Zagazig University

Faculty of Science
Physics department

LABORATORY
PHYSICS
4th Level

2021-2022
Experiment 1
The Microwave experiment

Aim:

This experiment uses microwaves in order to demonstrate the formation

of standing waves, verifying the wavelength λ of the microwaves as well
as diffraction from double slit and investigate the phenomenon of
polarization.

Part 1: Standing Waves - Measuring Wavelengths

Apparatus:

Transmitter – Goniometer– Receiver

Introduction
When two electromagnetic waves meet in space, they superpose.
therefore, the total electric field at any point is the sum of the electric
fields created by both waves at that point. If the two waves travel at the
same frequency but in opposite direction they form a standing wave.
Nodes appear where the fields of the two waves cancel and antinodes
where the superposed field oscillates between a maximum and a
minimum. The distance between nodes in the standing wave pattern is
just 1/2 the wavelength (λ) of the two waves.

Method

1. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 7.1. Adjust the Receiver

controls to get a full-scale meter reading with the Transmitter and
Receiver as close together as possible. Slowly move the Receiver
along the Goniometer arm, away from the Transmitter. How does
this motion effect the meter reading? The microwave horns are not
perfect collectors of microwave radiation. Instead, they act as
partial reflectors, so that the radiation from the Transmitter reflects
back and forth between the Transmitter and Reflector horns,
diminishing in amplitude at each pass. However, if the distance
between the Transmitter and Receiver diodes is equal to nλ/2,
(where n is an integer and _ is the wavelength of the radiation) then
all the multiply-reflected waves entering the Receiver horn will be

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 in phase with the primary transmitted wave. When this occurs, the
meter reading will be a maximum. (The distance between adjacent
positions in order to see a maximum is therefore λ/2.)

Figure7.1: Equipment Setup

2. Slide the Receiver one or two centimeters along the Goniometer
arm to obtain a minimum meter reading. Record the Receiver
position along the metric scale of the Goniometer arm.
Initial Receiver Position = ……….
3. Slide the Receiver to obtain the a second minimum.
Final Receiver Position = ………...
4. Repeat your measurements for 3 successive minima and find the
average.
You can use table 7.1.
Initial Receiver Final Receiver L= R2 – R1
Position (R1) Position (R2)

Lavg.=
Table 7.1
5. Use the data you have collected to calculate the wavelength of the
microwave radiation.
6. Calculate the frequency of the microwave signal.
7. Compare your result with the theoretical value.

Part 2:Polarization
Apparatus:

Transmitter –Receiver –Goniometer.

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Introduction
The microwave radiation from the Transmitter is linearly polarized along
the Transmitter diode axis (i.e., as the radiation propagates through space,
its electric field remains aligned with the axis of the diode). If the
Transmitter diode were aligned vertically, the electric field of the
transmitted wave would be vertically polarized, as shown in Figure 7.3. If
the detector diode were at an angle _ to the Transmitter diode, as shown
in Figure 7.4, it would only detect the component of the incident electric
field that was aligned along its axis. In this experiment you will
investigate the phenomenon of polarization.

Figure 7.3: Vertical Polarization

Figure 7.4: Detecting Polarized Radiation

Method

1- Arrange the equipment as shown in Figure 7.1 and adjust the

Receiver controls for nearly full-scale meter deflection.
2- Loosen the hand screw on the back of the Receiver and rotate the
Receiver in increments of ten degrees. At each rotational position,
record the meter reading in table 7.2.
3- Note what happens to the meter readings if you continue to rotate
the Receiver beyond 180-degrees?

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 4- Calculate M using M=M0cosθ where θ is the angle between the
detector and Transmitter diodes and M0 is the meter reading when
θ = 0.
5- Graph your data from step 2 of the experiment. On the same graph,
plot the relationship M0cosθ. Compare the two graphs.

Angle of Meter M=M0cosθ Angle of Meter M=M0cosθ

receiver reading M receiver reading M
0 100
10 110
20 120
30 130
40 140
50 150
60 160
70 170
80 180
90
Table 7.2

Part 3: Double-Slit Interference

Apparatus:

Transmitter, Receiver - Goniometer, Rotating - Component Holder-

Metal Reflectors (2) - Slit Extender Arm -Slit Spacer.

Introduction
When an electromagnetic wave passes through a two-slit aperture. The
wave diffracts into two waves which superpose in the space beyond the
apertures. Similar to the standing wave pattern, there are points in space
where maxima are formed and others where minima are formed. With a
double slit aperture, the intensity of the wave beyond the aperture will
vary depending on the angle of detection. For two thin slits separated by a
distance d, maxima will be found at angles such that d sinθ = nλ. (Where
θ= the angle of detection, λ = the wavelength of the incident radiation,
and n is any integer) (See Figure 7.5).

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 Figure 7.5 Double-Slit Interference

Method

1- Arrange the equipment as shown in Figure 7.6 Use the Slit

Extender Arm, two Reflectors, and Slit Spacer to construct the
double slit. (We recommend a slit width of about 1.5 cm.) Be
precise with the alignment of the slit and make the setup as
symmetrical as possible.
2- Adjust the Transmitter and Receiver for vertical polarization (0°)
and adjust the Receiver controls to give a full-scale reading at the
lowest possible amplification.
3- Set the Goniometer arm so the Receiver directly faces the
Transmitter. Adjust the Receiver controls to obtain a meter reading
of 1.0. Now set the angle θ to each of the values shown in table
7.3. At each setting record the meter reading in the table.
4- Plot your data.

Figure 7.6 Equipment Setup

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Table 7.3

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Equipment

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 Experiment 2
Laser Diffraction and Interference
------------------------------------------------------------------
Objective

1. To determine the wavelength of laser light from a thin wire diffraction pattern.

2. Compare the thickness of the wire with the single-slit width that form the same
diffraction pattern as wire and hence verify the Babinet’s principle.

3. To explore the double-slit interference pattern.

Apparatus
Laser source (and safety goggles), screen & ruled-paper for recording, thin-wire source, variable
single-slit and double-slit sources, grating, measuring tape, travelling microscope and (if
available) digital camera

Theoretical background

When light passes through a small opening or around an edge, secondary waves from different
portions of the emerging wavefront will, in general, travel different distances before reaching a
screen. Although the waves from secondary sources are all in phase to start with, they will be
out of phase by the time they reach the screen. The interference of these radiation emitted by
secondary on the wavefront leads to the phenomenon of diffraction. We will study only
Fraunhofer diffraction, where the light source, screen and the object causing diffraction are
effectively at infinite distances from each other.

Single-slit diffraction

When a light of wavelength λ is incident normally on a narrow slit of width b, the resultant
intensity of the transmitted light is given by,
= , with = (1)

where, θ being the angle of diffraction. The diffraction pattern consists of a principal maximum
for β = 0, where all the secondary wavelets arrive in phase, and several secondary maxima of
diminishing intensity with equally spaced points of zero intensity at β = mπ. The positions of
the minima of a single-slit diffraction pattern are,
mλ = b sin θ, m = ±1, ±2, ±3, . . . .

= sin , m = ±1,±2,±3…….. (2)

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If θ is small i.e. the slit to screen distance D is large compared to the distance xm between two
m-th order minima (on either side of principal maximum), then

sin ≈ = ⇒ = ……(3)

The above equation (3) can be used to determine the wavelength of the monochromatic light
source, laser in present case, by measuring b, D and xm for various m. The positions of the
minima can be obtained by averaging the two extremities of the zero intensity region, as shown
in the picture below.

Figure 1. Single-slit diffraction pattern – distance between minima xm is calculated from the
average minima position on either side of principal maxima.

Diffraction of a thin wire

If the single-slit is replaced by a thin wire obstacle, which blocks as much laser light as a
single-slit will allow to pass, the resulting diffraction pattern will be identical to that of a single-
slit. Knowing the wavelength λ of the laser light, the equation (3) can be used to determine the
thickness of the wire b as,
= (4)

A typical diffraction pattern of a wire obstacle is shown below. Here too, the positions of the
minima are calculated by averaging the two ends of the spread of zero intensity regions as shown
in Fig 2.

Figure 2. Diffraction pattern from wire obstacle– similarity with single-slit pattern is what
Babinet’s principle asserts. xm is measured as in single-slit case.

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The fact that Fraunhofer diffraction pattern due to an obstacle is virtually identical to that of an
opening of same dimension is an example of a general rule called Babinet’s principle. This
principle can be verified by replacing once again the wire with a single- slit and varying the slit-
width until the pattern matches exactly. The slit width can then be compared with the wire
thickness.

Dobule-slit interference

If instead of single-slit, we have two parallel slits each of width b separated by an opaque space
of width c, the corresponding intensity distribution of the Fraunhofer pattern formed is,
= cos (5)
Where being the angle of diffraction,
= , = , d= b + c, (6)
The intensity distribution is a product of two terms: the first term (sin2 β/β2) represents
diffraction pattern produced by single-slit (eqn.1) and the second term cos2 γ is the characteristic
of interference produced by two beams of equal intensity and phase difference γ. The overall
pattern, therefore, consists of single-slit diffraction fringes each broken into narrow maxima and
minima of interference fringes. This interference of light from two narrow slits close together
was first demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801 and helped establish the wave nature of light.
The minima for the interference fringes are at γ = (2p + 1)π/2 with p = 0, 1, 2, . . . and those for
diffraction fringes are at β = mπ where m = 1, 2, 3, . . .. The conditions for minima are,

sin = + (7)

sin = (8)

A typical double-slit Fraunhofer pattern obtained with laser beam is shown in Fig 3. The
intensity of laser may render viewing the pattern difficult without photographing.

Figure 3. Double-slit interference pattern – each diffraction maxima is broken up into

interference fringes. The minima positions xp (interference) and xm (diffraction) are read off
directly without averaging.

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Procedure

WARNING: The laser beam can cause real damage to your eyes if you look into the beam
either directly or by reflection from shiny objects.

1. Determine the least count of the travelling microscope and measure the thickness b of the
given wire.

2. Arrange the screen at least 3 meter away from the laser source. On the screen, attach a ruled-
paper with clips such that the ruled scale is horizontal. You may use graph paper in place of
ruled-paper, if you consider it convenient.

3. Turn the laser on and be extremely careful not to let your eyes in the direct or reflected line of
the laser. Do not turns the laser off and on too frequently; instead use something to block the
laser when it is not in use.

4. Adjust the height of the laser (and also the screen) such that the laser spot is directly on the
ruled line in the middle of the paper.

5. To record the pattern that will be produced on the screen, mark the fringe pattern with pencil
on edges of bright spots on both left and right side of the central maximum. Calculate the
midpoints of minima and subtract one from other to find = ~

6. First place a thin wire apparatus close in front of the laser and observe the diffraction pattern
on the screen. Adjust the laser and slit so as to obtain a bright, crisp pattern. Measure the slit to
the screen distance D with a measuring tape. Calculate the wavelength of the laser in use from
the data and equation (3) by straight line fit.

7. Next replace the wire with a single slit and adjust the width of the slit to match the pattern
which was obtained with the wire. Keep the distance between slit and screen same as in the wire
screen distance. Calculate the thickness of the single slit using traveling microscope and compare
the result to the value wire thickness to verify Babinet’s principle.

8. To explore the double-slit pattern, proceed exactly the same way as single-slit, but this time
around it may be difficult to mark off the diffraction minima directly on the screen although the
interference minima are fairly easy to spot. Show the pattern to instructor. You do not need to
take any observations for this part. What type of patterns you expect with multiple slits?

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Observations and results

Value of smallest main scale division (MSD) = . . . . . .

. . . . . . vernier scale division = . . . . . . main scale division
Hence, 1 vernier scale division = . . . . . . main scale division (VSD)
Vernier constant (least count ) = (1 − VSD) × MSD = . . . . . .

Table I. Determination of wire thickness

Left edge Right edge

reading (VCXLC)

reading (VCXLC)
T = M SR + VSR
T = M SR+ VSR
Reading (MSR)

Reading (MSR)
Vernier scaLe-

Vernier scaLe-
coincidence

coincidence
Main Scale

Main Scale
Mean T

Mean T
Verneir

Verneir
Object

b (cm)
(VC)

Obs (VC)
Wire 1 αl= αr= αl ~αr
2
3
4
5

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Table-II. Determination of wavelength of the laser light

Wire thickness =……. Slit screen distance D=……

Ord Left fringes Right fringes

er
Left Right Average, Left Right Average,
edge edge edge edge = ~
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3

.
.
.

Plot Xm versus m and by straight line fitting find slope and determine wave length (λ).

Table III. Determination of the single-slit width to prove Babinet’s principle

Left edge Right edge

reading (VCXLC)

reading (VCXLC)
T = M SR + VSR
T = M SR+ VSR
Reading (MSR)

Reading (MSR)
Vernier scaLe-

Vernier scaLe-
coincidence

coincidence
Main Scale

Main Scale
Mean T

Mean T
Verneir

Verneir
Object

b (cm)
(VC)

(VC)

Obs
Single 1 el = er= el ~er
slit 2
3
4
5

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Questions:

1. In what way interference and diffraction differ?

2. What would you expect if ordinary sodium lamp (supposing it to be monochromatic) is

used instead of laser? What if white light is used?

3. Why the positions for minima are measured instead of maxima in the cases of single-slit,
wire and double-slit pattern? [Hint: the maxima are not in the center of the bright
region.]

4. What is missing order? Do you expect to get one in the present experimental setup?

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EXPERIMENT 3
Basic Logic Gates

Objectives:

1. To study the truth tables of various basic logic gates

2. To verify DeMorgan’s Theorem

3. To implement an INVERTER using NAND or NOR gates

4. To implement an OR gate using NAND gates

5. To identify a mystery chip

Note: There is no lab report required for this lab. Fill out the observation pages
(pages 8-10) during the lab, and hand them in at the end of the lab session.

Required IC’s:

Binary Explorer Board 7404 INV Gate

7408 AND Gate 7402 NOR Gate
7432 OR Gate 7486 XOR Gate
7400 NAND Gate Mystery Chip
Note: The internal architecture of each IC can be found on page 7.

Theory:

Basic Logic Gates

The symbols and the Boolean expression for each basic logic gate are shown on page 6 of
this lab.

DeMorgan’s Theorem

DeMorgan proposed two theorems that are used frequently in Boolean algebra. The first
theorem states:

The complement of two variables ANDed is equivalent to the OR of the complements of

the individual variables.

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This theorem can be expressed using the following formula:

A  B  A B

The second theorem states:

The complement of two variables ORed is equivalent to the AND of the complements of
the individual variables.

This theorem can be expressed using the following formula:

A B  A  B

Part 1. Analysis of Basic Logic Gates

Procedure:

Setup the circuits shown on page 4 to analyze the operation of the various basic logic
gates. For each gate:

1. Vary the inputs of each gate and measure the output. Do this for all possible
combinations of inputs.

2. Construct the truth table for each gate.

Part 2. Verifying DeMorgan’s Theorem

Procedure:

Set up circuits to verify DeMorgan’s two theorems. For each circuit:

1. Vary the inputs to each circuit and measure the output for all possible combinations
of inputs.

2. Using the above results construct the truth table for each circuit. Show that these
circuits verify both of DeMorgan’s Theorems.

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Part 3. Implementing an INVERTER using NAND or NOR gates

Procedure:

Set up one of the two circuits shown on page 5. For the circuit you choose:

1. Vary the input and construct the truth table.

2. Do you conclude that the circuit behaves like an INVERTER? If yes/no why?

Part 4. Implementing an OR gate using NAND gates

A B  A B  AB

Procedure:

Setup a circuit to implement an OR gate using NAND gates only. For this circuit:

1. Vary the inputs and make the truth table

2. Do you conclude that the circuit behaves like and OR gate? If yes/no why?

Part 5. Identify a mystery chip

Procedure:

You will be given a ‘mystery chip’. The mystery chip uses the same pinout as the 7400
chip, but is not necessary a NAND gate. Observe the truth table of the mystery chip and
find the type of gate this chip has implemented. It may be any one of the following chips:
AND, NAND, OR, NOR, XOR, XNOR. Each mystery chip is different, so your results
will differ from other groups.

1. Vary the inputs and make the truth table

2. Identify your ‘mystery chip’ based on the truth table

3. Record your findings.

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Part 1. Analysis of Basic Logic Gates

7408 AND Gate Truth Table: 7400NAND Gate Truth Table:

A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1

7432 OR Gate Truth Table: 7404 INV Gate Truth Table:

A B Y A Y
0 0
0 1 0

1 0
1 1 1

7402 NOR Gate Truth Table: 7486XOR Gate Truth Table:

A B Y A B Y
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1

Part 2. Verifying DeMorgan’s Theorem

DeMorgan’s Theorem 1: A  B  A  B

Circuit diagram:

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Truth Table:
A B AB A B

DeMorgan’s Theorem 2: A  B  A  B

Circuit diagram:

Truth Table:
A B AB A B

Part 3. Implementing an INVERTER using NAND or NOR gates

A Y
0
1

Conclusion:

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Part 4. Implementing an OR gate using NAND gates
Schematic:

Truth Table:

A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

Part 5. Identify a mystery chip

A B Y
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1

My Mystery Chip number is ____. Based on the truth table it is a(n) _________ gate.

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Experiment 4
Flip-flops, Design of a counter

Introduction
In the preceding experiments you learned how to simulate and analyze simple logical circuits.
The most important functions of OrCAD Capture were introduced and applied. The acquired
knowledge should now be used to understand the basics of flip-flops, digital counting and
combinatorial circuits. All the logic circuits we have worked on so far are purely
"combinatorial" circuits, also called switching networks. These kinds of circuits consist only
of pure logic gates without feedback, what means the output signals of switching networks are
always only dependent on the current input signals.
In contrast, "sequential" circuits are circuits whose output signals are no longer exclusively
dependent on the input signals of the circuit, but also on the internal states of the circuit.
These, in turn, depend on the "sequence" of the preceding input signals. But if we want to
keep inner states, this means that we have to be able to "store" states. Memory devices fulfill
this requirement.
Memory devices can be divided into the asynchronous and synchronous elements. The main
difference is that asynchronous memory devices can change their state at any time, while
synchronous memory devices can only change their state at specific time intervals or at
specific times. Synchronous memory devices therefore have a clock line (CLK).

1. Flip-flops (FFs)
Flip-flops are the most common and basic memory devices used for information storage in
sequential circuits. A flip-flop can stay in one of two logical states. To change its state we
need a new input signal. This makes the flip-flop a 1 bit memory device.
In case of clocked FFs, a distinction is made between the clock-state-controlled FF and the
clock-edge-controlled FF. Clock-controlled FFs are also called latches and are distinguished
by the fact that during the active clock phase (eg. high signal), any change in the input
immediately switches to the output. On the other hand, in the case of the clock-edge-controlled
FF, the output is only changed during a clock edge (ie, when switching from 0-> 1 and / or
from 1-> 0).You can find all flip-flops in the 74LS.OLB and 7400.OLB libraries.

1.1 Reset Set (RS) Flip-flop

Before explaining the different types of flip-flops, we will briefly discuss the RS flip-flop and
explain the meaning of state control and the signals preset and clear.
A simple memory flip-flop is the RS FF (a.k.a SR FF). This device has two inputs - S for
setting and R for resetting the flip-flop (hence its name). The RS flip-flop preserves its states
as long as the inputs S and R are 0. If it receives a set signal, it turns to 1, regardless of its
former state. A reset signal enforces a 0 state. This behavior is illustrated by the truth table
below (Qn is the preceding state of Qn+1).

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 S R Qn Qn+1 Functionality

0 0 0 Both inputs are 0,

0 0 1 1 the state is preserved
0 1 0 0 The reset input is 1,
0 1 1 0 the FF is set to 0
1 0 0 1 The set input is 1,
1 0 1 1 the FF is set to 1
1 1 0 X Both inputs are 1, the FF’s
1 1 1 X behavior cannot be predicted

Table 1.1.1: Truth table for RS flip-flop

The most common realizations of RS FFs are based on NOR or NAND gates. Fig. 1.1.1 shows
a typical NOR-gate core circuit of an RS FF and Fig. 1.1.2 shows its gate symbol. Take notice
that flip-flops usually provide the complement of their state as a second output Q n .

Q
S Q

__
R Q
Q

Fig. 1.1.1: Core of a NOR-gate RS FF Fig. 1.1.2

Fig. 1.1.3 and Fig. 1.1.4 respectively, illustrate the gate circuit and gate symbol of a NAND
type RS FF with clock state control.
The signals at S and R only affect the circuit when a positive level is present at the CLK input
(CLK = 1). In order in order to set the FF output in a well defined state the low active inputs
signal CLR (Clear) und PRE (Preset) can be used asynchronous (what means regardless of
the clock signal state).
When CLR = 0, PRE = 1, so Q = 0, when CLR = 1, PRE = 0 so Q = 1. CLR and PRE =
0 has to be avoided because it leads to Q = = 1 , which is, on the one hand, illogical with
regard to the names of the outputs, but can also lead to unpredictable subsequent states. With
CLR = 1 and PRE = 1, the circuit operates as a clock state-controlled RS-FF.

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 ___
PRE
Q ____
S PRE Q

CLK
__ ___
Q R CLR Q

___
CLR
Fig. 1.1.4
Fig. 1.1.3: clock-state-controlled RS FF with pre-set and clear

1.2 Delay (D) Flip-flop

The RS FF presented in the previous section has a serious disadvantage. For an RS FF one
input combination is not allowed. The JK FF is a modified RS FF (J corresponds to the set and
K to the reset input), which inverts its state when the input J = 1 and K = 1 occurs. Since it has
no forbidden input combinations, the JK FF can be easily used to generate other types of flip-
flops. Table 1.2.1 compares the four most common types of flip-flops. The CLR X in the truth
table means that you have to prevent input states for J and K, which lead to an indeterminate
n+1
state of Q .

Inputs Qn Qn+1

J K JK-FF RS-FF D-FF T-FF

0 0 0 0 0 X 0

0 0 1 1 1 X 1

0 1 0 0 0 0 X

0 1 1 0 0 0 X

1 0 0 1 1 1 X

1 0 1 1 1 1 X

1 1 0 1 X X 1

1 1 1 0 X X 0

Table 1.2.1

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 n +1 n n
The characteristic equations for the JK FF is Q = K ⋅Q + J ⋅Q . We can derive from the

truth table (Table 1.2.1) the equations and inputs of other flip-flop types, which can be
construct from JK FF.

1.3 Delay (D) Flip-flop

As the name implies the purpose of a D FF is to temporary store (or delay) a single bit. A
signal of 0 or 1 present at the input D is transferred to the output Q whenever the clock CLK is
set to 1. Fig. 1.3.1 shows the gate symbol of a D flip-flop.
If we look closely at the truth table (Table 1.2.1) again we will see that it is quite simple to
construct a D FF out of a JK FF. A delay flip-flop uses only the situations where the J and K
inputs are different. This would make a D FF truth table only 2 lines. So how can we get rid of
the other two lines in a JK FF truth table? We make sure they do not occur by connecting a
NOT gate between the inputs J and K, as shown in Fig. 1.3.2. This way J and K will always be
different.

D Q D J Q

CLK CLK

Q K Q

Fig. 1.3.1 Fig. 1.3.2

As the construct in Fig. 1.3.2 implies, the equation for a D FF built from JK FF would be:
D=J =K

1.4 Trigger (T) Flip-flop

If we take a look at our truth table (Table 1.2.1) again, we will see that a trigger flip-flop is
just a JK FF in disguise. Fig. 1.4.1 shows the gate symbol of a T FF built from a JK FF merely
by connecting its J and K terminals together.

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 The characteristic equations for the T FF can be
T J Q n+1 n
obtained form the truth table: Q = T ⊕Q .
CLK For a T FF to be built from a JK FF:
n+1 n
T = J = K, if T = 1 the output Q =Q , meaning
K Q
that it will toggle between 0 and 1 with every clock
Fig. 1.4.1 impulse. One of the T FF properties is that its output
signal runs at half the frequency of the input.

Q1: Fig. 1.1 illustrates two flip-flops. Which flip-flop functions as a D FF and why?

Fig. 1.1

Q2: Which state is forbidden for RS FF?

Q3: Which input signals would reset and set an RS FF?

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Q4: Some flip-flops have additional inputs, such as clear and pre-set. What function do these
inputs serve?

Q5: What is the characteristic equation of a D flip-flop?

2. Registers
A register is a circuit that can store whole data words. It is constructed by connecting several
flip-flops; hence an n-bit register consists of at least n flip-flops. The following example
shown in Fig. 2.1 illustrates a 4-bit shift register built with D flip-flops.

Fig. 2.1

Q6: Define a series of input impulses “D” to store the pattern (D3 D2 D1 D0) = (1010) into the
4-bit register illustrated in Fig. 2.1.

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Q7: Give two examples of where a register can be applied.

Q8: How would you modify the circuit in Fig. 2.1 in order to turn it into a ring-register?
Explain your answer and add your modifications to the figure.

3. Designing a counter
Before we knew flip-flops we could only design combinatorial circuits. The output of a
combinational circuit depends on the current input signal only. If X n are the inputs of such
circuit at cycle n, the characteristic equation is of the type:
Qn = f ( X n )
The output of a circuit containing flip-flops depends not only on the current input, but on the
previous inputs as well, making it a sequential circuit. Therefore, the according characteristic
equation must match:
Q n = f ( X n , Q n−1 )
One of the most typical applications for sequential circuits is counters. In this part of the
experiment we want to design a counter that has no inputs apart from the clock pulse.
Therefore, the circuit’s state will depend only on the preceding state:
Q n = f (Q n−1 )

3.1 5-3-2-1 code counter

We want to design a counter that counts the sequence 0,1…,9 (decimal) automatically, thus it
has to be:
• Counting up - The value of the current input cycle is higher than the preceding one.
If the actual output is 9 the counter should restart to 0
• Auto-run - The counter starts automatically when powered on
• Synchronous - All FFs in the counter are triggered by the same clock pulse
The numbers are to be coded in a 5-3-2-1 binary code. We use four JK flip-flops, each one
representing one digit of the binary code according to the truth table below (Table 3.1.1).

7
 Decimal Value of the Bit 5 3 2 1
Decimal numbers
Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1
(Counter state)

0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1

2 0 0 1 0

3 0 1 0 0

4 0 1 0 1

5 1 0 0 0

6 1 0 0 1

7 1 0 1 0

8 1 1 0 0

9 1 1 0 1

Table 3.1.1

A 5-3-2-1 code is just another 4-bit binary code, but with different decimal values assigned to
each bit.
Example:
Decimal number: 7
4-bit binary code: 0111 = 0·23 + 1·22 + 1·21 + 1·20 = 7
4-bit 5-3-2-1 code: 1010 = 1·5 + 0·3 + 1·2 + 0·1 = 7

3.2 Designing the counter circuit

To design a counter out of 4 flip-flops we have to find out how we should connect them to one
n+1
another, so that they match the truth table (Table 3.1.1). Therefore, for the output Qa of a
flip-flop we search the equation:
n+1 n n n n
Qa = f (Qa , Qb , Qc , Qd )

8
As the JK flip-flop’s behavior is described by

Q n + 1 = K ⋅Q n + J ⋅Q n
a a a
we have to find by comparison the equations for the inputs J and K for every flip-flop:

J a = f (Qb , Qc , Qd ) K a = f (Qb , Qc , Qd )
For this task we set up a KV-diagram representing the formerly given truth table (Table 3.1.1).

Q9: Complete the KV-diagram of the 5-3-2-1 code:

Q2

X
Q1

Q3

8 3

2 7

Q4
Fig. 3.2.1: KV-diagram of a 5-3-2-1 code

For every flip-flop we follow the steps:

1. List all counter states Z n for which the following state Z n +1 contains Qan +1 = 1 for the
corresponding flip-flop.
n +1 n n n n
2. Read the simplified functions Qa = f (Qa , Qb , Qc , Qd ) from the KV-Diagram in Q9.
n+1
3. Deduce the equations for Ja and Ka by comparing the function of Qa with the flip-
flop’s characteristic equation.

9
As an example we will derive the equations for J3 and K3:
n +1 n +1
1. Q3 = 1 occurs for the counter states ( Z n +1 ) 3, 4, 8 and 9. Thus, Q3 must be set, for
the preceding counter states ( Z n ) 2, 3, 7 and 8.
2. From the truth table we can read the disjunctive normal form expression of Q3n +1 for
the counter states 2, 3, 7 and 8 or we could directly deduce the simplified expression
for Q3n +1 from the KV-diagram in question Q9 as:

Q3n +1 = Q1 ⋅ Q2 ⋅ Q3 + Q1 ⋅ Q2 ⋅ Q3
n n n n n n

3. Comparing the equation from step 2 with the characteristic equation of a JK-FF for
n +1 n n
Q3 = K Q 3 + J ⋅ Q 3 , we find the equations for J3 and K3:

J 3 = Q1n ⋅ Q 2n and K 3 = Q1n ⋅ Q 2n , thus K 3 = Q1n + Q 2n

Be aware that when looking for a simplified expression for Qan+1 we have to find one that
contains Qan to be able to compare coefficients!

Following this principle the equations for J1, K1 and J2, K2 are:
n +1
Q1 = Q1 ⋅ Q2 (follows if we consider the previous states 0,3,5,8)

J1 = Q2

K1 = K1 = 0 ⇒ K1 = 1

Q2n+1 = Q1 ⋅ Q2 ⋅ Q3 (follows if we consider the previous states 1,6)

J2 = Q1 ⋅ Q3

K2 = K2 = 0 ⇒ K2 = 1

Q10: Find the functions for the inputs J4, K4 of the fourth flip-flop. Do not make use of the
“Don’t care” states!

Q4n+1 =

J4 =
K4 =

Q11: Is it possible to simplify the expressions for J and K even further? If yes, how?

10
Q12: Complete the circuit in Fig. 3.2.2 using the equations for K3 , J4 und K4.

Fig. 3.2.2: 5-3-2-1 Counter

Q13: What is the difference between a synchronous and asynchronous counter? Which type of
counter is the circuit in Fig. 3.2.2? Explain your answer.

11
 4. Controlling a 7-segment display
To see whether our 5-3-2-1 counter is working correctly we connect it to a 7-segment display.
This display is composed of an array of 7 LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) as illustrated in Fig.
4.1. Now we should design a controller that connects the outputs of the counter to the 7-
segment display in such a way that the actual numbers are displayed. A segment is on when it
is triggered with a logical 0. An unrecognized input (a signal representing none of the
numbers from 0 to 9) should cause the controller to turn all segments on.

S1 S1 S1 S1 S1
S3

S3

S3

S3

S3
S2

S2

S2

S2

S2
S1
S4 S4 S4 S4 S4
S5

S5

S5
S6

S6

S6

S6

S6
S5

S5
S3

S2

S7 S7 S7 S7 S7
S4
S1 S1 S1 S1 S1
S5
S6

S3

S3

S3

S3
S2

S2

S2

S3

S2
S2
S4 S4 S4 S4 S4
S7
S5

S5

S5

S5

S5
S6

S6

S6

S6

S6
S7 S7 S7 S7 S7

Fig. 4.1
Q14: Complete the truth table shown below:

Number Q4 Q3 Q2 Q1 S7 S6 S5 S4 S3 S2 S1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
4 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
5 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
6 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
7 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
8 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
Table 4.1: Truth table for the 7-segment-display controller

12
From the truth table we get the equations for S1,...,S6 in disjunctive normal form:

S1= (Q1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q 3Q4 )

S2= (Q1 Q 2 Q 3Q4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q 3Q4 )

S3= (Q1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1Q2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2Q3 Q 4 ) + (Q1Q2 Q 3Q4 )

S4= (Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1Q2 Q 3Q4 )

S5= (Q 1Q2 Q 3 Q 4 )

S6= (Q1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q3 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q 3Q4 ) + (Q1Q2 Q 3Q4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q3Q4 )

Q15: Write down the disjunctive normal form for S7.

S7=_________________________________________________________________

Simplifying the functions for S1,...,S6 (with KV-Diagramms and boolean Algebra) leads to:

S1= (Q1 Q 2 Q 4 ) + (Q1 Q 2 Q 3 ) = Q1 Q 2 (Q 3 + Q 4 )

S2= (Q 2 Q 3Q4 )

S3= Q1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 + Q1 Q 2Q3 Q 4 + Q1Q2 Q 3 = Q 2 Q 4 (Q1 ⊕ Q3 ) + (Q1Q2 Q 3 )

S4= (Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 ) + (Q1Q2 Q 3Q4 )

S5= (Q 1Q2 Q 3 Q 4 )

S6= Q 2 Q 4Q1 + Q 2 Q 4Q3 + Q1 Q 2Q3 + Q1 Q 3Q4 = Q 2 Q 4 (Q1 + Q3 ) + Q1 Q 2Q3 + Q1 Q 3Q4

Q16: Simplify the functions for S7 from Q15 with the help of KV-diagrams and write down
the simplified equation.

S7=_________________________________________________________________

Q17: Complete the circuit for the display controller (see next page)!

13
 Fig. 4.2

Fig. 4.2 14
EXPERIMENT 5
Gamma-Ray Absorption and Counting Statistics

Note: Please read the Radiation Safety Regulations at the back of this book

Introduction
The detecting medium in a scintillation counter is a solid or liquid material called a phosphor,
which emits tiny flashes of light (scintillations) when struck by ionising radiations. The flashes are
observed by a photomultiplier which produces an electrical pulse when a light flash falls on it.
In this experiment the phosphor is a 50.8 mm long × 50.8 mm diameter cylindrical crystal of
thallium-activated sodium iodide i.e. NaI(Tl). This material has a density of 3.67 × 103 kg m−3 .
Because of this and the high atomic number (Z = 53) of the iodine atoms, γ-rays interact strongly
with the material, resulting in a γ-ray sensitivity very much greater than that of the Geiger-Müller
counter. The crystal is enclosed in an airtight capsule of thin aluminium with diffusely-reflecting
sides and a transparent base through which the light of the scintillations emerges. The base is in
contact with the face of an 11-stage venetian-blind type photomultiplier.
It is arranged that no light except that from the scintillations can reach the photomultiplier and the
crystal-photomultiplier combination is also surrounded by a lead shield which excludes unwanted
background radiation (see Fig. 1.1).
The amount of light emitted in a scintillation is accurately proportional to the energy-loss of the
particle producing the flash. The particles responsible for the flashes are the secondary electrons
produced by the photons, not the photons themselves. When the phosphor is struck by γ-rays, for
example, interaction takes place by both photoelectric and Compton effects. In the first case the
photon loses all its energy to a photoelectron, which in turn yields its entire energy to the phosphor.
The flash intensity in this case is proportional to the energy of the incident photon. In a Compton
collision the photon transfers only a portion of its energy to the secondary electron; the secondary
electron is brought to rest in the phosphor and causes the emission of a flash whose intensity is
proportional to the energy-loss of the photon. Since in every case the photomultiplier produces
pulses whose heights are proportional to the flash intensities, the pulse- spectrum resulting from
the impact of monoenergetic γ-rays on the crystal is a mixture of pulses derived from full and
partial energy-losses (see Figs. 1.2 and 1.7).
The pulses corresponding to full energy-loss, produced as they are by the photoelectric effect, fall

1
 Thin Aluminium Crystal
Light Guide

Lead Shield
Photomultiplier

Figure 1.1: Schematic of photomultiplier and shielding

Figure 1.2: Pulse spectrum resulting from the impact of monoenergetic γ-rays on the crystal

2
 High Voltage

Gamma Radiation

Photomultiplier Pre-Amp Main Amplifier

Phosphor

Analog to
Printer Computer Digital
Converter

Figure 1.3: Gamma-ray detection system

in a region called the photopeak while the pulses in the Compton ‘tail’ or continuum result from
Compton collisions in which the scattered photon retains a portion of its energy. It is seen that
even in the case of monoenergetic radiation the pulse-spectrum is not simple; when the incident
radiation is heteroenergetic the pulse-spectrum may be very complex indeed.
More details of the processes of photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering and pair produc-
tion may be found in the Appendix.

The Gamma-Ray Detection System

The radioactive source used is 137 Cs with a half life of 30 years. It was produced as a fission
fragment by the neutron bombardment of 235 U. This isotope emits beta rays of energies 512 keV
(94.6%) and 1.174 MeV (5.4%) that are absorbed in plastic before reaching the detector as well as
the monoenergetic gamma rays of energy 662 keV.
The apparatus is set up as shown in the block diagram, Fig. 1.3. The high voltage power supply,
preamplifier, main amplifier and analog to digital detector are all located in one box beside the
computer and printer.
(CAUTION! Do not switch on until the demonstrator has checked the system).
The amplified photomultiplier pulses are digitised using an analog to digital converter and the
digital pulse height is stored in computer memory. The computer memory is configured to place a
count in any one of 1020 separate channels according to the digital value of the pulse height. The
smallest pulse amplitude E is preset and the photopeak should occur somewhere between channels
500 and 700. The width of each channel fixes the amplitude range ∆E within which a pulse must
fall if it is to be counted in that channel. The width of each channel is approximately 1 keV. When
the photomultiplier produces a pulse whose amplitude is between E and (E + ∆E), the pulse height
analyser increments by one the count in that channel. Using this method the full spectrum of pulse
heights and hence gamma ray energies are recorded and stored. The width of the photopeaks is
approximately 80 channels. The width is determined by the energy resolution (≈ 12%) of the
phosphor and not the monoenergetic gamma rays of energy 662 keV.

3
Instructions on the Operation of the Computer Programs and Computer
Graphics
Remove any lead or iron absorbers from the gamma ray beam. Insert floppy disc containing the
programs into the drive. Use the arrow keys to select (Note CR = carriage return)
a) CONFIGURATION : FULL and a CR
b) SAVE : ON and a CR
c) HPRINT : ON and a CR
The graphics display has now been configured for the monitor and printer. Load the pulse height
analysis (PHA) program after the computer has replied A> by typing PHA and a CR.
A number of options are now available
a) Integration time. You may select a time between 5 and 180 seconds but normally 30 is sufficient.
Type 30 followed by CR. The photopeak should occur between channel numbers 500 and
700 and the spectrum shown in Fig. 1.2 should be displayed on the screen.
b) To adjust the position of the left marker on the screen use the keys ← and →. The channel
number of the marker is displayed on top of the screen along with the count in that channel.
c) To adjust the position of the right marker on the screen use the keys ↑ and ↓. The channel
number of the marker is displayed on top of the screen along with the count in that channel.
d) The total count between the two markers is displayed on the bottom of the screen containing
the plot along with the separation between the two markers.
e) The key F9 interrupts the program and you need to type CR for the program to continue.
f) The key F1 resets the counters and starts the integration.
g) You can obtain a copy of the spectrum on the screen by typing F9 followed by the shift key (⇑)
and Prt SC key (i.e. upper case selection) and a CR.
h) To input a new integration time, press the F5 key followed by a CR. When prompted you should
type PHA followed by CR and input the new integration time.
You are now ready to continue the experiment.
You should obtain a printout of the spectrum on the screen using the procedure described in (g).
Locate the position of the photopeak using either the left or right marker.
As shown in Fig. 1.4 the spectrum you have recorded is a differential spectrum, i.e. N(E, E +
∆E) versus E or the number of counts between E and E + ∆E as a function of the energy E.
You should readily convince yourself, by plotting the differential spectrum in the integral form
i.e N(>E) versus E, that you cannot easily locate the photopeak. This can be done by adjusting
the spacing between the cursors. The integral spectrum obtained from the differential spectrum, is
also shown in Fig. 1.4.
You should also record the gamma ray spectrum of 60 Co and compare it with that for 137 Cs (see
Figs. 1.7 and 1.8). The backscatter peak depends on the geometry of the shielding and may not be
as prominent in your data as in Figs. 1.7 and 1.8.

4
 Figure 1.4: Differential and integral spectra.

Experiment 1 - Linear absorption coefficients of Lead and Iron

The apparatus has been set up (see Fig. 1.3) and checked. The 137 Cs photopeak is now located
by the method just described. Place the left hand marker at the position A in Fig. 1.2 and the
right hand marker at position B. You can now determine the count in the photopeak and scattered
photons are eliminated. Lead absorbers are now placed over the source and the count rate between
A and B is recorded as a function of the absorber thickness.
When gamma-radiation passes through matter, it undergoes absorption primarily by Compton,
photoelectric and pair production interactions. The intensity of the radiation is thus decreased as a
function of distance in the absorbing medium. The mathematical expression for the intensity I is
given by
I = IO e−µx
where

IO = original intensity of the beam (no lead)

I = intensity transmission through the absorber to a distance, depth or thickness x
µ = linear absorption coefficient (cm−1 ).

Plot the natural log of the counts as a function of absorber thickness. From the slope of the straight
line determine µ (in units of cm−1 ) and compute µ/ρ (in units of cm2 /g) where ρ is the density of
lead. Compare your result with the value of µ predicted by the accompanying graph (Fig. 1.6) of
the absorption coefficient versus gamma ray energy.
Repeat the above procedure for the iron absorbers and determine µ for iron.

Experiment 2 - Counting Statistics

Purpose As is well known, each measurement made for a radioactive sample is independent
of all previous measurements, because radioactive decay is a random process. However, for a
large number of individual measurements the deviation of the individual count rates from what
might be termed the “average count rate” behaves in a predictable manner. Small deviations from

5
Experiment 1. Gamma-Ray Absorption and Counting Statistics

the average are much more likely than large deviations. In this experiment we will see that the
frequency of occurrence of a particular deviation from this average within a given size interval can
be determined with a certain degree of confidence. Fifty independent measurements will be made,
and some rather simple statistical treatments of the data will be performed.
The average count rate for N independent measurements is give by
R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . RN
R= (1.1)
N
where R1 = the count rate for the first measurement, etc., and N = the number of measurements
In summation, notation R would take the form
i=N
X
Ri
i=1
R= (1.2)
N
The deviation of an individual count from the mean is (R − R). From the definition of R it is
clear that
i=N
X
(Ri − R) = 0 (1.3)
i=1
√
The standard deviation σ = R.

Procedure

1. Insert the 15.8 grm cm−2 lead absorber in the beam and adjust the left-hand and right-hand
markers so that approximately 1000 counts can be recorded between the markers in a time
period of 30 seconds.

2. Take 50 independent runs of duration 30 seconds and record the values in Table 1.1. (Note
that you will have to extend Table 1.1; we have shown only ten entries). The count values R
may be recorded directly in the table since for this experiment R is defined as the number of
counts recorded in a 30 second interval.

3. With a calculator determine R from Eq. 1.1. Fill in the values of R − R in Table 1.1. It
should be noted that these values can be either positive or negative. You should indicate the
sign in the data entered in the table.

Data Analysis:
Exercise a. Calculate σ, and fill in the values for σ and (R − R)/σ in the table, using only two
decimal places. Round off the values for (R − R)/σ to the nearest 0.5 and record these values
in the table. Note that in our Table 1 we have shown some typical values of (R − R)/σ and the
rounded- off values.

Exercise b. Make a plot of the frequency of the rounded-off events (R − R)/σ vs the rounded-off
values. Fig. 1.5 shows this plot for the ideal case of a normal distribution.

6
Table 1.1: Typical Values of (R − R)/σ and (R − R)/σ rounded off; listed for illustrative purposes
only

(R - R) / σ (R - R) / σ(Round’d Off)
Run R R-R Typical Measured Typical Measured
1 -0.15 0
2 +1.06 +1.0
3 +0.07 0
4 -1.61 -1.5
5 -1.21 -1.0
6 +1.70 +1.5
7 -0.03 0
8 -1.17 -1.0
9 -1.67 -1.5
10 +0.19 0

Note that at zero there eight events, etc. This means that in our complete rounded-off data in
Table 1.1 there were eight zeros. Likewise, there were seven values of +0.5, etc. Does your plot
follow a normal distribution similar to that in Fig. 1.5? If time permits, increase the amount of lead
absorber and cursor positions to give a mean rate of ≈ 100s−1 and take 50 independent 30 second
runs. Compute R and σ. Compare your results for σ for the two different mean rates.

Question
1. Is it possible for a γ-ray to interact with a free electron by means of the photoelectric effect?

7
 EXPERIMENT 6

Normal Zeeman Effect

Aim of the experiment

We first invesigate the normal Zeeman Effect of the red Cd line emerging from a gas discharge
lamp in the presence of an external magnetic field. Especially, we analyse the line splitting
of the transverse as well as the longitudinal Zeeman Effect utilizing a Lummer-Gehrcke plate
and in the course of that we consider the polarisation states of the occuring lines. Due to the
experimental realization we obtain Bohr‘s Magneton µB and the specific electron charge e. As
a second task we determine two wavelengths of a Cd-Hg-lamp in the red range using a CCD
spectrometer and the visible Ne lines for calibration.

Introduction
The Zeeman Effect denotes the splitting of atomic energy levels due to the action of an external
magnetic field. The effect was first predicted by H. A. Lorenz in 1895 as part of his classical
theory of the electron and experimentally confirmed a few years later by P. Zeeman who found
a line triplet instead of a single spectral line observing orthogonal to a magnetic field as well
as a line doublet parallel to the magnetic field.
This work is based on [1].

Experimental setup, measurements and results

Spectroscopy of the Zeeman Effect The observation of the normal Zeeman Effect is only pos-
sible for transitions between atomic states with total spin S = 0. In our case we consider the
transition 1 D2 (J = 2, S = 0) → 1 P1 (J = 1, S = 0) of Cd. Without an external magnetic field
the wavelength corresponding to this transition is λ0 = 644nm (see Figure 1).

For the angular-momentum component in the direction of the magnetic field holds
Jz = M J · ~ (1)
with MJ = J, J − 1, ... − J + 1, −J (2)

Therefore, the term with the angular momentum J is split into 2J + 1 equidistant Zeeman
components distinguished by the value of MJ . The energy interval of the adjacent components
MJ , MJ+1 is
∆E = µB · B (3)
To determine the magnetic field strength one has in principle to measure the hysteresis of
the used electromagnet. Our results are represented in Figure 2 but since our measuring

1
 Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the transition 1 D2 (J = 2, S = 0) → 1 P1 (J = 1, S = 0) of cadmium

Figure 2: Magnetic field strength B as a function of applied voltage measured with a hall generator.

devices were not very precise we take the reference values of our electromagnet (see Table I).
For a transition with ∆MJ = 0 no photons propagate in the direction of the magnetic field.
Thus the π-component cannot be observed parallel to the magnetic field in opposite to the
transversal direction. The complete measuring apparatus together with the latter configuration
is illustrated in Figure 3. Here the crucial device is a Lummer-Gehrcke plate (see Figure 4) that
splits a beam with angle of incidence β several times while the splitted beams interfere and pass
through a lense which is focussed to infinity. With a telescope (see Figure
p 3) we can observe
the occuring interference pattern if the interference condition ∆ = 2d n2 − sin2 αk = kλ is
fulfilled (see Figure 4). The pattern consists of many parallel stripes representing the different
orders of interference. The telescope can be adjusted to read off the distances between those
stripes. First we take into account the case of transverse configuration, i.e. the direction of
observation is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field.
For the magnetic field strength B = 0 we only observed the distances ∆a between the different

2
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the whole measuring apparatus for the determination of the Zeeman Effect. a)
magnetic pole pieces b) Hg-Cd lamp c) red filter, polarization filter, quarter-wavelength foil d) Lummer-Gehrcke
plate e) telescope with ocular f) height adjustment for telescope

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the Lummer-Gehrcke plate. Here a light ray with an angle β of incidence is
split into different rays with an optical path difference of ∆ = n ∆1 − ∆2 between two adjacent emerging rays.

orders of interference (see Figure 5) while for B > 0 we could observe the split up of the lines
according to the Zeeman Effect (see Figure 5a ). The distance between the lines of the emerging
triplett is denoted as δa. Analogously, we considered the longitudinal configuration (see Figure
6). Here the interference pattern is altered with respect to the case of transverse configuration.
The π-component of the triplett vanishs since the probability of photons propagating parallel
to the magnetic field is zero. Using polarization filters and quarter-wavelength plates one can
draw conclusions on the polarization states of the emitted photons. Increasing the magnetic

Figure 5: Illustration of the interference pattern of the Zeeman Effect observed in the transverse configuration
a) without polarization filter b) with polarization direction of the filter perpendicular to the magnetic field c)
with polarization direction of the filter parallel to the magnetic field

field strength from 0.688 T to 0.885 T we obtain both δa and ∆λ as a function of B using
δa λ2
∆λ = · √ (4)
∆a 2d n2 − 1
With equation (3) the result for Bohr’s magneton is µB = 8.6(7) · 10−24 TJ . The error estimate
emerges from the following consideration. As seen in Table IV we derived ∆λ depending on the

3
Figure 6: Illustration of the interference pattern of the Zeeman Effect observed in the longitudinal configura-
tion a) without both polarization filter and quarter-wavelength foil b),c) with polarization filter and quarter-
wavelength foil to demonstrate counterclockwise and clockwise-circular polarization

magnetic field strength. Every value of B leads to 28 values of ∆λ that give the mean value
∆λ of ∆λ (see Table V). As the error ∆(∆λ) we take the root mean square deviation of ∆λ.
Then ∆E follows from ∆λ. Together with the four magnetic field strengths equation (3) yields
four values µB (see Table V). The mean value of µB gives our result with the root mean square
deviation as error.
This value coincides with the bibliographical reference µB,lit = 9.274 · 10−24 TJ . From µB the
specific electron charge e = 2m~e µB = 1.48(12) · 10−19 C follows immediately which coincides with
the value from literature e = 1.60 · 10−19 C as well.

Determination of a Cd line In this section we describe the determination of the wavelength of

two lines in the red range using the CCD-spectrometer illustrated in Figure 7.
The first task is the calibration of the spectrometer that is performed via the spectrum of a

Figure 7: Schematic diagram of the TRIAX 550 spectrometer. The optical path is drawn. In the upper part
the adjustable grating that decomposits light in its spectrum is illustrated.

neon lamp. The references of the considered range of the neon spectrum are taken from [2].
We measured the visible range of cadmium as well as neon (see Figure 8) and performed a
gaussian fit for every emerging peak (see Figure 9 as an example). So we were able to read off

4
Figure 8: Representation of the measured visible spectrum of the used neon lamp and Hg-Cd lamp respectively.

Figure 9: Here the black line represents the intensity of the spectrum as a function of the measured wavelengths
while the red line is the gaussian fit of a spectral peak.

5
Figure 10: Calibration between line positions determined by the spectrometer and the reference spectrum taken
from neon.

the position and the FWHM of every peak according to the pixel scale of the spectrometer.
With the reference data we could finally derive a transformation between the measured scaled
wavelengths and the wavelengths in SI-system (see Figure 10). The latter ones are described
by the function
λ(x) = a x2 + b x + c = −1.079(15) · 10−7 x2 − 0.009510(3) x + 656.908(1) (5)
with the measured wavelength as argument. We determined the two lines in the red range
together with the FWHM of the peaks as their errors. Furthermore we calculated the corre-
sponding wavelengths using the calibration λ(x) with the final error
p
∆λ(x) = (∆a · x2 )2 + (∆b · x)2 + (∆c)2 + (∆x · 2a x + ∆x · b)2 (6)
Our results are λCd = 643.846(36)nm and λα = 652.210(32)nm respectively. Compared to the
value λCd,lit = 643.847nm from [2] our measurement confirmes the bibliographical reference.
Within the obtained error estimate from the gaussian fit for λα there are the possibilities for
the spectral line to be from Th I (λTh I = 652.2044nm) or N II (λN II = 652.233nm). We assume
this line to emerge from materials in the electrodes of the lamp.

Conclusions
In this experiment we considered the normal Zeeman Effect of cadmium. Therefore, we uti-
lized a Lummer-Gehrcke spectrometer and observed the emerging interference lines with an
adjustable telescope. Measuring the distances between these lines we could determine Bohr’s
magneton to µB = 8.6(7) · 10−24 TJ . One finds the value from literature µB,lit = 9.274 · 10−24 TJ to
lie within the range of the measuring error.
Furthermore the specific electron charge has been determined from µB and we obtained e =
1.48(12) · 10−19 C which coincides with the bibliographical reference of e = 1.60 · 10−19 C.
The second part of the experiment consisted of the calibration of a CCD spectrometer followed
by the measurement of two lines in the red range emerging from a Hg-Cd lamp. For the cali-
bration a neon lamp has been used. Determining the errors of the occuring peaks by gaussian
fits we finally achieved a transformation function for the calibration.
As a result we can state that the line λCd = 643.846(36)nm corresponds to Cd. The comparison
with the bibliographical reference yields a coincidence within the range of error.
6
EXPERIMENT 7
Op-amp 741 as Adder, Subtractor and Comparator

AIM:
Tostudy the applications of IC 741 as adder, subtractor, comparator.

APPARATUS:
1.IC 741
2.Resistors (1KΩ)—4
3.Function generator
4.Regulated power supply
5.IC bread board trainer
6.CRO
7.Patch cards and CRO probes

CIRCUIT

DIAGRAM: Adder:

1
Subtractor:

2
Comparator:

THEORY:

ADDER:

Op-Amp may beusedtodesignacircuit whose outputis the sum ofseveral input

signalssuchascircuitiscalledasummingamplifierorsummer.Wecanobtaineither inverting or non-
inverting summer.

Thecircuitdiagramsshowsatwoinputinvertingsummingamplifier.Ithastwo input voltages

V1andV2, two input resistors R1, R2and a feedback resistor Rf.

Assumingthatop-
ampisinidealconditionsandinputbiascurrentisassumedtobezero,thereisnovoltagedropacrosstheresis
torRcompandhencethenoninverting input terminal is atground potential.
Bytaking nodal equations.

V1/R1+V2/R2+V0/Rf=0
V0=-[(Rf/R1) V1+(Rf/R2) V2]
And hereR1=R2=Rf=1KΩ
V0=-(V1+V2)
Thus output is inverted and sum ofinput.

3
SUBTRACTOR:

Abasicdifferentialamplifiercanbeusedasasubtractor.Ithastwoinput signals V1and V2and

two inputresistances R1andR2 and afeedbackresistorRf.The input signals scaled to the desired
values by selecting appropriate values for the external resistors.

From the figure, the output voltage ofthe differential amplifier with a gain of‘1’ is
V0=-R/Rf(V2-V1)
V0=V1-V2.
Also R1=R2=Rf=1KΩ.

Thus,theoutputvoltageV0is equaltothevoltageV1appliedtothenoninverting terminal minus

voltage V2applied toinverting terminal.
Hence the circuit is sub tractor.

COMPARATOR:

Acomparator is a circuitwhich compares asignal voltage applied atoneinputofanop-

ampwithaknownreferencevoltageattheotherinput.Itisbasicallyanopen loop op-amp with output
±Vsatas in the ideal transfer characteristics.

ItisclearthatthechangeintheoutputstatetakesplacewithanincrementininputVi of
only2mv.Thisistheuncertaintyregionwhereoutputcannotbedirectly defined There are basically 2
types ofcomparators.

1. Non inverting comparator and.

2. Inverting comparator.

Theapplicationsofcomparatorarezerocrossingdetector ,windowdetector, time marker generator

and phase meter.

OBSERVATIONS:
ADDER:

V1(volts) V2(volts) Theoretical Practical

V0=-(V1+V2) V0 =-(V1+V2)

4
SUBTRACTOR:

V1(volts) V2(volts) Theoretical Practical

V0=(V1-V2) V0 =(V1-V2)

COMPARATOR:

Voltage input Vref Observed square wave

amplitude

MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

ADDER:

1.connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2.Apply input voltage1) V1=5v,V2=2v
2) V1=5v,V2=5v
3) V1=5v,V2=7v.
3.Using Millimeter measure the dc output voltage atthe output terminal.
4.For different values ofV1and V2measure the output voltage.

5
 SUBTRACTOR:

1.Connectionsaremade as per the circuit diagram.

2.Apply input voltage1) V1=5v,V2=2v
2) V1=5v,V2=5v
3) V1=5v,V2=7v.
3.Using multi meter measure the dc output voltage atthe output terminal.
4.For different values ofV1and V2measure the output voltage.

COMPARATOR:

1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2.Select the sine wave of10V peak topeak ,1K Hz frequency.
3.Apply the reference voltage 2V and trace the input and output wave forms.
4. Superimpose inputand output waveforms and measure sine wave amplitude
withreferencetoVref.
5.Repeatsteps3and 4with referencevoltagesas2V,4V,-2V,-4Vandobserve the
waveforms.
6.Replace sine wave input with 5V dc voltage and Vref=0V.
7.Observe dc voltage atoutput using CRO.
8.Slowly increase Vrefvoltage and observe the change in saturation voltage.

PRECAUTIONS:

1.Make null adjustment before applying the input signal.

2.Maintain proper Vcclevels.

RESULT:

6
EXPERIMENT 8
A Quick Sine Wave Generator
In various design and test situations, a sine wave signal with an arbitrary frequency may be needed. The following design,
and accompanying Excel spreadsheet implement a sine wave generator that can be quickly assembled with a dual op amp
and small number of resistors and capacitors. Figure 1 shows the schematic for the quick sine wave generator:

Figure 1

This circuit generates a sine wave by first generating a square wave, at the required frequency, with amplifier A1 that is
configured as an astable oscillator with the frequency determined by R1 and C1. The two-pole low pass filter, using A2,
filters the square wave output from A1. The filter is a unity gain Sallen-Keys filter with its cut off frequency equal to the
square wave frequency from A1. The square wave is made up of the fundamental frequency and the odd harmonics of the
fundamental frequency. The filter removes most of the harmonic frequencies and the fundamental frequency remains at the
output of A2. The fundamental frequency component of a square wave is about 1.27 times the peak amplitude of the
square wave and the amplitude of the sine wave output will be approximately 87 percent of the peak of the square wave.
The peak of the square wave will depend on the amplifier’s supply voltage and the output swing specification of the
amplifier. Additionally, the peak of the square and the sine wave will track changes in the amplifier’s supply voltage.

In this design, the frequency is specified along with the value of C1 and based on these values, the values of R1, C2, C3,
R4, and R5 are calculated. The values of R2, R3 and R4 are 1K Ohms and should be matched in value to help minimize
errors in the actual frequency of operation compared to the calculated frequency of operation.

The equations for the component selection follow. The frequency, F, is the required sine wave frequency. The value for C1
is selected arbitrarily, with a value of 0.001 µfd being a good initial value for 1 MHz. The other component values are
calculated as follows:

1
An Excel speed sheet is available online that will calculate the component values given the frequency and C1. The
spreadsheet will also give the nearest 1% resistor values to the calculated resistor values. Given that the required
frequency is 1 MHz and C1 is 0.001 µfd, the following is an example of the spreadsheet results:

The accuracy of the actual frequency of operation, compared to the calculations, will be dependent on the tolerance of the
components used around amplifier A1. The tolerance of the component value used around A2 will affect the filter’s pole
locations and will affect the amplitude of the filtered sine wave.

The Excel spreadsheet will calculate component values given the frequency required and the value of C1 and is easy to
use. Enter the frequency, in Hz, in cell B2 and enter the capacitance of C1 in µfd, in cell B4. The other component will be
calculated with the resistance in Ohms and the capacitance in µfd.

The characteristics of the amplifier selected will also affect the range of component values selected. In the example, a
high-speed amplifier is being used and the resistor values should be kept low (below about 15 K W) to minimize the effects
of the input bias currents of this type of amplifier. High–bandwidth amplifiers will need power supply bypass capacitors and
component layout may affect performance. If a lower frequency oscillator is required, a lower bandwidth amplifier such as
the LMV822 or LMV932 could be used. The lower input bias currents of these devices will work with a wider range of
resistor values and component placement is not as critical. The bandwidth of the amplifier should be at least 10 times the

2
frequency of oscillation. Assembling the circuit using the calculated component values has the following performance, see
Figure 2:

Figure 2
Oscillator Output (Pin1) and Sine Wave Output (Pin7) Waveforms

3
Square wave oscillator
The basic square wave oscillator is based on the charging and discharging of a
capacitor. Op-amps inverting input is the capacitor voltage and the noninverting input is a
portion of the output fed back through resistors and (refer figure 1). When the circuit is
first turned on, the capacitor is uncharged, and thus the inverting input is at 0V. This makes
the output a positive maximum, and the capacitor begins to charge towards voltage at VO
through resistor R. When the capacitor voltage reaches a value equal to the feedback voltage
(Vf) on the non-inverting input, the op-amp switches to the maximum negative state. At this
point, the capacitor begins to discharge from +Vf towards –Vf. When the capacitor voltage
reaches –Vf, the op-amp switches back to the maximum positive state. This action repeats and
a square wave output voltage is obtained.
Expression for period is

1  R2
T  2 RC ln where  
1  R1  R2

If R1 = R2, the equation for period reduces to T  2 RC ln 3

1
The frequency of oscillation, f 
2 RC ln 3
Triangular-wave oscillator
This circuit (figure 2) uses two operational amplifiers. Op-amp A1 functions as a
comparator and the op-amp A2 as an integrator. Comparator compares the voltage at point P
continuously with respect to the voltage at the inverting input; which as at ground potential.
When the voltage at P goes slightly below zero, the output of A1 will switch to negative
saturation. Suppose the output of A1 is at positive saturation +Vsat. Since this voltage is the
input of the integrator, the output of A2 will be a negative going ramp. Thus, one end of the
voltage divider R1-R2 is at +Vsat and the other at the negative going ramp. At time t = t1, when
the negative going ramp attains value of –Vramp the effective voltage at point P becomes
slightly less than 0 V. This switches output of A1 from positive saturation to negative
saturation level –Vsat. During the time when the output of A1 is at –Vsat, the output of A2
increases in positive direction. At the instant t = t2, the voltage at point P becomes just above
0 V, thereby switching the output of A1 from –Vsat to +Vsat. The cycle repeats and generates a
triangular waveform.

Vramp Vsat R2
At t = t1  ie. Vramp    Vsat 
R2 R1 R1

R2
Similarly, at t = t2 Vramp    Vsat 
R1

4
The peak to peak output of the triangular wave is

R2
VO(pp)  Vramp   Vramp   2 Vsat
R1

During the period 0-t1, The integrator functions as below.

T
2
1  V  T 
VO(pp) 
RC   V  dt   RC   2 
0
sat
sat

V 
Then, T  2 RC  O(pp) 
 Vsat 

4RCR2
Substituting for VO(pp) T
R1

R1
Then, frequency of oscillation, f 
4 RCR2

Sawtooth-wave oscillator
The difference between the triangular and sawtooth waveform is that the rise time of
the triangular wave is always equal to its fall time while in sawtooth wave generator, rise
time may be much higher than its fall time or vice versa. The triangular wave generator can
be converted to a sawtooth wave generator by injecting a variable dc voltage into the non-
inverting terminal of the integrator. This can be done by using a potentiometer as shown in
figure 3. When the wiper of the potentiometer is at the centre, the output will be a triangular
wave since the duty cycle is 50%. If the wiper moves towards –V, the rise time of the
sawtooth becomes longer than the fall time. If the wiper moves towards +V, the fall time
becomes more than the rise time.
DESIGN AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Design of square wave generator

Let the frequency of oscillation be 1 kHz

Take = 0.5 and R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ.

1
Frequency, f  Assume C = 0.1 μF
2 RC ln 3
1 1
Then, R   6
 4.55 kΩ
2Cf ln 3 2  0.1 10  1000  ln 3

Select standard value of 4.7 kΩ for R.

5
 Fig 1. Square wave generator and waveforms

Fig 2. Triangular wave generator and waveforms

Fig 3. Sawtooth wave generator and waveforms

6
Design of triangular wave generator
Let the frequency of oscillation be 1 kHz

R1 R2
We have f  and VO(pp)  2 Vsat
4 RCR2 R1

Since supply voltage is ±12 V, Vsat will be approximately 10 V

Let VO(pp) be 5 V; Assume R2 = 1 kΩ.

2Vsat 2 10
Then R1  R2   1 103  4 kΩ
VO(pp) 5

Select standard value, R1 = 4.7 kΩ

Assume C = 0.1 μF

R1 4.7  103
R   11.7 kΩ
4 fCR2 4 1000  0.1 10 6  1103

Select standard value, R = 12 kΩ

Design of sawtooth wave generator

Design is similar to that of triangle wave generator.
Select R3 = 47 kΩ potentiometer to vary the reference voltage of second op-amp.
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit after testing the components.
2. Set up the square wave generator as shown in figure and observe the output waveform
and note down their amplitudes and frequencies.
3. Set up the triangular wave generator as shown in figure and observe the variation in
frequencies of output waveform by varying the values of resistances ,
4. Set up the sawtooth wave generator as shown in figure and note down the rise time
and fall time.
5. Move the wiper of the potentiometer in both directions and observe the changes
taking place in the waveform.

RESULT

Circuits of square wave generator, triangular wave generator and sawtooth wave
generator are designed, setup and waveforms observed.