Practical Manual

1) To find the resistance of a Galvanometer by half deflection method.

2) Conversion of galvanometer into Ammeter.
3) Conversion of galvanometer into Voltmeter.
4) Study of the variation of electric current with intensity of lightusing a
photocell.
5) Determination of high resistance by Neon flash lamp.
 D
Expt: Half deflection method. a
t
e
…
Circuit diagram : …
…
…

Observations and Calculations:

No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half

of resistance deflection G =
obs. R  S /2
R-S RxS RxS
R-S
ohms div. ohms div. ohm ohm2 ohms
1 4800 30 99 15 101.08
2
3

Mean value of galvanometer resistance = G = ohms

Experiment No. 1:
To find the resistance of a Galvanometer by half deflection method.
Apparatus:
Galvanometer, cell, high resistance box, two plug keys, low resistance box,
connecting wires, sand paper.
Theoretical Base:
In the figure, when K1 is closed and K2 is open. The current through galvanometer shows
deflection , Ig = E = k ….. (1)
R+G [G = Rg = galvanometer resistance]
When both keys are closed and S adjusted to reduce deflection to one half, and applying
Kirchhoff’s 2nd rule on loop including G & S,
Ig G – (i – Ig ) S = 0  Ig = i x S / (G + S)
Looking up in fig. (d), the above equation gives,
I = E x S = k …. (2)
g
R + (G S / G +S) G+S 2
From eqs (1) & (2), we have
ES = E  G
= RS R (G + S) + G S 2(R + G )
R–S
If the value of R is large compared to S, i.e., R  S,
then R = 1  G = S
R-S
Procedure:
1) Make connections according to the circuit diagram with keys K1 and K2 open.
2) Check your connections with your teacher.
3) Take out high resistance (say 4000 ohms) . Close Key K1 , and K2 being open.
Adjust the large deflection (20 to 30) with some more resistances. Note readings.
4) Keeping R unchanged close K2 to see null point of the galvanometer. From shunt
resistance take out so much resistances so as the deflection become half of
previous one. Note the readings.
5) Repeat twice by changing resistance R. Find mean value G.
Precautions:
1. Key K1 should be closed only after taking some high resistance.
2. The deflection should be in even number of scale.
3. Zero error of the galvanometer should either be removed or accounted for.
 Expt: Conversion into ammeter.

Observations and Calculations:

Step 1: Resistance of G by half deflection method. Step 2: Current for full scale deflection
Resis Shunt Half
EMF of cell = E = ------ volts
G = Total no. of div. of G = n = ------ divs.
No tance Deflect- resist- deflect RxS
. of R ion ance ion R-S Current for  div = E / R+G; Current for 1 div.
obs  S /2
. ohms div. ohms div. ohms = (E / R+G) x 1/ 
1 4800 30 99 15 101.08 Current for full scale deflection = Ig
2 = (E / R+G) x n /  = ------A
3
Mean = G = ohms

Step 3: Shunt resistance and length of shunt wire

Range of ammeter = I = 0.2 A
Value of shunt resistance = R = X = G Ig = ------ ohms
S
I - Ig
Least count of screw gauge = ----- mm; Zero correction =---- mm
Observed diameter of shunt wire = i) ----- mm, ii) ----- mm, 3) ------ mm
Mean diameter = ----- mm; Corrected diameter = d = ------ mm
Radius of the shunt wire = r = d / 2 = ----- mm = ------ cm
Specific resistance of the wire =  = ------- -cm
Length of wire used as shunt = l = X  r2 = ------ cm Galvanometer reading Am-
 No. of
Current in
meter Diffe-
obs. Deflection reading rence
  
Amp.
(0.1 / n) 
Step 4 : Verification division A A A

1 10 0.03 0.04 0.01

2
3
4
5
Experiment No. 2:
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter reading up to 0.1 amperes.
Apparatus:
Galvanometer, ammeter, voltmeter, high resistance box, fractional resistance
box, two keys, screw gauge, connecting wires.
Theoretical Base:
In the figure, according to Ohm’s law,
V = Ig Rg ….. (1)
and V = (I - Ig ) Rs …. (2)
From eqs. (1) & (2) we get
Ig Rg = (I - Ig )Rs
or Rs = Ig Rg
I - Ig
Where = Rs = X = shunt resistance & Rg = G = galvanometer resistance
Taking length of wire equivalent to X,
Rs = X =  l or l = X A = X  r
2

A  
Procedure:
1) Make connections as shown in fig. (a) and determine galvanometer resistance by
half deflection method. [see expt. No. 2]
2) To find figure of merit, determine emf of a cell.
3) Make connections as shown in fig. (b), and adjust resistance from resistance box
for large scale deflection, and complete the table 2.
4) Fill the lines below the table 2, and calculate wire length for shunt.
5) For verification, take calculated length of wire, and make connection as in fig. (c).
6) Complete the table 3, by adjusting the resistance from rheostat for maximum
deflection in the galvanometer to read the desired reading (0.1 A) in the ammeter.
Precautions:
1. The cell used should have a constant emf.
2. The wire used for shunt should be of convenient length.
3. Large scale deflection should be used for checking conversion of
galvanometer.
 118
Date…………
Exp: Conversion into voltmeter.

Observations and Calculations:

Step 1: Resistance of G by half deflection method.
Resis Shunt Half G =
No tance Deflect- resist- deflect RxS
. of R ion ance ion R-S
obs  S /2
. ohms div. ohms div. ohms
1 4800 30 99 15 101.08
2
3
Mean = G = ohms
Step 2: Current for full scale deflection
EMF of cell = E = ----- volts
Total no. of div. of G = n = ----- divs.
Current for  div = E / R+G; Current for 1 div. = (E / R+G) x 1/ 
Current for full scale deflection = Ig = (E / R+G) x n /  = -------A
Step 3: High resistance connected in series with Galvanometer
Range of voltmeter = V = 3 volts
External resistance to be placed in series with galvanometer = Rh = V - G = ------ ohms
Ig
Step 4: Verification
Each scale division on the converted galvanometer = 3 / n = ------- volts

Galvanometer reading
No. of Deflection P.D. in volts Voltmeter Difference
obs.  (2/n)  reading
small div. volts volts volts
1
2 15 1.0 1.0 0
3
Experiment No. 3:
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter reading up to 3 volts.

Apparatus:
Galvanometer, voltmeter, high resistance box, fractional resistance box,
two keys, connecting wires.

Theoretical Base:
To convert a galvanometer into voltmeter reading up to V volts, we have
to introduce a resistance R in series with it coil, so that when a potential
difference of V volts is applied to its terminals full scale deflection current (I g )
passes through it. In the figure, according to Ohm’s law,
Ig = V or Rx = V G
Rx + G Ig
An equivalent resistance is placed in series with the galvanometer coil and the
readings checked with a standard voltmeter.

Procedure:
1) Determine the galvanometer resistance G by half deflection method and figure of
merit as done in the last experiment.
2) Find the current for full-scale deflection Ig = nk.
3) Fill up the lines above the table and find the value of external resistance.
4) Make connections as shown in the fig. (c).
5) Fill up the table for verification.

Precautions:
1. Suitable resistances should be removed from the resistance box to produce
large deflections in both the instruments.
2. Red marked terminal of voltmeter is always positive, it should be connected
to the positive of the battery.
3. The emf of the battery should be greater than the conversion range of the
galvanometer.
Expt: Photo-cell.

Observations and Calculations:

Distance of Deflection of
No. of lamp from galvanometer ( I  1 / d2 )
obs. photo-cell  (A) 1/d2  / d2
d (cm)
1 80 25 156.25 x 10-6 39.06x10-4
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Inference: As the graph between deflection  and 1/ d2 is a straight line,

therefore, light intensity from a point source decreases as the
inverse square of the distance from the source. This proves the
inverse square law.
Experiment No. 4:
Study of the variation of electric current with intensity of light
using a photocell.

Apparatus:
Photo-electric cell, sensitive galvanometer, battery, rheostat, key, electric
bulb.

Theoretical Base:
Photocell is a device for converting light energy into electrical energy. It
consists of an anode and a photosensitive cathode, from which photoelectrons
are emitted when light falls on it. According to inverse square law, ‘the
intensity of light from a point source varies inversely as the square of the
distance from the source, i.e., I  1 / d2 . So a graph between photoelectric
current or deflection ( ) and 1 / d2 will be a straight line.

Procedure:
1) Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure. Here all the components are in
series. The bulb should be selected and fixed in such a way that its point light
falls on the photo-electric cell.
2) Put on the lamp. Adjust the suitable deflection in the galvanometer.
3) Note the deflection,  in the galvanometer (or micro-ammeter) and the
corresponding distance, d of the photo-cell from the lamp. Change the distance d
in regular steps and note the deflection  in the galvanometer.
4) Draw a graph between 1 / d 2 verses . It will be a straight line. .

Precautions:
1. The voltage of the bulb must remain constant.
2. A point source of light should be used.
3. Start the experiment from maximum distance and decrease to minimum.
Expt: Neon flash lamp.

Observations and Calculations:

Time period with known resistance:
Known Flashing
No. resistance Time for 20 flashes period
of t = t1 + t2
obs. R t1 t2 2 T = t / 20
M sec sec sec sec
1 1 7.4 7.3 7.35 0.37
2
3
4

Time period with unknown resistance:

Unknown Flashing
No. resistance Time for 20 flashes period
of X (from t/1 = t/1+ t/2
obs. the graph)
/
t1 /
t2
2 T/ = t/ / 20
M sec sec sec sec
1 (1.8) 9.3 9.43 9.4 0.47
2
3
From the graph, values of unknown resistances:
R1 = M, R2 = M, R3 = M 
Experiment No. 5:
Determination of high resistance by Neon flash lamp.

Apparatus:
Neon lamp, DC power supply (250V), capacitor (0.2F), known resistances
(1,2,3,4,5 M), unknown high resistances, and stop watch.
Theoretical Base:
When a capacitor is charged through a resistor by a DC voltage, the charge increases
with time according to the equation,
V = Vo (1 – et/RC ) or Vo – V = Vo et/RC
or Vo = et/RC or t = RC log e
Vo
Vo - V Vo - V
If t1 be the time for the capacitor to charge up to V1 volts, and t2 time for V2 volts, then the
above equation gives,
t = RC log Vo and t = RC log Vo
1 e 2 e
Vo - V1 Vo - V2
The flashing period T is given by,
T = t - t = RC ( log Vo - loge Vo )
1 2 e
Vo - V1 Vo - V2
or T = RC ( loge Vo V2 ) [log a – logb = log a / b ]
Vo - V1
Procedure:
1) Make connections according to the circuit diagram.
2) Switch on the power supply and record the average time of 20 flashes.
3) Complete the first table with known resistances by finding flashing period.
4) Insert given unknown resistance X and find time period for the flashes as before.
5) Plot a graph between T & R as shown in the fig.
6) From the graph read the value of resistance against the flashing period T.
This value of resistance is equal to the unknown resistance X.
7) Complete the second table by filling unknown resistances from the graph.
Precautions:
1. Voltage supplied from the D.C. source should exceed the striking voltage.
2. The power supply should supply constant voltage.
3. Resistances should be of order of mega ohms to get measurable time pe