors and make use of
natural
sunlight (with or without a diffuser) and supplement the scene with a secondary light
for
your subject (bounced or using a separate light source). Early in the morning and late
in
the afternoon or early evening are great times for shooting outdoors if you want soft
lighting. The only downside is that the intensity and color of sunlight are not constant,
so
remember to plan for the weather and sun placement.
 25

CRI stands for Color Rendering Index. It refers to the ability of a light source to
properly
and faithfully reveal the color of an object compared to an ideal or natural light
source.
The highest possible CRI is 100 and is attributed to a perfect black body (a tungsten
light source is a perfect black body, as is the sun).

Color Temperature:
Color temperature refers to the “color” of white light emitted by a light source based
on
that radiated by a perfect black body at a given temperature measured in degrees
Kelvin.
White light can be warm (yellow/orange) or cool (blue) and our eyes automatically
adjust. However, the color temperature of light sources and especially the mixing of
different color temperatures becomes very important when designing film lighting.
Temperature Source
1,700 K: Match flame

1,850 K: Candle flame, sunset/sunrise

2,700–3,300 K: Incandescent lamps
4,100–4,150 K: Moonlight
5,000 K: Horizon daylight
5,500–6,000 K: Vertical daylight
6,500 K: Daylight, overcast
15,000–27,000 K Clear blue poleward sky
Tungsten (Quartz Halogen/Tungsten Halogen) LIGHTS

Tungsten light sources are basically related to the same type of incandescent
filament
bulbs which until recently were common in homes and offices everywhere.
The key difference is that these use bulbs that take advantage of what is known as
the
halogen cycle. The pressurized halogen gas inside the bulb helps to redeposit
evaporated tungsten metal back onto the filament. The glass bulb is made from a
much
stronger quartz or aluminosilicate glass. The lamps operate at a higher temperature
than normal incandescent tungsten bulbs, and so they can achieve a higher color
temperature, and higher luminous efficiency. They naturally produce a warm light, but
blue color correction gels can be used to simulate daylight.
Tungsten lighting fixtures can be open faced or Fresnel up to about 20kW in power
and
are dimmable. They produce a continuous spectrum of light from near ultraviolet to
infrared, producing near perfect color rendition.
When dimmed tungsten lights become warmer in color, so gels are needed to correct
the color temperature.
Tungsten lighting is usually used to light interiors as it matches the warm light
associated with domestic incandescent lighting.
HMI LIGHTS
HMI stands for Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodideand is a metal-halide gas discharge
medium arc-length lamp.
A HMI bulb contains mercury vapor mixed with metal halides. An electrical arc
between
two electrodes excites the mercury vapor and metal halides resulting in a very high
light
 26

output and luminous efficiency. HMI lamps are capable of between 85 and 108
lumens
per watt, up to four times that of conventional incandescent lamps.
The specific mix of gases in a HMI bulb is designed to emit a 6000K color
temperature
light, closely matching natural sunlight. Electronic ballasts produce a flicker free light
due to their very high frequency operation. Pulse width modulation can be used to
dim
HMI lights.
HMI’s are often used when high output is required and when recreating or
augmenting
sunlight shining into interiors, or for exterior lighting. Powerful HMI’s can be used to
light
large areas.
Fluorescent  LIGHTS

A fluorescent lamp uses the excitement of low pressure mercury vapor to produce
ultra-
violet light, in turn causing a phosphor coating on the inside of the glass tube to glow
giving off light in the visible spectrum.
A fluorescent light is much more efficient than an incandescent light, and is capable
of
generating up to 100 lumens per watt, similar to the output of HMI.
The spectrum of light emitted is different to an incandescent source and depends on
the
mix of phosphors used. However a CRI up to 99 can be achieved. The color
temperature of a fluorescent can vary also from 2700K to 6500K depending on the
phosphor mix.
Fluorescent film lighting is most often used in fixtures containing banks of tubes.
These
tubes are normally either tungsten or daylight color balanced, or the tubes can be
mixed
within the fixture to vary the overall color mix of the light. They produce a soft and
even
light and can be used in relative close proximity to the subject. Fluorescent lighting is
often used to light interiors and has the advantage of being more compact and cooler
in
operation than tungsten or HMI lighting.
LED LIGHTS
LED stands for light emitting diode and is a solid-state semiconductor device. Only
recently, LED’s of sufficient power have become available to make practical LED film
lighting possible. LED’s are extremely efficient but are still limited in overall light
output
when compared to any of the other light sources.
LED’s are by nature monochromatic, producing only a single wavelength of light. So
the
challenge of LED lighting has been in creating a full spectrum white light. This can be
done in two ways, either by combining the light of red, green and blue emitting LED’s,
or
with white LED’s whereby the visible white light is actually created by phosphors that
are excited by an ultra-violet emitting LED.
LED lights can be daylight or tungsten balanced, sometimes switchable or having
variable color temperature. Some have variable color through the entire RGB
spectrum,
which is something not possible with any other lighting technology. The CRI rating of
 27

LED lighting can be over 90.

LED’s are becoming more and more common on film sets. They can easily be battery
powered making them very portable and requiring no separate ballasts or heavy
cabling. Panels made from LED lights can be small and compact, or large for a
variety
of situations.
LED’s are also powering more traditional Fresnel style lamp heads such as the Arri
L-
series. Overall power outputs are on the rise, which is good news.
.
Luminous Efficiency Compared
Tungsten Quartz Halogen:   Up to +/- 35lm/W
HMI:                                      Up to +/- 115lm/W
Fluorescent:                          Up to +/- 100lm/W
LED:                                     Up to +/- 150lm/W

.
 Lenses:
A camera lens (also known as photographic lens or photographic objective) is
an optical lens or assembly of lenses used in conjunction with a camera body and
mechanism to make images of objects either on photographic film or on other media
capable of storing an image chemically or electronically.
There is no major difference in principle between a lens used for a still camera, a
video
camera, a telescope, a microscope, or other apparatus, but the detailed design and
construction are different. A lens might be permanently fixed to a camera, or it might
be interchangeable with lenses of different focal lengths, apertures, and other
properties.
While in principle a simple convex lens will suffice, in practice a compound lens made
up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct (as much as possible)
the
many optical aberrations that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens
System
.
Normal lenses:
A normal lens is a lens that reproduces a field of view that appears
"natural" to a human
observer. In contrast, depth compression and expansion with shorter or longer focal
lengths introduces noticeable, and sometimes disturbing, distortion.
The standard lens has a fixed focal length (50mm, 85mm, 100mm), and reproduces
fairly accurately what the human eye sees – in terms of perspective and angle of
view.
For a 35mm film camera or a full-frame DSLR, the 50mm lens is considered
standard.

At higher focal lengths (85mm or 100mm) you have an ideal lens for portraiture
because
when coupled with a wide aperture they thoroughly soften any background detail,
thus
making it less likely to distract from the main subject.
 28

WIDE ANGLE LENS

A wide-angle lens refers to a lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the
focal length of a normal lens for a given film plane. This type of lens allows more of
the scene to be included in the photograph, which is useful in architectural, interior
and
landscape photography where the photographer may not be able to move farther
from
the scene to photograph it.
Another use is where the photographer wishes to emphasise the difference in size or
distance between objects in the foreground and the background; nearby objects
appear
very large and objects at a moderate distance appear small and far away.

This exaggeration of relative size can be used to make foreground objects more
prominent and striking, while capturing expansive backgrounds
By convention, in still photography, the normal lens for a particular format has a focal
length approximately equal to the length of the diagonal of the image frame or digital
photosensor. In cinematography, a lens of roughly twice the diagonal is considered
"normal".

A wide-angle has a shorter focal length (10 thru 42mm) when compared to a
standard
lens.
In fact, wide angle can be the only way to capture the complete setting without
omitting
any important elements in the image. You can use wide-angle lenses to capture a
deep
DOF.
 29

Telephoto :
A telephoto lens is a specific type of a long-focus lens in which the physical length of
the
lens is shorter than the focal length. This is achieved by incorporating a special lens
group known as a telephoto group that extends the light path to create a long-focus
lens
in a much shorter overall design. The angle of view and other effects of long-focus
lenses are the same for telephoto lenses of the same specified focal length. Long-
focal-
length lenses are often informally referred to as telephoto lenses although this is
technically incorrect: a telephoto lens specifically incorporates the telephoto group.
Telephoto lenses are sometimes broken into the further sub-types of short
telephoto(85mm to 135mm in 35mm film format), medium telephoto: (135mm to
300mm
in 35mm film format) and super telephoto (over 300mm in 35mm film format)

Telephoto lenses (100mm – 800mm) can provide you with a narrow field of view.
These long lenses enable you to compress a distance (and compress the sense of
depth, as well) and pick out specific objects from far off.
They have a strong resolving power and an inherent shallow DOF, where the
slightest
lateral moment can take a subject out of view.
Telephoto lenses are great for wildlife, portrait, sports, and documentary types of
 30

Photography.They enable you to capture subjects from hundreds of feet away

ZOOM LENS:
A zoom lens is a mechanical assembly of lens elements for which the focal length
(and
thus angle of view) can be varied, as opposed to a fixed focal length (FFL) lens
(see prime lens).
A true zoom lens, also called a parfocal lens, is one that maintains focus when its
focal
length changes. A lens that loses focus during zooming is more properly called
a varifocal lens. Despite being marketed as zoom lenses, virtually all consumer
lenses
with variable focal lengths use varifocal design.
The convenience of variable focal length comes at the cost of complexity – and some
compromises on image quality, weight, dimensions, aperture, autofocus
performance,
and cost. For example, all zoom lenses suffer from at least slight, if not considerable,
loss of image resolution at their maximum aperture, especially at the extremes of
their
focal length range. This effect is evident in the corners of the image, when displayed
in
a large format or high resolution. The greater the range of focal length a zoom lens
offers, the more exaggerated these compromises must become

Zoom lenses have variable focal lengths, and are extremely useful.
Some can range between a wide-angle and a telephoto (i.e. 24 to 300mm) so you
have
extensive versatility for composition.
The trade-off with zoom lenses is the aperture. Because of the number of elements
required in constructing these lenses, they have a limited ability to open up and allow
in light.
 31

FISH EYE LENS:

A fisheye lens is an ultra wide-angle lens that produces strong visual distortion
intended
to create a wide panoramic or hemisphericalimage. Fisheye lenses achieve
extremely
wide angles of view. Instead of producing images with straight lines of perspective
(rectilinear images), fisheye lenses use a special mapping (for example: equisolid
angle), which gives images a characteristic convex non-rectilinear appearance.
Mass-produced fisheye lenses for photography first appeared in the early 1960s and
are generally used for their unique, distorted appearance. For the popular 35 mm
film format, typical focal lengths of fisheye lenses are between 8 mm and 10 mm for
circular images, and 15–16 mm for full-frame images. For digital cameras using
smaller
electronic imagers such as 1 ⁄ 4 " and 1 ⁄ 3 " format CCD or CMOS
sensors, the focal length of
"miniature" fisheye lenses can be as short as 1 to 2 mm.

A fisheye lens is a specialized, wide-angle lens that provides extremely wide images
by
changing straight lines into curves.
It can sometimes produce circular, convex, or oval images by distorting the
perspective
and creating a 180° image.
The range of focal length varies between 7~16mm in a fish-eye lens. 

MACRO LENS:
A macro lens is a camera lens designed for photographing small subjects at very
close
 32

distances. They can focus much nearer than normal lenses, allowing you to fill the
frame with your subject and capture more detail.
They are typically used when photographing insects, plants, and small products, but
are
versatile enough to be used in all sorts of situations. Virtually every subject has
interesting details which can make for fascinating close-up photos.
Although macro lenses are optimised for close-up work, most can focus all the way to
infinity and make excellent general-use lenses as well. Many professionals also use
them as a portrait lens due to their ability to capture lots of detail in ultra-sharp focus.

Macro lenses are used for close-up or “macro” photography.

They range in focal lengths of between 50-200mm. These lenses obtain razor-sharp
focus for subjects within the macro focus distance, but lose their ability for sharp
focus
at other distances.
These lenses enable the photographer to obtain life-size or larger images of subjects
like wasps, butterflies, and flowers.

TILT – SHIFT LENS:

A tilt-shift lens is a lens in which the optics can be tilted and/or shifted in relation to
the
image sensor. Tilt-shift lenses also rotate to allow the lens to tilt and/or shift in a wide
range of directions.

The Tilt-Shift lens enables you to manipulate the vanishing  points, so when you’re
shooting buildings you can alter the perspective of an image so the parallel lines
don’t
converge, thus eliminating the distorting quality of the lens.
 33

. 
About photographers and their work

Roger Alexander international cinematographer

Sir Roger Alexander Deakins CBE (born 24 May 1949) is an English

cinematographer, best known for his collaborations with directors like the Coen
brothers, Sam Mendes and Denis Villeneuve. Deakins has been admitted to both the
British Society of Cinematographers and to the American Society of
Cinematographers. He is the recipient of five BAFTA Awards for Best
Cinematography, and has had fifteen nominations and two wins for the Academy
Award for Best Cinematography. His best-known works include The Shawshank
Redemption, Fargo, O Brother, Where Art Thou?, A Beautiful Mind, Skyfall, Sicario,
Blade Runner 2049, and 1917, the last two of which earned him Academy Awards

.
Roger Alexander works.
The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007). Blade Runner
2049 1917 (2019)
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Santosh Sivan from India

Santosh Sivan (born 8 February 1964) is an Indian cinematographer, film director,

producer and actor known for his works in Malayalam cinema, Tamil cinema and
Hindi cinema.Santosh graduated from the Film and Television Institute of India (FTII)
and has to date completed 55 feature films and 50 documentaries. He is a founding
member of the Indian Society of Cinematographers (ISC) and is the most awarded
Director of Photography (DOP) in India. Santosh became the first Cinematographer
in the Asia-Pacific region to join the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC)
membership.As a cinematographer, he has won five National Film Awards –
including four for Best Feature Film Cinematography. As of 2014, he has received
eleven National Film Awards, and twenty one international awards for his works. He
was awarded the Padma Shri for his contributions to Indian cinema in 2014.

Santosh Sivan work.

Perumthachan (Malayalam/1991), Kalapani (Malayalam / 1996), Mohiniyattam
(Malayalam / 1991), Iruvar (Tamil/1998) and Dil Se.. (Hindi/1999)
 35

Duties and Responsibilities of a

Cinematographer

 Chooses a visual style for the film. A cinematographer

determines the visual style and approach of the film. For
example, a cinematographer on a documentary film
determines whether to use re-enactments, or to rely
heavily on photographs and found footage.
 Establishes the camera setup for every shot. A
cinematographer decides which types of cameras,
camera lenses, camera angles, and camera techniques
best bring the scene to life. Additionally, a
cinematographer works with the script supervisor and, if
necessary, the locations manager to scope out each
scene and design what the most effective vantage points
for the camera will be. This helps preserve the intention
and scale of the film.
 Determines the lighting for every scene. A
cinematographer uses lighting to create the right visual
mood the director aspires to achieve. They must know
how to enhance an image’s depth, contrast, and contour
to support the story’s atmosphere.
 Explores the potential of every location. A good
cinematographer understands what visuals excite the
director and can make recommendations about what
shots to capture.
 Attends rehearsals. A cinematographer attends rehearsals
with the actors since the blocking for a scene will likely
change and evolve. During rehearsals, cinematographers
adjust the camera in response to a particular gesture or
action, and as actors adjust their body positions and
blocking, to better fit the framing of the shot.
 Elevates the vision of the director. A good
cinematographer will introduce ideas and concepts the
director may not have considered.
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Cinematic Technique Terms and Definitions

Cinematographers should think carefully about every shot,

considering the angle, the light, and the camera movement,
because there is an infinite number of choices they can make.
Common cinematography techniques and terms include:

1. Close-up: a shot that closely crops in on a character’s face

or on an object.
2. Extreme close-up: A tightly framed close-up shot.
3. Long shot: a shot showing a character in relation to their
surroundings.
4. Extreme long shot: a shot so far away from the character,
they are no longer visible within their surroundings.
5. Establishing shot: a shot at the beginning of a scene that
gives context for the setting.
6. Tracking shot: a sideways-moving shot that captures a
landscape or that follows a character as they move. Often
used interchangeably with “dolly shot,” though they
technically refer to different motions.
7. Dolly shot: a shot where the camera moves toward or
away from a character on a dolly track. Technically, a
dolly shot refers only refers to backwards and forwards
camera motion, though the term has come to mean any
camera movement tracking a character.
8. Crane shot: an overhead shot where the camera is
suspended in the air on a moving crane.
9. Steadicam: a lightweight camera stabilizer that captures
smooth moving shots. A Steadicam is either hand-held or
attached to the camera operator’s body, giving them
more freedom to move while filming.

High-angle shot:
a shot where the camera is placed higher
than a character or object.

Low-angle shot: a shot where the camera is placed lower

than a character or object.
 37

Medium shot: a shot that shows an actor from the waist up.

Point of view shot: a shot that shows the action through the
eyes of a specific character.

Panning: a shot where the camera turns left or right on its

vertical axis

Tilting: a shot where the camera turns up or down on its

horizontal axisCross-cutting: an editing technique that cuts
between multiple events happening at the same time.

Diegetic sound: sound that both the characters and the

audience can hear, like dialogue, a knock on the door, or a
telephone ringing.

Non-diegetic sound: sound that only the audience hears,

like a narrator or the film’s score, placed into the film during
post-production.

Key light: the main source of direct light shining on a

character or object. High-key refers to key light that is the
main source of a scene’s light; low-key refers to key light
that is not the main source of light.

Side lighting: lighting used to illuminate the areas in a scene

that aren’t lit by key light.

Backlighting: when the main light source comes from behind a

character or object
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My working stills
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