Single Phase AC

Single phase AC
By
Shashidhar Kasthala
Assistant Professor
Indian Naval Academy
INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 1

Course Template
 AC fundamentals, basics of single phase ac, elementary
generator, generation of alternating voltage and current, equations,
cycle, time period, frequency, amplitude, different forms of
equations.
 Representations of AC waves and vector presentation of current
and voltages
 RLC series, parallel circuits, impedance, impedance triangle,
power triangle, true power, reactive power, apparent power.
 Resonance phenomenon in RLC series and parallel circuits,
resonance frequency, Q-factor, bandwidth, power and power factor
in ac circuits.
 Transients in RLC circuits, types, time constant, harmonics in an
ac circuits, selective resonance due to harmonics, effect of
harmonics on measurement of inductance and capacitance.
Waveforms
If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a
base of time, the resulting graph is called a waveform
Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for,

although they vary considerably with time, they flow in one
direction only (i.e. they do not cross the time axis and
become negative).
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms
since their quantities are continually changing in direction
(i.e. alternately positive and negative).

A waveform of the type shown in Fig. (g) is called a
sine wave.
The time taken for an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is called the period or the periodic time,
T, of the waveform.
The number of cycles completed in one second is
called the frequency, f, of the supply and is measured in
hertz, Hz.

Determine the periodic time for frequencies of (a) 50 Hz
and (b) 20 kHz.

Determine the frequencies for periodic times of
(a) 4 ms (b) 4 μs.

A.C. values
Four ways of representing AC Values
1. Instantaneous Value
2. Peak Value
3. Average Value
4. RMS Value

Instantaneous values:
These are the values of the alternating quantities at
any instant of time. They are represented by small
letters, i, v, e, etc.,

Peak Value
The largest value reached in a half cycle is called

the peak value or the maximum value or the crest value or
the amplitude of the waveform.
Such values are represented by Vm , Im , Em , etc.
(see (f) and (g)). A peak-to-peak value of e.m.f. is shown
in Fig. (g) and is the difference between the maximum and
minimum values in a cycle.
Average Value
The average or mean value of a symmetrical
alternating quantity, (such as a sine wave), is the average
value measured over a half cycle, (since over a complete
cycle the average value is zero).

RMS Value
The effective value of an alternating current is that

current which will produce the same heating effect as an
equivalent direct current. The effective value is called
the root mean square (r.m.s.) value and whenever an
alternating quantity is given, it is assumed to be the rms
value.
Where n is the number of intervals

Form Factor:
In certain cases it is convenient to have

calculations at first upon the mean value of the emf over
half a period, therefore, it becomes essential to have
some reasons of connecting this mean value with the
effective or RMS value

Peak Factor:
Knowledge of peak factor of an alternating voltage

is very essential in connect ion with determining the
dielectric strength since the dielectric stresses developed
in any insulating material is proportional to the maximum
value of the voltage applied to it.

Calculate the RMS value of a sinusoidal current of
maximum value 20 A.
For a sine wave RMS value = 0.707 x maximum value

= 0.707 x 20
= 14.14 A

Determine the peak and mean values for a 240V mains
supply.
For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage

V = 0.707 x Vm.
A 240V mains supply means that 240V is the r.m.s. value,
hence
Mean value

A supply voltage has a mean value of 150 V. Determine
its maximum value and its r.m.s. value.
For a sine wave, mean value = 0.637x maximum value.

Hence
= 235.5 V
R.m.s. value = 0.707 x maximum value

= 0.707 x 235.5 = 166.5V

The equation of a sinusoidal waveform
After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned

through an angle ωt. If the line BC is constructed
perpendicular to 0A as shown, then

If all such vertical components are projected on
to a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine
curve results of maximum value 0A. Any quantity
which varies sinusoidally can thus be represented as
a phasor.

A sine curve may not always start at 0°. To show this a
periodic function is represented by ,
where is the phase (or angle) difference compared
with y = sin ωt.

An alternating voltage is given by v = 282.8 sin 314 t
volts. Find (a) the r.m.s. voltage, (b) the frequency and
(c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t = 4ms.
v = 282.8 sin 314 t with this general expression

gives the peak voltage as 282.8 V. Hence the
r.m.s. voltage = 0.707 x maximum value
= 0.707 x 282.8 = 200V

An alternating voltage is given by volts.
Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the peak-to-peak value,
(c) the r.m.s. value, (d) the periodic time,(e) the frequency,
and (f) the phase angle (in degrees and minutes) relative to

Purely resistive AC circuit
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and applied
voltage VR are in phase

Purely inductive a.c. circuit
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags
the applied voltage VL by 90°
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of

alternating current is called the inductive reactance,

(a) Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.32H when
it is connected to a 50Hz supply. (b) A coil has a reactance of
124 in a circuit with a supply of frequency 5 kHz. Determine
the inductance of the coil.
(a) Inductive reactance,

XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(0.32)
= 100.5π

Purely capacitive a.c. circuit
In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the

applied voltage VC by 90°
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of

alternating current is called the capacitive reactance

Determine the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 10 μF
when connected to a circuit of frequency 50 Hz
Capacitive reactance

Calculate the current taken by a 23 μF capacitor when
connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.

R–L series AC circuit
In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance
R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL
and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an
angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the
values of VR and VL), shown as angle .

Note: In any a.c. series circuit the current is common to
each component and is thus taken as the reference
phasor.
From the phasor diagram of Fig. the ‘voltage triangle’ is

derived.
For the R–L circuit:
and

In an a.c. circuit, the ratio applied voltage V to current I is
called the impedance, Z, i.e.
If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. is divided by

current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.

A coil has a resistance of 4 and an inductance of 9.55mH.
Calculate (a) the reactance, (b) the impedance, and (c) the
current taken from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine also
the phase angle between the supply voltage and current.
R = 4Ω , L = 9.55mH = 9.55x10-3H , f = 50Hz & V= 240V

XL = 2πfL = 2π(50)(9.55x 10-3) = 3Ω

The circuit and phasor diagrams and the voltage and
impedance triangles are as shown in Fig.

R–C series AC circuit
In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and
resistance R, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of
VR and VC and thus the current I leads the applied voltage
V by an angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on
the values of VR and VC ), shown as angle.

and
As stated in Section 15.4, in an a.c. circuit, the ratio

applied voltage V to current I is called the impedance Z,
i.e. Z = V/I
If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. is divided by
current I then the ‘impedance triangle’ is derived.

A resistor of 25 is connected in series with a capacitor of
45 μF. Calculate (a) the impedance, and (b) the current taken
from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Find also the phase angle
between the supply voltage and the current.
R = 25Ω C = 45μF = 45x10-6F f = 50Hz and V= 240V

Capacitive reactance,
R = 75.03Ω
Phase angle between the supply and current

R–L–C series AC circuit
In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R,
inductance L and capacitance C, the applied voltage V is the
phasor sum of VR,VL, and VC
VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180°, and there

are three phasor diagrams possible – each depending on the
relative values of VL and VC .
42
INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY
When XL = XC the applied voltage V and the current I are in
phase. This effect is called series resonance

A coil of resistance 5 and inductance 120mH in series with
a 100 μF capacitor, is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b) the phase
difference between the supply voltage and current, (c) the
voltage across the coil and (d) the voltage across the
capacitor.
44
Power in AC circuits
In Figures (a)–(c), the value of power at any instant is

given by the product of the voltage and current at that
instant, i.e. the instantaneous power,
p = vi, as shown by the broken lines.

(a) For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the
average power dissipated, P, is given by:
P = VI = I2R = V2/R watts (V and I being rms
values) See Fig. (a)
(b) For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the
average power is zero. See Fig. (b)
(c) For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the
average power is zero. See Fig. (c)

Figure shows current and voltage waveforms for an R–L
circuit where the current lags the voltage by angle . The
waveform for power (where p = vi) is shown by the broken
line, and its shape, and hence average power, depends
on the value of angle.
For an R–L, R–C or R–L–C series

a.c. circuit, the average power P is
given by:
(V and I being r.m.s. values)

An instantaneous current, i = 250 sin ωtm A flows through a
pure resistance of 5KΩ. Find the power dissipated in the
resistor.
Power dissipated,
If i = 250 sin ωtmA, then Im = 0.250A

and r.m.s. current, I = 0.707 x 0.250 A.
Hence power P = (0.707 x 0.250)2(5000)

=156.2watts.

A series circuit of resistance 60 and inductance 75mH is
connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz supply. Calculate the power
dissipated.
Inductive reactance,
Current, I = V/Z = 110/66.33 = 1.658 A.
50
Power triangle and power factor
Figure (a) shows a phasor diagram in which the current I lags
the applied voltage V by angle . The horizontal component of V
is Vcos and the vertical component of V is Vsin . If each of the
voltage phasors is multiplied by I, Fig. (b) is obtained and is
known as the ‘power triangle’.

The relationships stated above are also true when
current I leads voltage V.
A pure inductance is connected to a 150 V, 50 Hz supply,
and the apparent power of the circuit is 300VA. Find the
value of the inductance.
Apparent power S = VI.

Hence current I = S/V = 300/150 = 2 A.
Inductive reactance XL = V/I = 150/2 = 75.

Since XL = 2fL

A transformer has a rated output of 200 kVA at a power
factor of 0.8. Determine the rated power output and the
corresponding reactive power.
VI = 200 kVA = 200x 103 and p.f. = 0.8 x cos Φ.

Power output, P = VI cos Φ = (200x103) (0.8) = 160kW.
Reactive power, Q = VI sin Φ. If cosΦ = 0.8,
then Φ = cos-1 0.8 = 36.87°.
Hence sin Φ = sin 36.87° = 0.6.
Hence reactive power, Q =(200 x 103) (0.6) = 120 kvar.

In parallel circuits, the voltage is common to each
branch of the network and is thus taken as the
reference phasor when drawing phasor diagrams
For any parallel a.c. circuit:

R–L parallel AC circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing

resistance R and inductance L shown in Fig., the current
flowing in the resistance, IR, is in-phase with the supply
voltage V and the current flowing in the inductance, IL,
lags the supply voltage by 90°.
The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and

thus the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of IR
and IL), shown as angle Φ in the phasor diagram.

A 20 resistor is connected in parallel with an inductance of
2.387 mH across a 60 V, 1 kHz supply. Calculate (a) the
current in each branch, (b) the supply current, (c) the
circuit phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, and (e) the
power consumed.
(a) Current flowing in the resistor,
(b) From the phasor diagram, supply current

(c) Circuit phase angle,
(d) Circuit impedance,
(e) Power consumed

R–C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and

capacitance C shown in Fig. IR is in-phase with the supply
voltage V and the current flowing in the capacitor, IC, leads V
by 90°. The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC and
thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle
lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of IR and
IC), shown as angle Φ in the phasor diagram.

A 30 μF capacitor is connected in parallel with an 80 resistor
across a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the current in
each branch, (b) the supply current, (c) the circuit phase
angle, (d) the circuit impedance, (e) the power dissipated,
and (f) the apparent power
(a) Current in resistor,
Current in capacitor,

(b) Supply current,
(c) Circuit phase angle,
(e) True or active power dissipated,
(f) Apparent power,

L–C parallel circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing inductance L
and capacitance C shown in Fig. IL lags V by 90° and IC
leads V by 90°

Theoretically there are three phasor diagrams possible –
each depending on the relative values of IL and IC:
The latter condition is not possible in practice due to circuit

resistance inevitably being present
For the L–C parallel circuit,
I = phasor difference between IL and IC, and

A pure inductance of 120mH is connected in parallel with a 25
μF capacitor and the network is connected to a 100 V,50 Hz
supply. Determine (a) the branch currents, (b) the supply
current and its phase angle, (c) the circuit impedance, and (d)
the power consumed.
Capacitive reactance,
Current flowing in inductance,
Current flowing in capacitor,

(b) IL and IC are anti-phase, hence supply current
and the current lags the supply voltage V by 90°
(c) Circuit impedance,
(d) Power consumed,

LR–C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch circuit containing capacitance C in

parallel with inductance L and resistance R in series
(such as a coil) shown in Fig. (a), the phasor diagram for
the LR branch alone is shown in Fig. (b) and the phasor
diagram for the C branch is shown alone in Fig. (c).

Rotating each and superimposing on one another gives the
complete phasor diagram shown in Fig. (d)
The current ILR of Fig. (d) may be resolved into horizontal and
vertical components. The horizontal component, shown as op is ILR
cos Φ1 and the vertical component, shown as pq is ILR sin Φ1.
There are three possible conditions for this circuit:
A coil of inductance 159.2mH and resistance 40 is connected
in parallel with a 30 μF capacitor across a 240 V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate (a) the current in the coil and its phase
angle, (b) the current in the capacitor and its phase angle, (c)
the supply current and its phase angle, (d) the circuit
impedance, (e) the power consumed, (f) the apparent power,
and (g) the reactive power. Draw the phasor diagram.

Current in coil,
(b) Capacitive reactance,
= 2.262 A leading the supply

voltage by 90°
(c) The supply current I is the phasor sum of ILR and IC. This may be
obtained by drawing the phasor diagram to scale and measuring the

current I and its phase angle relative to V. (Current I will always be
the diagonal of the parallelogram formed as in Fig. (b)).
Alternatively the current ILR and IC may be resolved into their
horizontal (or ‘in-phase’) and vertical (or ‘quadrature’) components.

The horizontal component of ILR is: ILR cos 51.34° = 3.748 cos 51.34°
= 2.341 A.

The horizontal component of IC is IC cos 90° = 0
Thus the total horizontal component, IH = 2.341A
The vertical component of ILR
=- ILR sin 51.34° =- 3.748 sin 51.34° =- 2.927A

The vertical component of IC
= IC sin 90° = 2.262 sin 90° = 2.262A

Thus the total vertical component,
IV =- 2.927 + 2.262 =- 0.665A

IH and IV are shown in Fig, from which
Hence the supply current I = 2.434A lagging V by 15.86°
(e) Power consumed,

(f) Apparent power,
S = VI =(240)(2.434) = 584.2VA
(g) Reactive power,

Q = VI sinΦ = (240)(2.434)(sin 15.86°)
= 159.6 var

Series resonance ( Voltage resonance)
For an R–L–C series circuit, when XL = XC (Fig. (d)), the applied
voltage V and the current I are in phase. This effect is called
series resonance. At resonance:
(i) VL = VC
(ii) Z = R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance possible in an LCR
circuit)
(iii) I = V/R (i.e. the maximum current possible in an L–C–R circuit)
(iv) Since XL = XC, then 2πfrL = 1/2πfrC from which,
where fr is the resonant frequency

(v) The series resonant circuit is often described as an
acceptor circuit since it has its minimum impedance, and
thus maximum current, at the resonant frequency.
(vi) Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z against
frequency are shown in Fig.

A coil having a resistance of 10Ω and an inductance of
125mH is connected in series with a 60 μF capacitor
across a 120V supply. At what frequency does resonance
occur? Find the current flowing at the resonant frequency.
Resonant frequency,
= 58.12 Hz
At resonance, XL = XC and impedance Z = R.

Hence current, I = V/R = 120/10 = 12A.
Q-factor
At resonance, if R is small compared with XL and XC, it is
possible for VL and VC to have voltages many times greater
than the supply voltage
Alternatively,

At resonance
Hence

A coil of inductance 80mH and negligible resistance is
connected in series with a capacitance of 0.25 μF and a
resistor of resistance 12.5 across a 100 V, variable
frequency supply. Determine (a) the resonant frequency,
and (b) the current at resonance. How many times greater
than the supply voltage is the voltage across the
reactance’s at resonance?
(a) Resonant frequency
= 1125.4Hz or 1.1254 kHz
(b) Current at resonance

I = V/R = 100/12.5 = 8A

Voltage across inductance, at resonance,
Voltage magnification at resonance = VL/V or VC/V = 4525.5/100

= 45.255 i.e. at resonance, the voltage across the reactance’s
are 45.255 times greater than the supply voltage. Hence the Q-
factor of the circuit is 45.255

A series circuit comprises a coil of resistance 2 and
inductance 60mH, and a 30 μF capacitor. Determine the
Q-factor of the circuit at resonance.
At resonance,

Bandwidth and selectivity
Fig. shows how current I varies with frequency in an R–L–C
series circuit. At the resonant frequency fr, current is a
maximum value, shown as Ir. Also shown are the points A
and B where the current is 0.707 of the maximum value at

frequencies f1 and f2.

The power delivered to the circuit is I2R. At I = 0.707 Ir, the
power is (0.707 Ir)2R = 0.5 Ir2R, i.e. half the power that
occurs at frequency fr. The points corresponding to f1 and f2
are called the half-power points. The distance between
these points, i.e. (f2 - f1), is called the bandwidth.
It may be shown that

A filter in the form of a series L–R–C circuit is designed to
operate at a resonant frequency of 5 kHz. Included within
the filter is a 20mH inductance and 10 resistance.
Determine the bandwidth of the filter.
Q-factor at resonance is given by:
= 62.83

Selectivity
Selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond more

readily to signals of a particular frequency to which it is
tuned than to signals of other frequencies. The response
becomes progressively weaker as the frequency departs
from the resonant frequency.

The higher the Q-factor, the narrower the bandwidth and the
more selective is the circuit. Circuits having high Q-factors
(say, in the order of 100 to 300) are therefore useful in
communications engineering.
A high Q-factor in a series power circuit has disadvantages

in that it can lead to dangerously high voltages across the
insulation and may result in electrical breakdown.

Parallel resonance ( Current resonance)
Resonance occurs in the two branch network containing

capacitance C in parallel with inductance L and resistance R
in series when the quadrature (i.e. vertical) component of
current ILR is equal to IC. At this condition the supply current I
is in-phase with the supply voltage V.

Resonant frequency
When the quadrature component of ILR is equal to IC
then: IC = ILR sin Φ1
Hence
from which,
Hence

Current at resonance
Current at resonance,
The current is at a minimum at resonance

Rejector circuit
The parallel resonant circuit is often described as a

rejector circuit since it presents its maximum
impedance at the resonant frequency and the resultant
current is a minimum.

Q-factor
Currents higher than the supply current can circulate

within the parallel branches of a parallel resonant circuit,
the current leaving the capacitor and establishing the
magnetic field of the inductor, this then collapsing and
recharging the capacitor, and so on.
The Q-factor of a parallel resonant circuit is the ratio of

the current circulating in the parallel branches of the
circuit to the supply current, i.e. the current magnification.

Q-factor at resonance = current magnification
Note: that in a parallel circuit the Q-factor is a measure of current

magnification, whereas in a series circuit it is a measure of voltage
magnification.

A pure inductance of 150mH is connected in parallel with a 40
μF capacitor across a 50 V, variable frequency supply.
Determine (a) the resonant frequency of the circuit and
(b) the current circulating in the capacitor and inductance at
resonance.
(a) Parallel resonant frequency,
However, resistance R = 0, hence,
= 64.97 Hz

(b) Current circulating in L and C at resonance
Hence

Power factor improvement
For a particular power supplied, a high power factor
reduces the current flowing in a supply system and
therefore reduces the cost of cables, switchgear,
transformers and generators. Supply authorities use
tariffs which encourage electricity consumers to operate
at a reasonably high power factor.
Industrial loads such as a.c. motors are essentially

inductive (R–L) and may have a low power factor. One
method of improving (or correcting) the power factor of an
inductive load is to connect a static capacitor C in parallel
with the load

The supply current is reduced from ILR to I, the phasor sum
of ILR and IC, and the circuit power factor improves from cos
Φ1 to cos Φ2

A single-phase motor takes 50A at a power factor of 0.6
lagging from a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the current
taken by a capacitor connected in parallel with the motor to
correct the power factor to unity, and (b) the value of the
supply current after power factor correction.
A power factor of 0.6 lagging means that cosΦ= 0.6 i.e.

Φ=cos-1 0.6 = 53.13°
Hence IM lags V by 53.13° as shown in Fig. (b).
If the power factor is to be improved to unity then the

phase difference between supply current I and voltage V
needs to be 0°, i.e. I is in phase with V as shown in Fig. (c).
For this to be so, IC must equal the length ab, such that the
phasor sum of IM and IC is I.

ab =IM sin 53.13° = 50(0.8) = 40A
Hence the capacitor current Ic must be 40A for the power

factor to be unity.
(b) Supply current I = IM cos 53.13° = 50(0.6) = 30A.

A 400V alternator is supplying a load of 42 kW at a power
factor of 0.7 lagging. Calculate (a) the kVA loading and
(b) the current taken from the alternator. (c) If the power
factor is now raised to unity find the new kVA loading.
(a) Power = VI cos Φ = (VI) (power factor)
(b) VI = 60000VA
(c) The kVA loading remains at 60 kVA irrespective of changes

in power factor.

Transients
When a d.c. voltage is applied to a capacitor C and

resistor R connected in series, there is a short period of
time immediately after the voltage is connected, during
which the current flowing in the circuit and voltages across
C and R are changing.

Similarly, when a d.c. voltage is connected to a circuit
having inductance L connected in series with resistance
R, there is a short period of time immediately after the
voltage is connected, during which the current flowing in
the circuit and the voltages across L and R are changing.
These changing values are called transients.

Charging a capacitor
(a) The circuit diagram for a series connected C–R circuit is

shown in Fig. When switch S is closed then by Kirchhoff’s
voltage law:

(b) The battery voltage V is constant. The capacitor
voltage VC is given by q/C, where q is the charge on the
capacitor. The voltage drop across R is given by iR, where
i is the current flowing in the circuit. Hence at all times:
(1)
At the instant of closing S, (initial circuit condition),

assuming there is no initial charge on the capacitor, q0 is
zero, hence vCo is zero. Thus from Equation (1), V = 0 +
vRo, i.e. vRo = V. This shows that the resistance to current is
solely due to R, and the initial current flowing,
i0 = I = V/R (2)

(c) A short time later at time t1 seconds after closing S, the
capacitor is partly charged to, say, q1 coulombs because current
has been flowing. The voltage vC1 is now (q1/C) volts. If the current
flowing is i1 amperes, then the voltage drop across R has fallen to
i1R volts. Thus, Equation (2) is now
V = (q1/C) C+ i1R

(d) A short time later still, say at time t2 seconds after closing the
switch, the charge has increased to q2 coulombs and vC has
increased to (q2/C) volts. Since V = vC + vR and V is a constant,
then vR decreases to i2R, Thus vC is increasing and i and vR are
decreasing as time increases.
(e) Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S, (i.e. at the final or

steady state condition), the capacitor is fully charged to, say, Q
coulombs, current no longer flows, i.e. i = 0, and hence vR = iR =
0. It follows from Equation (1) that vC = V

(f) Curves showing the changes in vC, vR and i with time are shown
in Fig.
The curve showing the variation of vC with time is called an
exponential growth curve and the graph is called the

‘capacitor voltage/time’ characteristic. The curves showing
the variation of vR and i with time are called exponential
decay curves, and the graphs are called ‘resistor

voltage/time’ and ‘current/time’ characteristics respectively

Time constant for a C–R circuit
(a) If a constant d.c. voltage is applied to a series connected
C–R circuit, a transient curve of capacitor voltage vC is as
shown in Fig
(b) With reference to Fig, let the constant voltage supply be

replaced by a variable voltage supply at time t1 seconds. Let the
voltage be varied so that the current flowing in the circuit is
constant.

(c) Since the current flowing is a constant, the curve will
follow a tangent, AB, drawn to the curve at point A.
(d) Let the capacitor voltage vC reach its final value of V at

time t2 seconds.
(e) The time corresponding to t2 t1 seconds is called the time

constant of the circuit, denoted by the Greek letter ‘tau’, . The
value of the time constant is CR seconds, i.e. for a series
connected C–R circuit,
time constant t = CR seconds

Since the variable voltage mentioned in paragraph (b)
above can be applied at any instant during the transient
change, it may be applied at t = 0, i.e. at the instant of
connecting the circuit to the supply. If this is done, then
the time constant of the circuit may be defined as: ‘the
time taken for a transient to reach its final state if the initial
rate of change is maintained’.

A circuit consists of a resistor connected in series with a
0.5 μF capacitor and has a time constant of 12 ms.
Determine: (a) the value of the resistor, and (b) the
capacitor voltage, 7 ms after connecting the circuit to a
10V supply.
(a) The time constant = CR,
hence
= 24 x 103 = 24 kΩ
The equation for the growth of capacitor voltage is:
= 4.42 V
Current growth in an L–R circuit
(a) The circuit diagram for a series connected L–R circuit is
shown in Fig. When switch S is closed, then by Kirchhoff’s
voltage law:
… (3)

The battery voltage V is constant. The voltage across the
inductance is the induced voltage, i.e.
The voltage drop across R, VR is given by iR. Hence,

at all times:
… (4)

(c) At the instant of closing the switch, the rate of change of
current is such that it induces an e.m.f. in the inductance
which is equal and opposite to V, hence V = VL + 0, i.e.
VL = V. From Equation (3), because VL = V, then VR = 0 and
i = 0.

(d) A short time later at time t1 seconds after closing S,
current i1 is flowing, since there is a rate of change of
current initially, resulting in a voltage drop of i1R across the
resistor. Since V (which is constant) = VL + VR the induced
e.m.f. is reduced, and Equation (4) becomes:

(e) A short time later still, say at time t2 seconds after closing the
switch, the current flowing is i2, and the voltage drop across the
resistor increases to i2R. Since VR increases, VL decreases.
(f) Ultimately, a few seconds after closing S, the current flow is

entirely limited by R, the rate of change of current is zero and
hence VL is zero. Thus V = iR. Under these conditions, steady
state current flows, usually signified by I. Thus, I = V/R, VR = IR
and VL = 0 at steady state conditions.

(g) Curves showing the changes in VL, VR and i with time
are shown in Fig. and indicate that VL is a maximum value
initially (i.e. equal to V), decaying exponentially to zero,
whereas VR and i grow exponentially from zero to their
steady state values of V and I = V/R respectively

Time constant for an L–R circuit

A coil of inductance 0.04H and resistance 10 Ωis connected
to a 120 V, d.c. supply. Determine (a) the final value of
current, (b) the time constant of the circuit, (c) the value of
current after a time equal to the time constant from the
instant the supply voltage is connected, (d) the expected
time for the current to rise to within 1 per cent of its final
value.
(a) Final steady current
(b) Time constant of the circuit,
(c) In the time τ s the current rises to 63.2 per cent of its final
value of 12A, i.e. in 4 ms the current rises to 0.632 x 12 = 7.58A.
(d) The expected time for the current to rise to within 1 per cent
of its final value is given by 5 τ s, i.e. 5 x 4 = 20 ms.
The winding of an electromagnet has an inductance of 3H
and a resistance of 15. When it is connected to a 120 V,
d.c. supply, calculate: (a) the steady state value of current
flowing in the winding, (b) the time constant of the circuit,
(c) the value of the induced e.m.f. after 0.1 s, (d) the time
for the current to rise to 85 per cent of its final value, and
(e) the value of the current after 0.3 s.
(a) The steady state value of current,
(b) The time constant of the circuit,

(c) The induced e.m.f., VL is given by VL = Ve-t/τ.
The d.c. voltage V is 120 V, t is 0.1 s and τ is 0.2 s, hence
=72.78 V
(d) When the current is 85 per cent of its final value,

i = 0.85 I. Also, i = I(1- e-t/t) thus
ln e = 1, hence time t = 0.2 ln 6.6 = 0.379 s

(e) The current at any instant is given by i = I(1 – e-t/t) then I
= 8, t = 0.3 and t = 0.2, then

Harmonics
The waveform which we consider in power transmission is of

sinusoidal waveform or shape. Such a waveform is an ideal one
and it is nearly impossible to realize such waveform in practice.
Though modern alternators are designed to give a terminal

voltage which approaches very close to a sine wave but under
certain conditions both current and voltage may be distorted
very considerably

(i) Let an instantaneous voltage v be represented by v = Vm
sinπ2ft volts. This is a waveform which varies sinusoidally with
time t, has a frequency f, and a maximum value Vm. Alternating
voltages are usually assumed to have wave-shapes which are
sinusoidal where only one frequency is present. If the waveform
is not sinusoidal it is called a complex wave, and, whatever its
shape, it may be split up mathematically into components called
the fundamental and a number of harmonics.
This process is called harmonic analysis. The fundamental (or

first harmonic) is sinusoidal and has the supply frequency, f; the
other harmonics are also sine waves having frequencies which
are integer multiples of f. Thus, if the supply frequency is 50 Hz,
then the third harmonic frequency is 150 Hz, the fifth 250 Hz,
and so on.

(ii) A complex waveform comprising the sum of the fundamental and
a third harmonic of about half the amplitude of the fundamental is
shown in Fig. (a), both waveforms being initially in phase with each
other. If further odd harmonic waveforms of the appropriate
amplitudes are added, a good approximation to a square wave
results. In Fig. (b), the third harmonic is shown having an initial
phase displacement from the fundamental.

The alternating emf (or voltage) of any waveform can,
therefore, be represented by the general equation
e= E1maxsinwt + E3maxsin(3wt + α3)+ E5maxsin(5wt + α5)….

Where E1max, E3max, E5max etc. are the amplitudes of the
fundamental and harmonic waves, ω = 2πf, f being the
fundamental frequency,
and the angles α3, α5 are the phase angle of the
harmonics w.r.to fundamental

If the instantaneous voltage is
V= V0 + V1maxsin(wt + α1) + V3maxsin(2wt + α2)+ ….

then
The RMS value of non-sinusoidal voltage is the square

root of the sum of the squared values of the direct
component and the RMS values of the individual harmonic
components.
The RMS value is independent of phase angles

Similarly the RMS value of a non-sinusoidal current is
the square root of the sum of the squared values of the
direct component and the rms value of t eh individual
harmonic components

A complex voltage e = 100sinwt + 50sin3wt + 25sin5wt is
applied to a resistance of 20Ω. Compute the rms value of
current and voltage. Fundemental frequency is 50 Hz
= 5sinwt + 2.5sin3wt + 1.25sin5wt
RMS value of the current,
= 4.05 A
RMS value of the voltage,
= 81 V

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Single phase AC

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 1

Waveforms (a) and (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for,

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 4

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 5

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 6

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 7

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 8

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 9

The largest value reached in a half cycle is called

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 11

The effective value of an alternating current is that

Where n is the number of intervals

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 13

In certain cases it is convenient to have

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 15

Knowledge of peak factor of an alternating voltage

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 16

For a sine wave RMS value = 0.707 x maximum value

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 17

For a sine wave, r.m.s. value of voltage

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 18

For a sine wave, mean value = 0.637x maximum value.

R.m.s. value = 0.707 x maximum value

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 19

After time t seconds the vector 0A has turned

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 20

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 21

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 22

v = 282.8 sin 314 t with this general expression

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 24

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 26

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 28

In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 29

(a) Inductive reactance,

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 30

In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the

In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 31

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 32

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 33

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 34

From the phasor diagram of Fig. the ‘voltage triangle’ is

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 35

If each side of the voltage triangle in Fig. is divided by

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 36

R = 4Ω , L = 9.55mH = 9.55x10-3H , f = 50Hz & V= 240V

(a) Inductive reactance,

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 37

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 38

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 39

As stated in Section 15.4, in an a.c. circuit, the ratio

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 40

R = 25Ω C = 45μF = 45x10-6F f = 50Hz and V= 240V

Phase angle between the supply and current

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 41

VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180°, and there

INDIAN NAVAL ACADEMY 43

In Figures (a)–(c), the value of power at any instant is