04-15-21 Covid-19 Vaccine Tracker

https://nyti.
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U.S.A. World Health
Coronavirus Vaccine Tracker

By Carl Zimmer, Jonathan Corum and Sui-Lee Wee Updated April 13, 2021
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3 AUTHORIZED APPROVED ABANDONED
52 37 23 5 8 4
Vaccines Vaccines Vaccines Vaccines Vaccines Vaccines
testing safety in expanded in large-scale in early or approved abandoned
and dosage safety trials efficacy tests limited use for full use after trials
Vaccines typically require years of research and testing before

reaching the clinic, but in 2020, scientists embarked on a race to
produce safe and effective coronavirus vaccines in record time.
Researchers are currently testing 89 vaccines in clinical trials on
humans, and 23 have reached the final stages of testing. At least 77
preclinical vaccines are under active investigation in animals.
New additions and recent updates

April 13 U.S. health agencies call for a pause in Johnson & Johnson vaccinations.
April 12 Cubaʼs Soberana Plus begins Phase 2.
April 12 Massachusetts-based Akston Biosciences enters Phase 1/2.
April 9 Turkeyʼs Koçak Farma begins Phase 1.
April 5 The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research enters Phase 1.

April 5 Japanʼs KM Biologics begins Phase 1/2.
April 2 Franceʼs OSE Immunotherapeutics enters Phase 1.
March 31 The Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine is highly effective in adolescents.
March 31 Some Johnson & Johnson doses are delayed by a U.S. factory mix-up.
March 30 Chinaʼs Jiangsu Rec-Biotechnology enters Phase 1.
March 27 Turkeyʼs Middle East Technical and Bilkent University begin Phase 1.
March 25 A vaccine from Chinaʼs Zhongyianke Biotech enters Phase 2.
March 23 U.S. officials question the completeness of AstraZenecaʼs trial results.
March 23 Daiichi Sankyo and the University of Tokyo enter Phase 1/2.
March 22 AstraZenecaʼs vaccine is found to be 79% effective in a large U.S. trial.
March 20 Cubaʼs Abdala vaccine moves to Phase 3.
Leading vaccines
Developer How It Works Phase Status
Pfizer-BioNTech mRNA 2 3 Approved in several countries.

Emergency use in U.S., E.U., other countries.
Moderna mRNA 3 Approved in Switzerland.

Emergency use in U.S., E.U., other countries.
Gamaleya Ad26, Ad5 3 Early use in Russia.

Emergency use in other countries.
Oxford-AstraZeneca ChAdOx1 2 3 Approved in Brazil.
Emergency use in U.K., E.U., other countries.
CanSino Ad5 3 Approved in China.
Johnson & Johnson Ad26 3 Emergency use in U.S., E.U., other countries.
Vector Institute Protein 3 Early use in Russia. Approved in Turkmenistan.
Novavax Protein 3
Sinopharm Inactivated 3 Approved in China, U.A.E., Bahrain.
Sinovac Inactivated 3 Approved in China.
Sinopharm-Wuhan Inactivated 3 Approved in China.
Limited use in U.A.E.
Bharat Biotech Inactivated 3 Emergency use in India, other countries.
Below is a list of all vaccines that have reached trials in humans,

along with a selection of promising vaccines being tested in
animals. For an explanation of virus variants and mutations, see
our Coronavirus Variant Tracker. For treatments for Covid-19, see
our Coronavirus Drug and Treatment Tracker. For an explanation
of leading vaccines, see How Nine Covid-19 Vaccines Work.
The Vaccine Testing Process
The development cycle of a vaccine, from lab to clinic.
PRECLINICAL TESTING : Scientists test a new vaccine on cells and then give it
to animals such as mice or monkeys to see if it produces an immune response.
PHASE 1 SAFETY TRIALS : Scientists give the vaccine to a small number of

people to test safety and dosage, as well as to confirm that it stimulates the
immune system.
PHASE 2 EXPANDED TRIALS : Scientists give the vaccine to hundreds of

people split into groups, such as children and the elderly, to see if the vaccine
acts differently in them. These trials further test the vaccineʼs safety.
PHASE 3 EFFICACY TRIALS : Scientists give the vaccine to thousands of

people and wait to see how many become infected, compared with volunteers
who received a placebo. These trials can determine if the vaccine protects
against the coronavirus, measuring whatʼs known as the efficacy rate. Phase 3
trials are also large enough to reveal evidence of relatively rare side effects.
EARLY OR LIMITED APPROVAL : Many countries have procedures for providing
emergency authorizations for vaccines, based on preliminary evidence that
they are safe and effective. In addition, some countries such as China and
Russia began administering vaccines before detailed Phase 3 trial data was
made public. Experts have warned of serious risks from jumping ahead of these
results.
APPROVAL : Regulators review the complete trial results and plans for a
vaccineʼs manufacturing, and decide whether to give it full approval.
COMBINED PHASES : One way to accelerate vaccine development is to

combine phases. Some vaccines are now in Phase 1/2 trials, for example,
which this tracker would count as both Phase 1 and Phase 2.
PAUSED or ABANDONED : If investigators observe worrying symptoms in

volunteers, they can pause the trial. After an investigation, the trial may resume
or be abandoned.
Filter the list of vaccines:
All vaccines Preclinical Phase 1 2 3 Approved Abandoned
Genetic Vaccines
Vaccines that deliver one or more of the coronavirus’s own

genes into our cells to provoke an immune response.
RNA vaccine DNA vaccine
PHASE 2 PHASE 3 COMBINED PHASES

APPROVED IN SEVERAL COUNTRIES EMERGENCY USE IN U.S., ELSEWHERE
VACCINE NAME: Comirnaty (also known as tozinameran or BNT162b2)

EFFICACY: 91.3%
DOSE: 2 doses, 3 weeks apart
TYPE: Muscle injection
STORAGE: Freezer storage only at –13°F to 5°F (–25°C to –15°C)
On Nov. 9, New York-based Pfizer and the German company BioNTech

made history by announcing that their coronavirus vaccine had an
efficacy rate of over 90 percent, far surpassing expectations. It was the
first time anyone had found such evidence. Just over a month later, on
Dec. 11, the Food and Drug Administration granted it the first
emergency use authorization ever given by the United States to a
coronavirus vaccine.
The work on the vaccine began in January 2020, when BioNTech

researchers started fashioning a genetic molecule called messenger
RNA (mRNA). They created the genetic instructions for building a
coronavirus protein, known as spike. When injected into cells, the
vaccine causes them to make spike proteins, which then get released
into the body and provoke a response from the immune system. In
March, BioNTech partnered with Pfizer to scale up the research,
launching a clinical trial in May. They gave the vaccine the generic
name tozinameran and the brand name Comirnaty
In Phase 1 trials, the researchers found that Comirnaty caused

volunteers to produce antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, as well as
immune cells called T cells that respond to the virus. On July 27, the
companies announced the launch of a Phase 2/3 trial with 30,000
volunteers. On Sept. 12, Pfizer and BioNTech announced that they
would seek to expand the trial to 44,000 participants.
Through the summer and into the fall, the world focused more and
more of its attention on the Pfizer-BioNTech trial. In September, Dr.
Albert Bourla, the chief executive of Pfizer, said that as soon as
October the Phase 3 trial would deliver enough results to show if the
vaccine worked or not. President Trump touted their progress, hinting
that a vaccine would be available before the election. But on Oct. 27, Dr.
Bourla announced that the volunteers in the trial had yet to experience
enough cases of Covid-19 to determine if the vaccines work. Finally, on
Nov. 9, Pfizer and BioNTech released their preliminary analysis of the
first 94 cases.
Over the next month, Pfizer and BioNTech released more data on
more cases. On Dec. 8 the FDA released their independent analysis of
the clinical trials. They determined that Comirnaty has an efficacy rate
of 95 percent. While Comirnaty caused no serious side effects, it
frequently caused short-lived fatigue, fever, and muscle aches.
These impressive results led rapidly to authorizations across the

world. On Dec. 2, the United Kingdom gave emergency authorization
to Pfizer and BioNTech’s vaccine, followed by many more countries.
On Dec. 31, the World Health Organization gave the vaccine an
Emergency Use Listing, which will speed up its authorization across
the world. In Israel, which took the lead in mass vaccination,
researchers found that the vaccine was as effective in the real world as
the trials had indicated. A study published by the Centers for Disease
Control in March found that the vaccine is 91.3% effective after the
second dose.
As the trials progressed, Pfizer and BioNTech also scaled up factories

to produce Comirnaty in huge amounts. They currently expect to
manufacture 2 billion doses worldwide by the end of 2021. The Trump
administration awarded a $1.9 billion contract in July for 100 million
doses, but The New York Times reported in December that the
administration passed up the chance over the summer to secure
another 100 million doses. Since then, the Trump and Biden
administrations reached agreements for a total of 300 million doses by
the summer.
While Comirnaty has proven highly effective, it was initially a

challenging vaccine to distribute because it had to be kept frozen at –
94°F (–70°C). On Feb. 19, Pfizer and BioNTech announced that they
could keep the vaccine stable at -25°C to -15°C (-13°F to 5°F).
In January, scientists grew concerned about the emergence of fast-

spreading variants that might be able to evade antibodies. Tests on a
variant called P.1, first identified in Brazil, showed that Comirnaty
would likely work against it as well. However, researchers found that
antibodies produced by Comirnaty are somewhat less effective against
another variant called B.1.351, first identified in South Africa. On Feb.
26, the companies announced a study to develop a B.1.351-specific
booster.
In their initial trial, Pfizer and BioNTech did not include pregnant
women among their participants. On Feb. 15 they registered a trial
specifically for pregnant women. The trial will determine whether the
vaccine provides as much protection for them as for women who aren’t
pregnant, and also gather information on its safety. Currently, the
Centers for Disease Control says pregnant women who become
eligible may choose to get vaccinated, while pointing out the lack of
data from trials.
On March 31, Pfizer and BioNTech announced that their vaccine is

highly effective in adolescents 12 to 15 years old.
For more details, see How the Pfizer-BioNTech Vaccine Works and
Inside the B.1.1.7 Coronavirus Variant.
APPROVED FOR USE IN: Bahrain, Brazil, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia,
Switzerland.
EMERGENCY USE IN: Argentina, Australia, Botswana, Brunei NEW, Canada,
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, European Union, Greenland,
Guatemala NEW, Hong Kong, Iceland, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Malaysia, Maldives, Mexico, Moldova, Monaco,
Mongolia, Norway, Oman, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Serbia,
Singapore, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey NEW,
United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Uruguay NEW.
Emergency use validation from the World Health Organization.
Updated April 13
Pfizer-BioNTech
vaccine
B R I TAIN AND
TH E E.U.
SW I TZERLAND
CA NA DA JA PA N
TU N I SIA
M O N G OLIA
U. S . PH I L IPPINES
IR AQ
SAU D I B A H R AIN
A R A B IA U. A . E.
M E X I CO M A L AYSIA
OMAN
B R A Z IL
EC UA DOR SING A PORE AU ST RALIA
B OT S WANA
PERU
NEW
ZEAL A ND A R G E NTINA SO U T H
A F R I CA
CHILE
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
APPROVED IN SWITZERLAND EMERGENCY USE IN U.S., ELSEWHERE
VACCINE NAME: mRNA-1273

EFFICACY: 94.5%
STORAGE: 30 days with refrigeration, 6 months at –4°F (–20°C)
On Dec. 18., the F.D.A. gave emergency use authorization for a vaccine
made by the Boston-based company Moderna. The Moderna vaccine is
the second one authorized by the F.D.A., coming a week after the
vaccine made by Pfizer and BioNTech.
Like Pfizer and BioNTech, Moderna makes its vaccine from mRNA. In
recent years, the company has tested mRNA vaccines for a number of
diseases, but they have yet to bring one to market. Last January, they
began developing a vaccine for the coronavirus.
The United States government bankrolled Moderna’s efforts,

providing nearly $1 billion in support. In partnership with National
Institutes of Health, they found that the vaccine protects monkeys
from the coronavirus. Last March, the scientists were the first to put a
Covid-19 vaccine into human trials. After those studies yielded
promising results, Phase 3 testing on 30,000 volunteers began on July
27.
On Nov. 16, Moderna announced the first preliminary data from the
trial, followed by the complete data on Nov. 30. The researchers
estimated that the vaccine had an efficacy rate of 94.1 percent. While
it’s not clear how long this efficacy will last, Moderna has found that
after three months the trial participants still have a strong immune
defense against the coronavirus. On Dec. 2, Moderna registered a trial
to test the vaccine on adolescents between 12 and 18 years of age. In
March, the company began testing the vaccine in babies and young
children.
Meanwhile, the company entered deals with several countries to

supply the vaccine pending its approval. On Aug. 11 last year, the
United States government awarded the company an additional $1.5
billion in exchange for 100 million doses if the vaccine proves safe and
effective. Additional negotiations have increased the agreement to 300
million doses by July 2021. On Nov. 25, the company reached an
agreement with the European Commission to supply up to 160 million
doses. Moderna has made similar deals with other countries including
Canada, Japan, Qatar and South Korea.
On Feb. 25, Moderna announced they were working to produce

between 600 million and a billion doses for 2021. They are making
investments to expand capacity up to 1.4 billion doses in 2022.
In March, Moderna began a Phase 1 trial of a vaccine made specifically
for the B.1.351 variant and a Phase 1 trial of a new, refrigerator-stable
vaccine.
On April 1, Moderna announced that it had received FDA authorization

to keep its vaccine at room temperature for as long as 24 hours —
twice as long as before. The company was also granted approval to
ship the vaccine in larger vials that can hold 15 doses.
For more details, see How Moderna’s Vaccine Works.
APPROVED FOR USE IN: Switzerland.

EMERGENCY USE IN: Canada, European Union, Greenland, Guatemala NEW,
Iceland, Israel, Mongolia, Norway, Qatar, Singapore, Thailand, United
Kingdom, United States, Vietnam.
Updated April 13
Moderna vaccine
U. K . A N D
E.U.
CA NA DA SW I TZERLAND
M O N G OLIA
U. S .
ISRA E L
V I E T NAM
Q ATA R
TH A I LAND
G UAT EMALA
SING A PORE
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
VACCINE NAME: CVnCoV

EFFICACY: Unknown
STORAGE: Stable at least 3 months at 36–46°F (2–8°C)
Last March, the Trump administration unsuccessfully tried to entice

CureVac to move its research on their mRNA vaccine from Germany
to the United States. The company plowed ahead with its work in
Germany, seeing responses to the vaccine in mice and monkeys before
launching clinical trials in July. In December, CureVac launched a
Phase 3 trial, recruiting up to 36,500 volunteers in Germany. The
European Union began a rolling review in February, intended to speed
up approval if the Phase 3 trial delivers positive results. CureVac
expects the trial to show if the vaccine is safe and effective in April or
early May.
In November, CureVac negotiated a deal to provide the European

Union with up to 225 million doses of their vaccine. They project
manufacturing up to 300 million doses in 2021 and up to a billion doses
the following year. CureVac has collaborated with Elon Musk’s
company Tesla on creating mRNA “micro-factories,” which could
potentially be deployed around the world to make billions of doses of
the vaccine. On Nov. 12, the company announced that its vaccine could
be kept in a refrigerator at 41 degrees. Other RNA vaccines made by
Pfizer and Moderna have to be kept frozen at chillier temperatures.
Starting in January 2021, CureVac forged a series of partnerships with

pharmaceutical giants Bayer, Celonic, GSK, and Novartis, to support
the production of their vaccine and develop new ones against
coronavirus variants.
Updated March 5
PHASE 3
VACCINE NAME: ZyCoV-D

EFFICACY: Unknown
TYPE: Skin injection
STORAGE: Stable at room temperature for three months
In July, the Indian vaccine-maker Zydus Cadila began testing a DNA-

based vaccine delivered by a skin patch. They launched a Phase 2 trial
on ZyCoV-D on Aug. 6 and announced at the end of December that it
was complete. On Jan. 3 the Indian government gave Zydus Cadila
permission to advance to a Phase 3 trial with 30,000 volunteers. In a
March 28 interview, Pankaj Patel, the company’s chairman, said the
company expects to have their vaccine ready for distribution by June
2021. Patel also said that the company will initially produce 100 million
doses.
Updated March 30
VACCINE NAME: AG0302-COVID19

EFFICACY: Unknown
STORAGE: Over a year at room temperature
On June 30, the Japanese biotechnology company AnGes launched a

Phase 1 trial to test a DNA-based vaccine, developed in partnership
with Osaka University and Takara Bio. The company moved on to a
Phase 2/3 trial in December.
Updated Dec. 8
PHASE 2
VACCINE NAME: INO-4800

EFFICACY: Unknown
DOSE: To be determined
STORAGE: Over a year at room temperature
Before the pandemic, the Pennsylvania-based company Inovio

developed DNA-based vaccines that are delivered into the skin with
electric pulses from a hand-held device. They are running clinical
trials for vaccines against a number of diseases, including HIV, Zika,
and several forms of cancer. At the start of the pandemic, Inovio
developed a DNA vaccine against the spike protein on the coronavirus.
A Phase 1 trial, published in December, did not uncover any serious
adverse effects, and measured an immune response in all 38
volunteers.
Inovio became embroiled in several lawsuits with stockholders and a

company partner. On Sept. 28, the F.D.A. put the vaccine on a partial
hold due to questions about the delivery device. On Nov. 16, Inovio said
that the F.D.A. had given them permission to move forward.
They are now running Phase 2 trials in the United States as well as in
China and South Korea. In March, the company said results could
come as early as the second quarter of 2021. They also began testing
versions of their vaccine tailored against new variants.
Updated March. 2
PHASE 2
The California-based company Arcturus Therapeutics and Duke-NUS

Medical School in Singapore have developed an mRNA vaccine. It has
a “self-replicating” design that leads to a greater production of viral
proteins. Tests on animals showed that it protected them against
infection. In August, Arcturus launched a Phase 1/2 trial at Singapore
General Hospital. On Nov. 9, the company announced that an interim
analysis of the trial showed that the vaccine produced an immune
response that’s in the range of responses seen in people who recovered
from Covid-19. On Jan. 6 Arcturus announced that they had permission
to start the Phase 2 portion of the trial in both Singapore and the
United States. Singapore reached an agreement with Arcturus to
spend up to $175 million to acquire vaccines when they’re ready.
Updated Jan. 12
PHASE 2
In June, Chinese researchers at the Academy of Military Medical

Sciences, Suzhou Abogen Biosciences and Walvax Biotechnology
announced they would start their country’s first safety trials on an
mRNA-based vaccine, called ARCoV. Earlier studies on monkeys
reportedly showed protective effects, and in the Phase 1 trial indicated
it was safe in people. On Dec. 21, Xinhua reported that China was
building a factory to produce 120 million doses per year. Researchers
registered a Phase 2 trial for the vaccine on Jan. 8.
Updated March 9
Gennova Biopharmaceuticals in India and Seattle-based HDT Bio

partnered to develop a vaccine based on self-amplifying RNA. The
vaccine, known as HGC019, was able to safely provoke animals to
make antibodies to the coronavirus, leading India to grant the
companies approval in December to start Phase 1/2 trials.
Updated Dec. 12
GeneOne Life Science, a South Korean biotech company, developed a

DNA-based vaccine that encodes two proteins from the coronavirus.
In December they launched a Phase 1/2 trial with 345 participants.
Updated Dec. 17
The South Korean company Genexine started testing the safety of a

DNA-based vaccine in June 2020. In December, the Korea Biomedical
Review reported that Genexine got disappointing results from their
initial formulation and decided to restart their trials with a modified
vaccine. On Jan. 20, the company registered a Phase 1/2 trial.
Updated Jan. 20
Takis Biotech and Rottapharm Biotech, two vaccine companies in Italy,

developed a vaccine called COVID-eVax. A special device uses a tiny
electric pulse to deliver DNA through the skin. The DNA enters cells,
which use the genetic instructions to make spike proteins. In February,
Takis and Rottapharm launched a Phase 1/2 trial. COVID-eVax can
remain stable at room temperature.
Updated March 15
The French pharmaceutical company Sanofi is developing an mRNA

vaccine in partnership with Translate Bio. They have found that it
produces a strong antibody response in mice and monkeys. On March
12, they announced the start of a Phase 1/2 trial. It is Sanofi’s second
Covid-19 vaccine candidate in clinical trials, along with their protein-
based vaccine.
Updated March 12
Japan-based researchers at Daiichi Sankyo have developed an mRNA

vaccine against the coronavirus in collaboration with the University of
Tokyo. They launched a Phase 1/2 trial of the vaccine, named DS-5670,
on March 22.
Updated March 23
PHASE 1
Researchers at Thailand’s Chulalongkorn University have been

developing several potential vaccines for the coronavirus. The furthest
along is an mRNA-based vaccine known as ChulaCov19. In September
2020, the Chula Vaccine Research Center registered a Phase 1 trial to
test it in humans. Due to delays in funding and manufacturing, the trial
is expected to begin in April or May 2021. In an interview with the
Bangkok Post, the leader of the project said that up to 30 million doses
might be produced for Thailand and six other Asian countries if the
vaccine proved to be safe and effective.
Updated Feb. 23
PHASE 1
The Canadian company Entos Pharmaceuticals has created a DNA

vaccine for the coronavirus. Most other genetic vaccines carry the
gene for the spike protein on the surface of the virus. Entos instead
chose the gene for nucleocapsid, a protein that sits inside the virus’s
membrane. They are betting it can offer long-lasting immunity. In
October, Entos launched a Phase 1 trial in Canada for their vaccine,
called Covigenix VAX-001.
Updated Oct. 20
PHASE 1
On Nov. 2, the Canadian company Symvivo announced they had

administered a DNA vaccine to their first volunteer in a Phase 1 trial.
The DNA is inserted into harmless bacteria, which volunteers swallow
in a frozen liquid (the company is working on putting the bacteria into
a pill). When the bacteria reach the intestines, the DNA slips into cells
in the gut lining, which then make viral proteins.
Updated Nov. 3
PHASE 1
New Jersey-based OncoSec Immunotherapies has developed

experimental cancer treatments that deliver genes into tumors. There,
the injected genes produce a natural signalling molecule called IL-12,
which attracts the attention of immune cells that attack the cancer. In
the spring, OncoSec began adapting their technology to make a
vaccine for the coronavirus. The vaccine, called CORVax12, consists of
a loop of DNA that encodes both the spike protein and IL-12. Causing
the body to make extra IL-12 could potentially enhance the immune
system’s ability to make antibodies to the spike protein. On Nov. 13, the
company registered a Phase 1 trial to test the safety of the CORVax12.
Updated Nov. 13
PHASE 1
Canada’s Providence Therapeutics specializes in messenger RNA

vaccines to treat cancer. In response to the pandemic, they developed
an mRNA vaccine against the coronavirus. They launched a Phase 1
study of an RNA vaccine in late January. The company expects to
move into Phase 2 trials by May.
Updated Jan. 28
PHASE 1
Using a delivery system from PharmaJet, researchers at BioNet-Asia

and Australia-based Technovalia have developed a DNA vaccine called
COVIGEN that can be pushed through the skin without a needle.
Instead, the dose is loaded into a handheld device and shot directly
into cell tissue through a jet spray of fluid. Vaccines for the flu already
use the device, which PharmaJet says is a safer alternative to needle
injections. The researchers registered a Phase 1 trial in Australia on
Feb. 8.
Updated March 4
ABANDONED
In early 2020, Imperial College London researchers developed a “self-

amplifying” RNA vaccine for Covid-19, which boosted production of a
viral protein to stimulate the immune system. They began Phase 1/2
trials on June 15, partnering with Morningside Ventures to
manufacture and distribute the vaccine through a new company called
VacEquity Global Health. On Dec. 18, the researchers announced a
collaboration with Enesi Pharma to formulate a solid version of the
vaccine that can be implanted in the skin without a needle.
On Jan. 27, 2021, Robin Shattuck, the leader of the project, announced
that “it is not the right time to start a new efficacy trial for a further
vaccine in the U.K.” Instead of competing with authorized vaccines,
they are turning their efforts to making candidates that will work well
emerging variants of the coronavirus.
Updated March 20
PRECLINICAL
Other genetic vaccines in active preclinical development include vaccines from:

Applied DNA Sciences, EvviVax and Takis Biotech; DIOSynVax; Elixirgen
Therapeutics; ETheRNA; EyeGene; Globe Biotech; Greenlight Biosciences;
Infectious Disease Research Institute and Amyris; Mediphage Bioceuticals;
National institute of Chemistry of Slovenia and Kemijski Inštitut; National Research
Centre, Egypt; the OPENCORONA Consortia; Providence Therapeutics; Scancell;
the Spanish National Center for Biotechnology and the Spanish National Research
Council; Vaccibody.
Updated March 25
Viral Vector Vaccines
Vaccines that contain viruses engineered to carry

coronavirus genes. Some viral vector vaccines enter cells
and cause them to make viral proteins. Other viral vectors
slowly replicate, carrying coronavirus proteins on their
surface.
PHASE 3 EARLY USE IN RUSSIA EMERGENCY USE IN OTHER COUNTRIES
VACCINE NAME: Sputnik V (also known as Gam-Covid-Vac)

EFFICACY: 91.6%
STORAGE: Freezer storage. Developing an alternative formulation that can
be refrigerated.
The Gamaleya Research Institute, part of Russia’s Ministry of Health,

has created a vaccine with an efficacy rate of 91.6 percent. The
creators of the vaccine published the results of their Phase 3 trial on
Feb. 2 in the Lancet.
Gamaleya produced the vaccine, initially called Gam-Covid-Vac, from

a combination of two adenoviruses called Ad5 and Ad26. Both kinds
have been tested as vaccines over a number of years. By combining
them, the Russian researchers hoped to avoid a situation in which the
immune system could learn to recognize the vaccine as a foreign
object that needed to be destroyed. The researchers launched clinical
trials in June.
By the end of the summer, the trial became bogged down in

controversy. On Aug. 11, President Vladimir V. Putin announced that a
Russian health care regulator had approved the vaccine, renamed
Sputnik V. Yet the Phase 3 trials had not even begun. Vaccine experts
decried the move as risky, and Russia later walked back the
announcement, saying that the approval was a “conditional
registration certificate,” which would depend on positive results from
Phase 3 trials. In addition to Russia, volunteers for the trial were
recruited in Belarus, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. On
Oct. 17, a Phase 2/3 trial was launched in India.
On Sept. 4, three weeks after Putin’s announcement, Gamaleya

researchers published the results of their Phase 1/2 trial. They found
that Sputnik V yielded antibodies to the coronavirus and mild side
effects. On Nov. 11, the Russian Direct Investment Fund announced the
first preliminary evidence from their Phase 3 trial indicating that the
vaccine is effective. Based on 20 cases of Covid-19 among the trial
participants, Russian scientists estimated that the vaccine
demonstrated 92 percent efficacy.
By December, the trial had reached its final total of 78 cases. The full
details of the trial came out in February, demonstrating a high efficacy
after two doses. The trial did not uncover serious side effects. No one
who got the vaccine experienced a serious case of Covid-19.
The trial did not demonstrate how well Sputnik V can block new
variants of the coronavirus. In a study posted online in April,
researchers studied antibodies from people who had received the
vaccine. They found that the Sputnik V antibodies often failed to
neutralize the coronavirus, allowing it to infect cells.
In an unprecedented move in the coronavirus vaccine field, the

Gamaleya Institute joined forces in December 2020 with the
drugmaker AstraZeneca, which makes a vaccine based on a
chimpanzee adenovirus. The two teams combined their vaccines to see
if the mixture can increase the efficacy of the AstraZeneca vaccine.
The trial began in February.In January, Gamaleya researchers also
started a trial on a single-dose version of the vaccine, which they
dubbed “Sputnik Light.” On Feb. 12, the director of the Gameleya
center said in a television interview that it would likely provide only
four to five months of protection. Russian officials reported on March
29 that Sputnik Light could soon be registered for use after clearing
clinical trials.
In November 2020, the Russian government began offering Sputnik V

within Russia in a mass vaccination campaign. But worry that the
vaccine was rushed to approval led to widespread hesitancy. On Dec.
22, Belarus became the first country outside of Russia to register
Sputnik V, and since then a number of other countries have followed
suit. In Europe, where the vaccine rollout faltered badly, regulators
began a rolling review of Sputnik V on March 4. If the European
Medicines Agency approved it, many European countries might take
up the vaccine.
For more details, see How Gamaleya’s Vaccine Works.
EARLY USE IN: Russia.

EMERGENCY USE IN: Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina,
Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Belarus, Bolivia, Bosnian Serb Republic,
Cameroon, Congo Republic, Djibouti, Egypt, Honduras, Gabon, Ghana,
Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Hungary, India NEW, Iran, Iraq, Jordan,
Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Lebanon, Mali, Mauritius, Mexico,
Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Myanmar, Namibia,
Nicaragua, North Macedonia, Pakistan, Palestinian Authority, Panama,
Paraguay, Philippines, San Marino, Slovakia, Sri Lanka, St. Vincent and the
Grenadines, Serbia, Seychelles, Syria, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, United Arab
Emirates, Uzbekistan, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zimbabwe.
Updated March 30
Gamaleyaʼs
Sputnik V
vaccine
R U S S IA
H U N G ARY
A LG E RIA M O N G OLIA
G U I N EA
MALI
IR A N
B A H R AIN PA K I STAN
V I E T NAM
GABON U. A . E.
M E X I CO V E N E ZUELA IN D I A
A N G O LA M YA N MAR
B O L I VIA
K E N YA
PA R AGUAY
A R G E NTINA
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use

APPROVED IN BRAZIL EMERGENCY USE IN E.U., ELSEWHERE
VACCINE NAME: Vaxzevria (also known as AZD1222, or Covishield in India)

EFFICACY: 79% in a U.S. study.
DOSE: 2 doses
STORAGE: Stable in refrigerator for at least 6 months
On March 22, the University of Oxford and the British-Swedish

company AstraZeneca became the fourth team to deliver results from
a large-scale Phase 3 trial that could lead the F.D.A. to issue
emergency use authorization for a coronavirus vaccine. In the 32,000-
person trial — which included volunteers in the United States, Chile,
and Peru — the vaccine showed a 79 percent efficacy against Covid-19
with any symptoms. The researchers also announced that it had a 100
percent efficacy against severe Covid-19. But that night, the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases said that experts
overseeing the trial had “expressed concern that AstraZeneca may
have included outdated information from that trial, which may have
provided an incomplete view of the efficacy data.”
The full results of the trial are expected to come in the next few weeks
in advance of the F.D.A.’s decision on the vaccine.
This confusing turn of events came after a turbulent year in which the
vaccine was dogged by murky data, supply shortfalls, and temporary
halts to investigate safety concerns.
Researchers at the University of Oxford developed the vaccine in early

2020 by genetically engineering an adenovirus that normally infects
chimpanzees. When they gave the vaccine to monkeys, they found that
it protected the animals from the disease.
Teaming up with AstraZeneca, they followed up with a Phase 1/2 trial.

The vaccine developers did not detect any severe side effects in the
trial, while observing that the vaccine raised antibodies against the
coronavirus as well as other immune defenses. AstraZeneca and
Oxford then embarked on late-stage trials in the United Kingdom,
South Africa, and elsewhere. But the researchers ran the trials
independently, making it difficult to combine their results into a single
clear picture of how well the vaccine worked. Making matters murkier,
they gave different amounts of the vaccine to different people and also
waited anywhere from four to twelve weeks to deliver the second dose.
On Dec. 8, AstraZeneca and Oxford published the first scientific paper

on a Phase 3 clinical trial of a coronavirus vaccine. The trial
demonstrated that the vaccine can protect people from Covid-19, but it
left many questions unresolved about the results. Nevertheless, the
vaccine’s low cost and ease of storage made it an attractive solution to
the pandemic. The United Kingdom and Argentina were the first
countries to give the vaccine emergency authorization, on Dec. 30, and
since then a number of other countries have also done the same. On
Jan. 3, India, approved a version called Covishield, made by the Serum
Institute of India. On Feb. 16 the World Health Organization
recommended the vaccine for emergency use in adults 18 or older.
Brazil gave full approval to the vaccine on March 13. In the same
month, Covax began delivering millions of doses of the vaccine to low-
and middle-income countries. The company expects a total annual
manufacturing capacity of two billion doses.
Yet even after millions of people began receiving the vaccine, new
concerns arose. In South Africa, a small trial failed to demonstrate that
it protected people against the variant B.1.351, which has become
predominant in the country. On Feb. 7, South Africa halted plans for a
rollout of 1 million doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine. The following
month, a number of countries in Europe and elsewhere halted their
use of the vaccine after a small number of people who received it
developed blood clots. The European Medicines Agency reviewed the
cases and determined the vaccine was safe. Nevertheless, some
countries restricted the vaccine to older people, because the benefits
did not outweigh the risk for younger people.
In the United States, AstraZeneca produced millions of doses before its

Phase 3 trial on U.S. volunteers demonstrated that it protects against
Covid-19. In the meantime, the Biden administration secured enough
vaccines for every adult who wants them by May 2021. On March 18,
the United States announced it would send millions of doses from its
stockpile to Mexico and Canada. And on April 1, Dr. Anthony S. Fauci,
the nation’s top infectious disease expert, said that the United States
may not need the AstraZeneca vaccine at all.
Meanwhile, AstraZeneca and Oxford are continuing research on the

vaccine. On Feb. 14, they announced they would start trials on children
as young as six. In an unprecedented move in the coronavirus vaccine
field, they announced on Dec. 11 that they would collaborate with the
Russian creators of the Sputnik V vaccine, which is also made from
adenoviruses, to see if a combination with Sputnik V might increase
the efficacy of the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine. The trial started in
February 2021. AstraZeneca and Oxford are also working on a new
version of the vaccine tailored to the B.1.351 variant and are testing a
version that can be delivered as a nasal spray.
AstraZeneca changed the name of its vaccine to Vaxzevria in March.
For more details, see How the Oxford-AstraZeneca Vaccine Works.
APPROVED FOR USE IN: Brazil.

EMERGENCY USE IN: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Bahrain,
Bangladesh, Barbados, Bhutan, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei NEW, Canada,
Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica NEW, Dominican Republic, Egypt, El Salvador,
European Union, Ghana, Greenland, Guatemala NEW, Hungary, Iceland,
India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kenya, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Malaysia,
Maldives, Mexico, Moldova, Mongolia, Morocco, Namibia NEW, Nepal,
Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Saudi Arabia,
Seychelles, Sri Lanka, South Africa, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand,
Ukraine, United Kingdom, Vietnam. Emergency use validation from the
World Health Organization. Endorsed by the Africa Regulatory Taskforce.
Recommended for emergency use by the Caribbean Regulatory System.
Updated April 13
Oxford-AstraZeneca
vaccine
B R I TAIN AND
TH E E.U.
CA NA DA M O N G OLIA
M O R O CCO
A LG E RIA SO U T H KOREA
B A H A MAS EG Y P T IR A N
PH I L IPPINES
N I G E RIA PA K I STAN
M E X I CO IN D I A
B R A Z IL M A L AYSIA
C O STA RICA K E N YA
NA M I BIA M A L D IVES AU ST RALIA
SEYC H ELLES
CHILE
A R G E NTINA SO U T H
A F R I CA
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
APPROVED IN CHINA EMERGENCY USE IN OTHER COUNTRIES
VACCINE NAME: Convidecia (also known as Ad5-nCoV)

EFFICACY: 65.28%
DOSE: Single dose
STORAGE: Refrigerated
The Chinese company CanSino Biologics developed Convidecia in

partnership with the Institute of Biology at the country’s Academy of
Military Medical Sciences. The one-shot vaccine is based on an
adenovirus called Ad5. Last May, researchers published promising
results from a Phase 1 safety trial on Convidecia, and in July they
reported that their Phase 2 trials demonstrated the vaccine produced a
strong immune response. In an unprecedented move, the Chinese
military approved the vaccine on June 25 for a year as a “specially
needed drug.” On Nov. 28, the Chief Executive of CanSino Biologics
said in an interview that about 40,000 to 50,000 people had received
Convidecia.
Starting in August 2020, CanSino began running Phase 3 trials in a

number of countries, including Pakistan, Russia, Mexico and Chile. On
Feb. 25, China announced the approval of the CanSino vaccine for
general use. The company announced that its one-shot vaccine had an
efficacy rate of 65.28 percent at preventing all symptomatic Covid-19
cases. The details of the trial have yet to be published. But on April 1,
CanSino’s chief scientific officer said that the efficacy of its vaccine
could drop over time. He also floated the idea of using a booster shot
six months after the first dose, though more clinical trial data is
needed.
On March 23, CanSino announced that it had won approval for a

clinical trial of an inhaled version of the vaccine.
APPROVED FOR USE IN: China.

EMERGENCY USE IN: Chile NEW, Hungary, Mexico, Pakistan.
Updated April 11
CanSino vaccine
H U N G ARY
C H I NA
PA K I STAN
M E X I CO
CHILE
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3 EMERGENCY USE IN U.S., ELSEWHERE
VACCINE NAME: Ad26.COV2.S

EFFICACY: 72% in United States, 64% in South Africa, 61% in Latin
America
DOSE: 1 dose
STORAGE: Up to two years frozen at –4° F (–20° C), and up to three months
refrigerated at 36–46° F (2–8° C).
On Feb. 27, the F.D.A. issued an emergency use authorization for

Johnson & Johnson’s vaccine, making it the third coronavirus vaccine
available in the United States. It was also the first to be shown to be
safe and effective with just one dose rather than two.
The work that led to the vaccine started a decade ago at Beth Israel
Deaconess Medical Center in Boston, where researchers developed a
method for making vaccines out of a virus called Adenovirus 26, or
Ad26 for short. Johnson & Johnson used Ad26 to develop vaccines for
Ebola and other diseases with Ad26. Last January, the company and
Beth Israel researchers collaborated on creating a coronavirus
vaccine. In March they received $456 million from the United States
government to support their move towards production. After the
vaccine provided protection in experiments on monkeys, Johnson &
Johnson began Phase 1/2 trials in July.
Based on promising results in these studies, Johnson & Johnson

launched a Phase 3 trial in September using just one dose rather than
two. Although Johnson & Johnson initially set out to recruit 60,000
volunteers, it capped the trial at 45,000 in December as cases rose.
On Jan. 29, Johnson & Johnson announced that the trial had proven
that the vaccine was safe and effective. On Feb. 24, the F.D.A. released
their own analysis of the trial, concluding that the vaccine had an
efficacy of 72 percent in the United States, 64 percent in South Africa,
and 61 percent in Latin America. The next day, Bahrain became the
first country to authorize the vaccine for emergency use. Two days
later, the United States followed suit.
South Africa dropped plans to use AstraZeneca’s vaccine for their

health care workers after a small trial failed to show it was effective
against the B.1.351 variant that had grown dominant across the
country. They began using Johnson & Johnson’s instead.
In August, the federal government agreed to pay Johnson & Johnson

$1 billion for 100 million doses if the vaccine was authorized. In their
initial rollout, the company only provided 4 million doses, and another
16 million or so doses by the end of March — far fewer than the 37
million doses called for in its contract. The company said it would meet
its requirement of delivering 100 million doses by June. On March 2,
Merck announced it would assist Johnson & Johnson with
manufacturing the vaccine.
The European Union reached a similar deal on Oct. 8 for 200 million
doses. Johnson & Johnson said it would start shipping its vaccine to
Europe on April 19. COVAX, an international collaboration to deliver
the vaccine equitably across the world, secured 500 million doses. On
March 12, the World Health Organization issued an Emergency Use
Listing to Johnson & Johnson, accelerating its adoption by more
countries. The company is aiming for production of a billion doses in
2021.
On March 29, a coalition of African countries announced that it has

secured up to 400 million doses of the Johnson & Johnson vaccine
through 2022. Shipments could begin as soon as the third quarter of
2021.
On Nov. 16, 2020, Johnson & Johnson announced that they were also
launching a second Phase 3 trial to observe the effects of two doses of
their vaccine, instead of just one. The results are expected in late 2021.
In February, the company also launched a trial for pregnant women
and in March it announced it would soon start trials on children. The
chief executive said in a March 4 interview that the vaccine could
become available for children by September.
In March, a mixup at a Baltimore factory ruined about 15 million doses

of the vaccine, halting future shipments in the United States while the
F.D.A. investigates.
On April 13, the F.D.A. and C.D.C. called for an immediate pause in the
use of the vaccine, after six women between the ages of 18 and 48
developed a rare disorder involving blood clots.
The vaccine is being developed by Janssen Pharmaceutica, a Belgium-

based division of Johnson & Johnson. For more details, see How the
Johnson & Johnson Vaccine Works.
EMERGENCY USE IN: Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, European Union,

Greenland, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, South Africa, South Korea NEW,
Switzerland, Thailand, United States. Emergency use validation from the
World Health Organization.
Updated March 31
Johnson & Johnson

vaccine
EU R O PEAN
UNION
CA NA DA
SO U T H
U. S . KO R E A
B A H R AIN
TH A I LAND
B R A Z IL
C O LO MBIA
SO U T H
A F R I CA
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
The Italian biotechnology company ReiThera has developed a Covid-19

vaccine, called GRAd-COV2, that is based on an adenovirus that
infects gorillas. Working in collaboration with the Lazzaro Spallanzani
National Institute for Infectious Diseases in Rome, they launched a
Phase 1 trial at the end of July. In November, they announced that the
vaccine was well tolerated and produced antibodies. They registered a
Phase 2/3 trial on March 10.
Updated March 11
PHASE 2
In the spring of 2020, the Israel Institute for Biological Research

started work on a coronavirus vaccine based on vesicular stomatitis
viruses. They engineered the viruses to carry the gene for the
coronavirus spike protein. On Oct. 25, the Israeli government
announced that the vaccine, called Brilife, would be going into a Phase
1 trial. The Phase 2 trial, which is recruiting up to 1,000 volunteers,
started on Jan. 5. It’s not clear how the trial will fare now that Israel is
aggressively vaccinating its citizens with authorized vaccines by
Pfizer. On March 15, the Jerusalem Post reported that Haddasah
University Medical Center had signed an agreement to extend the trial
to Brazil.
Updated April 11
PHASE 1
While many vaccines are given as injections, some vaccines can be

taken as a pill. Oral vaccines have been approved for diseases
including polio, cholera, and typhoid fever. The small San Francisco
company Vaxart specializes in developing oral vaccines. They have
created and tested pills for influenza and other diseases. Last spring
Vaxart began work on an oral vaccine for Covid-19. It contains an
adenovirus called Ad5 (the same viral vector in CanSinoBio’s vaccine
and in Russia’s Sputnik V).
When Vaxart gave the pill to mice, they produced antibodies against
the coronavirus. Mice don’t suffer symptoms of Covid-19, however, so
the researchers then switched to hamsters, which do. In an
unpublished study, they found that the vaccine pill not only
dramatically reduced the amount of coronavirus in sick hamsters, but
also protected them from two important symptoms of the disease:
weight loss and swollen lungs.
The company’s stock price increased 3,600 percent in the first half of
2020. In June, The New York Times reported, a hedge fund that partly
controlled the company sold off most of its shares, netting over $200
million in profits. In the wake of that reporting, the Department of
Justice began investigating the company, while a number of
shareholder lawsuits were brought against Vaxart, its executives and
its board.
In October, the company began giving the pill to volunteers in a Phase

1 clinical trial. On Feb. 3, Vaxart announced that the trial revealed no
serious safety concerns. While the pill produced a response from T
cells, it didn’t produce encouraging neutralizing antibodies. Its stock
price plunged 60 percent on the news. On Feb. 25, the company
announced it would advance to a Phase 2 trial in the second quarter of
2021.
Updated March 20
PHASE 1
In 2019, researchers at the University of Hong Kong and Xiamen

University created a nasal-spray vaccine for the flu based on a
genetically weakened form of the influenza virus. In early 2020, they
engineered the vaccine to produce part of the coronavirus spike
protein as well. On Sept. 9, they received approval to start clinical
trials in partnership with Beijing Wantai Biological Pharmacy. They
registered a Phase 1 trial on March 22, 2021. The researchers are
receiving $5.4 million in support from CEPI, the Coalition for Epidemic
Preparedness Innovations.
Updated March 22
PHASE 1
Three decades ago, the German Center for Infection Research

developed a smallpox vaccine from a harmless virus called Modified
Vaccinia Ankara, or MVA for short. In recent years, they adapted it to
create a vaccine for MERS, a disease caused by another coronavirus.
This spring, they made an MVA-based vaccine for SARS-CoV-2, the

coronavirus that is causing the Covid-19 pandemic. It carries the gene
for the spike protein, which is produced inside cells that it invades. On
Sept. 29, the center and a consortium of German universities
registered a Phase 1 trial. In January the center announced that their
initial formulation provided disappointing results and are postponing
the trial until they update it.
Updated Jan. 13
PHASE 1
The California-based company ImmunityBio created a vaccine using

the Ad5 adenovirus, the same one used by CanSinoBio and the
Gamaleya Institute in Russia. ImmunityBio engineered the Ad5 virus
to carry genes for two genes from the coronavirus. In addition to the
spike protein, it also carries the gene for a protein called nucleocapsid.
The company hopes that this combination will provoke a strong
immune response.
The company found that the vaccine protects monkeys from the
coronavirus. ImmunityBio launched a Phase 1 trial of a Covid-19
vaccine in October in the United States and another in South Africa in
January. In February the company registered a Phase 1 trial of an oral
version of the vaccine.
The chairman and C.E.O. of ImmunityBio is billionaire Patrick Soon-

Shiong, the owner of the Los Angeles Times.
Updated Feb. 18
PHASE 1
Researchers at City of Hope, a California biomedical research institute,

created a vaccine based on a weakened form of a virus called Modified
Vaccinia Ankara, or MVA for short. They added two coronavirus genes
to the virus — one for the spike protein, and one for another protein
called nucleocapsid. They hope the combination will enable the
vaccine to produce immunity that’s both fast and long-lasting. On Nov.
24 they announced the start of a Phase 1 trial, with hopes for a Phase 2
trial to start in the second quarter of 2021. But the researchers have
faced delays in recruiting enough participants for their Phase 1 study.
As of March 12, they had reached less than half of their goal of 129
participants.
Updated March 31
PHASE 1
In April, the South Korean biotech company Cellid began to develop a

vaccine for Covid-19. The vaccine is based on a combination of two
strains of adenoviruses, called Ad5 and Ad35. After testing the vaccine
on monkeys, Cellid entered into a partnership with the South Korean
chemical manufacturer LG Chem to manufacture the vaccine. In
December, they registered a Phase 1 trial.
Updated Dec. 14
PHASE 1
VACCINE NAME: AdCOVID

EFFICACY: Unknown
DOSE: 1 dose
TYPE: Nasal spray
Maryland-based Altimmune is a biopharmaceutical company that

focuses on developing vaccines delivered by nasal spray. Recently,
they’ve tackled influenza and anthrax using this technology. They
have now used it to make a nasal spray vaccine for Covid-19,
delivering the Ad5 adenovirus to the airway. The company says its
nasal spray may be more effective for blocking the transmission of the
virus than vaccines given by injection. On Dec. 22, the company
registered a Phase 1 clinical trial for adults and began recruiting
volunteers on Feb. 25.
Updated Feb. 25
PHASE 1
On Feb. 11, Indian regulators gave Bharat Biotech approval to launch a

Phase 1 trial of a vaccine delivered as a nasal spray. The spray, called
BBV154, contains a chimpanzee adenovirus developed by researchers
at Washington University. They found that it could produce
coronavirus antibodies in mice with just a single dose. BBV154 is
Bharat Biotech’s second foray into coronavirus vaccine clinical trials.
Their vaccine Covaxin, made of inactivated coronaviruses, is already
in emergency use in India.
Updated Feb. 16
PHASE 1
In 2020, researchers at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in

New York developed a Covid-19 vaccine based on a virus called
Newcastle Disease Virus, or NDV for short. NDV is a bird pathogen
and does not cause symptoms in humans. The researchers engineered
NDV to carry the gene for a modified version of the coronavirus spike
protein called HexaPro, developed at the University of Texas. They
then grew the modified virus in chicken eggs. The researchers
inactivated the NDVs with chemicals and combined them with
immune-boosting chemicals called adjuvants. The researchers found
that the vaccine produced high levels of coronavirus antibodies in mice
and hamsters. They published the results of their experiments in
November.
On Feb. 22, Mahidol University in Thailand registered a Phase 1 trial of

the vaccine, called NDV-HXP-S. They are running the trial in
collaboration with the Government Pharmaceutical Organization, a
Thai state-run drug manufacturer. Avi-Mex in Mexico and the Institute
of Vaccines and Medical Biologicals in Vietnam have also licensed
NDV-HXP-S for trials.
The vaccine could potentially help low- to middle-income countries

secure their own supplies of Covid-19 vaccines. The virus can be safely
grown in large quantities in chicken eggs, the same way influenza
vaccines have been produced since the 1950s. As a result, NDV-HXP-S
could be very cheap to make.
Updated April 5
PHASE 1
Gritstone Oncology has developed experimental vaccines in recent

years that teach the immune system to attack tumors. Last year they
constructed a vaccine for Covid-19 that presents a number of targets in
the coronavirus for attack.
The researchers constructed a piece of DNA that encodes the entire

spike protein of the coronavirus. In addition, it encodes instructions for
building small pieces of other viral proteins called nucleocapsid and
ORF3a. They then inserted this cassette into the genes of a
chimpanzee adenovirus. The spike protein provokes the body to make
antibodies, while the pieces of other proteins train the immune system
to recognize infected cells and kill them.
In addition, the researchers created an RNA molecule with the same

genetic instructions, which they put in a shell. Once the shell slips into
a cell, the RNA molecule can make copies of itself, and the cell then
makes proteins from those copies.
In a Phase 1 trial launched in March, the National Institute of Allergy

and Infectious Diseases is testing how well these two vaccines work
together, with the chimpanzee adenovirus serving as the first dose and
the self-amplifying RNA as the second. The researchers hope that this
combination will produce a better immune response than two doses of
either vaccine.
Updated March 4
PHASE 1
Meissa Vaccines has developed a vaccine that can be delivered as a

spray or drops into the nose. To make the vaccine, researchers started
off with another virus, called respiratory syncytial virus (RSV for
short). The researchers introduced mutations into the RSV virus’s
genes so that it replicated too slowly to cause disease. Then they
added a gene for the coronavirus spike protein, so that the weakened
RSV viruses could present it to the immune system. On March 15,
Meissa registered a Phase 1 trial for the vaccine.
Updated March 20
ABANDONED
The American company Merck acquired the Austrian firm Themis

Bioscience in June to develop their vaccine, which had been originally
developed at Institut Pasteur. The vaccine used a weakened measles
virus that carries a gene for the coronavirus spike protein.
Researchers launched a Phase 1 trial in August. On Jan. 25, Merck
announced it was abandoning the effort, because the vaccine provoked
a response that was weaker than a natural infection. In March they
entered into a partnership with Johnson & Johnson to help produce
their vaccine instead.
Updated March 4
ABANDONED
In addition to its project with Themis, Merck partnered with IAVI on a

second viral vector vaccine. It was based on vesicular stomatitis
viruses, the same approach Merck successfully used to produce the
first approved vaccine for Ebola. They designed their coronavirus
vaccine as a pill, which could have made it easier to distribute than
syringes for injections. Merck and IAVI received $38 million from the
United States government to support their research, and on
September 30 they registered a Phase 1 trial. But on Jan. 25, they
announced they were abandoning the effort because the vaccine failed
to trigger an immune system comparable to what happens in a natural
infection of Covid-19.
Updated Jan. 25
PRECLINICAL
Other viral vector vaccines in active preclinical development include vaccines from:
Ankara University; ID Pharma; Institut Pasteur Lille; KU Leuven; Ohio State
University and Kazakh National Agrarian University; the Spanish National Center
for Biotechnology and the Spanish National Research Council; TheraVectys and
Institut Pasteur; Thomas Jefferson University and Bharat Biotech; Tonix
Pharmaceuticals; University of Georgia; University of Helsinki, University of
Eastern Finland, and Rokote Laboratories Finland; University of Pittsburgh;
University of Western Ontario; Valo Therapeutics and University of Helsinki;
Vivaldi Biosciences; Walvax Biotechnology, Tsinghua University, and Tianjin
Medical University; Zydus Cadila.
Updated Feb. 18
Protein-Based Vaccines
Vaccines that contain coronavirus proteins but no genetic
material. Some vaccines contain whole proteins, and some
contain fragments of them. Some pack many of these
molecules on nanoparticles.
PHASE 3
APPROVED IN TURKMENISTAN EARLY USE IN RUSSIA
VACCINE NAME: EpiVacCorona

EFFICACY: Unknown
STORAGE: Stable in refrigerator for up to two years
On Aug. 26, the Vector Institute, a Russian biological research center,

registered a Phase 1/2 trial for a coronavirus vaccine they call
EpiVacCorona. The vaccine contains small portions of viral proteins,
known as peptides. Less than two months later, on Oct. 14, Vladimir
Putin announced that Russia has granted regulatory approval to the
vaccine, making it the second one to receive that designation after the
Gamaleya Institute’s Sputnik V vaccine.
A Phase 3 trial began in November, and as of Dec. 15, the Interfax

News Agency reported that 1,438 volunteers had received the vaccine.
In January, Russia launched a mass vaccination campaign that

included EpiVacCorona. But the Vector Institute has yet to present
results from its Phase 3 trial demonstrating that their vaccine is safe
and effective. In February, Tass reported that the immune response
from EpiVacCorona lasted “for approximately a year.” On March 3, the
Vector Institute registered their trial on an international registry,
indicating that they expected to deliver preliminary results in August
2021.
Results from EpiVacCorona’s Phase 1/2 trial were published in an

obscure Russian journal in late March, but the data has concerned
outside experts, who have pointed out serious flaws in the study.
APPROVED FOR USE IN: Turkmenistan.

Updated April 5
Vector Institute
vaccine
R U S S IA
TU R K MENISTAN
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3 EMERGENCY USE IN CHINA, UZBEKISTAN
VACCINE NAME: ZF2001

EFFICACY: Unknown
The Chinese company Anhui Zhifei Longcom and the Institute of

Medical Biology at the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences
partnered to make a vaccine. Their candidate is composed of an
adjuvant, along with a section of the spike protein called the receptor-
binding domain. They launched Phase 2 trials in July, followed by a
Phase 3 trial with 29,000 volunteers in December. China authorized the
vaccine for emergency use on March 15.
EMERGENCY USE IN: China, Uzbekistan.

Updated March 15
Anhui Zhifei Longcom

and IMCAS vaccine
C H I NA
U Z B E KISTAN
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
VACCINE NAME: NVX-CoV2373

EFFICACY: 96% against original coronavirus, 86% against B.1.1.7, 49%
against B.1.351
STORAGE: Stable in refrigerator
Maryland-based Novavax makes vaccines by sticking proteins onto
microscopic particles. They’ve taken on a number of different diseases
this way; their flu vaccine finished Phase 3 clinical trials last March.
The company launched trials for a Covid-19 vaccine in May, and the
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations invested $384
million to support research on the vaccine. In July the U.S.
government awarded Novavax another $1.6 billion to support the
vaccine’s clinical trials and manufacturing.
After getting promising results from preliminary studies in monkeys

and humans, Novavax launched a Phase 2 trial on 2,900 people in
South Africa in August, and the next month it launched a Phase 3 trial
with up to 15,000 volunteers in the United Kingdom. A 30,000-person
Phase 3 trial in the United States was delayed because of problems
with manufacturing the doses required for the study. It finally
launched on Dec. 28 and is expected to deliver results in April. In
March, the chief executive of Novavax said their vaccine might get
authorized by the F.D.A. in May.
On March 11, Novavax reported that their United Kingdom trial

determined an efficacy rate of 96 percent against the original
coronavirus. But in South Africa, where volunteers were exposed to
the variant B.1.351, the efficacy was only 49 percent. The company is
developing a new version of the vaccine that is tailored to that variant.
In September, Novavax reached an agreement with the Serum

Institute of India, a major vaccine manufacturer, that could enable
them to produce as many as 2 billion doses a year. On its current
course, Novavax may be able to supply 110 million doses to the United
States by June. They also have an agreement with other countries,
including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and South Korea. On
Feb. 18, Novavax announced it would supply 1.1 billion doses to
COVAX, a consortium that seeks to distribute vaccines to all countries
across the world.
For more details, see How the Novavax Vaccine Works.

Updated March 20
PHASE 3
Cuba’s Finlay Vaccine Institute developed a vaccine known as

Soberana 2. It contains a part of the coronavirus spike protein, fused to
a standard tetanus vaccine to make it stable. Soberana 2 also contains
aluminum hydroxide as an adjuvant to boost the immune system.
After testing Soberana 2 in animals, Finlay researchers started a

Phase 1 trial in October, followed by a Phase 2 trial in December. In
January Cuba reached an agreement with Iran to test their vaccines in
a Phase 3 trial. On March 3, the Finlay Vaccine Institute registered a
Phase 3 trial for Soberana 2, with plans to recruit 44,010 participants in
Havana.
Cuba is planning to make 100 million doses of Soberana 2 in order to
vaccinate its entire population. Cuba is pinning hopes on the vaccine
as a source of economic benefit to the island.
Updated Feb. 18
PHASE 3
VACCINE NAME: CoVLP

EFFICACY: Unknown
STORAGE: Stable in refrigerator
Canada-based Medicago, partly funded by the cigarette maker Philip

Morris, grows vaccines in a plant called Nicotiana benthamiana, a wild
species related to tobacco. They deliver virus genes into leaves, and
the plant cells then create protein shells that mimic viruses.
In July, Medicago launched Phase 1 trials on a plant-based Covid-19

vaccine in combination with adjuvants to boost the immune system’s
response to the viral proteins. In that study, they found that an
adjuvant made by GSK produced promising levels of antibodies in
volunteers. On Oct. 23, the company announced it had reached an
agreement with the government of Canada to supply 76 million doses.
A Phase 2/3 trial of the vaccine began on Nov. 12. Medicago and GSK
launched a Phase 3 trial on March 16.
Updated March 16
PHASE 3
The Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology of Cuba

launched a trial at the end of November on a coronavirus vaccine
called Abdala. The name is from a poem by the nineteenth-century
poet José Marti. The Abdala vaccine consists of a piece of the
coronavirus spike protein called the receptor binding domain. On Feb.
1, the center held a press conference to announce the start of a Phase 2
trial. A Phase 3 trial that will recruite up to 48,000 participants was
launched on March 18.
Updated March 20
Clover Biopharmaceuticals developed a vaccine containing the spike

protein from coronaviruses. To further stimulate the immune system,
the company is testing so-called adjuvants made by British drugmaker
GSK and the American company Dynavax. Investments from the
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness supported the development of
manufacturing that could lead to the production of a billion doses a
year. Clover’s formula looks to be especially durable; the vaccine can
sit out at room temperature for a month and remain viable.
Clover launched a Phase 1 trial last June, and in December the

company announced that the vaccine triggered a high level of
antibodies. It registered a Phase 2/3 trial with the GSK adjuvant, but
in February the company announced it was cancelling the study.
Instead, it has moved forward with a trial with the Dynavax adjuvant.
Updated March 25
PHASE 2
In July, researchers at West China Hospital of Sichuan University

published a study in Nature describing a vaccine made from the RBD
region of the spike protein that could protect mice and monkeys from
the coronavirus. To make the vaccine, researchers encode the RBD
region in a gene, which they insert into a virus. They then infect insect
cells with the virus, causing them to make the molecule in huge
amounts. On Aug. 24, they launched a Phase 1 trial, and on Nov. 16
they moved to Phase 2 with a study on 960 volunteers. On Jan. 22 they
registered another Phase 2 trial with 4000 volunteers.
Updated Jan. 24
PHASE 2
Taiwan-based vaccine maker Medigen is making a vaccine made of a

combination of spike proteins and an adjuvant from Dynavax. After a
series of promising experiments on animals, they began injecting
volunteers for a Phase 1 trial in early October. On Dec. 30, Medigen
announced that it had received permission to commence a Phase 2
trial. The first volunteers in the trial were injected in late January.
Updated Jan. 26
PHASE 2
Dallas-based Vaxxinity is testing a vaccine containing parts of several

viral proteins. (Vaxxinity formed in April 2021 when the companies
COVAXX and United Neuroscience combined.) On Sept. 11, COVAXX
registered a Phase 1 trial in Taiwan which led to 100 percent of
volunteers producing antibodies without any serious side effects. In
February COVAXX launched a Phase 2 trial, also in Taiwan. A Phase
2/3 trial is planned to launch in Brazil, India and other countries. On
Nov. 25, Covaxx announced agreements with countries including
Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru to deliver more than 140 million doses for
$2.8 billion. In January, the company announced they were also
starting preclinical research on a vaccine tailored specifically to newly
emerged coronavirus variants that could potentially evade
conventional vaccines.
Updated April 1
PHASE 2
In addition to their mRNA vaccine, Sanofi developed a Covid-19

vaccine based on viral proteins. They produced the proteins with
engineered viruses that grow inside insect cells. GSK supplemented
these proteins with adjuvants that stimulate the immune system. The
vaccine is based on the same design Sanofi used to create Flublok, an
approved vaccine for influenza. The companies launched a Phase 1/2
clinical trial in September.
Sanofi’s vaccine was widely expected to play a major role in tackling

the pandemic. In the United States, Operation Warp Speed selected it
as one of six vaccines to secure in large quantities, reaching a $2.1
billion agreement for 100 million doses. On Sept. 18 Sanofi closed
another deal with the European Union for 300 million doses for an
unspecified amount, and later reached an agreement with Canada for
up to 72 million doses. In addition, Sanofi agreed to provide 200 million
doses to COVAX, an international collaboration to deliver the vaccine
equitably across the world. The company expected to move to a Phase
3 trial in December and potentially seek emergency use authorization
in the United States by spring. Sanofi announced plans to make up to
one billion doses in 2021.
But on Dec. 11, Sanofi and GSK announced that their vaccine was
proving disappointing. While it provided promising levels of antibodies
in people under 50, older people did not respond as strongly as they
had hoped. The company halted the trial. In January Sanofi decided in
January to help Pfizer and BioNTech make 100 million doses of their
vaccine, and they reached a similar agreement with Johnson &
Johnson in February.
Meanwhile, Sanofi developed a stronger formulation of their own

vaccine. On Feb. 22, the company launched a new Phase 2 trial. If they
can get sufficiently high antibodies with the new vaccine, they will
move on to Phase 3 studies. That could be a challenge, because they
may not be able to test it against a placebo. Instead, they may have to
test against a vaccine that has already received emergency use
authorization. Sanofi and GSK do not expect the vaccine to become
available before the end of 2021.
Updated Feb. 23
PHASE 2
On Dec. 10, Nanogen Biopharmaceutical in Vietnam began recruiting

60 volunteers for a Phase 1 trial of their protein-based vaccine
Nanocovax. Nikkei Asia reported that Nanogen is considering Phase 3
trials in Bangladesh, India, and Indonesia. The company projects the
vaccine will become available in Vietnam in mid-2021. Vietnam news
agencies announced that Nanocovax entered Phase 2 trials in
February.
Updated March 9
PHASE 2
Researchers at Zhongyianke Biotech, Liaoning Maokangyuan Biotech

and the Academy of Military Medical Sciences are using Chinese
hamster ovary cells to help create immunity in humans. They
registered a Phase 1 trial in China last November. On March 24, they
advanced the vaccine to Phase 2.
Updated March 25
PHASE 2
Cuban researchers at Finlay Vaccine Institute have also developed a

single-dose vaccine called Soberana Plus. Like its other candidates,
Soberana Plus targets the part of the coronavirus known as the RBD
and contains an adjuvant. But Finlay researchers are specifically
tailoring this vaccine to people who have already had Covid-19 — a
first of its kind. They say that such a strategy can help prevent
reinfection and limit the spread of new variants. After positive results
from a Phase 1 trial, Finlay received approval to begin a Phase 2 trial
among Covid-19 survivors on April 9.
Updated April 12
On Aug. 18, the head of epidemiology at Cuba’s public health ministry

announced the country’s first trial of a vaccine of Covid-19. The Finlay
Vaccine Institute in Havana began testing a vaccine called Soberana 1.
It contains a part of the spike protein, called RBD, along with two extra
ingredients: proteins from a bacteria and aluminum hydroxide. These
ingredients, known as adjuvants, boost the immune system’s response
to the coronavirus RBD.
Updated Dec. 18
SpyBiotech, a company spun off from the University of Oxford,

announced in September that the first volunteers in an Australian
Phase 1/2 trial were receiving their Covid-19 vaccine. The researchers
created the vaccine from a mixture of proteins. Some of the proteins,
from hepatitis B viruses, assemble themselves into hollow shells. The
researchers decorated these shells with part of the coronavirus spike
protein. The Serum Institute of India, which licensed the technology
from SpyBiotech, is running the trials.
Updated Sept. 24
After the SARS epidemic in 2002, Baylor College of Medicine

researchers began developing a vaccine that could prevent a new
outbreak. Despite promising early results, support for the research
disappeared. Because the coronaviruses that cause SARS and Covid-19
are very similar, the researchers revived the project in partnership
with the Texas Children’s Hospital. The researchers have found that
the Covid-19 vaccine produces antibodies in mice.
The Indian company Biological E licensed it in August and launched a

Phase 1/2 trial in November, combining the viral proteins with an
adjuvant made by Dynavax. On Dec. 29, Biological E and the Coalition
for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations announced a partnership to
advance the development and manufacturing of the vaccine, with
CEPI initially contributing $5 million to the effort. If trials confirm that
the vaccine works, Biological E hopes to make a billion doses a year.
Updated Dec. 29
Shionogi, a Japanese pharmaceutical giant, launched a Phase 1/2 trial

of a coronavirus vaccine on Dec. 16. The company developed it in
collaboration with the National Institute of Infectious Diseases and
Kyushu University. The vaccine is based on a coronavirus protein
which is produced in insect cells by genetically altered viruses. But
according to a March report from The Japan Times, Shionogi has faced
difficulties with recruiting enough participants for its trials, and it is
unlikely that the vaccine will be ready by the end of 2021.
Updated April 5
South Korean vaccine producer EuBiologics launched a Phase 1/2 trial

of a protein-based vaccine in late January. Known as EuCorVac-19, the
vaccine combines the spike protein with an adjuvant that stimulates
the immune system.
Updated Feb. 23
Last spring, researchers at the University of Washington developed a

nanoparticle studded with pieces of the coronavirus spike protein.
Experiments on mice showed a strong immune response. The South
Korean vaccine company SK Bioscience licensed the vaccine, called
GBP510. After partnering with GSK, they launched a Phase 1/2 trial of
the vaccine in February. It is the second vaccine SK Bioscience has put
into trials, after launching a study on another protein-based vaccine
called NBP2001.
Updated Feb. 8
The Massachusetts-based company VBI Vaccines developed a

coronavirus vaccine that is based on hollow, virus-like protein shells.
The company added pieces of coronavirus vaccines to the shells,
selected for their potential both to produce antibodies and to train T
cells to attack infected cells. In February, they registered a placebo-
controlled Phase 1/2 trial in Canada on 780 volunteers, comparing the
effects from using one or two doses. The vaccine, called VBI-2902a, is
a combination of protein shells and aluminum phosphate as an
adjuvant.
VBI Vaccines is also experimenting with vaccines that combine

proteins from the three coronaviruses that cause severe disease in
humans: Covid-19, SARS, and MERS. They are exploring the
possibility that such a vaccine could someday protect against a wide
swath of coronaviruses, including ones that have yet to spill over from
animal hosts.
Updated March 1
As part of the European Union-funded PREVENT-nCoV consortium, a

team of biotechnology companies and research laboratories developed
a vaccine against Covid-19. It contains a coronavirus protein called
nucleocapsid. The vaccine, called ABNCoV2, uses technology from
consortium members AdaptVac and ExpreS2ion, among others. After
promising preclinical results in primates, Bavarian Nordic announced
that it would proceed with a Phase 1/2 trial of the vaccine in the
Netherlands. The first volunteers received doses of the vaccine on
March 15.
Updated March 20
Massachusetts-based Akston Biosciences has developed a vaccine that

targets a part of the coronavirus spike protein called the receptor-
binding domain. Researchers at Akston say that focusing on this
section is an efficient way to boost immunity against new variants.
They began a Phase 1/2 trial of their vaccine, known as AKS-452, on
April 12.
Updated April 12
PHASE 1
The Australian company Vaxine developed a vaccine that combines

viral proteins with an adjuvant that stimulates the immune system. A
Phase 1 trial began in June 2020 but has yet to produce results.
Updated Jan. 2
PHASE 1
A second plant-based vaccine is in development at Kentucky

BioProcessing, an American subsidiary of British American Tobacco,
the maker of Lucky Strike and other cigarettes. Like Medicago,
Kentucky BioProcessing engineers a wild relative of tobacco called
Nicotiana benthamiana to make viral proteins. The company
previously used this technique to make a drug called Zmapp for Ebola.
A Phase 1 trial launched in December.
Updated Dec. 17
PHASE 1
Taiwan-based vaccine manufacturer Adimmune got permission to

launch a Phase 1 trial on Aug. 20. The vaccine contains the RBD
section of the virus’s spike protein. In December, the Taiwan press
reported that Adimmune failed to find the right dose of their vaccine
and needed to try a new formulation.
Updated Dec. 31
PHASE 1
In the spring, researchers at the University of Tübingen in Germany

created a vaccine made of eight parts of two viral proteins, along with
an immune-stimulating adjuvant. In September they launched a Phase
1 trial.
Updated Sept. 15
PHASE 1
SK Bioscience, a South Korean vaccine maker, won approval on Nov.

23 from the country’s Ministry of Food and Drug Safety for a vaccine
called NBP2001. The vaccine contained fragments of the spike protein.
In a Phase 1 trial, researchers are now testing the vaccine on 50
volunteers.
Updated Feb. 23
PHASE 1
In addition to their Abdala vaccine, the Center for Genetic Engineering

and Biotechnology of Cuba announced on Nov. 26 that it was beginning
a Phase 1 trial of a second vaccine, this one delivered as a nasal spray.
Known as Mambisa, the vaccine contains a piece of the coronavirus
spike protein called the receptor-binding domain, along with a protein
from the hepatitis B virus that stimulates the immune system. The
name refers to women who fought in Cuba’s nineteenth-century wars
of independence.
Updated Feb. 10
PHASE 1
VACCINE NAME: COVAC

EFFICACY: Unknown
The Vaccine and Infectious Disease Organization at the University of

Saskatchewan has developed a vaccine candidate which uses protein
subunits to develop immunity against the coronavirus. It was cleared
for human testing late last year by the Canadian government. VIDO
registered a Phase 1/2 trial on Jan. 8. If trials proceed as expected,
researchers predict that at least one of their candidates will be ready
by late 2021.
Updated Jan. 12
PHASE 1
On Feb. 7, Iran announced that it was launching a clinical trial of a

second vaccine, known as Cov-Pars Razi and developed by the Razi
Vaccine & Serum Research Institute. The vaccine contains fragments
of coronavirus spike proteins and is delivered in three doses: two
injections and one nasal spray.
Updated Feb. 10
PHASE 1
A team of Turkish researchers at Middle East Technical University and

Bilkent University have developed a vaccine that is made up of virus-
like particles. Each particle carries four of the coronavirus proteins.
On March 26, they registered a small Phase 1 trial sponsored by
TUBITAK, the Scientific and Technological Research Council of
Turkey.
Updated March 27
PHASE 1
Scientists at Jiangsu Rec-Biotechnology have developed a vaccine,

called ReCOV, that is made of viral proteins that are grown in Chinese
hamster ovary cells. They registered a Phase 1 trial in New Zealand on
March 26.
Updated March 30
PHASE 1
On April 1, 2021, French researchers at OSE Immunotherapeutics

announced that they had received approval to launch a Phase 1 trial of
a vaccine, called CoVepiT, in Belgium. Their vaccine can teach the
body to develop an immune response against 11 different proteins of
the coronavirus. The researchers picked these proteins because they
have a low chance of mutating — a feature that, they say, makes the
vaccine “variant-proof.”
Updated April 2
PHASE 1
Scientists at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research have

designed a vaccine from a nanoparticle decorated with the
coronavirus’s spike protein. Experiments on monkeys showed that the
two-dose vaccine delivered extremely high levels of antibodies. On
April 5, the army launched a Phase 1 trial. The vaccine designers hope
to create a new version of the vaccine with proteins from other
coronaviruses to offer protection that extends beyond Covid-19.
Updated April 5
PHASE 1 ?
On July 18, North Korea’s State Commission of Science and Technology

announced on their web site that they had started clinical trials on a
vaccine based on part of the coronavirus spike protein. It’s hard to
independently evaluate the claim from the isolated dictatorship. The
commission claimed to have tested the vaccine on animals, but
provided no data. Four months after their announcement, South
Korean lawmakers said they had foiled an attempt by North Korea to
hack South Korean companies developing coronavirus vaccines. So far,
North Korea has not released any further information about the trials
they supposedly are running.
Updated Dec. 2
ABANDONED
On Dec. 10, 2020, a vaccine from Australia’s University of Queensland

was the first to be abandoned after entering a clinical trial. Cancelling
the vaccine meant the collapse of a $1 billion deal with the Australian
government for 51 million doses.
The vaccine studies offered great promise at first. Experiments on

hamsters showed that the vaccine protected them from the
coronavirus. The university launched a Phase 1 trial in July, combining
coronavirus spike proteins with an adjuvant made by CSL. The trial
delivered encouraging results: volunteers produced a high level of
antibodies with no evidence of harmful side effects.
But then the researchers made an unwelcome discovery: some

volunteers were getting positive tests for HIV, even though they were
not actually infected with that virus. In a report released in February
2021, the researchers explained the false positives came about due to
the way the researchers designed the vaccine.
To ensure that spike proteins can stimulate a strong immune response,

the researchers had to prevent the molecules from unfolding and
changing their shape. The researchers held the proteins in place with a
molecular clamp, which was based on a segment of an HIV protein.
HIV tests use antibodies to probe for the presence of the virus’s
proteins in people’s blood. The researchers thought that the antibodies
would not grab the clamp. That assumption turned out to be wrong.
Worried that false positive HIV test results would fuel hesitancy over
getting Covid-19 vaccines, the Australian government decided to halt
the trial.
“It will no longer feature in Australia’s vaccine plan,” said Prime

Minister Scott Morrison at a press conference to announce the
cancellation.
Updated Feb. 23
PRECLINICAL
A vaccine in development by the University of Pittsburgh, called

PittCoVacc, is a skin patch tipped with 400 tiny needles made of sugar.
When placed on the skin, the needles dissolve and deliver virus
proteins into the body. At the end of 2020, its creators applied to the
F.D.A. for permission to begin clinical trials.
Updated Dec. 22
PRECLINICAL
Other protein-based vaccines in active preclinical development include vaccines

from: Applied Biotechnology Institute; Artes Biotech; Baiya Phytopharm;
BiOMVis and University of Trento; BioVaxys Technology; Chulalongkorn
University; City College of New York and TechnoVax; EpiVax; Generex; GeoVax;
Heat Biologics; Icosavax and University of Washington; Iconovo and ISR;
ImmunoPrecise Antibodies; IMV; Instituto Buntantan; Intravacc; IrsiCaixa; Izmir
Biomedicine and Genome Center; MIGAL Galilee Research Institute; Nanografi
Nano Technology, Middle East Technical University, and Ankara University;
Navarrabiomed; NidoVax; OncoGen; Oragenics Osaka University, BIKEN, and
National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Japan; OSE Immunotherapeutics;
Osivax; PDS Biotechnology; Quadram Institute; ReVacc Biotech; Saiba; Soligenix;
Ufovax; University of Alberta; University of San Martin and CONICET, Argentina;
University of Sao Paulo; University of Virginia; Vabiotech; VBI Vaccines and
Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations; Vaxform; Verndari; Voltron
Therapeutics; Walter Reed Army Institute of Research.
Updated March 10
Inactivated or Attenuated Coronavirus

Vaccines
Vaccines created from weakened coronaviruses or
coronaviruses that have been killed with chemicals.
Inactivated
virus
PHASE 3
APPROVED IN CHINA, BAHRAIN, U.A.E.
EMERGENCY USE IN OTHER COUNTRIES
VACCINE NAME: BBIBP-CorV

EFFICACY: 79.34%
The Beijing Institute of Biological Products created an inactivated

coronavirus vaccine that was put into clinical trials by the state-owned
Chinese company Sinopharm. On Dec. 30, Sinopharm announced that
the vaccine had an efficacy of 79.34 percent, leading the Chinese
government to give it approval. The company has yet to publish the
detailed results of their Phase 3 trial.
Last June, Beijing Institute researchers reported that the vaccine
produced promising results in monkeys. A Phase 1/2 trial then showed
that the vaccine didn’t cause any serious side effects and enabled
people to make antibodies against the coronavirus. In July a Phase 3
trial began in the United Arab Emirates in July, and in Morocco and
Peru the following month.
On Sept. 14, the U.A.E. gave emergency approval for Sinopharm’s

vaccine to use on health care workers, and soon government officials
and others were also receiving it. Less than two months later, on Dec.
9, the U.A.E. gave full approval to BBIBP-CorV, announcing it had an
efficacy rate of 86 percent. Since then a number of countries in the
Near East have authorized it; on Jan. 29, Hungary authorized BBIBp-
CorV, making the country the first European nation to use a Chinese
vaccine.
In China, meanwhile, the government gave Sinopharm emergency

approval in the summer 0f 2020. Government officials, health care
workers, and other select groups began receiving BBIIP-CorV.
Sinopharm did not initially comment on the U.A.E.’s announcement

that BBIBP-CorV had an efficacy rate of 86 percent. When an
executive with the company was later asked about the difference
between the U.A.E. estimate and Sinopharm’s own analysis, he said
that both were “real and valid.” The difference was the result of
differences in how the trials were run. Sinopharm plans to raise its
annual output of its two vaccines to three billion doses a year. But in
March, a small number of recipients in the U.A.E. have been invited to
take a third booster shot of the vaccine after the two recommended
doses did not generate enough of an immune response.
In February 2021, as concerns grew about new mutations in the

coronavirus, Chinese researchers tested BBIBP-CorV against a
variant called B.1.351, which was first found in South Africa. They
reported that the antibody response created by the vaccine was only
modestly weaker against B.1.351. The study has not yet been published
in a medical journal.
For more details, see How the Sinopharm Vaccine Works.
APPROVED FOR USE IN: Bahrain, China, United Arab Emirates.

EMERGENCY USE IN: Argentina, Brunei NEW, Cambodia, Egypt, Guyana,
Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Maldives, Namibia NEW, Nepal, Pakistan, Peru,
Venezuela, Zimbabwe.
Updated April 11
Sinopharm and
Beijing Institute
vaccine
H U N G ARY
SERB I A
JO R DAN
EG Y P T C H I NA
IR A N
G U YA NA PA K I STAN
B A H R AIN
U. A . E.
V E N E ZUELA CA M B ODIA
ZIMB A BWE
NA M I BIA
PERU SEYC H ELLES
A R G E NTINA
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
APPROVED IN CHINA EMERGENCY USE IN OTHER COUNTRIES
VACCINE NAME: CoronaVac (formerly PiCoVacc)

EFFICACY: 50.65% in Brazil trial, 91.25% in Turkey trial
Sinovac Biotech, a private Chinese company, developed an inactivated

vaccine called CoronaVac in early 2020. In early 2021, trials in Brazil
and Turkey showed that it could protect against Covid-19, but they
delivered strikingly different results — in part because they designed
the trials differently. In Brazil, the efficacy against Covid-19 with or
without symptoms was 50 percent. In Turkey, the efficacy against
Covid-19 with at least one symptom was 91.25 percent. Sinovac
released some of their data on April 3, but has yet to publish the details
of the trials as a preprint or in a medical journal. Nevertheless,
Sinovac announced on Feb. 6 that China had given CoronaVac
conditional approval. Other countries are also beginning to use the
vaccine.
After creating their vaccine last spring, Sinovac ran a Phase 1/2 trial
on 743 volunteers that revealed no severe adverse effects. Sinovac
published the details of the trial in November in a medical journal,
showing a comparatively modest production of antibodies. In July,
Sinovac launched a Phase 3 trial in Brazil, followed by others in
Indonesia and Turkey.
In that same month, Chinese government gave CoronaVac an

emergency approval for limited use. In October, authorities in the
eastern Chinese city of Jiaxing announced they were giving
CoronaVac to people in relatively high-risk jobs, including medical
workers, port inspectors and public service personnel.
The scientists running the Phase 3 trials began announcing early

results at the end of December and continued to update them as new
cases of Covid-19 arose. While the overall efficacy of the vaccine was
lower in the Brazil trial, it showed stronger protection against severe
forms of the disease. No one in the Brazil trial who received Sinovac
had to be hospitalized.
Sinovac has struck deals with at least 11 countries and regions to

supply them with SinoVac. Indonesia gave the vaccine emergency
authorization on Jan. 11, and two days later the president of Indonesia
received an injection of CoronaVac on live television. Turkey
authorized the vaccine on Jan. 13, and its president got vaccinated the
next day. Brazil authorized CoronaVac on Jan. 17. After expanding its
production lines, Sinovac said in April that its manufacturing capacity
was up to two billion doses. On April 1, Sinovac announced that its
capacity had increased to 2 billion doses after completing a third
production line.
For more details, see How the Sinovac Vaccine Works.

EMERGENCY USE IN: Azerbaijan, Brazil, Cambodia, Chile, Colombia,
Ecuador, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Mexico, Pakistan NEW,
Panama NEW, Philippines, Thailand, Tunisia NEW, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay,
Zimbabwe.
Updated April 13
Sinovac vaccine
U K R A INE
TU N I SIA
TU R K EY
C H I NA
PA K I STAN
M E X I CO
TH A I LAND
B R A Z IL
C O LO MBIA
ZIMB A BWE IN D O NESIA
U R U G UAY
CHILE
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
APPROVED IN CHINA LIMITED USE IN U.A.E.
Along with their Beijing Institute vaccine, Sinopharm also tested an

inactivated virus vaccine developed by the Wuhan Institute of
Biological Products. The Phase 1/2 trial showed that the vaccine
produced antibodies in volunteers, some of whom experienced fevers
and other side effects. Sinopharm said the vaccine’s efficacy was 72.51
percent. The Wuhan version of the vaccine is undergoing Phase 3
trials in several countries. In December, Peru briefly paused their
Sinopharm trial to investigate neurological problems that one
volunteer experienced, but determined that it had nothing to do with
the vaccines. On Feb. 25, China announced the approval of the Wuhan
vaccine for general use. The efficacy determined from the Phase 3
trials has yet to be published.

LIMITED USE IN: United Arab Emirates.
Updated March 4
Sinopharm and
Wuhan Institute
vaccine
C H I NA
U. A . E.
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3 EMERGENCY USE IN INDIA, ELSEWHERE
VACCINE NAME: Covaxin (also known as BBV152 A, B, C)

EFFICACY: 80.6%
STORAGE: At least a week at room temperature
In collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research and the

National Institute of Virology, the Indian company Bharat Biotech
designed Covaxin, a vaccine based on an inactivated form of the
coronavirus. Studies on monkeys and hamsters found that it provided
protection against infection. Last June, Covaxin became the first
coronavirus vaccine created in India to go into clinical trials.
The phase 1/2 trial showed that the vaccine didn’t cause any serious
side effects while producing antibodies to the coronavirus, and a
follow-up study confirmed these results. On Oct. 23, the company
announced they were initiating a Phase 3 trial, eventually recruiting
over 25,800 volunteers. On Dec. 22, the company announced a
partnership with Pennsylvania-based Ocugen to develop Covaxin for
the United States market.
On Jan. 3, the Indian government granted Covaxin emergency

authorization. The authorization came despite the fact that Bharat had
yet to release Phase 3 data showing the vaccine is safe and effective.
Two months later on March 3, the company announced an early
analysis of the trial results, finding that Covaxin has an efficacy of 80.6
percent. Of the first 43 volunteers to get Covid-19, only 7 had received
the vaccine. Bharat said that they would update their estimate of
Covaxin’s efficacy up to 130 cases. The early analysis also revealed no
serious adverse events.
For more details, see How Bharat Biotech’s Vaccine Works.
EMERGENCY USE IN: India, Iran, Mauritius, Nepal, Zimbabwe.

Updated March 23
Bharat Biotechʼs
Covaxin vaccine
IR A N N E PA L
IN D I A
ZIMB A BWE
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
PHASE 3
Researchers at the Institute of Medical Biology at the Chinese

Academy of Medical Sciences, which has invented vaccines for polio
and hepatitis A, created an inactivated coronavirus vaccine. Last May,
they launched a Phase 1 trial on 192 volunteers which indicated the
vaccine was safe and produced an immune response. A Phase 2 trial
followed on 750 volunteers, which led the researchers to select a two-
week spacing between the two doses of the vaccine. In December the
researchers launched a Phase 3 trial on up to 34,020 volunteers in
Brazil and Malaysia.
Updated June 23
PHASE 3
The central Asian nation of Kazakhstan began research on a vaccine

made from inactivated coronaviruses over the summer. On August 28,
2020, their Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems
registered a Phase 1 trial on the vaccine. On Dec. 19, Kazinform
reported that researchers had completed the Phase 2 trial, finding that
the vaccine was safe and produced a promising immune response. The
researchers commenced a Phase 3 trial In March, Kazakhstan’s vice
minister of education and science announced that the vaccine, known
as QazVac, was expected to be authorized in April, despite the lack of
published results from the Phase 3 trial.
The Astana Times reported that 50,000 doses of the vaccine will be
available by the end of April.
Updated April 13
PHASE 2
On Nov. 5, Turkey’s Erciyes University announced they had begun

injecting volunteers with an inactivated coronavirus vaccine called
ERUCOV-VAC. It is the first clinical trial of a coronavirus vaccine
developed in Turkey. On Dec. 14, the president of the university said
that the Phase 1 trial was complete. Sabah Today reported the
following month that Phase 2 trials had begun.
Updated Jan. 21
PHASE 2
Shenzhen Kangtai Biological Products is a Chinese company that

makes vaccines for diseases such as hepatitis B and measles. In
August, AstraZeneca reached an agreement with Shenzhen to supply
China with their adenovirus vaccine, despite the reports of corruption
and scandals that have the company. In October Shenzhen Kangtai
launched a Phase 1 trial on 180 volunteers of its own vaccine, based on
inactivated coronaviruses. In February they added a Phase 2 trial to a
U.S. registry, where they indicated the trial included 1,000 people and
that the study would be completed by the end of the month.
Updated Feb. 18
PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES EARLY USE IN RUSSIA
The Chumakov Center at the Russian Academy of Sciences developed

an inactivated coronavirus vaccine called CoviVac. On Oct. 14, the
TASS news agency reported that clinical trials of the vaccine would
begin in Kirov and St. Petersburg on Oct. 19. On Feb. 20, Russia
approved the vaccine for domestic use, despite the fact that the
Chumakov Center had yet to start a Phase 3 trial. By the end of the
year, Russia planned on producing 20 million doses.

Updated Feb. 23
Chumakov Center
vaccine
R U S S IA
Approved
Early, limited or
emergency use
The French vaccine maker Valneva created a vaccine from chemically

inactivated coronaviruses, using an adjuvant from Dynavax. The
vaccine, called VLA2001, is currently the only inactivated-virus
vaccine being developed in Europe. On Dec. 16, Valneva launched a
Phase 1/2 trial in the United Kingdom. On April 7, the company
announced that the trial had delivered positive results and was on
track to launch its Phase 3 trial by the end of the month. The company
hopes to reach authorization in the second half of 2021. The British
government has already reached an agreement to purchase 100
million doses of the vaccine should it prove safe and effective, with an
option to acquire a further 90 million.
Updated April 11
On March 22, Japan’s KM Biologics announced that it had begun a

Phase 1/2 trial of its inactivated vaccine candidate, called KD-414. The
company has also played a part in manufacturing AstraZeneca’s
vaccine.
Updated April 5
PHASE 1
New York-based Codagenix develops vaccines based on live

attenuated viruses, but with a twist: they create the viruses from
scratch. Researchers rewrite the genome of viruses, introducing
hundreds of mutations. Then they manufacture RNA molecules
encoding the rewritten genes. In special host cells, the molecules can
give rise to full-blown viruses. But thanks to their numerous
mutations, they are too weak to cause Covid-19 when they’re delivered
in a vaccine. After successful experiments in animals, a Phase 1 trial
was launched in the United Kingdom in January.
Updated Jan. 12
PHASE 1
Shafa Pharmed Pars, an Iranian pharmaceutical company, developed a

vaccine made of inactivated coronaviruses. Known as COVIran
Barekat, it entered a Phase 1 trial at the end of December. COVIran
Barekat is the first vaccine developed in Iran to go into clinical testing.
Updated Dec. 29
PHASE 1
On March 16, Iran’s Ministry of Defence announced another vaccine

made of inactivated coronaviruses. Known as Fakhravac, the vaccine
is named after Mohsen Fakhrizadeh, Iran’s top nuclear scientist who
was killed in November. The vaccine is now in a Phase 1 trial.
Updated March 16
PHASE 1
Turkish researchers at Koçak Farma have developed a vaccine made

of inactivated coronaviruses. They began a Phase 1 trial on April 8.
Updated April 9
PRECLINICAL
Other inactivated or attenuated coronavirus vaccines in active preclinical

development include vaccines from: Indian Immunologicals and Griffith
University; Osaka University.
Updated Nov. 7
Repurposed Vaccines
Vaccines already in use for other diseases that may also

protect against Covid-19. Repurposed vaccines are not
included in our vaccine count.
PHASE 3
The Bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccine was developed in the early

1900s as a protection against tuberculosis. The Murdoch Children’s
Research Institute in Australia is conducting a Phase 3 trial called the
BRACE to see if the vaccine partly protects against the coronavirus.
Updated
OTHER CLINICAL TRIALS
Other repurposed vaccines are in clinical trials being conducted by: the Bandim
Health Project; Crown Coronation (Washington University and partner
universities); Hôpitaux de Paris; Louisiana State University Health Sciences
Center New Orleans; the BADAS Study (Texas A&M University, Baylor College of
Medicine, M.D. Anderson Cancer Center and Cedars-Sinai Medical Center); India’s
National Institute for Research in Tuberculosis; BCG-CORONA (UMC Utrecht and
Radboud University); University of Campinas; University Health Network, the
Serum Institute of India, the Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology and Verity
Pharmaceuticals; Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation and the University of
Oklahoma; Vakzine Projekt Management.
Updated Sept. 25
Note: Vaccines will be added to the tracker when they reach Phase 1,
and tracked until they succeed or fail.
Did we miss something? To notify The Times of new developments, send

updates to [email protected].
Tracking the Coronavirus
United States
Latest Maps and Data Vaccinations
Cases and deaths for every How many have been
county vaccinated, and whoʼs eligible
Your Countyʼs Risk Your Places

See guidance for your local area Build your own dashboard to
track cases
Hospitals Near You Restrictions

Patients hospitalized and I.C.U. What is open and closed in each
beds remaining state
Deaths Above Normal Cities and Metro Areas

The true toll of the pandemic in Where it is getting better and
the U.S. worse
Nursing Homes Colleges and Universities

The hardest-hit states and Cases at more than 1,800
facilities schools
World
Latest Maps and Data Global Vaccinations
Cases and deaths for every How many have been
country vaccinated, by country
Deaths Above Normal

The true toll of coronavirus
around the world
Health
Vaccines Treatments
Track their development Rated by effectiveness and
safety
Countries
Brazil Germany Mexico U.K.
Canada India Spain United States
France Italy
States, Territories and Cities

Alabama Iowa New Hampshire South Dakota
Alaska Kansas New Jersey Tennessee
Arizona Kentucky New Mexico Texas
Arkansas Louisiana New York Utah
California Maine New York City Vermont
Colorado Maryland North Carolina Virginia
Connecticut Massachusetts North Dakota Washington
Delaware Michigan Ohio Washington, D.C.
Florida Minnesota Oklahoma West Virginia
Georgia Mississippi Oregon Wisconsin
Hawaii Missouri Pennsylvania Wyoming
Idaho Montana Puerto Rico
Illinois Nebraska Rhode Island
Indiana Nevada South Carolina
Data
Frequently Asked Questions About the Covid Data
Access the Open Source Covid Data
Additional reporting by Farnaz Fassihi, Denise Grady, Andrew E. Kramer, Matthew

Kristoffersen, Hari Kumar, Cao Li, Jess Ruderman and Carlos Tejada.
Notes and corrections: Early versions of the tracker combined two vaccines by Sinopharm into one
entry, before subsequent reporting confirmed they were two different vaccines. A previous version of
the tracker stated that Pfizer had reached a deal with the E.U., when in fact the deal was made by
AstraZeneca. A previous version of the tracker listed Canadian approval of the Pfizer-BioNTech and
Moderna vaccines, when in fact they were conditional authorizations.
Sources: World Health Organization, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National
Center for Biotechnology Information, New England Journal of Medicine, Rollins School of Public
Health at Emory University. Cahill-Keyes map projection by Gene Keyes.

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U.S.A. World Health

Coronavirus Vaccine Tracker

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3 AUTHORIZED APPROVED ABANDONED

Vaccines typically require years of research and testing before

New additions and recent updates

April 5 The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research enters Phase 1.

Pﬁzer-BioNTech mRNA 2 3 Approved in several countries.

Moderna mRNA 3 Approved in Switzerland.

Gamaleya Ad26, Ad5 3 Early use in Russia.

Vector Institute Protein 3 Early use in Russia. Approved in Turkmenistan.

Below is a list of all vaccines that have reached trials in humans,

The Vaccine Testing Process

The development cycle of a vaccine, from lab to clinic.

PHASE 1 SAFETY TRIALS : Scientists give the vaccine to a small number of

PHASE 2 EXPANDED TRIALS : Scientists give the vaccine to hundreds of

PHASE 3 EFFICACY TRIALS : Scientists give the vaccine to thousands of

COMBINED PHASES : One way to accelerate vaccine development is to

PAUSED or ABANDONED : If investigators observe worrying symptoms in

Filter the list of vaccines:

All vaccines Preclinical Phase 1 2 3 Approved Abandoned

Vaccines that deliver one or more of the coronavirus’s own

RNA vaccine DNA vaccine

PHASE 2 PHASE 3 COMBINED PHASES

VACCINE NAME: Comirnaty (also known as tozinameran or BNT162b2)

On Nov. 9, New York-based Pfizer and the German company BioNTech

The work on the vaccine began in January 2020, when BioNTech

In Phase 1 trials, the researchers found that Comirnaty caused

These impressive results led rapidly to authorizations across the

As the trials progressed, Pfizer and BioNTech also scaled up factories

While Comirnaty has proven highly effective, it was initially a

In January, scientists grew concerned about the emergence of fast-

On March 31, Pfizer and BioNTech announced that their vaccine is

VACCINE NAME: mRNA-1273

The United States government bankrolled Moderna’s efforts,

Meanwhile, the company entered deals with several countries to

On Feb. 25, Moderna announced they were working to produce

On April 1, Moderna announced that it had received FDA authorization

For more details, see How Moderna’s Vaccine Works.

APPROVED FOR USE IN: Switzerland.

VACCINE NAME: CVnCoV

Last March, the Trump administration unsuccessfully tried to entice

In November, CureVac negotiated a deal to provide the European

Starting in January 2021, CureVac forged a series of partnerships with

VACCINE NAME: ZyCoV-D

In July, the Indian vaccine-maker Zydus Cadila began testing a DNA-

PHASE 2 PHASE 3 COMBINED PHASES

VACCINE NAME: AG0302-COVID19

On June 30, the Japanese biotechnology company AnGes launched a

VACCINE NAME: INO-4800

Before the pandemic, the Pennsylvania-based company Inovio

Inovio became embroiled in several lawsuits with stockholders and a

The California-based company Arcturus Therapeutics and Duke-NUS

In June, Chinese researchers at the Academy of Military Medical

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

Gennova Biopharmaceuticals in India and Seattle-based HDT Bio

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

GeneOne Life Science, a South Korean biotech company, developed a

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 COMBINED PHASES

The South Korean company Genexine started testing the safety of a