Daoist Studies 03

Stress Management and the Zhuangzi
Robert Santee
Journal of Daoist Studies, Volume 1, 2008, pp. 93-123 (Article)
Published by University of Hawai'i Press

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/dao.2008.0003
For additional information about this article

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/634893/summary
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Stress Management and the Zhuangzi
ROBERT SANTEE
Abstract
This paper examines the relevance of the teachings of the Zhuangzi to addressing
stress and the physical and psychological problems associated with it. It views
the teachings of the Zhuangzi within the context of two basic approaches to ad‑
dressing stress: the cognitive approach and the experiential approach. And it
explores the relationship between the teachings of the Zhuangzi and mind/body
medicine, psychonueroimmunology, and cognitive therapy within the frame‑
work of stress management.
Stress is a fundamental problem in the United States. It compromises
physical health, psychological well‑being, interpersonal relationships,
occupational performance, and is noticeably linked to illness and disease.
The “Stress in America Survey” (N=1848) by the American Psychological
Association (APA), released October 24, 2007, clearly indicates that adult
Americans view their lives as quite stressful (2007). Results indicate that
79% believe that stress is a normal part of life, with 32% indicating ex‑
treme levels of stress and 17% noting that their highest levels of stress are
experienced fifteen or more days a month. 77% reported experiencing
stress‑related physical symptoms within the last month (46% indicated
their physical health was compromised). 73% noted psychological symp‑
toms in the last month due to stress (49% indicated their emotional well‑
being was compromised). 48% reported stress‑related sleeping problems
with an average loss of 21 hours of sleep per month. 43% linked stress as
having an impact on diet while 36% noted that a meal was skipped be‑
cause of stress. 54% indicated that as a result of stress, within the last
month, they had interpersonal relationship problems.
93
94 / Journal of Daoist Studies 1 (2008)
Spector indicates that occupational stress has a significant impact on
the overall health of employees (2002, 133‑34). The National Institute of
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), reporting the results from a
series of separate surveys of employees, noted that 75% felt that there
was more “on‑the‑ job stress today than there was a generation ago,”
40% indicated that their job was “very or extremely stressful,” and 29%
reported they felt “quite a bit or extremely stressed at work” (Sauter et
al., 1999). The “Stress in America Survey” indicated 55% of respondents
felt that their job performance/productivity suffered as a result of stress,
while 52% noted they have made/considered a decision about their ca‑
reer because of workplace stress (APA 2007).
For the existential psychotherapist Irvin Yalom, stress is part of the
human condition to varying degrees. He says that psychopathology re‑
flects the individual’s problematic defense mechanisms relative to coping
with stressors in the environment and notes:
How then, one may ask, can a theory of psychopathology rest
on factors that are experienced by every individual? The an‑
swer, of course, is that each person experiences the stress of the
human condition in highly individualized fashion. . . The
overwhelming majority of patients suffer from stress that to
differing degrees is part of every person’s experience. . . The
universality of stress is one of the major reasons that scholars
encounter such difficulty when attempting to define and de‑
scribe normality: the difference between normality and pathol‑
ogy is quantitative, not qualitative. (Yalom 1980, 11‑12)
Given the wide range of problems associated with stress and the fact that
it appears to be part of the human condition, it is important to under‑
stand what exactly stress is and to find and utilize various teachings,
methods, approaches, and techniques to address, cope with, and reduce
it. As individuals are highly diverse, they have to have a variety of op‑
tions to select the teachings and techniques that best fit their personality
relative to addressing and reducing stress.
One set of teachings that appear relevant to reducing stress are
those of Daoism. Kohn notes that Daoist techniques for cultivating the
body are beneficial for addressing stress, improving health, and nurtur‑
ing well‑being (2006a, 3‑5, 16). Ivanhoe argues that the Zhuangzi 莊子
Santee, “Stress Management and the Zhuangzi” / 95
employs the notion that all perspectives are equal as a therapeutic proc‑
ess to help free individuals from their narrow perspectives, release them
from excessive dependency on the intellect, reduce anxiety and conflict,
and assist them in finding their place in the world (1996, 209‑10). Utiliz‑
ing this healing aspect of Daoist teachings as the framework of the paper,
it focuses on determining which specific practices or methods, from the
Zhuangzi are amenable to understanding, addressing, coping with, re‑
ducing, and eliminating stress.
Stress
The natural mechanism that human beings have received over millennia
through the process of heredity to assist them in adapting to the envi‑
ronment is known as the stress response. McEwen argues that the activa‑
tion of the stress response is the body’s natural reaction to demands in
both internal and external environments (1998, 171‑72; McEwen and
Lasley 2002, 5‑7). At its extreme, where there is a perceived threat to
well‑being, it is known as the fight‑or‑flight response. The body goes
through a series of physiological changes: increased heart rate; higher
blood pressure; contracting and dilating of blood vessels; rapid, shallow
breathing; increased blood sugar levels; hyper‑arousal and hyper‑
vigilance; the generation of anxiety; tensing of muscles; increased levels
of stress hormones such as adrenalin (epinephrine), noradrenalin (nore‑
pinephrine) and glucocorticoids (cortisol); and increased sweating in or‑
der to warn the individual of the potential threat and to assist, through
the re‑distribution of energy, the individual in addressing and resolving
the threat (Santee 2007; see also McGrady 2007).
If the fight‑or‑flight response cannot assist the individual in ad‑
dressing and resolving a perceived threat and remains activated due to
the individual’s continual thoughts about it, normal adaptive physiologi‑
cal changes that were only supposed to be short‑term become long‑term.
At this point the physiological changes become maladaptive and can
harm the body.
Sapolsky notes that the fight‑or‑flight response can be activated by
our mere anticipation of an event and/or our worrying about a certain
state of affairs (2001, 7‑8). In other words, our mere thoughts can create
stress with all its physiological changes, even though there is no obvious,
real, physical threat in the environment. Unlike its activation by a real,
physical threat which is deactivated once the threat is no longer present
or has been successfully addressed, its stimulation by the individual’s
thoughts is maintained until the individual stops thinking or worrying
about the potential, imagined threat.
Nesse and Williams point out that the anxiety associated with the
fight‑or‑flight response can be useful insofar as the physiological changes
it causes allows people to address an immediate and real threat by either
fleeing or fighting. They also note that while it is clear that anxiety can be
useful, in many situations it is not because there is no real threat \which
it can address and resolve. In fact, the continual activation of the fight‑or‑
flight response and the presence of anxiety harm the body (1996, 212‑14).
McEwen, and McEwen and Wingfield refer to the activation of the
natural stress response as allostasis (McEwen 1998, 171‑72; McEwen and
Wingfield 2003, 2‑4). When the threat or challenge is resolved, the system
is inactivated or turns off. When the stress response is not allowed to
turn off, on the other hand, the physiological changes are maintained
and can be quite harmful. McEwen calls the continual activation of the
stress response the allostatic load (1998, 172‑77; 2003, 200). He also notes
that not only can the response be activated and maintained by the indi‑
vidual by simply envisioning a threat; it can also be generated and main‑
tained by how an individual treats his or her body (1998, 171, 175‑77;
McEwen and Lasley 2002, 9‑10). Poor diet, inadequate sleep, and lack of
exercise can all lead to chronic stress. 1
Kemeny indicates that in acute situations the activation of the stress
response is adaptive, but when it is not allowed to turn off, it is detri‑
mental— cognitively and physically—to the individual (2003, 126). Ste‑
fano, Fricchione, Slingsby, and Benson note that the physiological
mechanisms associated with the stress response evolved to address acute
threats not chronic threats. They argue that chronic stress can compro‑
mise immune system functioning and point out that an individual can
create it simply though his or her perception of and continued thinking
about or dwelling upon a stressor (2001, 7).
1 For more on stress, see Seyle (1984), Jones and Bright (2001), Esch, Stefano,
Fricchione, and Benson (2002), McEwen and Wingfield (2002), and Lovallo (2005).
Kroenke and Manglesdorff after reviewing the records of 1,000 out‑
patients from an internal medicine clinic, across a three year period,
found that only 16% of the presenting common symptoms could be ex‑
plained by an organic diagnosis (1989, 262‑63). 10% of the symptoms
were classified as being “psychologic” in origin. The etiology of the re‑
maining 74% could not be explained. They suggest that psychosocial fac‑
tors such as stress may be associated with many unexplained symptoms
and conclude that an approach only focusing on organic causes as an
explanation for common symptoms may not be adequate (1989, 265).
Sobel argues that medical practitioners need to treat patients in a
more holistic manner, such that mind/body interventions are integrated
into treatment (1995, 242). He clearly connects patient thoughts, attitudes,
and social support to varying degrees with the beginning, development,
continuation, and management of disease and cites research by Kaiser
Permanente indicating that over 60% of office visits to medical doctors
were “by the worried well” (1995, 234‑39). In other words, no organic
based medical diagnosis for the presenting symptoms was obtained.
Benson, in his testimony before the United States Senate, citing re‑
search‑based evidence, noted that 60 to 90% of all office visits to medical
doctors in the United States have no identifiable or measurable physio‑
logical correlate which can be diagnosed or determined as the cause of
patients’ symptoms. He indicated that the symptoms were associated
with “stress and other mind/body interactions,” then defined stress as
the “perception of a threat or danger that requires behavioral change”
and noted that physiological changes occurring as a result of stress are
also known as the fight‑or‑flight response (1998, 3‑4).
Psychoneuroimmunology
Ader and Cohen established a clear link between biological and psycho‑
logical processes by demonstrating that the immune system processes
could be modified though classical conditioning (1975, 338‑39). This was
one of the seminal studies in the field of psychoneuroimmunology. Ader
describes psychoneuroimmunology as the study of the reciprocal rela‑
tionship between behavior, the brain, the nervous system, the endocrine
system, and the immune system. He indicates that the immune system is
compromised by stress, but the reduction in its performance is contin‑
gent upon a series of variables such as age, context, and the nature of the
antigen (2001, 94‑95). He notes that the overwhelming evidence support‑
ing the relationship between behavior, the brain, the nervous system, the
endocrine system, and the immune system requires a paradigm shift that
must integrate immunological responses with an individual’s cognitive
and behavioral responses to environmental contexts (2001, 94, 97).
Herbert and Cohen in their meta‑analysis of the relationship be‑
tween clinical depression and the immune system found solid evidence
indicating that clinical depression alters immune system processes and
linked it to the physiological systems associated with the stress response
(1993, 481‑82). McGrady notes that the latter consists of two fundamental
physiological systems: 1) the sympathetic nervous system and the adre‑
nal medualla, and 2) the hypothalmic‑pituitary‑adrenal cortex axis (2007,
19‑20). He indicated that chronic activation of the stress response in‑
creases the potential for problems with self‑care, attention, judgment,
selectivity, sleep, short and long term memory, diet, mood, anxiety, ex‑
cessive worrying, panic, the immune system, stress‑related illnesses,
neurotransmitter levels, breathing (hyperventilation), heart rate, self‑
destructive behaviors (alcohol and drug abuse), energy levels, muscular
tension, and chronic pain (McGrady 2007, 19‑22).
Ray indicates that not only are beliefs, thoughts and behaviors asso‑
ciated with health and illness, but they are also clearly linked to the three
leading causes of death in the United States. (2004, 38‑39). He notes that
research continues to validate the mind/body relationship and that a “bi‑
opsychosocial model” is necessary to best address both illness and well‑
being. (2004, 38‑39).
Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive therapists Beck and Weishaar argue that processing informa‑
tion is an integral aspect of an organism’s ability to survive and adapt to
environmental contexts. The structures and organization of processed
information are known as cognitive schemas. These filter, guide, and
evaluate the individual’s experiences in the world (2005, 238‑39). Beck
and Weishaar also indicate that at its most primitive or survival level, the
human being processes information in a self‑serving, unquestioned, in‑
flexible, and mechanical manner (2005, 245). The perception of the threat
activates the stress response which in turn assists the individual cogni‑
tively, affectively, behaviorally, and motivationally in addressing the per‑
ceived threat. When the threat is resolved, the stress dissipates.
While this “primal thinking” may have been functional relative to
our survival, it can be dysfunctional in the normal course of events if
precipitated by imagined, unrealistic or insoluble threats (Beck and Wei‑
shaar 2005, 239, 248). Once a threat is perceived, even though it is imag‑
ined, unrealistic and/or insoluble, the stress response is still activated
and the individual experiences stress. Normal reasoning is compromised
and primal thinking surfaces. Insofar as the stress response is unable to
assist in eliminating the threat, the threat remains and primal thinking
dominates. This leads to ongoing primal thinking, cognitive distortions,
and chronic stress.
Beck and Weishaar further suggest that cognitive distortions are
“systematic errors in reasoning” which occur “during psychological dis‑
tress” (2005, 247). If, for example, a stressed individual is locked into
black and white, dichotomous, or polarized thinking such that he or she
is only able to perceive or experience an event as, for example, being ei‑
ther good or bad, right or wrong, or correct or incorrect, then the indi‑
vidual is manifesting a cognitive distortion (Pretzer and Beck 2007, 483).
Magnification (making something far more important or significant than
warranted) or minimizing (making something far less important/ or sig‑
nificant than warranted) are other examples of cognitive distortion (Beck
and Weishaar 2005, 246‑47). Pretzer and Beck indicate that cognitive
therapy (client and therapist) would focus on addressing, restructuring,
and changing any errors in thinking (schemas, cognitive distortions, etc.)
such that the individual will be able to reduce stress and functionally
adapt to various environmental contexts (2007, 486‑487).
Albert Ellis, the creator of Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy
(REBT), argues that emotional and behavioral dysfunctionality is due
primarily to irrational beliefs (2005, 166‑69). He indicates people who
hold irrational beliefs, which are unconditional, rigid, dogmatic, and ab‑
solute, and refuse to accept reality, tend to significantly stress themselves
(2001, 81‑82). Ellis and MacLaren indicate that at the core of the irrational
beliefs are three absolute, unrealistic musts or demands that the person
requires to be happy and significantly impact the individual’s ability to
adapt to their environment: those regarding the individual: I must do
well, I must succeed, I must get what I want, etc.; those regarding others:
everybody must behave the way that I expect them to, etc.; and those
regarding the context: everything in my universe must be exactly as I
want, etc. (2003, 32‑34). When these musts are not met, the individual is
threatened absolutely (I can’t stand it, I am worthless, I am inadequate, I
am a failure, I am doomed, I have no options, it is awful, it is terrible, it is
a catastrophe, etc.), which results in emotional and behavioral stress such
as anxiety, depression, and hostility (2003, 34‑36).
The therapeutic intervention from the perspective of REBT is to con‑
front and dispute the irrational beliefs by asking the client to provide the
evidence that you absolutely must always do well, get what you want,
never feel uncomfortable, etc. As the absolute beliefs are irrational and
illogical, the client is unable to provide the evidence. The irrational
thoughts are then replaced with more rational or preference‑based
thoughts such as: I would prefer to do well, I would prefer to get what I
want, I would prefer not to feel uncomfortable, etc. These new rational
thoughts are then linked to more positive changes in feelings and behav‑
iors (Ellis 2001; 2005; Ellis and MacLaren 2003).
Ellis as well as Beck and Weishaar note that the integration of and
reciprocal relationship between the individual’s cognitive, emotional and
behavioral components is required to address, respond and adapt to the
environment (Ellis 2001 18‑19; 2005, 166; Beck and Weishaar 2005, 239).
In other words, the individual is essentially, thinking, feeling and behav‑
ing simultaneously. They also note that information processing is bio‑
logically based, an ability that evolved in organisms to assist them in
adapting to their environments (Ellis, 2001, 18; Beck and Weishaar 2005,
239). There is considerable research supporting the efficacy of their re‑
spective therapeutic approaches across a number of areas (Beck and Wei‑
shaar 2005, 243; Ellis 2005, 173; Roth and Fonagy 2005, 480‑90).
The Zhuangzi and Stress

The sense of chronic stress permeating all aspects of human life is
pointed out early on in the Zhuangzi. The consequences of chronic stress
on body and mind is plainly seen, as in the following selection, in com‑
promised sleep, inability to focus, apprehensiveness, a sense of being
overwhelmed, distractibility, obsessiveness, loss of control, self‑doubting,
and eventual demise. The text says:
When people are asleep, their spirits are knotted up. When
they are awake, their form is scattered. Interacting in the world
creates entanglements. Daily their mind/hearts battle: plodding,
concealing, and tentative. Their small fears result in apprehen‑
siveness.Their large fears result in being overwhelmed. In
judging right and wrong, their words shoot out as if an arrow
was released from a bow. They hold onto their judgments as if
they were sacred oaths. Guarding what they call their victory,
they are executed like autumn moving into winter. (3/2/10‑12) 2
Given the evidence cited from mind/body medicine, psychoneuro‑

immunology, and cognitive therapy regarding the chronic activation of
the stress response and how it harms the body, the Zhuangzi appears
prophetic. The following selection from the text is clearly indicative of
irrational thinking (musts) and cognitive distortions (dichotomous think‑
ing) and how these types of cognitive processing are related to stress and
negatively affect the body. People create a dichotomous world of enjoy‑
ment/suffering, rich/poor, right/wrong, life/death, approval/disapproval,
respect/disrespect, high status/low status, comfort/discomfort, etc., and
then tell themselves and others that in order to be happy they absolutely
must attain the positive component of the dichotomy. Otherwise they
will be unhappy. It notes:
That which is respected in the world is wealth, status, longev‑
ity and approval. That which is enjoyment is a comfortable life,
tasty food, beautiful clothes, pleasant sights and sweet sounds.
That which is not respected is poverty, dishonor, dying young
and disapproval.
2 All translations and interpretations of the Zhuangzi are my own. The for‑
mat 3/2/10‑12 indicates the page/chapter/lines in HYSIS 20 (Guo 1956). I use the
Zhuangzi jishi 莊子集釋 (1974) was used to supplement translation and interpre‑
tation (also my own).
That which is viewed as suffering 3 is a life that is not
comfortable, a mouth that does not have tasty food, a body
that does not have beautiful clothes, eyes that do not have
pleasant sights and ears that do not have sweet sounds. Be‑
cause of the fear of not attaining these, there is overwhelming
stress. Those who treat the body in this way are indeed foolish.
Now for those who are rich, the person suffers and is made ill
as they accumulate more wealth then they can possibly use.
Those who treat the body in this manner are fragmented.
Now, those who hold a position of high status are troubled,
day and night, about good and bad. Those who treat their
body in this manner are out of touch. People are born and all of
life is a participation in stress. 4 Those who seek a long life are
of a confused mind. They are chronically stressed about death.
Is this not suffering? To treat the body in this manner is to be
far away from it. (46/18/2‑6)
Guo Xiang 郭象 (252‑312) in his commentary notes: “If all of these
are let go, the body is not affected. Yet if you attain them your very na‑
ture is harmed. Nowadays everything is reversed. If you do not attain
them you become stressed. This is foolish” (Guo 1974, 317). 5 Cheng
3 “Suffering” translates ku 苦, a term directly associated with stress. If indi‑
viduals are not getting what they believe they must have, they are dissatisfied.
Uncertain about when they will ever get what they want, they feel threatened
and are stressed. Being stressed, they suffer. If not satisfied with what they do
have and uncertain about getting more, they feel threatened and are thus
stressed. Being stressed, they suffer. It is interesting to note that ku is used to
represent the Buddhist concept of dukkha. For more, see Santee (2007).
4 “Stress” here translates you 憂, which generally means anxiety, melan‑
choly, grief, worry, sorrow, and sadness. All these are manifestations of stress. I
translate it as “stress” because anxiety is part of the changes that occur as the
result of the stress response. The individual displays anxiousness or anxiety be‑
cause he or she is reacting to a perceived threat or a sense of uncertainty, which
itself is a threat, and as such is stressed. If the threat is not resolved the stress
becomes chronic. Given the context of this selection from the Zhuangzi, it is ap‑
parent that the text is discussing chronic stress, phrased as jiuyou 久憂, and the
harm it does to the body as it relates to the threats associated with life itself,
death awareness, and not getting what you believe you must have to be happy.
5 For a discussion of the philosophy of Guo Xiang see Kohn (1992, 69‑80).
Xuanying 成玄英 (fl. 631‑652) in his sub‑commentary adds: “All of these
things are not beneficial to people. Yet the prevalent fashion is that if you
do not attain them you are suffering” (Guo 1974, 317). 6 Given Cheng’s
commentary, it is quite apparent that having a comfortable life, tasty
food, beautiful clothes, pleasant sights, and sweet sounds is directly re‑
lated to social status and norms. In both text and commentaries, it is thus
clear that seeking or desiring social status is a source of stress. For the
Zhuangzi it is even an overwhelming stress that is harmful to the body.
Not only is attaining status stressful, but the fear of losing it is
also stressful. The Zhuangzi notes that those who hold positions of high
status are constantly worrying about their behavior. These individuals
are afraid that, if they engage in behavior outside of the social lstandards
of good and bad, they will loose everything. Thus they are constantly
stressed about the future and harm themselves physically and psycho‑
logically. Cheng’s commentary to states:
Now, those who have positions of high status are deeply
stressed as they worry about their future good fortune. Thus
day and night their ruminations about doing good and avoid‑
ing evil fatigue their bodies and frighten their mind/hearts. Is it
not careless to constantly treat the body in this manner? (Guo
1974, 317)7
In addition to stress being associated with social status, this selection
from the Zhuangzi also links it to concerns with and awareness of death.
These concerns appear ongoing as the text notes that peopleare chroni‑
cally stressed about death, seeking ways to extend their lives and appar‑
ently attempting to deny the naturally changing process. Being chroni‑
cally stressed about death results in suffering and harms the body.
For the Zhuangzi, social status, absolute dichotomous values, social
standards and judgments, and a denial of change and death are reflective
of an artificial realm created by human beings. The text then contrasts
6 For an inquiry into understanding the Zhuangzi during the Tang dynasty
through the commentary of Cheng Xuanying see Yu (2000).
7 Kabat‑Zinn echoes the insight of the Zhuangzi by noting that perceived
threats to “social status” are a significant source of stress (2005, 54).
this artificial realm with that of the natural realm of the body, clearly in‑
dicating that the artificial, stress‑producing realm is harmful to the body.
This contrast between the artificial world created by human beings
and the natural realm of the body is more readily seen in the discussion
between Zhuangzi and Huizi regarding the nature of emotions (ch. 5,
14/5/55‑60). For Zhuangzi, problematic and harmful emotions are those
evoked by the artificial realm created by human beings, involving abso‑
lute dichotomies such as good/bad and right/wrong. He then makes a
strong contrast with the natural body.
Michael in his analysis of the Zhuangzi distinguishes the natural,
physical body from the artificial or “constructed self” (2005, 121‑22). The
natural, physical body refers to everything originally received from na‑
ture ( tian 天), while the artificial (ren 人) refers to the contrived, absolu‑
tistic, rigid knowledge, concepts, standards, beliefs, values, and desires
which have been added on/created by human beings (2005, 122‑23). Only
the latter is harmful to the body.
In the Zhuangzi, the primary source of stress is the artificial realm
created by human beings, which is not consistent with the actual behav‑
ior of existence. It contains absolute, rigid, abstract distinctions; di‑
chotomous thinking and knowledge; the denial of death and change; and
an emphasis on social status and unchanging societal values, concepts,
standards, beliefs, distinctions, and desires. There is a continuous battle
in this artificial realm regarding which perspective is absolutely correct
regarding these distinctions. All of this contributes to stress which harms
the body both physically and psychologically.
Now that we have identified the source according to the Zhuangzi ,
let us next examine the potential solutions that may be extracted from
the text and ask how they can be used in addressing stress in contempo‑
rary society.
Cognitive Approach
Death and Change
In the Zhuangzi, the solution to eliminating the chronic stress associated
with death and its many symbolic layers, i.e., resisting change on all lev‑
els, is to embrace the fact that you are going to continually change. Em‑
bracing change is accomplished both cognitively and experientially. It is
to experience your self as part of the natural, integrated process of
change. To undo the restrictions brought about by dichotomous and irra‑
tional thinking. It is to focus on commonality and naturalness not on ab‑
solute differentiation and artificiality to experience life.
Chapter 6 (17/6/45‑53) has a discussion between the four masters Zi
Si, Zi Yu, Zi Li, and Zi Lai on fully embracing the continuous process of
change. Of particular importance is the response of Zi Yu to Zi Si regard‑
ing the illness that is re‑arranging his body. Zi Yu does not resist or deny
the changes, because there is congruence, a harmony if you will, between
his understanding of existence and how existence actually behaves. He
understands existence, which he is integrated with, to be a continually
changing, integrated process. That, in fact, is how existence actually be‑
haves. Given that existence is a continually changing, integrated process,
there will be a sense of uncertainty. Zi Yu is not threatened by the uncer‑
tainty of existence because it is embedded in his understanding of exis‑
tence. His vision of the world being in harmony with the behavior of ex‑
istence, he is not threatened, and thus is not chronically stressed.
Rather than resisting it, Zi Yu is adapting to the process of change.
He is in harmony with the processes of dying, going along with the
changes that will lead to what people call death. Death itself is nothing
more than a natural change common to all life forms. Because his under‑
standing of existence is consistent with how existence actually behaves,
Zi Yu does not engage in absolute dichotomous thinking. There is no
separation between the body undergoing changes and the body that per‑
ceives them. Sorrow and joy do not disturb him; he is not controlled by
things or affairs in the world. Zi Yu is free from the restrictions of separa‑
tion, the need for certainty, and the search for an unchanging reality.
To behave in a certain manner regarding death because society and
its various rituals deem it to be absolutely and unquestioningly required
is simply not acceptable for the author or authors of the Zhuangzi. This is
apparent when the text discusses Zhuangzi’s his behavior at the death of
his wife, when he sings and drums rather than following prescribed pro‑
cedures of mourning (46/18/15‑19). It is natural to feel sad with the loss
of a loved one; it is not natural to engage in a prescribed behavior or
have an emotional reaction because society expects or demands it. This
type of reaction is artificial and denies change. To have excessive emo‑
tions and/or to engage in extensive ritualistic behavior is to not under‑
stand the process of change. To not understand and not accept the proc‑
ess of change leads to chronic stress.
In the Zhuangzi, the reason people are chronically stressed is that
there is an inconsistency between their understanding of or thinking
about existence and how existence actually behaves. Oridnary people
understand existence as consisting of absolute, unchanging, abstract,
rigid distinctions. They hold on to and are bound up by the belief that
they are separate, different, and not subject to the overall process of
change. They are bound up by this belief because they engage in abso‑
lute dichotomous thinking which creates an artificial realm that frag‑
ments their relationship with the natural process.
Because existence does not behave according to the demands and
expectations of the artificial realm created by people, there will be uncer‑
tainty. Uncertainty is a threat to their artificial, certainty‑based realm of
understanding. Unresolved uncertainty activates and maintains the
stress response. This being the case, even though they resist or deny
change, they are still subject to physical and psychological harm associ‑
ated with chronic stress.
To overcome resistance to change and death, to eliminate the abso‑
lute dichotomous thinking together withe the chronic stress associated
with the artificial realm of understanding, and to embrace existence in
the manner suggested in the Zhuangzi, obviously requires changing how
you think about the world. It requires cognitive re‑structuring to the ex‑
tent that you begin to focus on change, commonality, and integration
instead of focusing on absolutes, differences, and separation. It is a cog‑
nitive restructuring that centers on the natural as opposed to the artificial.
This cognitive restructuring then leads to an understanding of existence
consistent with its actual behavior. The focus of this type of cognitive
restructuring on naturalness, change, commonality, and integration is
clearly applicable to addressing and managing stress in the current age
where much attention is being paid to the artificial, to absolutes, to dif‑
ferences, and to separation.
Dichotomous Thinking
As noted in the discussion between Huizi and Zhuangzi regarding emo‑
tions, Zhuangzi argues that dichotomous thinking is artificial and harm‑
ful to the body. The solution is to analyze the dichotomous thinking and
make transparent that its polarities are relative not only to each other but
also to the underlying perspectives from which they are generated.
The Zhuangzi argues that words do not have any fixed or unchang‑
ing meanings (ch. 2, 4/2/23‑31). The dichotomy of “right and wrong” is
placed within the context of leading Confucian and Mohist perspectives,
which each have their own set of what they consider “right and wrong.”
The text argues that polarities such as “this and that” and “possibility
and impossibility” are not only relative to each other but that they pro‑
duce each other. The goal is to make transparent that language is relative
not only amongst polarities but also relative to individual perspectives.
As long as individuals are trapped in some sense of absolute perspec‑
tives and/or absolute dichotomies, not seeing the relativity of their per‑
spective, they will argue about right and wrong, good and bad, life and
death, etc. from their particular perspectives. Locked into irrational and
dichotomous thinking (I must be right and you must be wrong), they
follow a type of primitive, fragmented thinking that is related to the per‑
ception of a threat (I might lose, I might be wrong) and the activation of
the stress response. The Zhuangzi clearly sees this type of reasoning as
being, restrictive, artificial and harmful.
The Zhuangzi continues the argument of relativity of language, di‑
chotomies, and perspectives into the arena of evidence, discussing how
to determine a winner and loser in a debate (7/2/84‑92). What evidence
will absolutely substantiate the truth of one perspective over and against
another? What evidence will absolutely substantiate the truth of one
component of the polarity over and against the other? The Zhuangzi
makes it clear that if one component of the polarity were really true, it
would be so different from the other component that there would be no
need for debate. The passage concludes that the individual’s understand‑
ing should be in harmony with the natural boundaries of existence. Ab‑
solutes, artificial concepts, dichotomies, perspectives, and boundaries
should simply be forgotten. In other words, how you understand exis‑
tence should be consistent with how existence actually behaves. This be‑
ing the case, how you think about existence will not harm the body.
Zhuangzi’s teachings to address and manage stress in relation to
change and death meant a cognitive restructuring with a focus on natu‑
ralness, change, commonality, and integration. His teachings on di‑
chotomous thinking similarly is a cognitive restructuring, but it focuses
on the understanding that language, concepts, dichotomies, and perspec‑
tives are not absolute in nature but are rather interrelated and relative.
Accepting this perspective, people will see that the function of language
is to communicate meaning: communicate but do not get entangled in
the artificial realm of absolutes Any such entanglement leads to stress:
A net is used for fish. Once you get the fish, forget the net. A
trap is used for rabbits. Once you get the rabbit, forget the trap.
Words are used for meaning. Once you get the meaning, forget
the words. Where can I find a person who has forgotten words,
so I can have a word with him/her? (75/26/48‑49)
The goal of cognitive restructuring is to match people’s conceptions of
existence with how existence actually behaves. Then chronic stress will
be removed and the individual will not be harmed by his or her thinking.
Social Status
Social status is based in a belief system that argues that individuals can

actually possess a separate thing called status, be it tangible or intangible,
and that the possession of this thing somehow makes the individual im‑
portant and often superior to others. Individuals believe that if they do
not have status, in one or more of its infinite variety of forms, they are
somehow lesser or inadequate human beings. This is clearly a threat to
their sense of self, which sets off the stress response. In addition, the un‑
certainty associated with obtaining and/or maintaining status is also
conducive to the chronic activation of the stress response and harmful.
The belief system associated with social status consists of a variety
of absolutes and is thus, according to the Zhuangzi, part of the artificial
realm created by people. The solution in the text is simply to recognize
social status for what it actually is and understand what it does to the
person. This recognition and understanding are made clear in chapter 17
where Zhuangzi refuses the offer to participate in the administration of
the kingdom of Chu. He tells the two envoys that, like the sacred tortoise
in the imperial temple, he would prefer to be alive and drag his tale in
the mud (45/17/81‑84).
For Zhuangzi, having an elevated position, being honored, and re‑
siding in a royal temple are akin to being dead to life. Social status is
thus restrictive and limiting; it compromises embracing life. Guo’s com‑
mentary suggests the same: “Each wants to be at peace in order to pre‑
serve their nature.” Cheng adds: “Zhuangzi guarded against the false
road of social status. He focused on and valued a mind‑heart that was
free within the natural boundaries” (Guo 1974, 317).
The following selection provides guidelines about how to embrace
life, how not be stressed, and how not to harm oneself. It is quite clear
that social status, in this particular case fame, must be avoided as it is
compared to a corpse. The text has:
Don’t be a corpse of fame. Don’t be a residence of schemes.
Don’t be controlled by interactions. Don’t be ruled by knowl‑
edge. Live your life in the endless and roam in the boundless.
Use up that which you received from nature, and do not see
any attainment. Be empty (xu 虛), that is all! The actualized
person uses the mind/ heart like a mirror. Neither leading nor
welcoming. Responding and not storing. Thus, they are able to
succeed without being harmed. (21/7/31‑33)
Cheng notes: “Valuing your body and forgetting fame, your mind/heart
will be at ease. Therefore, you will not be ruled by fame and reputation”
(Guo 1974, 165). Fame, reputation, material wealth, and position are all
examples of social status, part of the artificial realm of restrictions, cre‑
ated by human beings, which evoke stress. The Zhuangzi is quite clear
that in order to avoid the controlling and restrictive nature of the artifi‑
cial realm and not be harmed, the individual needs to become empty.
Commenting on the command to “be empty,” Guo notes: “If you are
not empty, you will not be able to reside amongst the masses in a true
manner” (1974, 165). To be empty and reside amongst the masses in a
true manner, the individual needs to use the mind/heart like a mirror.
Essentially this is interacting in the artificial and social status laden realm
of people and not being stressed about, dwelling upon, being moved by,
or affected by the interaction. In other words the mind/heart is empty of
all restrictions before, during, and after the interaction. For a person who
is empty, an interaction in the artificial realm of people does not give rise
to emotions. Guo notes, “Examine and be without emotions” (1974, 165).
This selection from the Zhuangzi transitions from the cognitive ap‑
proach into the experiential approach for eliminating stress. The reader
is told that in order to be free from the restrictions and boundaries of the
artificial realm, he/she should become empty. Although the cognitive
approach provides an example of how to become empty through the use
of the mirror metaphor, the actual process of becoming empty is more
completely addressed through the experiential approach.
Experiential Approach
The Zhuangzi presentes two primary methods of the experiential ap‑
proach to empty the mind/heart of artificial boundaries and limitations:
sitting in forgetfulness and mind/heart fasting. Both remove primal
thinking, irrational and dysfunctional thoughts, cognitive distortions,
and chronic stress. Although the manner in which they are removed dif‑
fers significantly from the cognitive approach, both approaches comple‑
ment each other. There is considerable research supporting the benefits
and effectiveness of similar types of experiential approaches for reducing
or eliminating chronic stress and increasing overall well‑being (Benson
1998; Davidson et al. 2003; Dusek et al. 2006; Wallace and Shapiro 2006;
Walsh and Shapiro 2006).
Saso indicates that sitting in forgetfulness and mind/heart fasting
are both about emptying the mind/heart (1995, 24). He notes that sitting
in forgetfulness is about emptying the mind of judgments while
mind/heart fasting is about empting the heart of selfishness. He views
both processes as being conducive to healing and well‑being. He de‑
scribes the practice of both sitting in forgetfulness and mind/heart fasting
as a centering or focusing the will on the abdomen which allows the
mind/heart to become like a mirror (1995, 89). When the mind/heart is
like a mirror it is empty of artificial concepts, restrictions, limitations,
judgments, social status, and a sense of an absolute self. In other words,
the individual is not stressed.
Sitting in forgetfulness and mind/heart fasting are both focused on
the direct, holistic experience of the practitioner. Through the process of
forgetting and emptying the mind/heart, social status, absolute distinc‑
tions, dysfunctional thinking, and cognitive distortions simply dissolve.
Any sense of an absolute self vanishes as the practitioner realizes his/her
identity with the continual process of change. This identity or sameness
is not a denial of change, a validation of eternality or a conformation of
freedom from death! It is a realization of the commonality of all things.
Both sitting in forgetfulness and mind/heart fasting are approaches to
fully and functionally engage the natural, continually changing process
of existence. They are ways of eliminating any sense of an absolute, sepa‑
rate and distinct self. These methods not only integrate mind and body,
but they also integrate mind, body and environment.
By sitting in forgetfulness and practicing mind/heart fasting the in‑
dividual is no longer simply thinking that everything is interrelated and
continually changing. The individual experiences the integrated continu‑
ally changing process called existence. This experience validates the cog‑
nitive approach of consciously focusing on naturalness, commonality,
interrelationships and change. The cognitive approach of distinguishing
the artificial from the natural and focusing on the natural prepares a
foundation for the experiential approach.
In the case of the descriptions of both sitting in forgetfulness and
mind/heart fastings, Confucius and his favorite student Yan Hui are util‑
ized, in a satirical manner, to present each of the methods.
Sitting in Forgetfulness
Chapter 6 has a discussion between Confucius and his disciple Yan Hui
regarding the process of sitting in forgetfulness (19/6/89‑93). Yan Hui
describes his experience of sitting in forgetfulness to Confucius, explain‑
ing that concepts, knowledge, senses, and body have all fallen away and
that he is at one with the great passageway (datong 大通).
Guo Xiang and Cheng Xuanying both link the experience of sitting
in forgetfulness with the natural processes of continuous change because
as much as everything changes, everything is ultimately the same. There
are no absolutes. There are no permanent dichotomies. Guo Xiang notes:
Sitting in forgetfulness, what is not forgotten? Outward signs

are forgotten. Moreover the signs of a self are forgotten. Inter‑
nally, there is no awareness of a distinct body. Externally, there
is no indication of the existence of heaven and earth. There is
just the vastness where the continual process of change, with‑
out any obstructions, becomes form. Nothing is different.
There are no distinctions or judgments. Being there are no dis‑
tinctions or judgments, what is good? What is bad? By con‑
tinually transforming, everything is the same. Only continual
transformation is the case. Thus, there are no absolutes. (Guo
1974, 153‑54)
Cheng Xuanying comments in a similar vein:
Empty, the mind‑heart is unaffected. Therefore, he is able to sit
properly and forget. This is the meaning of sitting in forgetful‑
ness. . . The great passageway is the great Dao. All things are
able to emerge in the passageway of Dao. Therefore, it is said
that Dao is the great passageway. . . Being the same as the great
Dao, there is no right and wrong or good and bad. Every thing
is dissolved by the process of continual change. There are no
absolutes to hold on to, grasp or maintain. (Guo 1974, 153‑54)
The actual practice of sitting in forgetfulness is further clarified in the
Zuowang lun 坐忘論 (A Discourse on Sitting in Forgetfulness) by Sima
Chengzhen 司馬承禎 (647‑735). 8 In the Shouxin 收心(Taming the Mind)
section, the author notes:
When you begin to study the Dao, it is essential to sit peace‑
fully, focus your attention, separate from all boundaries, and
not dwell on anything. Because you are not dwelling on any‑
thing, you are not affected by a single thing. You will naturally
enter into emptiness. The mind/heart merges with Dao.
8 For a brief discussion of Sima Chengzhen and his work, see Kohn and
Kirkland (2000). A translation and discussion of this text appears in Kohn (1987).
If you completely eliminate the obstructions of the

mind/heart and open up to recognize the root of the spirit, this
is called cultivating Dao. When you do not repeatedly drift
with the waves, are joined with Dao, and are at peace in Dao, it
is it is called ‘returning to the root’. Maintaining the root and
not being separate, it is called ‘the establishment of stillness’.
Stillness being established, in the course of time, illness disap‑
pears and life is restored. . .
When you dwell on something, the mind/heart is strained.
This is not only irrational, it causes the individual to become
sick. But if the mind/heart is not affected by anything, then it
will not be moved. This is authentic stabilization and the cor‑
rect foundation.
This passage adds the component of not dwelling on anything to the
practice of sitting in forgetfulness. When the mind/heart does not dwell
on anything it is not distracted or agitated. It is not affected by anything.
This being the case, the mind/heart is still. When the mind/heart is still
illness disappears and the individual’s well‑being increases.
On the other hand, if the individual dwells on things the mind/heart
is distracted (repeatedly drifts with the waves) and is agitated (not still).
This being the case, the mind/heart is stressed and as a result the indi‑
vidual will get sick. This selection is quite consistent with research in
mind/body medicine, psychoneuroimmunology and cognitive therapy
regarding stress and stress management.
Sitting in forgetfulness not only disengages the practitioner from
absolute, demanding, ethical categories (the outside/inside world of how
you must behave), but it also releases the individual from any notion of a
distinct and separate world and body (the outside/inside world of where
you must behave and interact), gets rid of primal thinking, irrational
thoughts, cognitive distortions and discursive knowledge (inner world of
how you must think) and, finally, eliminates any sense of a disconnected,
absolute, unchanging mind/heart and self (inner world of how you must
see your self). It is a total emptying out of restrictions and limitations. As
a result of the practice, mind, body, and environment are fully integrated.
The practice of sitting in forgetfulness is clearly a potentially useful tech‑
nique for managing stress, removing illness and increasing health and
well‑being.
Mind/Heart Fasting
The second experiential technique, that of mind/heart fasting, appears in
a discussion between Confucius and Yan Hui in chapter 4 (9/4/26‑29). It
outlines the process with a focus directed toward unifiying the will, lis‑
tening with qi, becoming empty, and eliminating the self.
The text makes it quite clear that having a unified will is of utmost
importance for practicing mind/heart fasting. Guo Xiang suggests that a
unified will means to “dismiss differences and allow a single focus.”
Cheng provides even more depth and notes, “Your mind/heart is with‑
out differences, is very still, is empty, forgets and dissolves to be in ac‑
cord with the single process of transformation” (Guo 1974, 81).
The focus of the practice of mind/heart fasting is listening with the
breath (qi). 9 Both the senses and the mind/heart itself are cluttered and
restricted by artificiality and, as a result, are subject to dwelling
upon/holding on to things. Dwelling upon/holding on to things gives
rise to stress. In order to eliminate the stress the individual needs to be
empty of the artificiality. This is accomplished by being in accordance
with the breath. The breath does not dwell upon anything and as such is
empty. By being in accordance with the breath the practitioner will be‑
come empty. Being empty the individual is not affected by artificiality
and thus not subject to chronic stress. Commenting further on this pas‑
sage Guo notes:
Exile the senses, get rid of feelings and thinking, and be in ac‑
cord with the disposition of qi itself. Take its emptiness to wait
for things. Your mind/heart being empty, the actualized Dao
will gather in your bosom. Before practicing mind/heart fasting
you will have a body. When mind/heart fasting is properly
practiced, you are without a body. (Guo 1974, 81)
9 Given the framework of this paper and the focus on application, qi should
here be interpreted as breath. In addition to meaning breath, it has a much
broader and deeper meaning of life force or life energy. For an exploration of the
meanings of qi see Saso (1995), Cohen (1997), Engelhardt (2000), Kohn (2005),
Despeux, (2006), Jackowicz (2006), and Kohn (2006b).
Differences, the senses, feelings and thinking are clearly seen to be prob‑
lematic. The problematic aspect, of course, must be seen within the con‑
text of the artificial realm. The solution to the removal of the problem of
the as chronic stress associated with the artificial realm is to be in accor‑
dance with the breath.
Cheng, expanding on Guo’s commentary, notes how holding on to
or dwelling upon knowledge, feelings and boundaries makes the indi‑
vidual subject to their influence. He emphasizes the importance of being
in accordance with breath in order to remove restrictions and allow the
mind/heart to open up (Guo 1974, 81). When the mind/heart is opened,
artificiality has no influence and chronic stress will be eliminated.
The actual application of mind/heart fasting in a social context ap‑
pears to be suggested when Confucius advises Yan Hui in regard to Yan’s
potential meeting with the ruler of Wei. His instructions are clearly ap‑
plicable to eliminating chronic stress. Confucius explains:
If you are able to enter and roam about in his cage and not be
affected by his fame, then have a conversation with him. If he
is not amenable to what you say, then stop. If you are able to
reside in a unified space, without any restrictions, judgments,
or distractions, you will be close. (9/4/29‑30)
The Authentic Person

Given both the cognitive and experiential teachings that have been found
to be potentially applicable to managing and eliminating chronic stress,
the next step is to examine an example or model, from the Zhuangzi, of
an individual who has put these teachings into practice. In other words,
how does an individual who is free from chronic stress act cognitively,
emotionally, behaviorally, and physically.
The model, from the Zhuangzi is that of the authentic person (zhen‑
ren 真人). 10 The authentic person is described in chapter 6 (15/6/4‑9), as
an individual who has simplified his or her life. The authentic person has
no fear of death, has eliminated concerns about social status, and has
10 For further discussions of the concept of the zhenren, see Coyle 1998; in
the context of Chent’s commentary, see Yu 2000, 113, 148‑51.
removed dichotomous thinking. The authentic person does not add on to
life. This being the case, how the authentic person thinks about, feels and
behaves regarding existence is consistent with how existence actually
behaves. As a result, the authentic person does not interfere with him/her
self, does not interfere with others, and is not entangled in the affairs of
the world. The authentic person is clearly without any chronic stress. In
comparison everybody else is described as, essentially, being chronically
stressed.
There is no rigid, absolute, egocentric thinking, feeling or behaving
associated with the authentic person. The authentic person does not
dream. Guo observes that the authentic person does not dream because
“He does not have expectations” (Guo 1974, 124). Cheng notes:
Those who dream have vain hopes and unsatisfied wishes. The
authentic person is without emotions and has cut off delibera‑
tion. Therefore when he sleeps he is anchored in a quiet place
and does not dream. (Guo 1974, 124)
If this is the case for the authentic person, then it would seem to follow
that those who dream are egocentric, dissatisfied, bound up in the artifi‑
cial, value laden, dichotomous realm of distinctions created by human
beings, feel threatened, and are controlled by expectations (musts and
demands) and self/society imposed restrictions. In other words, they are
chronically stressed.
When the authentic person wakes up there is no stress. There is no
stress because the authentic person does not feel threatened. Guo com‑
menting upon “awoke without stress” states, “Accepting whatever is
encountered, he is at peace.” Cheng, once again expanding on Guo’s
comments, notes, “To the extent that you realize that everything is what
it is, you will be without stress” (Guo 1974, 124). Given that other people
are obviously dissatisfied and driven by expectations and demands, they
quite likely will be unwilling to accept whatever is encountered as sim‑
ply being what it is. This being so, it follows that they would not be at
peace and would be stressed.
When the breathing of the authentic person is compared to the
breathing of ordinary people, the issue of stress becomes quite apparent.
The authentic person breathes very deeply. Deep, abdominal, diaphrag‑
matic breathing is natural and stress free breathing (Fried 1993; Cohen
1997; Kohn 2005; Santee 2007). Ordinary people breathe rapidly and
shallowly. Fried associates compromised breathing with stress, noting
the similarities between the symptoms of stress and the symptoms of
hyperventilation (1993, 306). Of all the symptoms he lists, the most rele‑
vant to the description provided by the Zhuangzi of how all other people
breathe is that of dyspnea. He defines dyspnea as the “inability to catch
one’s breath, choking sensation, feeling of suffocation, frequent sighing,
chest heaving, lump in the throat” (Fried 1993, 310). The similarity be‑
tween dyspnea and the breathing pattern noted in Zhuangzi regarding all
other people is quite striking: “All other people breathe from their
throats. Being restricted, their words are like a throat retching.” Guo, in
his commentary to how all other people breathe states, “The breath is not
even and free flowing” (Guo 1974, 124). Again, the observation is that
breathing is compromised.
The notion that the Zhuangzi is describing all other people as being
chronically stressed is further supported by his description of their
chronic unresolved desires harming their bodies (natural processes).
Evidence from research in mind/body medicine, psychoneuroimmunol‑
ogy, and cognitive therapy is clear that chronic worry, rumination, musts,
demands, primal thinking, etc. generates stress which, in turn, harms the
body.
The descriptions provided in the Zhuangzi shows a clear, interde‑
pendent and reciprocal relationship between thinking, feeling, and be‑
having. The evidence from mind/body medicine, psychoneuroimmunol‑
ogy, and cognitive therapy overwhelmingly supports the integral rela‑
tionship between thinking, feeling and behaving. It is also clear that
these processes are all part of a continually changing, natural process
called the body. There is no indication in the Zhuangzi of an absolutely
separate and distinct mind, self or soul. All the evidence comes down on
the side of a naturally integrated, reciprocal process called the body.
The Zhuangzi focuses on cultivating the body both cognitively and
experientially to remove chronic stress generated by artificial limitations
and restrictions. Chronic stress not only harms the individual but frag‑
ments him/her from the environment. By removing chronic stress, the
individual can improve health, increase overall well‑being, and become
integrated with the surrounding environment.
Conclusion
The teachings of the Zhuangzi relative to identifying, addressing and
eliminating stress are consistent with a number of findings of mind/body
medicine, psychoneuroimmunology and the various approaches of cog‑
nitive therapy. There is no separation between mind and body. The hu‑
man being is an integrated process. Thinking, feeling and behaving are
understood as being interrelated and mutually influencing. How you
think about things can affect you positively and negatively. Zhuangzi
clearly presents a number of teachings that have clear potential for assist‑
ing individuals in managing stress. For the purpose of this paper they
have been divided into two approaches: cognitive and experiential.
For the cognitive approach there are three interrelated areas that are
applicable to addressing stress. The first is the contrast between how in‑
dividuals think about existence and the actual behavior of existence. In‑
dividuals tend to think about existence in a very categorical, rigid, di‑
chotomous, abstract, and absolute manner. The focus is often on un‑
changing differences and separation. This type of thinking generates
demands and expectations about how existence should and must behave.
When existence does not behave according to the individual’s expecta‑
tions and demands, the individual feels threatened which in turn gener‑
ates the stress response.
The Zhuangzi views this contrast as one between the artificial realm
created by people and the natural realm. The solution offered by the
Zhuangzi to addressing the threats associated with the contrast is, essen‑
tially, a cognitive restructuring where the individual focuses upon and
thinks about existence in a manner that is consistent with how existence
actually behaves. In other words existence is understood as a natural,
continually changing, integrated and interrelated process. This type of
re‑structured thinking eliminates the inconsistency between the artificial
and the natural, gets rid of unrealistic demands and expectations, re‑
moves chronic stress, and increase the overall health and well‑being of
the individual.
The second interrelated area for addressing stress is that of di‑
chotomous thinking. The Zhuangzi is quite clear that this type of thinking
is harmful to the individual. Not only is dichotomous thinking problem‑
atic but arguing about which pole of the dichotomy is correct and which
pole is incorrect is also harmful to the body. These arguments create
threats which are conducive to activating and maintaining the stress re‑
sponse. The solution offered by the Zhuangzi is to understand that the
poles of the dichotomy are not separate and are, in fact, relative to each
other.
The third interrelated area for addressing stress is that of social
status. Value judgments, demands, expectations, self‑centeredness, dis‑
criminations, beliefs in unchanging objects, both tangible and intangible,
and the needs/desires to possess these objects are all integral aspects of
social status. They all interact to create an artificial realm. The perception
of a threat activates the stress response. The solution offered by the
Zhuangzi to address social status is to understand its artificiality and re‑
strictiveness, its foundation in dichotomous thinking, the relativity of its
components, the fact that there are no absolute unchanging objects which
can be held on to, and the harm it causes. In addition to re‑structuring
your thinking in this manner, the Zhuangzi also introduces the practice of
making your mind like a mirror: empty, reflective and not holding on to
anything. By changing how you understand and think about social
status and putting into practice the technique of making your mind like a
mirror, the individual will become empty of another source of stress.
The experiential approach consists of two basic, interrelated prac‑
tices: sitting in forgetfulness and mind/heart fasting. Both practices re‑
quire individuals to center, concentrate their attention, unify their will
and still their mind/heart. When the mind/heart is stilled it will become
empty. Being empty the individual is not affected by the artificial realm.
This being the case there is no chronic stress.
While the cognitive approach allows the individual to understand
existence as a natural, continually changing, integrated, interrelated
process, the experiential approach allows the individual to experience
existence as a natural, continually changing, integrated, interrelated
process. Both of these approaches from the Zhuangzi are conducive to
simplifying one’s life, eliminating stress, improving health and increas‑
ing overall well‑being. Both approaches are clearly applicable and con‑
tribute to the need for a variety of teachings and techniques for address‑
ing and eliminating stress in today’s environment.
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Stress Management and the Zhuangzi

Journal of Daoist Studies, Volume 1, 2008, pp. 93-123 (Article)

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_____, and Catharine MacLaren. 2003. Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy. Atas‑

Ivanhoe, Philip J. 1996. Was Zhuangzi a Relativist? In Essays on Skepticism, Rela‑

_____, ed. 2006a. Daoist Body Cultivation. Magdalena, NM: Three Pines Press.

Sauter, Steven, Lawrence Murphy, Michael Colligan, Naomi Swanson, Joseph

Yalom, Irvin D. 1980. Existential Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

Wallace, B. Allan and Shauna L. Shapiro. 2006. Mental Balance and Well‑Being.

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