VITAMINS

A vitamin is defined as an organic compound that is required in the diet in small amounts for the
maintenance of normal metabolic integrity. They generally cannot be synthesized by the body
and must therefore be supplied in the diet.

The lipid-soluble vitamins are hydrophobic compounds that can be absorbed efficiently only
when there is normal fat absorption. Like other lipids, they are transported in the blood in
lipoproteins or attached to specific binding proteins. They have diverse functions—e.g, vitamin
A, vision and cell differentiation; vitamin D, calcium and phosphate metabolism, and cell
differentiation; vitamin E, anti-oxidant; and vitamin K, blood clotting.

The water-soluble vitamins are composed of the B vitamins and vitamin C; they function mainly
as enzyme cofactors.

LIPID SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN A

The active form of vitamin A are retinol, retinal (retinaldehyde) and retinoic acid. These
substances are synthesized by plants as the more complex carotinoids, which are cleaved to
retinol by most animals and stored in the liver as retinol palmitate. Liver, egg yolk, butter and
whole milk are good sources of the preformed retinol. Dark green and yellow vegetables are
good sources of the carotinoids.

A major role of vitamin A is in the control of cell differentiation and turnover. All-trans -retinoic
acid and 9-cisretinoic acid regulate growth, development, and tissue differentiation; they have
different actions in different tissues. Like the thyroid and steroid hormones and vitamin D,
retinoic acid binds to nuclear receptors that bind to response elements of DNA and regulate the
transcription of specific genes. Vitamin A has a function in visionIn the retina, retinaldehyde
functions as the prosthetic group of the light-sensitive opsin proteins, forming rhodopsin (in
rods) and iodopsin (in cones).

The earliest sign of deficiency in vitamin A is a loss of sensitivity to green light, followed by
impairment to adapt to dim light, followed by night blindness. More prolonged deficiency leads
to xerophthalmia: keratinization of the cornea and blindness. Vitamin A also has an important
role in differentiation of immune system cells, and even mild deficiency leads to increased
susceptibility to infectious diseases.

VITAMIN D

Vitamin D is not strictly a vitamin, since it can be synthesized in the skin (Cholecalciferol D 3),
and under most conditions that is the major source of the vitamin. Only when sunlight exposure
is inadequate is a dietary source required. Its main function is in the regulation of calcium
absorption and homeostasis; most of its actions are mediated by way of nuclear receptors that
regulate gene expression. It also has a role in regulating cell proliferation and differentiation.
There is evidence that intakes considerably higher than are required to maintain calcium
homeostasis reduce the risk of insulin resistance, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, as well as
various cancers. In the vitamin D deficiency disease rickets, the bones of children are
undermineralized as a result of poor absorption of calcium. Similar problems occur as a result of
deficiency during the adolescent growth spurt. Osteomalacia in adults results from the
demineralization of bone.

VITAMIN E

Vitamin E occurs in the diet as a mixture of several closely related compounds, called
tocopherols. α-tocopherols is the most potent. It acts as a lipid-soluble antioxidant in cell
membranes, where many of its functions can be provided by synthetic antioxidants, and is
important in maintaining the fluidity of cell membranes. It also has a role in cell signaling.

VITAMIN K

Vitamin k is found naturally as K 1 (phylloquinone) in green vegetables and K 2 (menaquinone)

which is synthesized by intestinal bacteria. The body converts synthetically prepared
menaquinone (menadione) and a number of water-soluble analogs to a biologically active form
of vitamin K. Vitamin K is the cofactor for the carboxylation of glutamate residues in the post-
synthetic modification of proteins to form the unusual amino acid ϒ-carboxyglutamate.
Prothrombin and several other proteins of the blood clotting system, each contain 4–6 ϒ-
carboxyglutamate residues. ϒ-Carboxyglutamate chelates calcium ions, and so permits the
binding of the blood clotting proteins to membranes.
WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN B1 (thiamine)

Thiamine is rapidly converted to the coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). Thiamine

pyrophosphate is required for the key reactions catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in
carbohydrate metabolism and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex in the citric acid cycle.
Thiamine is the coenzyme transketolase, in the pentose phosphate pathway. Thiamin
triphosphate has a role in nerve conduction; it phosphorylates, and so activates, a chloride
channel in the nerve membrane. Thiamin deficiency can result in three distinct syndromes: a
chronic peripheral neuritis, beriberi, and Wernicke encephalopathy with Korsakoff psychosis.

VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)

Riboflavin is the precursor of the coenzymes flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin
mononucleotide. The flavin coenzymes are essential for energy production and cellular
respiration. Riboflavin deficiency is characterized by cheilosis, inflammation of the tongue,
seborrheic dermatitis.

VITAMIN B3 (NIACIN)

Niacin is not strictly a vitamin since it can be synthesized in the body from the essential amino
acid tryptophan. Two compounds, nicotinic acid and nicotinamide, have the biologic activity of
niacin; its metabolic function is as the nicotinamide ring of the coenzymes NAD and NADP in
oxidation/reduction reactions. In addition to its coenzyme role, NAD is the source of ADP-ribose
for the ADP-ribosylation of proteins and polyADP-ribosylation of nucleoproteins involved in the
DNA repair mechanism. Pellagra is caused by deficiency of tryptophan and niacin.

VITAMIN B5

Vitamin B5, pantothenic acid is a component of coenzyme A (CoA) and the the
phosphopantetheine moiety of fatty acid synthase and thus is required for the metabolism of fats,
protein and carbohydrate via the citric acid cycle.
BIOTIN

Biotin, also known as vitamin H, is the prostethic group for a number of carboxylation reactions,
the most notable being pyruvate carboxylase (needed for synthesis of oxaloacetate for
gluconeogenesis and replenishment of the citric acid cycle), acetyl- CoA carboxylase (fatthy acid
biosynthesis), and propionyl-CoA carboxylase (methionine, leucine and valine metabolism).
Biotin is found in peanuts, chocolate and eggs and is synthesized by intestinal bacteria.

VITAMIN B6

Six compounds have vitamin B6 activity: pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine, and their
5'phosphates. The active coenzyme is pyridoxal 5'-phosphate. Pyridoxal phosphate is a
coenzyme for many enzymes involved in amino acid metabolism, especially transamination and
decarboxylation. It is also the cofactor of glycogen phosphorylase, where the phosphate group is
catalytically important. In addition, B6 is important in steroid hormone action. Vitamin B 6
deficiency is rare. In vitamin B6 deficiency, there is increased sensitivity to the actions of low
concentrations of estrogens, androgens, cortisol, and vitamin D.

VITAMIN B12

The term "vitamin B12" is used as a generic descriptor for the cobalamins —those corrinoids
(cobalt-containing compounds possessing the corrin ring) having the biologic activity of the
vitamin. Vitamin B12 is found only in foods of animal origin, there being no plant sources of this
vitamin. This means that strict vegetarians (vegans) are at risk of developing B 12 deficiency.
Vitamin B12 are coenzymes involved in transfer of one-carbon fragments and metabolism of folic
acid.

VITAMIN C

Vitamin C or ascorbic acid exists in reduced (ascorbate) and oxidized forms as dehydroascorbic
acid which are easily inter-convertible and biologically active. Vitamin C is easily oxidized and
destroyed by oxygen, alkali and high temperature. Vitamin C is essential for the development
and maintenance of connective tissues. It plays an important role in bone formation, wound
healing and the maintenance of healthy gums. Vitamin C plays important role in a number of
metabolic functions including the activation of the B vitamin, folic acid, and the conversion of
cholesterol to bile acids and the conversion of the amino acid, tryptophan, to the
neurotransmitter, serotonin. It is an antioxidant that protects the body from free radical damage,
kit is used as a therapeutic agent in many diseases and disorders. Vitamin C protects the immune
system, reduces the severity of allergic reactions and helps to fight off infections